Udaan ST

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UDAAN 3.0 : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
CHAPTER-1: BIOLOGY...................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. STRUCTURE OF THE CELL: .......................................................................................................................................................................................5
1.2. PLASMA MEMBRANE: .................................................................................................................................................................................................5
1.3. CYTOPLASM: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
1.4. NUCLEOID OR NUCLEUS: ...........................................................................................................................................................................................6
1.5. RIBOSOMES: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
1.6. CELL ORGANELLES: .....................................................................................................................................................................................................7
1.7. MITOCHONDRIA:..........................................................................................................................................................................................................7
1.8. ENDO-MEMBRANE SYSTEM: ...................................................................................................................................................................................7
1.9. PLASTIDS: .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
1.10. STEM CELLS: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
1.11. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CELLS: ................................................................................................................................................................................9
1.12. GRADES OF THE ORGANISATION: ................................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.13. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORGANISMS: ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
1.14. FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION: ................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.15. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT KINGDOM:........................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.16. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
1.17. BIOMOLECULES: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.18. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN BIOLOGY:.................................................................................................................................................... 20
1.19. BIOTECHNOLOGY: .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 21
1.21. FEATURE OF A VECTOR:....................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
1.22. METHODS OF INSERTION OF DNA IN HOST CELLS .................................................................................................................................. 23
1.23. GENOME EDITING:.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
1.24. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.25. GENOME INDIA PROJECT.................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.26. HUMAN MICROBIOME INITIATIVE OF SELECT ENDOGAMOUS POPULATION OF INDIA: ...................................................... 25
1.27. EARTH BIO-GENOME PROJECT: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 25
1.28. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER: ........................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.29. CLONING OF DOLLY SHEEP: ............................................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.30. 3-PARENT BABY: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
1.31. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE: ....................................................................................................................... 27
1.32. REGULATIONS OF GMS IN INDIA:..................................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.33. BIOFORTIFICATION: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 28
1.34. RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAI): ............................................................................................................................................................................ 28
1.35. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN MEDICINE: ................................................................................................................................ 29
1.36. APPLICATION IN BIOENERGY: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.37. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY: .......................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.38. GENE SILENCING: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
1.39. COLOUR CLASSIFICATION OF BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY: .................................................................................................... 31
1.40. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY: ............................................................................................................................... 31
1.41. MENDEL’S LAWS: .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
1.42. CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE: .................................................................................................................................................. 32
1.43. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE: ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.44. DIVISION OF CELL OR CELL CYCLE: ................................................................................................................................................................ 34
1.45. GENETIC DISORDERS: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
1.46. WHAT IS A MUTATION? ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 35
1.47. EUGENICS, EUTHENICS AND EUPHEMISM: ................................................................................................................................................. 36
1.48. AMINO ACIDS: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 36
1.49. PROTEINS: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
1.50. ENZYMES: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
1.51. VITAMINS: .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 37
1.52. LIPIDS OR FAT: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
1.53. CHOLESTEROL: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 38
1.54. CARBOHYDRATES: ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 39
CHAPTER-2: HUMAN HEALTH ................................................................................................................................................................... 41
2.1. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
2.2. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 43
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2.3. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................................................................... :

46
2.4. BLOOD ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 47
2.5. EXCRETORY SYSTEM: .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
2.6. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 50
2.7. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
2.8. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
2.9. NERVOUS SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 52
2.10. MUSCLES AND SKELETAL SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................................. 54
2.11. DISEASE: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
2.12.COMMUNICABLE DISEASES ................................................................................................................................................................................ 55
2.13. ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR) ........................................................................................................................................................... 56
2.14. NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES: ................................................................................................................................................................... 56
2.15. ZOONOTIC DISEASES ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
2.16. BASICS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEMS: ................................................................................................................................................................ 57
2.17. ANTIGEN ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 57
2.18. SUPERANTIGEN ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
2.19. ANTIBODIES .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 58
2.20. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY .................................................................................................................................................................... 58
2.21. VACCINE ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 58
2.22. MRNA BASED VACCINES ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 59
2.23. VACCINES AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE......................................................................................................................................... 60
2.24. ALLERGY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
2.25. AUTO IMMUNITY ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
2.26. IMMUNOTHERAPY ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 60
2.27. STEM CELL THERAPY: ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER-3: BASICS OF CHEMISTRY ....................................................................................................................................................... 63
3.1. CHEMISTRY IN ANCIENT INDIA .......................................................................................................................................................................... 63
3.2. BASICS OF THE CHEMISTRY .................................................................................................................................................................................. 63
3.3. METALS .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
3.4. BASICS OF METALLURGY ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
3.5.NON METALS ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 65
3.6.DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOUND .................................................................................................................................................................... 65
3.7. CHEMICAL REACTIONS ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
3.8.ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS........................................................................................................................................................................................ 66
3.9. DRUGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................................................................... 67
3.10. CHEMICALS IN THE FOOD ................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
3.11. POLYMERS .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER-4: NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY ............................................................................................................................. 70
4.1. ATOMS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 70
4.2. RADIOACTIVITY ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
4.3. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 71
4.4. URANIUM ENRICHMENT ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 72
4.5. THREE STAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME ................................................................................................................................ 72
4.6. INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER) ...................................................................................... 74
4.7. COLD FUSION ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER-5: SPACE TECHNOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................................... 75
5.1. ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE: BIG BANG THEORY ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
5.2. OBSERVING SPACE THROUGH TELESCOPES ................................................................................................................................................. 75
5.3. SUN CYCLE..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
5.4. GEOTAIL ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
5.5. PULSARS......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
5.6. GRAVITY ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 77
5.7. GRAVITY AND BLACK HOLE .................................................................................................................................................................................. 77
5.8. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (GW) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.9. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING .................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
5.10. PLANET ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 78
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5.11. ORBITS ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80

5.12. TYPES OF SATELLITES .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 82
5.13. SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA ......................................................................................................................................................................... 82
5.14. TYPES OF LAUNCH VEHICLES BY ISRO .......................................................................................................................................................... 83
5.15. SOUNDING ROCKETS ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 84
5.16. ROCKET FUEL............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 84
5.17. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION .................................................................................................................................................................. 85
5.18. EXPLORATION OF THE SUN ................................................................................................................................................................................ 85
5.19. MISSIONS TO MOON ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 86
5.20. MISSIONS TO MARS ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 86
5.21. GAGANYAAN MISSION .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
5.22. SPACE DEBRIS........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 87
5.23. IRNSS-NAVIC ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 88
5.24. SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER-6: BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS .......................................................................................................................................... 89
6.1. GRAVITY ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 89
6.2. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION ............................................................................................................................................................................. 89
6.3. NANOTECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 89
6.4. NANOMATERIALS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 89
6.5. GRAPHENE .................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
6.6. CARBON NANOTUBES.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 90
6.7. LASER TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 90
CHAPTER-7 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ................................................................................. 91
7.1. NETWORK ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
7.2. DARK NET AND DEEP WEB.................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
7.3. METAVERSE ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
7.4. BASICS OF COMPUTERS .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 91
7.5. SUPERCOMPUTERS ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 92
7.6. QUANTUM COMPUTING .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 92
7.7. CLOUD COMPUTING.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 93
7.8. EDGE COMPUTING ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
7.9. BIG DATA & DATA MINING .................................................................................................................................................................................... 93
7.10. COMPUTER VIRUSES ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 93
7.11. MOBILE TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
7.12. NET NEUTRALITY ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER-8: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES............................................................................................................................................... 96
8.1. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
8.2. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
8.3. NEAR-FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC) ............................................................................................................................................................ 96
8.4. RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) .............................................................................................................................................. 96
8.5. FASTAG ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
8.6. INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT) ................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
8.7. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE .................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
8.8. DEEPFAKES .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
8.9. LI-FI .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
8.10. BIOMETRICS .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
8.11. 3D PRINTING ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
8.12. DRONES ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER-9: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR) AND RELATED ISSUES .................................................................... 100
9.1. INTERNATIONAL LAWS RELATED TO IPR .................................................................................................................................................. 100
9.2. NEW PATENT REGIME IN INDIA ...................................................................................................................................................................... 101
9.3. COMPULSORY LICENSING ................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
9.4. TRADEMARK ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101
9.5. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 101
9.6. COPYRIGHTS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 101
9.7. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS (GI): .............................................................................................................................................................. 102
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CHAPTER-10: ROBOTICS ........................................................................................................................................................................... 103

10.1. COMPONENTS OF ROBOTS .............................................................................................................................................................................. 103
10.2. APPLICATIONS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
10.3. RECENT BREAKTHROUGH IN THE FIELD OF ROBOTICS .................................................................................................................... 103
10.4. ROBOTICS IN INDIA ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 104
CHAPTER-11: DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................. 105
11.1. INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................................................................. 105
11.2. OTHER MISSILES .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 106
11.3. AIR DEFENCE SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
11.4. SUBMARINES.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
11.5. PROJECTS BY NAVY ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 109
11.6. INITIATIVES TO MODERNIZE DEFENCE INDUSTRY ............................................................................................................................ 109
11.7. COASTAL RADAR NETWORK .......................................................................................................................................................................... 109
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CHAPTER-1: BIOLOGY
1.1. STRUCTURE OF THE CELL:
• Biology is the study of living organisms. The detailed description of their form and appearance only brought
out their diversity.
• The cell is the fundamental, structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.
• Cells are characteristically microscopic in size. Although there are exceptions, a typical eukaryotic cell is 10
to 100 micrometers (im) in diameter, while most prokaryotic cells are only 1 to 10 μm in diameter.
Figure 1.1: Structure Of The Cell (Animal Cell)
Cells Differ Greatly In Size, Shape And Activities
• For example, Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 μm in length while bacteria could be 3 to 5 μm.
• The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich. Small cells like Paramecium, amoeba, euglena
frequently change their shape.
1.1.1 Components of the Cell:

• The general plan of cellular organization varies between different organisms, but despite these
modifications, all cells resemble one another in certain fundamental ways.
• But four major features all cells have in common:
Figure 1.2: Features All Cells
1.2. PLASMA MEMBRANE:

• The plasma membrane encloses a cell and separates its contents from its surroundings.
• The plasma membrane is flexible and it is made up of phospholipids and proteins.
• It is selectively permeable and regulates the transport of molecules in and out of the cell.
1.3. CYTOPLASM:
• A semifluid matrix called the cytoplasm fills the interior of the cell.
• The cytoplasm contains the various organelles and micro and macro molecules which help in the
functioning of the cell.
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• In eukaryotic cells, cytoplasm refers only to the region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
• The part of the cytoplasm that contains organic molecules and ions in solution is called the cytosol.
Figure 1.3: Plant Cell:
1.4. NUCLEOID OR NUCLEUS:

• Every cell contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the hereditary molecule.
• In prokaryotes, the simplest organisms, most of the genetic material lies in a single circular molecule of DNA.
Figure 1.4: Nucleoid Or Nucleus
• It typically resides near the center of the cell in an area called the nucleoid.
• The DNA of eukaryotes is contained in the nucleus, which is surrounded by a double-membrane structure
called the nuclear envelope.
1.4.1 Major components of the Nucleus:

• The nucleoplasm is the central area in the cell that contains the genetic material.
• The nucleolus is the distinct structure present in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Primarily, it participates
in assembling the ribosomes, alteration of transfer RNA and sensing cellular stress. The nucleolus is
composed of RNA and proteins, which form around specific chromosomal regions.
Chromatin: Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells.
1.5. RIBOSOMES:
• The ribosome is a complex molecule made of ribosomal RNA molecules and proteins that form a factory
for protein synthesis in cells.
• The eukaryotic ribosomes are the 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
• Here S (Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient; it is indirectly a measure of density and
size.
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1.6. CELL ORGANELLES:

• Organelles are specialized structures that perform various jobs inside cells. The term literally means little
organs.
• Organelles serve specific functions to keep a cell alive. For example, Mitochondria produce ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) which acts as the energy currency of cells.
1.7. MITOCHONDRIA:
• Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner
membrane.
Figure 1.7: Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate), hence they are called power houses of the cell.
• They also possess a single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the
components required for the synthesis of proteins.
Figure 1.7A: Five Roles Mitochondria Play in Cells
1.8. ENDO-MEMBRANE SYSTEM:

• Many of the organelles are considered together as an endomembrane system because their functions are
coordinated.
• The endomembrane system includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi complex, lysosomes and
vacuoles.
1.8.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
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• Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes inside a cell through which proteins and other
molecules move.
Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface and it In the absence of ribosomes, they appear smooth
is an active site for protein synthesis. and are called Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER).
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major site
for synthesis of lipids. In animal cells lipid-like
steroidal hormones are synthesized in SER.
1.8.2 Golgi Apparatus:

• A Golgi body, also known as a Golgi apparatus, is a cell organelle that helps process and package
proteins and lipid molecules.
1.8.3 Lysosomes:
• A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle that contains various hydrolytic enzymes.
• These enzymes help in destruction and breakdown of various worn out cell parts of the cell. Thus,
they help in detoxification of the cell.
• They also destroy pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses and play a role in immunity.
• They are also called as suicidal bag of the cell because they help in self destruction of the cells.
1.8.4 Vacuoles:
• The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
• It contains water, sap, excretory products and other materials not useful for the cell.
• The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
• In plant cells, the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 percent of the volume of the cell.
1.9. PLASTIDS:
• Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoids.
• They bear some specific pigments, thus imparting specific colours to the plants.
• Based on the type of pigments, plastids can be classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
• Like mitochondria, the chloroplasts are also double membrane-bound. It also contains small, double-
stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes.
1.10. STEM CELLS:

• Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells in multicellular animals that can specialize
into many types of cells and multiply endlessly to produce additional stem cells.
Figure 1.10: Types of Stem Cells
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1.11. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CELLS:

• On the basis of complexity, cells can be classified as
Eukaryotic cells and Prokaryotic cells.
1. Eukaryotic cells contain well-defined membrane-
bound nuclei.
2. Prokaryotic cells do not have well-defined membrane-
bound nuclei.
• On the basis of components, Eukaryotes are divided into
Animal cells and Plant cells. Plant cells have a cell wall
outside the cell membrane.
Characteristic Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Size of cell Typically 0.2-2.0 μm in diameter Typically 10-100 μm in diameter
Example Bacteria and Archaea Animals and Plants
Nucleus Absent Present
Membrane-enclosed Absent Present : Examples include lysosomes,
organelles Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Flagella Consist of two protein building blocks Complex : consist of multiple
microtubules
Cell wall Usually present: chemically complex Only in plant cells and fungi
(chemically simpler)
Plasma membrane Usually no Yes
with steroid
Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic Cytoskeleton: cytoplasmic streaming
streaming
Ribosomes Smaller Larger
Cell division Binary Fission Mitosis
Number of One, but not true chromosome More than one

chromosomes
Sexual reproduction No meiosis: transfer of DNA fragments Involves meiosis
only (conjugation)
Plant cells Viz-a-Viz Animal cells:
S.N. Plant Cell Animal Cell

1. Usually they are larger than animal cells Usually smaller than plant cells
2. Cell wall present in addition to plasma Cell wall absent
membrane and consists of middle lamella,
primary and secondary walls
3. Plasmodesmata present Plasmodesmata absent
4. Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent
5. Vacuole large and permanent Vacuole small and temporary
6. Tonoplast present around vacuole Tonoplast absent
7. Centrioles absent except motile cells of lower Centrioles present
plants
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8. Nucleus present along the periphery of the cell Nucleus at the of the cell
9. Lysosomes are rare Lysosomes present

10. Storage material starch grains Storage material a glycogen granule
1.11.1 Deviation from basic cell types:

• Virus: Virus means venom or poisonous fluid. They are inert outside their specific host cell. Viruses are
obligate parasites.
• Virions: The main difference between virus and virion is that virus is the nucleoprotein particle
whereas virion is the active, infectious form of the virus.
Figure 1.11: A typical Enveloped Virus
1.11.2 General structure of the Viruses:

• A fully assembled infectious virus is called a virion.
The Simplest Virions Consist of two Basic Components
• Nucleic acid (single- or double-stranded RNA or DNA);

• A protein coat, the capsid, which functions as a shell to protect the viral genome from nucleases during
infection; It attaches the virion to specific receptors exposed on the prospective host cell.
• Some virus families have an additional covering, called the envelope, which is usually derived in part
from modified host cell membranes.
o Viral envelopes consist of a lipid bilayer that closely surrounds a shell of virus-encoded membrane-
associated proteins.
o The exterior of the bilayer is studded with virus-coded, glycosylated (trans) membrane proteins.
Therefore, enveloped viruses often exhibit a fringe of glycoprotein spikes or knobs.
• Viruses cause diseases like mumps, smallpox, herpes and influenza.
1.11.3 What is a positive sense and negative sense RNA Virus?

• Prions: They are the misfolded proteins capable of producing many harmful pathogenic diseases. prion
proteins that are found most abundantly in the brain.
• Viroids are infectious agents that consist only of naked RNA without any protective layer such as
a protein coat.
o Viroids infect plants (but no other forms of life) and are replicated at the expense of the host cell.
o Viroid genomes are small single-stranded circles of RNA that are only 250–400 bases long.
• Lichens : Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful associations, between algae and fungi.
o The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are
autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively.
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o Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its
partner.
o Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas.
Adenoviruses Retroviruses
Adenoviruses are common viruses that cause a A type of virus that has RNA instead of DNA as its
range of illnesses. They can cause cold-like symptoms, genetic material. It uses an enzyme called reverse
fever, sore throat, bronchitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, transcriptase to become part of the host cells’ DNA.
and pink eye (conjunctivitis).
Positive Sense single (stranded RNA virus) Negative-Sense single (stranded RNA virus)
• In the host cell, the positive-sense RNA of the virus • These viruses contain negative -sense RNA as
is directly translated into viral proteins. genetic material.
• It is 5’ to 3’ as the host mRNA. • It is not readable by the host ribosome.
• Since the host ribosome moves from 5’ to 3’ for • First, the negative-sense RNA (3’ to 5’) is
translation, the positive- sense single-stranded converted into positive-sense RNA (5’ to 3’) by
RNA is directly used for protein synthesis. virus RNA- dependent RNA polymerase.
• The positive-sense RNA then functions as mRNA
and is translated into protein by the ribosome.
1.12. GRADES OF THE ORGANISATION:

• An animal (or a plant for that matter) is composed of many units organized into successive units:
Molecules are the units of organelles, Organelles are the units that make up cells, Cells are the units that make
up tissues, Tissues are the units that make up organs, and Organs make up organ systems.
Figure 1.12: Grades Of Organization
• Protoplasmic grade of organization: All life functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cell.
Within the cell, the protoplasm is differentiated into organelles capable of carrying out specialized functions.
(e.g., the protists)
• Cellular grade of organization: Cellular organization is an aggregation of cells that are functionally
differentiated.
o A division of labor is evident, so that some cells are concerned with, for example, reproduction, others
with nutrition.
o Such cells do not become organized into true tissues but may form definite patterns or layers. Sponges
are at this level of organization.
• Tissue grade of organization: A tissue is an aggregate of cells in an organism that have similar structure
and function.
o For example: Plant tissues are meristematic tissues and vascular tissues.
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• Organ grade of organization: The aggregation of different kinds of tissues into organs is a further
advancement. For example: Kidney.
• Organ system grade of organization: When organs work together to perform some function (circulation,
respiration, reproduction, digestion, etc.).
1.13. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORGANISMS:

• Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification.
• He used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
• He also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not.
• The technique of classifying organisms is known as Taxonomy.
1.13.1 Taxonomic Category:

• There are seven main taxonomic ranks: kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus,
species.
1. Kingdom: The kingdom is the highest level of classification, with subcategories at other levels.
2. Phylum: Phylum is the classification of Living Organism to find some kind of physical similarities
among organisms within the Kingdom. For example: Phylum Arthropoda Under Kingdom Animalia.
3. Class: A class is a rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each class is split into
orders.
4. Order: It is a group of organisms above taxa Family, sharing a similar set of characters. For
example: order primates contain human and other mammals having a similar character that is
having mammary glands to feed young ones.
5. Family: It is a taxonomic group containing one or more genus sharing a common set of characters.
6. Genus: Condensed group of related species having similar characters in common.
7. Species: Its basic unit of classification. For example: Homo Sapiens.
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Carnivora
Family Felidae
Genus Panthera
Species Panthera Pardus
• Two Kingdom systems of classification with Plantae and Animalia kingdoms were developed that
included all plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes
and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms.
1.14. FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION:
• R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
1.14.1 Kingdom Monera:

• Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant microorganisms.
• Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesize their own food from inorganic substrates.
• They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic.
• The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e They depend on other organisms or on dead organic
matter for food.
• Example: Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes
and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals.
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• The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells known
and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.
1.14.2 Kingdom Protista:

• All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista.
• Members of Protista are primarily aquatic.
• The protist cell body contains a well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
1.14.3 Kingdom Fungi:

• Fungi are multicellular, with a cell wall it is made up of Chitin, organelles including a nucleus, but no
chloroplasts.
• They have no mechanisms for locomotion.
• Mushroom Belongs to this Phylum. They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
(growing on dung).
Mucormycosis
• It is also known as black fungus because it produces necrosis and blackening of the tissue it affects.
• Mucormycosis is a fungal infection caused by a group of microorganisms belonging to the phylum
Glomeromycota.
• It is a dangerous but rare fungal infection produced by a group of moulds known as mucormycetes.
Why is it associated with CoVID-19
• An indiscriminate use of a high dose of steroids in COVID- 19 patients, sometimes even in minimally
symptomatic patients, leads to spikes in the sugar level among diabetics, which, in turn, renders them
vulnerable.
• The fungi are present in the environment, the use of nasal prongs and other devices for oxygen delivery
and possible breach of sterile conditions can possibly lead to cross- infection and hospital-acquired
infection.
1.14.4 Kingdom Plantae:

• Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll- containing organisms commonly called plants.
• A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites.
• Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
• The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell walls mainly made of
cellulose.
1.14.5 Animal Kingdom:

• This kingdom is characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their
cells lack cell walls.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
Character Five Kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Non-cellulosic Present in some Present with chitin Present Absent
polysaccharide (Cellulose)
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+ amino acid
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multicellular/loose Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/
organization Tissue Organ system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition (chemosyn- photosynthetic (Saprophytic / (Photosynthetic) (Holozoic/
thetic and and Parasitic ) Saprophytic
Photosynthetic) heterotrophic etc.)
and
Heterotrophic
(Saprophytic
parasitic)
1.15. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT KINGDOM:
1.15.1 Algae:
• Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both freshwater and marine)
organisms.
• They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood.
• Some of them also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals. (For Example: on sloth bear).
• Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways.

• At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through
photosynthesis.
• Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment. For
example: Chlorella, a unicellular alga rich in proteins, is used as a food supplement even by space
travellers.
1.15.2 Bryophytes:
• Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found commonly growing in moist shaded
areas in the hills.
• Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but
are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
• They lack true roots, stems or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures.
• Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for herbaceous
mammals, birds and other animals.
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• Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel, and as packing material for
trans- shipment of living material because of their capacity to hold water.
1.15.3 Pteridophytes:
• Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil- binders.
• They are also frequently grown as ornamentals.
• Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
1.15.4 Gymnosperms:
• The gymnosperms (gymnos : naked, sperma : seeds) are plants in which the ovules are not enclosed
by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both before and after fertilisation.
• The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are not covered, i.e., are naked.
• Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees or tall trees and shrubs
• Roots in some genera have fungal association in the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others
(Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots are associated with N2 - fixing cyanobacteria.
• Fruits and vegetables continue their metabolic activity after harvest. Metabolic Activity is manifested
by respiration. Reduction of temperature is an effective means of reducing the rate of respiration.
1.15.5 Angiosperms:
Figure 1.15A: Parts of flower
• They are also called Flowering plants.

• The pollen grains and ovules are
developed in specialised structures
called flowers.
• The male sex organ in a flower is the
stamen.
• Each stamen consists of a slender
filament with anther at the tip.
• The female sex organ in a flower is the
pistil. Pistil consists of a swollen ovary
at its base, a long slender style and
stigma.
• In angiosperms, the seeds are enclosed
in fruits. The angiosperms are an
exceptionally large group of plants
occurring in a wide range of habitats. Figure 1.15B: Life Cycle of an Angiosperm
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• Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new

organisms arise without production of seeds. It helps in the development of clones.
• Vegetative propagation involves only mitosis, this ensures that the genetic information in DNA of
vegetative progeny (child) is same as in the mother plant and can be practiced throughout the year.
• However it does not help in elimination of viruses. Plant once systematically infected with a virus, usually
remains infected for its lifetime. Thus any vegetative parts taken for propagation remain infected.
Different types of vegetative propagation include:
1. Natural Vegetative Propagation: Runners, bulbs, Tubers, Corms, Suckers, Plantlets, Keikis, Apomixis
2. Artificial Vegetative Propagation: Cutting, Grafting, Layering, Suckering, Tissue culture
1.16. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:
1.16.1 Phylum – Porifera:

• Members of this phylum are commonly known as sponges. They are generally marine and mostly
asymmetrical animals.
• Most species are marine, and they range in size from a few millimeters to a few meters.
• Sponges are filter feeders: They filter out food particles suspended in the surrounding water as they
draw it through their body. Sponges have a water transport or canal system. Sponges lack tissues.
• The body is supported by a skeleton made up of spicules or spongin fibres.
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are produced by the same individual.
1.16.2 Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria):

• They are aquatic, mostly marine, sessile or free-swimming.
• The name cnidaria is derived from the cnidoblasts or cnidocytes.
• Cnidoblasts are used for anchorage, defense and for the capture of prey.
• Cnidarians exhibit tissue level of organization and are diploblastic
• Example: All coral reefs. Physalia (Portuguese man-of-war), Adamsia (Sea anemone).
1.16.3 Phylum – Platyhelminthes:

• Phylum– Platyhelminthes commonly known as Flatworms.
• These are mostly endoparasites found in animals including human beings.
• Flatworms are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and acoelomate animals with organ level of
organisation.
• Specialised cells called flame cells help in osmoregulation and excretion.
• Some members like Planaria possess high regeneration capacity.
• Example: Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke).
1.16.4 Phylum – Aschelminthes:

• Phylum – Aschelminthes commonly called Roundworms.
• They may be free living, aquatic and terrestrial or parasitic in plants and animals.
• Roundworms have organ-system level of body organisation.
• Males and females are distinct. Often females are longer than males.
• Example: Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filarial worm), Ancylostoma (Hookworm).
1.16.5 Phylum – Annelida:
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• They may be aquatic (marine and freshwater) or terrestrial; free-living, and sometimes parasitic. They
exhibit organ-system level of body organisation.
• Their body surface is distinctly marked out into segments or metameres and, hence, the phylum name
Annelida.
• Their excretory and osmoregulatory organ is called Nephridia.
• Pheretima (Earthworm) and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech).
1.16.6 Phylum – Arthropoda:

• This is the largest phylum of Animalia which includes insects. Over two-thirds of all named species on
earth are arthropods.
• The body of arthropods is covered by a chitinous exoskeleton.
• Respiratory organs are gills, book gills, book lungs or tracheal system.
• Circulatory system is of open type.
• Sensory organs like antennae, eyes (compound and simple) statocysts or balancing organs are present.
• Excretion takes place through malpighian tubules.
• Examples: Economically important insects – Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect)
Vectors – Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (Mosquitoes)
o Gregarious pest – Locusta (Locust)
o Living fossil – Limulus (King crab).
1.16.7 Phylum – Mollusca:

• This is the second largest animal phylum.
• Molluscs are terrestrial or aquatic (marine or freshwater) having an organ-system level of organisation.
• Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct head, muscular foot and
visceral hump.
• Example: Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia (Cuttlefish).
1.16.8 Phylum – Echinodermata:

• These animals have an endoskeleton of calcareous ossicles and, hence, the name Echinodermata.
• All are marine with organ-system level of organisation.
• The most distinctive feature of echinoderms is the presence of a water vascular system which helps in
locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration.
• An excretory system is absent.
• Example: Asterias (Star fish), Echinus (Sea urchin), Cucumaria (Sea cucumber).
1.16.9 Phylum – Chordata:

• Animals belonging to phylum Chordata are fundamentally characterized by the presence of a
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits.
SN. Chordates Non-chordates

1. Notochord present. Notochord absent.
2. Central nervous system is dorsal. hollow and Central nervous system is ventral. solid and
single. double.
3. Pharynx perforated by gill sits. Gill slits are absent.
4. Heart is ventral. Heart is dorsal (if present).
5. A post anal (tail) is present. Post-anal tail is absent.
• Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla: Urochordata or Tunicata, Cephalo-chordata and
Vertebrata.
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1.16.10 Subphylum Vertebrata:

• Possess notochord during the embryonic period. The notochord is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony
vertebral column in the adult. Thus all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
1.16.11 Class – Cyclostomata:

• All living members of the class Cyclostomata are ectoparasites on some fishes.
• Cyclostomes have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
• Their body is devoid of scales and paired fins.
• Cranium and vertebral columns are cartilaginous.
• Example: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
1.16.12 Class – Chondrichthyes:

• They are marine animals with streamlined bodies and have cartilaginous endoskeleton.
• Notochord is persistent throughout life.
• The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales.
• Heart is two-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
• Example: Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish).
1.16.13 Class – Osteichthyes:

• It includes both marine and fresh water fishes with bony endoskeleton.
• Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle).
• They are cold-blooded animals.
• Example:
o Marine – Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse);
o Freshwater – Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla).
1.16.14 Class – Amphibia:

• Amphibians can live in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats.
• Most of them have two pairs of limbs.
• Body is divisible into the head and trunk.
• The eyes have eyelids.
• Respiration is by gills, lungs and through skin.
• The heart is three chambered (two auricles and one ventricle).
• These are cold-blooded animals.
• Example: Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog)
1.16.15 Class – Reptilia:
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• The class name refers to their creeping or crawling mode of locomotion (Latin, repere or reptum, to
creep or crawl).
• They are mostly terrestrial animals and their body is covered by dry and cornified skin, epidermal scales
or scutes.
• They do not have external ear openings.
• Tympanum represents the ear.
• Heart is usually three-chambered, but four-chambered in crocodiles.
o Example: Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree lizard).
• Poisonous snakes – Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait).
1.16.16 Class – Aves:

• The characteristic features of Aves (birds) are the presence of feathers and most of them can fly except
flightless birds (e.g., Ostrich).
• They possess beaks.
• The forelimbs are modified into wings.
• The hind limbs generally have scales and are modified for walking, swimming or clasping the tree
branches.
• Skin is dry without glands except the oil gland at the base of the tail.
• Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic).
• Heart is completely four chambered.
• They are warm-blooded (homoiothermous) animals, i.e., they are able to maintain a constant body
temperature.
• Example: Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich)
1.16.17 Class – Mammalia:

• They are found in a variety of habitats – polar ice caps, deserts, mountains, forests, grasslands and dark
caves.
• Some of them have adapted to fly or live in water.
• The most unique mammalian characteristic is the presence of milk producing glands (mammary
glands) by which the young ones are nourished.
• External ears or pinnae are present. Different types of teeth are present in the jaw. Heart is four
chambered.
• Example: Oviparous-Ornithorhynchus (Platypus); Viviparous - Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying
fox Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger), Panthera leo (Lion).
Recent Advancements
• The three-domain system is a biological classification introduced by Carl Woesein 1990.

• It divides cellular life forms into archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotic domains.
Genetics
• Humans knew from as early as 8000-1000 B.C. that one of the causes of variation was hidden in sexual
reproduction. They exploited the variations that were naturally present in the wild populations of plants
and animals to selectively breed and select for organisms that possessed desirable characteristics.
• The meaning of genetics is a branch of biology that deals with the heredity and variation of organisms.
Hibernation
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• Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in endotherms, which is characterized by low
body temperature, slow breathing and heart rate, and low metabolic rate. It is found in bats, bears and
rodents etc.
• Hibernation functions to conserve energy when sufficient food is not available.
• To achieve this energy saving, an endothermic animal decreases its metabolic rate and thereby its body
temperature.
• Hibernation may last days, weeks, or months— depending on the species, ambient temperature, time of year,
and the individual’s body-condition.
• Before entering hibernation, animals need to store enough energy to last through the duration of their dormant
period, possibly as long as an entire winter.
• Larger species become hyperphagic, eating a large amount of food and storing the energy in fat deposits. In
many small species, food caching replaces eating and becoming fat.
1.17. BIOMOLECULES:
• Biomolecules, also called biological molecules, are any of numerous substances that are produced by cells
and living organisms. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions.
• The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins.
• Biomolecules are of two types:
1. One, those which have molecular weights less than one thousand Dalton and are usually referred to as
macromolecules or simply biomolecules
2. While those which are found in the acid insoluble fraction are called macromolecules or
biomacromolecules.
• We have covered nucleic acids in the previous chapter and rest molecules will be covered in this unit.
Figure 1.17: Biomolecules
1.18. EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN BIOLOGY:

• Neuroinformatic is a new field of study at the intersection of information technology and brain science.
• It includes all elements of brain research, including its structure, function, development, and diseases.
• The various types of neuroimaging and the interpretation of such images, as well as brain databases of all
kinds and computational models of brain function, are all of great interest.
• Neuroinformatic is synonymous with neurocomputing.
1.18.1 Neuroprosthetics:
• Neural prostheses are devices that assist or restore function lost as a result of damage to the nervous
system.
• It offers the potential to substantially increase the quality of life for people suffering from motor
disorders, including paralysis and amputation.
• Such devices translate electrical neural activity from the brain into control signals for guiding paralyzed
upper limbs, prosthetic arms, and computer cursors.
• These implantable devices are also commonly used in animal experimentation as a tool to aid
neuroscientists in developing a greater understanding of the brain and its functioning.
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1.18.2 Bionic Eye:

• Visual prostheses, or bionic eyes, promise to provide artificial vision to visually impaired people who
could previously see.
Figure 1.18A: Bionic Eyes
• Electrical prosthesis surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the transduction of
light (the change of light from the environment into impulses the brain can process) in people who have
sustained severe damage to the retina.
1.18.3 Microbial fuel cell:

• Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are bio-electrochemical devices that use the power of respiring bacteria to
directly transform organic substrates into electrical energy.
• The MFC is a fuel cell at its core, which uses oxidation- reduction reactions to convert chemical energy
into electricity.
• Bacteria are genetically modified to operate on organic substrates or wastewater.
• These bacteria have been isolated from the wastewater that they are supposed to decompose.
• They eat the organic matter in the water and break it down anaerobically (without oxygen), releasing
electrons.
• The anode collects the electrons, resulting in a current in the circuit.
1.18.4 Embryo Transfer Technology:

• Embryo transfer refers to a step in the process of assisted reproduction in which embryos are placed
into the uterus of a female with the intent to establish a pregnancy.
• This technique (which is often used in connection with In vitro fertilization (IVF), may be used in
humans or in animals, in which situations the goals may vary.
• First performed in 1984.
• Factors that can affect the success of embryo transfer:
1.19. BIOTECHNOLOGY:
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Figure 1.19: Biotechnology
• Biotechnology deals with techniques of using live organisms or enzymes from organisms to produce
products and processes useful to humans.
• The two core techniques that enabled birth of modern biotechnology are:
1. Genetic engineering: Techniques to alter the chemistry of genetic material (DNA and RNA) to
introduce these into host organisms and thus change the phenotype of the host organism.
2. Bioprocess engineering: Maintenance of sterile (microbial contamination- free) ambience in
chemical engineering processes to enable growth of only the desired microbe/eukaryotic cell in
large quantities for the manufacture of biotechnological products like antibiotics, vaccines,
enzymes, etc.
• Recombinant DNA: A DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources.
1.20. Tools of Recombinant DNA Technology:

• Restriction Enzymes: Restriction enzymes belong to a larger class of enzymes called nucleases.
o These are of two kinds: exonucleases and endonucleases.
o Exonucleases remove nucleotides from the ends of the DNA whereas endonucleases make cuts at
specific positions within the DNA.
o Restriction endonucleases are used in genetic engineering to form recombinant molecules of DNA,
which are composed of DNA from different sources/ genomes.
• Separating DNA molecules:
o The fragments produced by restriction enzymes would not be of much use if we could not also
easily separate them for analysis.
o The most common separation technique used is gel electrophoresis.
o This technique takes advantage of the negative charge on DNA molecules by using an electrical field
to provide the force necessary to separate DNA molecules based on size.
o The separated DNA fragments can be visualised only after staining the DNA with a compound
known as ethidium bromide followed by exposure to UV radiation.
• Cloning Vectors: Vectors used at present, are engineered in such a way that they help easy linking of
foreign DNA and selection of recombinants from non-recombinants.
Plasmid: A plasmid is a small circular piece of DNA found in bacterial cells that is physically separated from
chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently
1.21. FEATURE OF A VECTOR:
• Origin of replication: This is a sequence from where replication starts and any piece of DNA when linked
to this sequence can be made to replicate within the host cells.
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• Selectable marker: which helps in identifying and eliminating non-transformants and selectively permitting
the growth of the transformants. Transformation is a procedure through which a piece of DNA is introduced
in a host bacterium.
• Cloning sites: In order to link the alien DNA, the vector needs to have very few, preferably single, recognition
sites for the commonly used restriction enzymes.
1.22. METHODS OF INSERTION OF DNA IN HOST CELLS

• Micro-injection: recombinant DNA is directly injected into the nucleus of an animal cell.
• Biolistic or gene gun: cells are bombarded with high velocity micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with
DNA in a method known as biolistics or gene gun.This method is suitable for plants.
• Isolation of the Genetic Material (DNA).
• Cutting of DNA at Specific Locations: Restriction enzyme digestions are performed by incubating purified
DNA molecules with the restriction enzyme.
• Amplification of Gene of Interest using PCR: PCR stands for Polymerase Chain Reaction. PCR is A
laboratory method used to make many copies of a specific piece of DNA from a sample that contains very tiny
amounts of that DNA.
Figure 1.22: Recombinant DNA
• Insertion of Recombinant DNA into the Host Cell/ Organism: Insert a piece of alien DNA into a cloning
vector and transfer it into a bacterial, plant or animal cell, the alien DNA gets multiplied.
• Obtaining the Foreign Gene Product: The Transformed cells produce products of genes of interest. This
should be isolated for further uses.
1.23. GENOME EDITING:

• Genome editing, also known as genome engineering or gene editing, is a sort of genetic engineering that
involves inserting, deleting, modifying, or replacing DNA in a living organism’s genome.
1.23.1 Genome editing techniques:
Figure 1.23: Genome editing

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• Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)- CRISPR- associated protein
9 (Cas9): CRISPR is the DNA-targeting component of the system, and it is made up of an RNA molecule,
or guide, that is engineered to attach to certain DNA bases via complementary base-pairing.
o CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9) is the nuclease component that cuts the DNA.
o The CRISPR-Cas9 genetic scissors were discovered by Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A.
Doudna, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2020.
• Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs): Transcription activator-like effector
(TALE) domains make up the DNA-binding domain of TALENs. The nuclease portion of TALENs, like
ZFNs, is usually a FokI nuclease.
• Zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs): ZFNs are fusions between a custom-designed Cys2-His2 zinc-finger
protein and the cleavage domain of the FokI restriction endonuclease. FokI cleavage domain, which cuts
DNA within a five- to seven- bp spacer sequence that separates two flanking zinc-finger binding sites.
• Homing endonucleases or mega-nucleases: Homing endonucleases, also known as mega-nucleases.
o These enzymes make extensive sequence-specific contacts with their DNA substrate.
o However, unlike ZFNs and TALENs, the binding and cleavage domains in homing endonucleases are
not modular.
o This overlap in form and function makes their repurposing challenging, and limits their utility for
more routine applications of genome editing.
1.23.2 Significance of Genome Editing:

• These techniques affect different areas such as disease management, basic biomedical research,
agriculture and environmental sciences.
• They could also be used to customize human characteristics for extra-therapeutic enhancement
purposes.
1.24. HUMAN GENOME PROJECT:
• In the 1980s, scientists began discussing the possibility of sequencing all 3.2 billion nucleotide pairs in the
human genome.
• These discussions led to the launch of the Human Genome Project in 1990. The initial goals of the Human
Genome Project were:
o To map all the human genes,
o To construct a detailed physical map of the entire human genome, and
o To determine the nucleotide sequence of all 24 human chromosomes by the year 2005.
1.24.1 General Features of The Human Genome:

• The entire human genome contains about 3.2 billion base pairs of DNA.
• The base-pair composition of the DNA varies across regions of the human genome.
• On average, about 41 percent of the DNA consists of G:C base pairs. However, some regions are G:C
rich and others are G:C poor.
• The Human Genome Project, which operated from 1990 to 2003, provided researchers with basic
information about the genetic content of the human organism, opening new avenues of discovery in fields
such as cancer research.
1.25. GENOME INDIA PROJECT

• Taking inspiration from the Human Genome Project, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) initiated the
ambitious Genome India Project (GIP) on 3rd January 2020.
• The GIP aims to collect 10,000 genetic samples from citizens across India, to build a reference genome.
• Whole-genome sequencing and subsequent data analysis of the genetic data of these 10,000 individuals
would be carried out.
• This would aid our understanding of the nature of diseases affecting the Indian population, and then
ultimately support the development of predictive diagnostic markers.
• It would also open new vistas for advancing next- generation personalized medicine in the country, paving
the way for predicting health and disease outcomes.
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• The initiative would also support the development of targeted preventive care, as it has the potential to help
identify those population groups which are more susceptible to various risk factors for certain diseases.
• For instance, if a region shows a tendency towards a specific disease, customized interventions can be made
in the region, accordingly, leading to more effective treatment overall.
• This project is led by the Centre for Brain Research at Bengaluru-based Indian Institute of Science, which
acts as the central coordinator between a collaboration of 20 leading institutions, each collecting samples
and conducting its own research.
• This initiative reflects India’s progress in gene therapies and precision medicine, and its movement towards
emerging next-generation medicine which yields the possibilities for greater customization, safety, and
earlier detection.
• This initiative would help lay the foundation of personalized healthcare for a very large group of persons
on the planet.
1.26. HUMAN MICROBIOME INITIATIVE OF SELECT ENDOGAMOUS POPULATION OF INDIA:

• Health and disease outcomes are determined by interactions between the genome and the environment. An
important component of the environment in the context of human health is the human microbiota.
• The Human Microbiome Initiative of select endogamous populations of India aims at comprehensive
characterization of human-associated microbes in carefully selected endogamous population groups with
diverse dietary habits including key tribal populations which are not much influenced by modern lifestyle.
• The study is investigating the influence of diet, lifestyle, geography and age on gut microbiome using targeted
metagenomic and whole metagenomic approaches. The study would also attempt to find the association
between microbial enterotypes and three distinct Ayurvedic Prakriti types.
• Health and disease outcomes are determined by interactions between the genome and the environment. An
important component of the environment in the context of human health is the human microbiota.
• The Human Microbiome Initiative of select endogamous populations of India aims at comprehensive
characterization of human-associated microbes in carefully selected endogamous population groups with
diverse dietary habits including key tribal populations which are not much influenced by modern lifestyle.
• The study is investigating the influence of diet, lifestyle, geography and age on gut microbiome using
targeted metagenomic and whole metagenomic approaches. The study would also attempt to find the
association between microbial enterotypes and three distinct Ayurvedic Prakriti types.
1.27. EARTH BIO-GENOME PROJECT:
• The Earth Bio-Genome Project is a project aiming at analyzing and sequencing genomes and building a
new basis for biology to drive solutions for biodiversity preservation and human society sustainability.
• The Earth Bio-Genome Project (EBP) is a worldwide group of scientists who plan to sequence, classify, and
characterize the genomes of all eukaryotic biodiversity on Earth over the course of ten years.
o It’s a global catalog of life on the planet.
o In three phases, it hopes to sequence 1.5 million species.
• The EBP project will assist in the creation of a precise genetic sequence as well as the discovery of
evolutionary relationships between the species, orders, and families that will make up the Digital Library of
Life.
1.28. SOMATIC CELL NUCLEAR TRANSFER:

• Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), technique in which the nucleus of a somatic (body) cell is transferred
to the cytoplasm of an enucleated egg (an egg that has had its own nucleus removed). Once inside the egg,
the somatic nucleus is reprogrammed by egg cytoplasmic factors to become a zygote (fertilized egg) nucleus.
• The egg is allowed to develop to the blastocyst stage, at which point a culture of embryonic stem cells (ESCs)
can be created from the inner cell mass of the blastocyst.
1.29. CLONING OF DOLLY SHEEP:
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• Dolly was cloned from a cell taken from the mammary gland of a six-year-old Finn Dorset sheep and an egg
cell taken from a Scottish Blackface sheep.
• She was born to her Scottish Blackface surrogate mother on 5th July 1996.
• Dolly’s white face was one of the first signs that she was a clone because if she was genetically related to her
surrogate mother, she would have had a black face.
• Because Dolly’s DNA came from a mammary gland cell, she was named after the country singer Dolly Parton.
Figure 1.29: Cloning Of Dolly Sheep
1.30. 3-PARENT BABY:
• Techniques to create ‘three-parent babies’ seek to offer mothers a way to have a child without passing on
metabolic diseases caused by faulty mitochondria.
• Researchers do this by exchanging the diseased mitochondria of a prospective mother with those of a healthy,
unrelated donor: the third parent.
• In addition to DNA in the nucleus, some DNA is also present in the mitochondria.
• During fertilization the nuclear DNA is formed with 46 chromosomes (i.e., 23 from mother & 23
chromosomes from the father).
• The Mitochondrial DNA has only one chromosome and its codes for only specific proteins responsible for
metabolism.
• Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother & thus it is more effective to trace human ancestry.
Figure 1.30: 3-Parent Baby

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1.31. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN AGRICULTURE:
1.31.1: Genetically Modified (GMO) Food Crops:
• Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA)
has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the introduction of a gene from a
different organism.
• GM crops were first commercially introduced in 1996 all over the world. Their popularity has
skyrocketed since then.
• Corn, cotton, and soybeans have been genetically modified to withstand insect pests and herbicides,
and they are now widely cultivated in many regions of the world.
• The Government of India approved Bt cotton as the only genetically modified (GM) crop for
commercial production in 2002.
1.31.2 Case of Bt Cotton:
• Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt).

• Bollgard technology is about a genetic sequence from a microorganism called Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt).
• The toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to
insects without the need for insecticides.
• B. thuringiensis forms protein crystals during a particular phase of their growth. These crystals
contain a toxic insecticidal protein.
• The toxin is coded by a gene cryIAc named cry.
• There are a number of them, for example, the protein encoded by the genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control
the cotton bollworms, that of cryIAb controls corn borer.
1.31.3 DMH-11:
• The commercial release of the GM mustard Dhara Mustard Hybrid 11 (DMH 11) created by Delhi
University is pending since the GEAC has urged that thorough safety assessment data on environmental
biosafety, particularly effects on beneficial insect species, be generated first.
• It is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea.
• The transgenic mustard DMH - 11 was developed in 2002 using genetic material isolated from non-
pathogenic soil bacteria.
• Three genes, Bar, Barnase and Barstar, were extracted from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to produce the
hybrid seed.
• DMH 11’s Glufosinate resistance is due to an enzyme expressed by the Bar (Bialaphos resistance) gene.
1.31.4 Bt Brinjal:
• Bt Brinjal is a transgenic brinjal developed by introducing the cry1Ac gene from the Bacillus thuringiensis
soil bacterium into Brinjal.
• This brinjal has been genetically modified to withstand insects like the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer
(Leucinodes orbonalis).
• Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company created Bt Brinjal (Mahyco).
1.31.5 Golden Rice:
• Golden Rice is a new form of rice that contains beta- carotene (provitamin A), which the body converts
to vitamin A as needed and gives the grain its golden colour.
• It’s made possible by genetic engineering, and it produces two new enzymes that finish the beta-carotene
expression in rice grains.
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1.31.6 Terminator Seed Technology:
• The genetic alteration of plants to make them produce sterile seeds is known as Terminator seed
technology.
• Suicide seeds are another name for them.
• Genetic Use Restriction Technologies is Terminator’s official name, as used by the UN and scientists
(GURTs).
1.32. REGULATIONS OF GMS IN INDIA:
• The Environment Protection Act of 1986 notified the rules governing the management of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) and their products in 1989, with guidelines provided later.
• The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) functions in the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEF&CC). As per Rules, 1989, it is responsible for the appraisal of activities
involving large- scale use of hazardous microorganisms and recombinants in research and industrial
production from the environmental angle.
• The committee is also responsible for appraisal of proposals relating to release of genetically engineered
(GE) organisms and products into the environment including experimental field trials.
• There are six authorities in total to deal with various areas of the regulation:
1. Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee,
2. Institutional BioSafety Committee,
3. Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation,
4. Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC),
5. State Biotechnology Coordination Committee, and
6. The District level Committee
1.33. BIOFORTIFICATION:
• It is the process of improving the nutritional value of food crops by increasing the density of vitamins
and minerals in the crop, which can be accomplished by traditional plant breeding, agronomic methods, or
biotechnology.
• These genetically changed and nutrition-added crops, dubbed biologically fortified or biofortified, vary
from commercially available fortified foods in that additional nutrients are genetically entrenched rather
than chemically supplied.
• Example: Iron-biofortification of rice, beans, sweet potato, cassava and legumes
1.34. RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAI):
• It’s a gene-silencing technique that uses double-stranded RNA to prevent protein production in target
cells.
• RNAi takes place in all eukaryotic organisms as a method of cellular defense.
• This method involves silencing of a specific mRNA due to a complementary Double stranded RNA (dsRNA)
molecule that binds to and prevents translation of the mRNA (silencing).
• This natural mechanism for sequence-specific gene silencing promises to revolutionize experimental biology
and may have important practical applications in functional genomics, therapeutic intervention, agriculture
and other areas.
1.34.1 Production of Pest resistant plants using RNAi:
• Several nematodes parasitise a wide variety of plants and animals including human beings.
• A nematode Meloidogyne incognita infects the roots of tobacco plants and causes a great reduction in yield.
• A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation which was based on the process of RNA interference
(RNAi).
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• Using Agrobacterium vectors, nematode-specific genes were introduced into the host plant.
• The introduction of DNA was such that it produced both sense and antisense RNA in the host cells. These two
RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) that initiated RNAi and thus,
silenced the specific mRNA of the nematode.
• The consequence was that the parasite could not survive in a transgenic host expressing specific interfering
RNA.
1.35. BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATION IN MEDICINE:
1.35.1 Genetically Engineered Insulin:

• Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from pancreas of slaughtered cattle and pigs.
• Insulin from an animal source, though, caused some patients to develop allergy or other types of reactions
to the foreign protein.
• In 1983, Eli Lilly, an American company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B, chains
of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E. coli to produce insulin chains.
• Chains A and B were produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds to form
human insulin.
Figure 1.35 : Genetically Engineered Insulin
1.35.2 Gene Therapy:
• Gene therapy is a technique for treating genetic problems that includes replacing faulty genes with
healthy ones.
• It is a way of introducing DNA into human cells that is done artificially.
• Gene therapy can be divided into two categories:
Gene Therapy in the Germline Gene Therapy in the Germline

• This type is most commonly seen in the somatic • It happens in the human body’s germline cells.
cells of the human body. • Generally, this approach is used to address
• This is specific to a particular person, and the disease- causing genetic abnormalities that are
damaged cells will only be replaced with healthy handed on from parents to their children.
cells in that person. • The procedure entails inserting healthy DNA into
• Therapeutic genes are introduced into the the cells that produce reproductive cells, eggs, or
somatic cells of the human body using this sperms.
procedure.
• This approach of gene therapy is thought to be the
best and safest.
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1.36. APPLICATION IN BIOENERGY:
• Biofuels derived from biomass are renewable and sustainable energies with the potential to replace fossil
fuels.
• Biotechnology can help to speed up the selection of varieties that are more suited to biofuel production –
with increased -
o Biomass per hectare,
o Increased content of oils (biodiesel crops) or
o Fermentable sugars (ethanol crops), or
o Improved processing characteristics that facilitate their conversion to biofuels.
• Utilization of microbial fuel cells is found to be useful for sustainable bioenergy synthesis via completing the
wastewater treatment processes with electric energy synthesis.
1.37. ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY:
• Environmental biotechnology, specifically, refers to the use of procedures to safeguard and restore the
environment’s quality.
Sr. Type Description

1 Bioremediation: • Bioremediation is the process of using microorganisms to remove
or detoxify toxins from soils, water, or sediments that would
otherwise be harmful to human health.
• Bioremediation is also known by the terms biotreatment,
bioreclamation, and biorestoration.
• Microorganisms are employed in sewage treatment plants to remove
typical pollutants from wastewater before it is discharged into rivers or
the sea.
• Lindane (Hexa-Chlorocyclohexane) bioremediation technology has
been developed.
2 Phytoremediation: • Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process that uses various types
of plants to remove, transfer, stabilize, and/ or destroy contaminants in
the soil and groundwater.
• Phytoremediation treatment processes have been developed for the
degradation of dyes from textile industrial effluent.
• The study showed that the developed process has the potential for
textile dyes and effluent treatment.
3 Phyto-degradation: • In this process, plants actually metabolize and destroy contaminants
within plant tissues.
4 Phyto-volatilization: • In this process, plants take up water containing organic contaminants
and release the contaminants into the air through their leaves.
5 Biosensors: • A biosensor is an analytical device that converts a biological
response into a physical, chemical or electrical signal.
• The biosensors can be designed to be very selective, or sensitive to a
broad range of compounds.
• For example, a wide range of herbicides can be detected in river water
using algal-based biosensors; the stresses inflicted on the organisms
being measured as changes in the optical properties of the plant’s
chlorophyll.
1.38. GENE SILENCING:
• Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene.
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• When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced. Ex: the researchers designed two small RNA molecules
that silence the fungal genes which produce aflatoxin in Groundnut.
• When genes are knocked out, they are completely erased from the organism’s genome and thus, have no
expression.
Applications of Gene Silencing
• Specific gene silencing using RNAi in cell culture.

• Cancer treatments
• RNA interference has been used for applications in biotechnology.
• Useful in epigenomic analysis and clinical application of molecular diagnosis.
• Neuro-degenerative disorders treatment.
1.39. COLOUR CLASSIFICATION OF BRANCHES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY:
• Gold biotechnology or Bioinformatics: Computational Biology addresses biological problems using

computational techniques.
• Red Biotechnology: Biopharma relates to medicine and veterinary products.
• White Biotechnology: Industrial Biotech to design more energy efficient, low resource consuming products.
• Yellow Biotechnology: Biotech in the Food Industry.
• Grey Biotechnology: Environmental applications to maintain Biodiversity
• Green Biotechnology: Emphasizes on Agriculture interests.
• Blue Biotechnology: Based on use of marine resources.
• Violet Biotechnology: Deals with law, ethical and philosophical issues of biotechnology.
• Dark Biotechnology: Associated with bioterrorism and biological weapons
1.40. GOVERNMENT INITIATIVE FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY:
1.40.1 National Biotechnology Development Strategy:
• The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India, announced the First National
Biotechnology Development Strategy in September 2007.
• In 2015, DBT announced The National Biotechnology Development Strategy-2015-2020 and later in
2020 for National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2021- 2025.
Key elements of Strategy-II are as follows
• Empower, scientifically and technologically, India’s incomparable human resource;

• Create a strong infrastructure for research, development and commercialization for a robust
bioeconomy;
• Establish India as a world class bio-manufacturing hub for developing and developed markets.
1.40.2 BIRAC:
• Biotechnology Industry Research Assistance Council (BIRAC) is a not-for-profit Section 8, Schedule

B, Public Sector Enterprise, set up by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT).
• It is an Interface Agency to strengthen and empower the emerging Biotech enterprise to undertake
strategic research and innovation, addressing nationally relevant product development needs.
1.41. MENDEL’S LAWS:
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• Mendel is known as the father of genetics. He worked upon the pea plants and proposed the fundamental
laws of inheritance. These are:
1. Law of Dominance: States that when two different genes controlling for a same character come together
in an organism, only one is expressed and this expressed gene is known as dominant gene.
2. Law of Independent assortment: Separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one
another from parents to offspring; genes do not influence each other with regard to the sorting of alleles
into gametes.
3. Law of segregation: states that a diploid organism passes a randomly selected allele for a trait to its
offspring, such that the offspring receives one allele from each parent. According to the law of
segregation, only one of the two gene copies present in an organism is distributed to each gamete
(egg or sperm cell) that it makes, and the allocation of the gene copies is random. When an egg and a
sperm join in fertilization, they form a new organism, whose genotype consists of the alleles contained in
the gametes.
• Mendel published his work on inheritance of characters in 1865 but for several reasons, it remained
unrecognized till 1900.
1.42. CHROMOSOMAL BASIS OF INHERITANCE:
• In 1900, three Scientists (de Vries, Correns and von Tschermak) independently rediscovered Mendel’s results
on the inheritance of characters.
o Chromosomes as well as genes occur in pairs.
o The two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous sites on homologous chromosomes.
o Pairing and separation of a pair of chromosomes would lead to the segregation of a pair of factors they
carried.
1.43. MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE:
• DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the central information storage system of most animals and plants, and even
some viruses.
• The name comes from its structure, which is a sugar and phosphate backbone which have bases sticking out
from it—so-called bases.
o It’s a polymer of four bases - A, C, T, and G.
o DNA is organized structurally into chromosomes and then wound around nucleosomes as part of those
chromosomes.
o The two chains have antiparallel polarity. It means, if one chain has the polarity 5' to 3', the other has 3'
to 5'.
In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick, based on the X-ray diffraction data produced by Maurice Wilkins
and Rosalind Franklin, proposed a very simple but famous Double Helix model for the structure of DNA. One
of the hallmarks of their proposition was base pairing between the two strands of polynucleotide chains.
1.43.1 RNA:
• Like DNA, each RNA strand has the same basic structure, composed of nitrogenous bases covalently
bound to a sugar-phosphate backbone. However, unlike DNA, RNA is usually a single-stranded
molecule.
• Also, the sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose (ribose contains one more hydroxyl group on the
second carbon), which accounts for the molecule’s name.
• RNA consists of four nitrogenous bases: adenine, cytosine, uracil, and guanine.
• Uracil is a pyrimidine that is structurally similar to the thymine, another pyrimidine that is found in DNA.
Like thymine, uracil can base-pair with adenine.
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1.43.2 Why is DNA widely acceptable as a better Genetic material?
• 2'-OH group present at every nucleotide in RNA is a reactive group and makes RNA labile and easily
degradable.
• DNA chemically is less reactive and structurally more stable when compared to RNA. Therefore,
among the two nucleic acids, the DNA is a better genetic material.
1.43.3 Packaging of DNA:
• Proteins called histones are responsible for the main level of DNA packing in chromatin.
• Histones are rich in the basic amino acid residues lysine and arginine. Both the amino acid residues carry
positive charges in their side chains.
• Histones are organized to form a unit of eight molecules called histone octamer.
• The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively charged histone octamer to form a
structure called nucleosome.
• Nucleosomes constitute the repeating unit of a structure in the nucleus called chromatin.
• Chromatin further folds and form the structure of the chromosomes.
RNA World Hypothesis
• According to this hypothesis, RNA stored both genetic information and catalyzed the chemical
reactions in primitive cells. Only later in evolutionary time did DNA take over as the genetic material
and proteins become the major catalyst and structural component of cells.
• Trivia (Trivia is information and data that are considered to be of little value.)
• Artificial chromosomes are artificially created chromosomes having the properties of centromeres,
telomeres, and origins of replication, and specified sequences required for their stable maintenance within
the cell as autonomous, self-replicating chromosomes.
1.43.4 Flow of genetic information: From DNA to proteins:
• Central Dogma states that the genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to Protein.
Figure 1.43:Flow of genetic information
• DNA Replication: DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell
division.
• Transcription: The process by which a cell makes an RNA copy of a piece of DNA. This RNA copy, called
messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information needed to make proteins in a cell.
• Translation: The process by which a cell makes proteins using the genetic information carried in
messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA is made by copying DNA, and the information it carries tells the
cell how to link amino acids together to form proteins.
1.43.5 Genetic code:
• The process of translation requires transfer of genetic information from a polymer of nucleotides to
synthesize a polymer of amino acids.
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• This led to the proposition of a genetic code that could direct the sequence of amino acids during
synthesis of proteins.
• The genetic code is a set of rules defining how the four- letter code of DNA is translated into the 20-letter
code of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
• The genetic code is a set of three-letter combinations of nucleotides called codons, each of which
corresponds to a specific amino acid or stop signal.
o For example: The RNA sequence UUU specifically coded for the amino acid phenylalanine.
o 3 Codons in Human are Stop Codon: UGA, UAA, UAG.
• There are 64 possible permutations, or combinations, of three-letter nucleotide sequences that can be
made from the four nucleotides.
• Of these 64 codons, 61 represent amino acids, and three are stop signals.
DNA Profiling or DNA Fingerprinting
• DNA profiling is the process where a specific DNA pattern, called a profile, is obtained from a person or
sample of bodily tissue.
• It is a forensic technique in criminal investigations, comparing criminal suspects’ profiles to DNA evidence
so as to assess the likelihood of their involvement in the crime.
• It is also used in parentage testing, to establish immigration eligibility, and in genealogical and medical
research.
1.44. DIVISION OF CELL OR CELL CYCLE:
• The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises the other constituents of the cell
and eventually divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
• A cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during this time it grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
1.44.1 Phases of Cell Cycle:
• The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:

1. Interphase
2. M Phase (Mitosis phase)
• M phase involves following four stages:
• The M Phase represents the phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occurs and the interphase
represents the phase between two successive M phases.
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Figure 1.44: A diagrammatic view of cell cycle indicating formation of two cells from one cell
1.44.2 Interphase:
• The interphase, though called the resting phase, is the time during which the cell is preparing for division
by undergoing both cell growth and DNA replication in an orderly manner.
• The interphase is divided into three further phases:
1. G1 phase (Gap 1): G1 phase corresponds to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA
replication. During the G1 phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but does not
replicate its DNA.
2. S phase (Synthesis): S or synthesis phase marks the period during which DNA synthesis or
replication takes place. During this time the amount of DNA per cell doubles.
3. G2 phase (Gap 2): It follows the successful completion of S phase, during which the cell's DNA is
replicated. The Cell “double checks” the duplicated chromosomes for error, making any needed
repair.
Inactive Stage
• Some cells in the adult animals do not appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart cells) and many other cells
divide only occasionally, as needed to replace cells that have been lost because of injury or cell death.
• These cells that do not divide further exit the G1 phase to enter an inactive stage called the quiescent
stage (G0) of the cell cycle.
• Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on to do so depending
on the requirement of the organism.
1.45. GENETIC DISORDERS:
• A genetic disorder is a disease that is caused by a change, or mutation, in an individual’s DNA sequence.
• These mutations can be due to an error in DNA replication or due to environmental factors, such as
cigarette smoke & exposure to radiation, which cause changes in the DNA sequence.
• The three main categories are:
1. Single Gene Disorders: Disorders caused by defects in one particular gene, often with simple and
predictable inheritance patterns. Example: Huntington’s disease, Cystic fibrosis.
2. Chromosome Disorders: Disorders resulting from changes in the number or structure of the
chromosomes. Example: Down’s syndrome, which results from an extra chromosome 21.
3. Multifactorial Disorders (Complex Diseases): Disorders caused by changes in multiple genes, often in
a complex interaction with environmental & lifestyle factors such as diet or cigarette smoke. Example:
Cancer.
1.46. WHAT IS A MUTATION?
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• Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence, and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms.
• A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many cases, evolutionary change is based on the accumulation
of many mutations with small effects.
• Mutational effects can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral, depending on their context or location.
• Example: Sickle cell anemia disease in Humans caused due to single gene mutation
Figure 1.46: Mutation
1.46.1 Sickle cell anemia
• It is an inherited blood disorder in affected individuals at birth, causing the production of abnormal
hemoglobin.
• Normally, the hemoglobin protein, which resides inside red blood cells, attaches to oxygen in the lungs
and carries it to all parts of the body.
• Healthy red blood cells are flexible so that they can move through the smallest blood vessels.
• In sickle cell disease, the hemoglobin is abnormal, causing the red blood cells to be rigid and shaped like
a C or sickle, the shape from which the disease takes its name.
• Sickle cells can get stuck and block blood flow, causing pain and infections.
1.47. EUGENICS, EUTHENICS AND EUPHEMISM:
• The practice or advocacy of improving the human species by selectively mating people
Eugenics: with specific desirable hereditary traits. It aims to reduce human suffering by breeding
out disease, disabilities and so-called undesirable characteristics from the human
population.
• Euthenics is a branch of science that aims to better different aspects of the environment
Euthenics: in order to improve humans’ wellbeing and/or the wellbeing of other living things.
Water treatment plants are examples of euthenics in action.
Euphemism: • Deals with the control of several inherited human diseases, especially inborn errors of
metabolism in which the missing or defective enzyme has been identified.
1.48. AMINO ACIDS:
• Amino acids are small molecules that are the building blocks of proteins.
• Chemically, an amino acid is a molecule that has a carboxylic acid group and an amino group that are each
attached to a carbon atom called the á carbon.
• There are 20 types of Amino acids. These 20 amino acids can be classified as Essential and Non Essential
amino Acids.
• Nonessential amino acids can be synthesized in the body, whereas essential amino acids must be obtained
in the diet.
• There are 9 Essential Amino acids and 11 Non-essential Amino acids.
• Collagen is the most abundant protein in the animal world and Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-
Oxygenase (RuBisCO) is the most abundant protein in the whole of the biosphere.
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1.49. PROTEINS:
• Each protein is a molecule made up of different combinations of 20 types of smaller, simpler amino acids.
• Protein molecules are long chains of amino acids that are folded into a three-dimensional shape.
• Dietary proteins are the source of essential amino acids.
• Proteins carry out many functions in living organisms, some transport nutrients across cell membranes,
some fight infectious organisms, some are hormones, some are enzymes.
1.50. ENZYMES:
• Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in living
organisms.
• Almost all enzymes are proteins. There are some nucleic acids that behave like enzymes. These are called
ribozymes.
• An active site of an enzyme is a crevice or pocket into which the substrate fits. Thus enzymes, through their
active site, catalyze reactions at a high rate.
• Inorganic catalysts work efficiently at high temperatures and high pressures, while enzymes get damaged
at high temperatures (say above 40°C).
• However, enzymes isolated from organisms who normally live under extremely high temperatures (e.g., hot
vents and sulphur springs), are stable and retain their catalytic power even at high temperatures (upto 80°-
90°C).
Ribozymes
• Ribozymes are catalytically active RNA molecules or RNA– protein complexes, in which solely the RNA
provides catalytic activity.
• The term ribozyme refers to the enzymatic activity and ribonucleic acid nature at the same time.
• Ribozymes can be used in the study of gene function and gene therapy for diseases.
1.51. VITAMINS:
• A vitamin is an organic molecule that is an essential micronutrient which an organism needs in small
quantities for the proper functioning of its metabolism.
• Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in our body but plants can synthesize almost all of them.
• Vitamins can be classified on basis of solubility:
1. Fat-Soluble vitamins : Soluble in fats and oil but insoluble in water. They are stored in liver and adipose
tissues. E.g., vitamin A, D, E, K (KEDA).
2. Water-Soluble vitamins: needs regular supply in the diet, excreted in urine and cannot be stored in our
body. E.g., vitamin B and C groups (except B12).
• Deficiency of vitamins can cause several diseases.
Vitamins/Minerals Deficiency disease Sources Functions

A (Retinol) – Fat Night blindness Green leafy vegetables, Necessary for wound healing,
soluble broccoli, tomatoes, carrots, growth and normal formation
milk, liver, watermelon etc. immune functions, of rhodopsin
for vision in dim light.
B1 (Thiamine) – Beriberi Fresh fruits, corn, cashew Part of an Enzyme, needed for
Water soluble nuts, peas, wheat, milk, energy metabolism and nerve
(Anti stress vitamin) dates, black beans etc. functions.
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B2 (Riboflavin) - Ariboflavinosis, Bananas, grapes, pumpkin, Essentials for growth, enzymatic

Water soluble Photophobia, poor yoghurt, mushroom, role in tissue respiration and acts
growth popcorn, liver etc. as transporter of hydrogen ions.
B3 (Niacin) - Pellagra, dermatitis, Meat, eggs, fish, milk, Helps in oxidation and energy
Water soluble dementia guava, peanuts, cereals, releases, synthesis of glycogen
green peas etc. and breakdown of fatty acids
B5 (Pantothenic Fatigue, loss of Meat, kidney, egg yolk, Synthesis of vital body
Acid) - antibody production, chicken, fish, legumes, compounds, essential in
Water soluble sleep disturbances avocado etc. intermediary metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and protein.
Microcytic Anaemia, Pork, chicken, bread, Essential for normal growth,
B6 (Pyridoxine) - irritability wholegrain, soya beans, Synthesis and breakdown of
Water soluble cereals etc. amino acids and unsaturated fatty
acids
Dermatitis, enteritis, Walnuts, peanuts, milk, egg Essential components of enzymes,
B7 (Biotin) - insomnia yolks, salmon, mushroom, carrier of carbon dioxide,
Water soluble cauliflower, banana, metabolism of fatty acids and
raspberries etc. amino acids
Megaloblastic anaemia Citrus fruits, green leafy Essential in biosynthesis of
(poor growth) vegetables, beets, legumes nucleic acids, necessary for red
B9 (Folic Acid) - etc. blood cell maturation.
Water soluble B12 Pernicious anaemia,
(Cobalamin) neurological Fish, meats, poultry, eggs, Essential in biosynthesis of
deterioration Breast milk etc. nucleic acids, red blood cell
maturation; involved in central
nervous system metabolism
1.52. LIPIDS OR FAT:
• Lipids are generally water insoluble. They could be simple fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl group
attached to an R group.
• Fatty acids could be saturated (without double bond) or unsaturated (with one or more C=C double bonds).
Saturated Fat Unsaturated Fat

• Fats in which the fatty acids all have single bonds. • In which there is at least one double bond within
• Saturated fat has the maximum number of the fatty acid.
hydrogens bonded to the carbons. • Hydrogen is eliminated by double bonds.
• Most animal fats are saturated whereas plants • Unsaturated fats are lesser in energy than the
and animal fats are unsaturated. equivalent amount of saturated fats.
• Not healthy, less vulnerable to rancidity, solid at • The greater the unsaturation means more
room temperature. vulnerability to rancidity.
1.53. CHOLESTEROL:
• It is an organic compound, a fat-like insoluble waxy substance, found in all cells of our body and is
circulated through the blood cells with the help of Lipoproteins.
• Cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.
• Two types of Cholesterol:
1. Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL): Bad cholesterol.
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2. High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL): Good cholesterol.

• Cholesterol plays an important role in creating cells, hormones, vitamin D production and bile acids.
1.53.1 Unhealthy fat:
• Saturated fat and Trans-fat.

• Saturated fats are primarily found in meats and dairy products.
• Solid fats are unhealthy because they increase LDL(bad cholesterol) levels and increase heart diseases.
• Sources of saturated fats are high-fat cheeses, high-fat cuts of meat, butter, ice cream, palm, coconut
oils etc.
• Trans fat is simply liquid oils turned into solid fats during food processing.
• Trans fats are worse than saturated fats, it increases LDL (bad cholesterol) and decreases HDL (good
cholesterol).
• Efforts of the Government to controlling the Trans fats:
o India has set aims to reduce the industrially produced trans-fat to less than 2 percent by the year
2022 in a phased manner, a year ahead of the WHO target.
o Trans-fat content in fats and oils is currently limited to 5% by the Food Safety and Standards
Authority of India (FSSAI).
1.54. CARBOHYDRATES:
• Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules.

• They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to
release energy in the animal body.
1.54.1 Types Of Carbohydrates:
• Use of carbohydrates Plant cell walls are made of cellulose. Paper made from plant pulp and cotton fiber
is cellulosic.
• On the hydrolysis basis Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides.
1.54.2 Monosaccharides:
• It cannot be hydrolyzed further into a simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone. E.g.: Glucose,
Fructose, Ribose, Galactose, etc.
1.54.3 Oligosaccharides:
• On hydrolysis, it yields two to ten monosaccharides units, e.g., disaccharides, trisaccharide, etc.
• Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
• Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
1.54.4 Polysaccharides:
• On hydrolysis, it yields a large number of monosaccharides units. E.g.: Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen, Gums.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of sugars, not sweet, hence called non-sugars.
• Insulin is a polymer of fructose.
1.54.5 Diabetes and Sugar:
• Diabetes is a disease that occurs when your blood glucose, also called blood sugar, is too high.
• Blood glucose is your main source of energy and comes from the food you eat.
• Insulin, a hormone made by the pancreas, helps glucose from food get into your cells to be used for
energy.
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Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Insipidus

• Generally referred as Diabetes, is a chronic • Diabetes insipidus is a rare condition that occurs
condition where the Pancreas gland does not when the kidneys are unable to conserve water
generate enough insulin required by the body to during the process of filtering blood.
regulate glucose metabolism, which leads to high • It is associated with inadequate arginine
blood sugar levels in the body. vasopressin (AVP)
• All carbohydrates are broken down into glucose in • (AVP) or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion
the blood. Insulin is a hormone produced by the or renal response to AVP, resulting in hypotonic
pancreas, which helps glucose to get into cells. polyuria and a compensatory/underlying
(insulin converts glucose into glycogen) polydipsia.
• Normal blood sugar level for our body is 150- 200
mg/dl.
Student’s Note:
40
CHAPTER-2: HUMAN HEALTH

2.1. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The digestive system contributes to homeostasis by breaking down food into forms that can be absorbed and
used by body cells. It also absorbs water, vitamins, and minerals, and it eliminates wastes from the body.
• Two groups of organs compose the digestive system:
1. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract and
2. The accessory digestive organs.
• The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, or alimentary canal (alimentary 5 nourishment), is a continuous tube that
extends from the mouth to the anus.
• The wall of the GI tract from the lower esophagus to the anal canal has the same basic, four-layered
arrangement of tissues. The four layers of the tract, from deep to superficial, are the mucosa, submucosa,
muscularis, and serosa/adventitia.
• The accessory digestive organs include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Figure 2.1: Human Digestive System
2.1.1 Processes Involved in Digestion System :
Ingestion Mixing and propulsion Absorption
Secretion Digestion Defecation
1. Ingestion: This process involves taking foods and liquids into the mouth (eating).
2. Secretion: Each day, cells within the walls of the GI tract and accessory digestive organs secrete a total
of about 7 liters of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the interior space of the tract.
3. Mixing and propulsion: Alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle in the walls of the
GI tract mix food and secretions and move them towards the anus.
4. Digestion: Mechanical and chemical processes break down ingested food into small molecules.
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5. Absorption: The entrance of ingested and secreted fluids, ions, and the products of digestion into the
epithelial cells lining the lumen of the GI tract is called absorption.
6. Defecation: Wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, cells sloughed from the lining of the GI tract, and
digested materials that were not absorbed in their journey through the digestive tract leave the body
through the anus in a process called defecation.
2.1.2 Oral cavity:

• Performs two major functions, mastication of food and facilitation of swallowing.
• The saliva secreted into the oral cavity contains electrolytes and enzymes, salivary amylase and lysozyme.
• The chemical process of digestion is initiated in the oral cavity by the hydrolytic action of the
carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase.
• Lysozyme present in saliva acts as an antibacterial agent that prevents infections.
2.1.3 Esophagus:
• The esophagus secretes mucus and transports food into the stomach. It does not produce digestive
enzymes, and it does not carry on absorption.
2.1.4 Stomach:
• The stomach stores the food for 4-5 hours.
• The food mixes thoroughly with the acidic gastric juice of the stomach by the churning movements of its
muscular wall and is called the chyme.
• The proenzyme pepsinogen, on exposure to hydrochloric acid gets converted into the active enzyme
pepsin, the proteolytic enzyme of the stomach.
Figure 2.1A: Human Stomach
• Pepsin converts proteins into proteases and peptides.

• The mucus and bicarbonates present in the gastric juice play an important role in lubrication and
protection of the mucosal epithelium from excoriation by the highly concentrated hydrochloric acid.
2.1.5 Small Intestine:

• The bile, pancreatic juice and the intestinal juice are the secretions released into the small intestine.
• Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato- pancreatic duct.
• The intestinal mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which secrete mucus.
• The secretions of the brush border cells of the mucosa along with the secretions of the goblet cells
constitute the intestinal juice or succus entericus.
• This juice contains a variety of enzymes.
• The breakdown of biomacromolecules occurs in the duodenum region of the small intestine.
• The simple substances thus formed are absorbed in the jejunum and ileum regions of the small intestine.
2.1.6 Large Intestine:

• The undigested and unabsorbed substances are passed on to the large intestine.
• No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine.
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The Functions of Large Intestine
• Absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs;

• Secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste (undigested) particles together and lubricating it for
an easy passage.
Figure 2.1B : The duct systems of liver, gallbladder and pancreas
2.1.7 Pancreas:
• Each day the pancreas produces 1200–1500 ml (about 1.2–1.5 qt) of pancreatic juice, a clear, colourless
liquid consisting mostly of water, some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several enzymes.
• The pancreatic juice contains inactive enzymes – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase,
amylases, lipases and nucleases. Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase, secreted by the
intestinal mucosa into active trypsin.
• Pancreatic acinar cells also secrete a protein called trypsin inhibitor that combines with any trypsin
formed accidentally in the pancreas or in pancreatic juice and blocks its enzymatic activity.
2.1.8 Liver:
• The liver is the heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg.
• Each day, hepatocytes secrete 800–1000 ml (about 1 qt) of bile, a yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid.
• The principal bile pigment is bilirubin.
• The liver is especially important in maintaining a normal blood glucose level.
• The liver can detoxify substances such as alcohol and excrete drugs such as penicillin, erythromycin,
and sulphonamides into bile.
2.2. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
• The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells is called breathing,
commonly known as respiration.
• The respiratory system contributes to homeostasis by providing for the exchange of gases — oxygen and
carbon dioxide — between the atmospheric air, blood, and tissue cells. It also helps adjust the pH of body
fluids.
• Mechanisms of breathing vary among different groups of animals depending mainly on their habitats and
levels of organisation.
o Lower invertebrates like sponges, coelenterates, flatworms, etc., exchange O2 with CO2 by simple
diffusion over their entire body surface.
o Earthworms use their moist cuticle and insects have a network of tubes (tracheal tubes) to transport
atmospheric air within the body.
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o Special vascularised structures called gills (branchial respiration) are used by most of the aquatic
arthropods and molluscs whereas vascularised bags called lungs (pulmonary respiration) are used by
the terrestrial forms for the exchange of gases.
o Among vertebrates, fishes use gills whereas amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals respire through
lungs.
Figure 2.2A: Mechanism of breathing in human beings
2.2.1 Human Respiratory System:

• The respiratory system structurally extends from the nose, mouth and the upper respiratory tract, all the
way to the alveoli of the lungs.
Figure 2.2: Human Respiratory System
2.2.2 Nose and Nasal cavity:

• We have a pair of external nostrils opening out.
• It leads to a nasal chamber through the nasal passage.
• The nose warms, moistens, and filters air and functions in olfaction and speech.
2.2.3 Sinuses:
• The sinuses are air-filled spaces in the skull. They are located behind the forehead, nasal bones, cheeks
and eyes.
• Healthy sinuses contain no bacteria or other germs.
• Most of the time, mucus is able to drain out and air is able to flow through the sinuses.
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2.2.4 Pharynx:
• The pharynx (throat) is a muscular tube lined by a mucous membrane.
• The pharynx opens through the larynx region into the trachea.
2.2.5 Trachea:
• The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx to the main bronchi. It is composed of C-shaped rings of
cartilage and smooth muscle.
• It divides into tubes known as Bronchial tubes.
2.2.6 Larynx:
• Larynx is a cartilaginous box which helps in sound production and hence called the sound box.
• The larynx contains vocal folds, which produce sound as they vibrate. Taut folds produce high pitches,
and relaxed ones produce low pitches.
• It contains the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple); the epiglottis, which prevents food from entering the
larynx.
2.2.7 Bronchial tubes:

• These tubes let air in and out of your lungs, so you can breathe. The bronchial tubes are sometimes
referred to as bronchi or airways.
• Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes.
• The Bronchial tubes split up again into smaller air passages called bronchioles in the lungs.
2.2.8 Alveoli:
• The alveoli are where the lungs and the blood exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide during the process of
breathing in and breathing out.
2.2.9 Diaphragm:
• Located below the lungs, is the major muscle of respiration.
• It is a large, dome-shaped muscle that contracts rhythmically and continually, and most of the time,
involuntarily.
• Upon inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges.
2.2.10 Transportation of Gases:
Figure 2.2B: Schematic plan of Blood Circulation in Human
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• Once the respiratory gases have diffused in the lungs, resulting in the blood becoming O2 rich and CO2 being
exhaled, the next stage of transporting the O2 rich blood to the tissues that need it takes place.
• The transportation of gases throughout the body takes place in the bloodstream through the action of the
cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels).
• Oxygenated blood leaving the lungs flows back to the heart via the pulmonary veins and is then pumped to
the rest of the body from the left ventricle via the aorta and its branches.
• As the oxygen rich blood reaches the capillaries gas exchange occurs, oxygen is delivered to the tissues and
de-oxygenated blood (loaded with CO2) leaves the tissues of the body and flows back to the heart where it is
pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
• Once CO2 is transported to the lungs it diffuses out of the capillaries into the alveoli and exhales out of the
lungs.
• In each 100 mL of oxygenated blood, 1.5% of the O2 is dissolved in blood plasma and 98.5% is bound to
haemoglobin as oxyhaemoglobin (Hb–O2).
• In each 100 mL of deoxygenated blood, 7% of CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma, 23% combines with
haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin (Hb–CO2), and 70% is converted to bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
2.2.11 Cellular Respiration:

• Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and produces ATP.
2.2.12 Asthma:
• A disorder characterized by chronic airway inflammation, airway hypersensitivity to a variety of stimuli,
and airway obstruction. Asthma is more common in children than in adults.
2.2.13 Exercise-Induced Asthma In Athletes:

• Exercise-induced asthma is a condition of the respiratory tract where an increase in lung ventilation
irritates the bronchial tree causing airway constriction.
• The resistance to airflow increases, and the breathing pattern of the athlete becomes difficult.
2.2.14 Pneumonia:
• Pneumonia is an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli. It is a common infectious cause of
death.
• When certain microbes enter the lungs of susceptible individuals, they release damaging toxins,
stimulating inflammation and immune responses that have damaging side effects.
• The most common cause of pneumonia is the pneumococcal bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae.
2.3. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM :
Figure 2.3:Blood Circulation in Human Heart

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• The heart contributes to homeostasis by pumping blood through blood vessels to the tissues of the body
to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove wastes.
2.3.1 Functions of the Circulatory system:

• The heart pumps blood via the circulatory system, which is made up of a network of arteries, veins, and
capillaries.
• Its principal function is to supply the body with necessary nutrients, minerals, and hormones.
• The circulatory system, on the other hand, is in charge of collecting metabolic waste and toxins from the
cells and tissues, which are either cleaned or removed from the body.
Components of the Circulatory system
Heart
• The heart is a muscular organ that lies between the lungs in the chest cavity. It is located in the thoracic
area, some- what to the left, and is surrounded by the pericardium.
• The human heart is divided into four chambers, two upper chambers known as atria (plural: atrium) and
two lower chambers known as ventricles.
Arteries
• Carry blood from the heart to the various body parts.

• All arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries.
Veins
• Carry blood from the body parts to the heart.

• Carry deoxygenated blood from the various parts except the pulmonary vein.
2.4. BLOOD
• Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements. Components
of Blood are as follows:
2.4.1 Plasma:
• Plasma is a straw coloured, viscous fluid constituting nearly 55 per cent of the blood.
• 90-92 percent of plasma is water and proteins contribute 6-8 percent of it.
• Plasma also contains small amounts of minerals like Na+, Ca++, Mg++, HCO3 – , Cl– , etc. Glucose, amino
acids, lipids, etc., are also present in the plasma.
• Plasma without the clotting factors is called serum.
2.4.2 Formed Elements:

• Erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets are collectively called formed elements and they constitute
nearly 45 percent of the blood.
• Erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBC) are the most abundant of all the cells in blood.
• RBCs are devoid of nucleus in most mammals and are biconcave in shape. They have a red coloured, iron
containing complex protein called hemoglobin, hence the colour and name of these cells.
2.4.3 Leukocytes:
• Leukocytes are also known as white blood cells (WBC) as they are colourless due to the lack of
hemoglobin.
• They are nucleated and are relatively lesser in number.
• The two main categories of WBCs – granulocytes and agranulocytes. Neutrophils, eosinophils and
basophils are different types of granulocytes, while lymphocytes and monocytes are the agranulocytes.
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2.4.4 Platelets:
• Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments produced from megakaryocytes (special cells in
the bone marrow).
• A reduction in their number can lead to clotting disorders which will lead to excessive loss of blood
from the body.
2.4.5 Blood Groups:

• The surfaces of erythrocytes contain a genetically determined assortment of antigens composed of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
• These antigens, called agglutinogens (a-gloo-TINoÉ-jens), occur in characteristic combinations.
• Based on the presence or absence of various antigens, blood is categorized into different blood groups.
2.4.6 ABO Group:

• ABO grouping is based on the presence or absence of two surface antigens (chemicals that can induce
immune response) on the RBCs namely A and B.
• People with type AB blood do not have anti-A or anti-B antibodies in their blood plasma.
• They are sometimes called universal recipients because theoretically they can receive blood from donors
of all four blood types.
• People with type O blood have neither A nor B antigens on their RBCs and are sometimes called universal
donors because theoretically they can donate blood to all four ABO blood types.
• Type O persons requiring blood may receive only type O blood.
2.4.7 Transfusions:
• A transfusion is the transfer of whole blood or blood components (red blood cells only or blood
plasma only) .
• A transfusion is most often given to alleviate anaemia, to increase blood volume (for example, after a
severe haemorrhage), or to improve immunity.
• In an incompatible blood transfusion, antibodies in the recipient’s plasma bind to the antigens on the
donated RBCs, which causes agglutination, or clumping, of the RBCs.
• Agglutination is an antigen–antibody response in which RBCs become cross-linked to one another.
2.4.8 Rh Grouping:
• Rh antigen, similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys (hence Rh), is also observed on the surface of
RBCs of the majority (nearly 80 per cent) of humans.
• Such individuals are called Rh positive (Rh+ve) and those in whom this antigen is absent are called Rh
negative (Rh-ve).
• An Rh-ve person, if exposed to Rh+ve blood, will form specific antibodies against the Rh antigens.
• Therefore, the Rh group should also be matched before transfusions.
• The most common problem with rh incompatibility, haemolytic disease of the newborn (Hdn), may arise
during pregnancy.
• Normally, no direct contact occurs between maternal and fetal blood while a woman is pregnant.
• However, if a small amount of rh+ blood leaks from the fetus through the placenta into the bloodstream
of an rh- mother, the mother will start to make anti-rh antibodies.
• An injection of anti-rh antibodies called anti-rh gamma globulin (rhoGaM) can be given to prevent Hdn.
rh- women should receive rhoGaM® before delivery, and soon after every delivery.
Athlete Biological Passport

• The World Anti-Doping Agency (Wada) introduced the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) in 2009.
• The ABP is an ongoing electronic record of an athlete’s biological markers from multiple blood sample
collections over a period of time.
• The ABP differs from traditional doping detection methods by looking for the actual effects of blood
doping rather than merely detecting prohibited substances.
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Carbon Monoxide Poisoning — The Silent Killer
• Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is odourless, colourless, tasteless and non-irritating, but highly deadly to
humans and animals alike.
• CO has a greater affinity for haemoglobin than does O2, and the resultant bond formed between CO and
haemoglobin is 240 times stronger than the O2 and haemoglobin bond.
• When CO binds to haemoglobin it forms carboxyhemoglobin (COHb).
• Due to the high affinity, CO molecules easily displace oxygen, causing oxygen saturation to quickly
decrease.
• This means that even a very small amount of inhaled CO is extremely dangerous and can be fatal.
2.4.9 Lymph (Tissue Fluid):

• The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called the lymph. Lymph is a colourless fluid containing
specialised lymphocytes which are responsible for the immune responses of the body.
• Lymph is also an important carrier for nutrients, hormones, etc. Fats are absorbed through lymph in
the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
2.5. EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

• Animals accumulate ammonia, urea, uric acid, carbon dioxide, water and ions like Na+ , K+ , Cl– ,
phosphate, sulphate, etc., either by metabolic activities or by other means like excess ingestion.
• These substances have to be removed totally or partially.
• The process of excreting ammonia is Ammonotelism. Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic
insects are ammonotelic in nature.
• Terrestrial adaptation necessitated the production of lesser toxic nitrogenous wastes like urea and uric acid
for conservation of water.
• Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes mainly excrete urea and are called ureotelic
animals.
Figure 2.5: Human Excretory System
• Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals and released into the
blood which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys.
• Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of pellet or paste
with a minimum loss of water and are called uricotelic animals.
49
o In humans, the excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, one pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and
a urethra.
• Each kidney of an adult human measures 10-12 cm in length, 5-7 cm in width, 2-3 cm in thickness with an
average weight of 120- 170 g.
• Inside the kidney, there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
• Each kidney has nearly one million complex tubular structures called nephrons , which are the functional
units.
• Each nephron has two parts – the glomerulus and the renal tubule.
• Urine formed by the nephrons is ultimately carried to the urinary bladder where it is stored till a
voluntary signal is given by the Central Nervous System (CNS).
• This signal is initiated by the stretching of the urinary bladder as it gets filled with urine. In response, the
stretch receptors on the walls of the bladder send signals to the CNS.
• The process of release of urine is called micturition and the neural mechanisms causing it is called the
micturition reflex.
• An adult human excretes, on an average, 1 to 1.5 litres of urine per day.
• The urine formed is a light yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic (pH-6.0).
• Malfunctioning of kidneys can lead to accumulation of urea in blood, a condition called uremia, which is
highly harmful and may lead to kidney failure.
• In such patients, urea can be removed by a process called hemodialysis.
• Renal calculi: Stone or insoluble mass of crystallised salts (oxalates, etc.) formed within the kidney.
2.6. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• Endocrine glands lack ducts and are hence called ductless glands. Their secretions are called hormones.
• Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace
amounts.
• The endocrine glands and hormone producing diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of our body
constitute the endocrine system.
Figure 2.6: Endocrine glands in human beings (a) male, (b) female
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Gland Hormones Functions

Hypothalamus • It regulates a wide spectrum of body • These hormones reach the pituitary gland
functions. through a portal circulatory system and
• It contains several groups of regulate the functions of the anterior
neurosecretory cells called nuclei pituitary.
which produce hormones.
Pituitary • Oxytocin and vasopressin, which • Control fluid balance in the body.
are actually synthesized by the • GH promotes growth and its Excess secretion
hypothalamus. result in Acromegaly.
• Growth Hormones (GH) • In males, LH stimulates the synthesis and
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion of hormones called androgens from
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) testis.
• In females, LH induces ovulation.
• FSH stimulates growth and development of
the ovarian follicles in females.
Thyroid Thyroxine Controls appetite and body metabolism.
Thymus Thymosin Role in T-cell development and providing
immunity.
Pancreas Insulin and Glucagon Regulate Blood sugar level and carbohydrates
metabolism
Adrenal Epinephrine Regulate Blood pressure and heart rate. Help in
Dealing stressed conditions.
Testes Testosterone Development of male sex characteristics.
Promoting axial hair growth and muscle growth.
Ovaries Estrogen and progesterone Control and regulate female reproductive cycle.
Pineal Melatonin Control sleep and wake cycle.
2.7. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS:

• Some environmental contaminants interact with hormones and may exert adverse consequences due to their
actions as Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs).
• Exposure in people is typically due to contamination of the food chain, inhalation of contaminated house dust,
or occupational exposure.
• EDCs include pesticides and herbicides (such as diphenyl- dichloro-trichloroethane, DDT, or its
metabolites), methoxychlor, biocides, heat stabilizers and chemical catalysts (such as tributyltin, TBT),
plastic contaminants (e.g. bisphenol A, BPA), pharmaceuticals (i.e. diethylstilbestrol, DES; 17 alpha-
ethinylestradiol, EE2), or dietary components (such as phytoestrogens)
2.8. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS

• The male and female reproductive systems typify the sexual differentiation of humans on both a structural
and physiological level.
• The primary responsibility of the reproductive systems is to produce the separate gametes — namely, the
male sperm and the female secondary oocyte.
2.8.1 Male Reproductive Organs:

• The male reproductive system is characterised by the dominance of the associated anatomical structures
located outside the body — the scrotum, penis and testes.
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Figure 2.8A: Male Reproductive Organs
2.8.2 Female Reproductive Organs:

• The female reproductive system, on the other hand, is located inside the body, and includes the
anatomical structures of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries.
Figure 2.8B :Female Reproductive Organs
• The ovaries, producing secondary oocytes that will make their journey to the uterus for fertilisation, are
also under hormonal control.
• Progesterone and oestrogens, like the male testosterone, are also controlled from the level of the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland.
2.8.3 Puberty:
• The beginning of sexual maturity.
• It is a process that usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls and ages 12 and 16 for boys. It
causes physical changes, and affects boys and girls differently.
2.8.4 Menstrual Cycle:

• In females Periodic discharge of blood, tissue fluid, mucous, and epithelial cells that usually lasts for 5
days; caused by a sudden reduction in estrogens and progesterone.
• Also called the menstrual phase or menses.
2.9. NERVOUS SYSTEM
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• With a mass of only 2 kg (4.5 lb), about 3% of the total body weight, the nervous system is one of the
smallest and yet the most complex of the body systems.
2.9.1 Structure of Neurons:

• A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of three major parts, namely, cell body, dendrites and
axon.
Figure 2.9: Structure of Neurons
• The cell body contains cytoplasm with typical cell organelles and certain granular bodies called Nissl’s
granules.
• Dendrites are projections of a neuron (nerve cell) that receive signals (information) from other neurons.
• The transfer of information from one neuron to another is achieved through chemical signals and electric
impulses, that is, electrochemical signals.
• Neurons are excitable cells because their membranes are in a polarised state.
• Different types of ion channels are present on the neural membrane. These ion channels are selectively
permeable to different ions.
• A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through junctions called synapses. A synapse
is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron and a postsynaptic neuron, which may or may not
be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft.
2.9.2 Structure of Brain:

• The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and acts as the ‘command and control
system’.
• Brain can be divided into 3 major parts:
1. Forebrain
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain
• The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the brain is covered by cranial meninges.
53
Figure 2.9A: Structure of Human Brain
2.10. MUSCLES AND SKELETAL SYSTEM

2.10.1 Muscles:
• Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a
human adult is contributed by muscles.
• They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
• Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified:
• Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components of the body. They have a striped
appearance under the microscope and hence are called striated muscles.
• Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body like the alimentary
canal, reproductive tract, etc. They do not exhibit any striation and are smooth in appearance. Hence,
they are called smooth muscles (nonstriated muscle).
• Cardiac muscles are the muscles of the heart. Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in a branching pattern
to form a cardiac muscle.
• Muscle contraction: Muscle contraction is the tightening, shortening, or lengthening of muscles when
you do some activity.
2.10.2 Bones:
• Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant role
in movement shown by the body.
• Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues.
• The bone has a very hard matrix due to calcium salts in it.
• The cartilage has a slightly pliable matrix due to chondroitin salts.
• In human beings, skeletal system is made up of 206 bones and a few cartilages.
2.11. DISEASE:
• Health does not simply mean absence of disease or physical fitness.
• It could be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. When people are healthy,
they are more efficient at work.
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• This increases productivity and brings economic prosperity. Health also increases longevity of people
and reduces infant and maternal mortality.
2.12.COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
• Communicable diseases spread from one person to another or from an animal to a person.
• The spread often happens via airborne viruses or bacteria, but also through blood or other bodily fluid.
• Some ways in which communicable diseases spread are by:
o Physical contact with an infected person, such as through touch (staphylococcus), sexual intercourse
o (gonorrhea, HIV), faecal/oral transmission (hepatitis A), or droplets (influenza, TB)
o Contact with a contaminated surface or object (Norwalk virus), food (salmonella, E. coli), blood (HIV,
hepatitis B), or water (cholera);
o Bites from insects or animals capable of transmitting the disease (mosquito: malaria and yellow
fever; flea: plague);
o Travel through the air, such as tuberculosis or measles.
Disease Parasite Carrier/Vector Symptoms Status of Vaccine
Malaria Plasmodium Female Anopheles High fever The only approved vaccine, as of
Mosquito and periodic 2021, is RTS, S, known by the brand
chills name Mosquirix.
Kala-Azar or Leishmania Sand flies Weight loss, FML-QuilA vaccine
Visceral donovani High
leishmaniasis fever, swelling
of spleen
Sleeping Trypanosoma Tse-Tse Flies Fever No effective vaccine currently exists
sickness brucei
2.12.1 DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES:
Disease Virus Mode of Transmission Symptoms Status of vaccine

Dengue Dengue Through bites of Reduction in platelets count, A new dengue vaccine
Virus Mosquitoes (Aedes High fever, Pain in eyes and is approved for use in
aegypti) muscles. children aged 9 to 16
years
Polio Poliovirus Through food Fever, Body pain, Paralysis Inactivated polio
contamination by house of the Body vaccine
flies and water (IPV) and Oral polio
vaccine (OPV) is used.
AIDS HIV Through blood fluids. It’s a syndrome. It weakens In trial
Bloods and sexual contact the immune system and
help opportunistic and
latent pathogens totakeover
the Body.
Hepatitis- A, Different Contact with blood, open Body ache, Loss of appetite Vaccines to prevent
B, C, D Hepatitis sores. and nausea, Enlarged liver Hepatitis A, B and E.
viruses There is no vaccine
for Hepatitis C.
Chickenpox varicella Through contact with Dark red colour rash. This Varicella vaccine, also
virus infected individual disease is completely known as chickenpox
eradicated vaccine
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Ebola Ebola virus Ebola is spread by direct Severe bleeding, organ Ebola Zaire Vaccine
contact with blood or failure and can lead to death
other body fluids
Nipah Nipah virus Zoonotic virus (it is Fever; Headache; Cough; The HeV-sG
transmitted from animals Sore throat; Difficulty recombinant antigen
to humans) transmitted breathing; Vomiting as subunit vaccine
through contaminated
food
2.12.2 DISEASES CAUSED BY THE WORMS:
Disease Worms Mode of transmission Symptoms Treatment/Vaccine

Filarial worm: Bites Fever, swelling no vaccine
Lymphatic Wuchereria bancrofti of Mosquitoes- Aedes and of certain available
filariasis Culex parts of body
Intestinal roundworms: Through contaminated Internal bleeding, no vaccines
Ascariasis Ascaris faeces Muscular pain, available
lumbricoides fever, anemia
2.13. ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR)

• Antimicrobial resistance is an important concern for the public health authorities at global level.
• Reason for Emergence of AMR:
o Misuse of antimicrobials in medicine: Drug resistance develops as a result of overuse, underuse, and
misuse of medications.
o Inappropriate use in agriculture: Antibiotics in subtherapeutic doses are used in animal husbandry to
promote growth and illness prevention. This can lead to the development of resistant bacteria that can
infect people.
o Contamination around pharmaceutical manufacturing sites where untreated waste releases large
amounts of active antimicrobials into the environment.
o Infection control and prevention are ineffective, which can lead to the spread of drug-resistant
diseases. One of the biggest reservoirs of resistant microbes is hospitalized patients.
o Weak surveillance methods make it difficult to notice the formation of resistance and respond quickly.
2.13.1 What is the difference between antibiotic and antimicrobial resistance?

• Antibiotics are medicines used to prevent and treat bacterial infections.
• Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change in response to the use of these medicines. Bacteria,
not humans, become antibiotic resistant.
• These bacteria may then infect humans and are harder to treat than non-resistant bacteria.
• Antimicrobial resistance is a broader term, encompassing resistance to drugs to treat infections
caused by other microbes as well, such as parasites (e.g. malaria), viruses (e.g. HIV) and fungi (e.g.
Candida).
2.13.2 Superbugs:
• A superbug refers to a microorganism that has formed resistance to multiple drugs that once treated
the infection caused by the microorganism.
2.14. NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES:

• Non Communicable Diseases, also known as chronic diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result
of a combination of genetic, physiological, environmental and behavioral factors.
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• Main types of NCDs are cardiovascular diseases (like heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic
respiratory diseases (such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma) and diabetes.
• NCDs contribute to around 71% of all the deaths globally and to about 60% of all deaths in India.
2.15. ZOONOTIC DISEASES

• According to the WHO, zoonosis is an infectious disease that has jumped from a non-human animal to
humans.
• Zoonotic pathogens may be bacterial, viral or parasitic, or may involve unconventional agents and can
spread to humans through direct contact or through food, water or the environment.
• According to the National Center for Disease Control (NCDC), zoonotic illnesses account for around 75%
of new and re-emerging infections.
• Habitat alterations due to unplanned urbanization has placed humans at increasing contact with animal and
arthropod vectors of viral infections.
• Poor living conditions and inadequate health systems have also contributed to the scenario.
2.16. BASICS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEMS:

• The overall ability of the host to fight the disease-causing organisms, conferred by the immune system is
called immunity.
2.16.1 Innate immunity consists of four types of barriers:

1. Physical barriers : Skin on our body is the main barrier which prevents entry of the microorganisms.
2. Physiological barriers : Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes–all prevent microbial
growth.
3. Cellular barriers : Certain types of leukocytes (WBC) of our body like polymorpho-nuclear leukocytes
(PMNL- neutrophils) in the blood as well as macrophages in tissues can phagocytose and destroy
microbes.
4. Cytokine barriers : Virus-infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non-infected
cells from further viral infection.
2.16.1 Acquired Immunity:

• Acquired immunity is pathogen specific. It is characterized by memory.
• This means when our body encounters a pathogen for the first time it produces a response called
primary response which is of low intensity.
• Subsequent encounters with the same pathogen elicits a highly intensified secondary or anamnestic
response.
• This type of immune responses are carried out with the help of two special types of lymphocytes
present in our blood, i.e., B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
• The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in response to pathogens into our blood to fight with
them. These proteins are called antibodies.
• T-cells themselves do not secrete antibodies but help B cells to produce them.
• The body is able to differentiate self and nonself and the cell-mediated immune response is responsible
for the graft rejection. This graft rejection is mediated by the T cell.
2.17. ANTIGEN
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• Any substance that causes the body to make an immune response against that substance.
• Antigens include toxins, chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or other substances that come from outside the body.
• Body tissues and cells, including cancer cells, also have antigens on them that can cause an immune response.
2.18. SUPERANTIGEN
• Superantigens are antigens that cause the immune system to become overly activated.
• Most known superantigens are peptides of between 22 and 29 kD that are resistant to proteases and heat
inactivation and share common structural features.
• Superantigens are thought to play important roles in the pathophysiology of some forms of bacterial food
poisoning, toxic shock syndrome, Kawasaki’s disease, psoriasis, and possibly some autoimmune conditions.
2.19. ANTIBODIES
• All antibodies share a common structure of four polypeptide chains, consisting of two identical light (L)
chains and two identical heavy (H) chains.
• Each light chain is bound to its partner heavy chain by a disulphide bond between corresponding cysteine
residues, as well as by noncovalent interactions.
• The antibody molecule forms a Y shape with two identical antigen-binding regions at the tips of the Y.
• Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE) according to their H chains,
which provide each isotype with distinct characteristics and roles.
• Because these antibodies are found in the blood, the response is also called as humoral immune response.
2.19.1 Monoclonal Antibodies:

• They are antibodies that have been generated artificially to help the body’s natural immune system.
• They’re looking for a certain antigen.
• In the lab, monoclonal antibodies are made by exposing white blood cells to a specific antigen.
• To enhance the amount of antibodies produced, a single white blood cell is cloned, and identical copies
of the antibodies are created.
• Our Saliva, Mother’ s milk and Tears contain Antibody IgA.
• IgG antibodies can be transported from mother to baby during pregnancy.
2.20. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY

• When a host is exposed to antigens, which may be in the form of living or dead microbes or other proteins,
antibodies are produced in the host body. This type of immunity is called active immunity. Active immunity
is slow and takes time to give its full effective response
• When ready-made antibodies are directly given to protect the body against foreign agents, it is called passive
immunity.
o Example: In cases of snakebites, the injection which is given to the patients, contain preformed
antibodies against the snake venom. This type of immunization is called passive immunization.
• Transfer of antibody through Mother’s colostrum to the Baby.
2.21. VACCINE
• A vaccine is a biological substance that gives active acquired immunity against a specific infectious
disease.
• A vaccine works by training the immune system to recognize and combat pathogens, either viruses or
bacteria.
• To do this, certain molecules from the pathogen must be introduced into the body to trigger an immune
response.
• These molecules are called antigens, and they are present on all viruses and bacteria.
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• By injecting these antigens into the body, the immune system can safely learn to recognize them as hostile
invaders, produce antibodies, and remember them for the future.
• If the bacteria or virus reappears, the immune system will recognize the antigens immediately and
attack aggressively well before the pathogen can spread and cause sickness.
Figure 2.21: How Vaccines work
2.21.1 Types of vaccine:

• Inactivated or weakened virus vaccines, which use a form of the virus that has been inactivated or
weakened so it doesn’t cause disease, but still generates an immune response. Covaxin is an inactivated
whole virus vaccine, containing SARS-CoV-2 particles that have been chemically deactivated.
• Protein-based vaccines, which use harmless fragments of proteins or protein shells that mimic the
antigenic element of pathogenic agent to safely generate an immune response.
• Viral vector vaccines, which use a safe virus that cannot cause disease but serves as a platform to
produce coronavirus proteins to generate an immune response. Covishield uses a chimpanzee
adenovirus (AZD1222 or ChAdOx1), which carries the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. The chimpanzee
adenovirus has been used because humans will not have pre-existing antibodies to this adenovirus.
2.22. MRNA BASED VACCINES

• The mRNA vaccines do not use the conventional model to produce an immune response. Instead, the
mRNA vaccine carries the molecular instructions to make the protein in the body through a synthetic RNA
of the virus.
Figure 2.22: mRNA Vaccines
• The host body uses this to produce the viral protein that is recognised and thereby making the body mount
an immune response against the disease.
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2.22.1 Significance of mRNA Vaccines:

• They are expected to be highly efficacious because of their inherent capability of being translatable
into the protein structure inside the cell cytoplasm.
• The mRNA vaccines are fully synthetic and do not require a host for growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria.
Therefore, they can be quickly manufactured in an inexpensive manner.
• This will ensure their availability and accessibility for mass vaccination on a sustainable basis.
2.23. VACCINES AND ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

• While vaccines are not intended to replace antibiotics, they can contribute to reducing AMR (Antimicrobial
Resistance or drug resistance) by preventing (resistant) bacterial diseases and their transmission, and by
reducing antibiotic use and misuse.
• There is no vaccine which can be 100% efficient and safe, For example:
o Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines can have side effects ranging from fever, loss of appetite to
headache, fussiness.
o The oral polio vaccine (OPV) is an extremely safe and effective tool for immunizing children against
polio.
o On very rare occasions, OPV can lead to vaccine- associated paralytic polio or vaccine-derived poliovirus.
2.24. ALLERGY
• The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is called
allergy.
• The substances to which such an immune response is produced are called allergens.
• The antibodies produced to these are of IgE type.
• Common examples of allergens are mites in dust, pollens, animal dander, etc.
• Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and difficulty in breathing.
2.25. AUTO IMMUNITY

• Autoimmunity is defined as an immune response leading to reaction with self-antigen, i.e. any molecule
that is a normal body constituent of the animal mounting the response.
• Rheumatoid arthritis which affects many people in our society is an auto-immune disease.
2.26. IMMUNOTHERAPY
• Immunotherapy is a new approach that exploits the body’s inner capability to put up a fight against cancer.
• With this approach, either the immune system is given a boost, or the T cells are trained to identify
recalcitrant cancer.
Story of HeLA Cells
• Henrietta Lacks, a Black woman, was a 31-year-old mother of five when she died from cervical cancer
in 1951.
• Her name and memory live on in the form of a remarkable lineage of continually dividing cells that have
achieved, to all intents and purposes, immortality.
• Her cancer cells have continued to live well beyond her death in labs around the world, replicating so
prolifically that laid end-to-end they could be wrapped around the earth three times.
• HeLa cells have since become the most widely used human cell line in biological research and were critical
for many biomedical breakthroughs of the past half Century.
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• Jonas Salk, for instance, used them in 1954 to develop the polio vaccine and in the 1980s AIDS
researchers used them to identify and isolate the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) while in recent
years HeLa cells were critical for the omics revolution, from genomics to transcriptomics and proteomics.
2.26.1 Its best example in India is:

• ASPAGNIITM is being used in dendritic cell (DC) based immunotherapy in cervical, ovarian cancer and
will also be used in breast cancer.
• It is developed by the National Institute of Immunology (NII), an Autonomous Institute of the
Department of Biotechnology (DBT),and clinicians at Cancer Institute, Adyar, Chennai.
2.27. STEM CELL THERAPY:
Figure 2.27: Stages of Stem cell Therapy
• For purposes of tissue engineering and cell therapies, stem cells are usually obtained from four basic sources.
The Main Sources are:
• Embryonic tissue,
• Fetal tissues, such as fetus, placenta (i.e., amnion and chorion), amniotic fluid and umbilical cord (wharton
jelly, blood),
• Specific locations in the adult organism, Example: Fat, bone marrow, skeletal muscle, skin or blood.
• Differentiated somatic cells after they have been genetically reprogrammed.
2.27.1 Hierarchy of Cell Potency:

• Totipotent Stem Cells Stem cells can give rise to any of 220 cell types found in embryos as well as extra-
embryonic cells(placenta).
• Pluripotent Stem Cells can give rise to all cell types of body (but not the placenta).
• Multipotent Stem Cells can develop a limited number of cell types in a particular lineage.
• Unipotent Stem Cells give rise to cells of their own type along a single lineage.
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2.27.2 Characteristics of stem cells:

• Totipotency: generate all types of cells including germ cells.
• Pluripotency: generate all types of cells except cells of the embryonic membrane.
• Multipotency: differentiate into more than one mature cell.
• Self-renewal: divide without differentiation and create everlasting supply.
• Plasticity: Multipotent stem cells have plasticity and can undergo differentiation. The trigger for
plasticity is stress or tissue injury which upregulates the stem cells and releases chemoattractants and
growth factors.
• Stem cell therapy, also known as regenerative medicine, promotes the repair response of diseased,
dysfunctional or injured tissue using stem cells or their derivatives.
• Researchers grow stem cells in a lab.
• These stem cells are manipulated to specialize into specific types of cells, such as heart muscle cells, blood
cells or nerve cells.
• The specialized cells can then be implanted into a person.
o For example, if the person has heart disease, the cells could be injected into the heart muscle. The
healthy transplanted heart muscle cells could then contribute to repairing defective heart muscle.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-3: BASICS OF CHEMISTRY

3.1. CHEMISTRY IN ANCIENT INDIA
• In ancient India, chemistry was called Rasayan Shastra, Rastantra, Ras Kriya or Rasvidya. It included
metallurgy, medicine, manufacture of cosmetics, glass, dyes, etc.
• The mass production of pottery, which can be regarded as the earliest chemical process, in which materials
were mixed, molded and subjected to heat by using fire to achieve desirable qualities.
• Copper metallurgy in India dates back to the beginning of chalcolithic cultures in the subcontinent.
• According to Rigveda, tanning of leather and dying of cotton were practiced during 1000–400 BCE.
• Sushruta Samhita explains the importance of Alkalies.
• The Charaka Samhita mentions ancient Indians who knew how to prepare sulphuric acid, nitric acid and
oxides of copper, tin and zinc; the sulphates of copper, zinc and iron and the carbonates of lead and iron.
• Rasopanishada describes the preparation of gunpowder mixture. Tamil texts also describe the preparation
of fireworks using sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter.
• Nagarjuna was a great Indian scientist. He was a reputed chemist, an alchemist and a metallurgist. His
work Rasratnakar deals with the formulation of mercury compounds.
• A book, Rsarnavam, appeared around 800 CE. It discusses the uses of various furnaces, ovens and crucibles
for different purposes.
• Chakrapani discovered mercury sulphide. The credit for inventing soap also goes to him.
3.2. BASICS OF THE CHEMISTRY

3.2.1 State of Matters:
• Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
• Conventionally matter can exist in three physical states viz. solid, liquid and gas.
3.2.2 Solid:
• Particles are held very close to each other in solids in an orderly fashion and there is not much freedom
of movement.
• Solids have definite volume and definite shape.
3.2.3 Liquids:
• In liquids, the particles are close to each other but they can move around.
• Liquids have definite volume but do not have definite shape.
3.2.4 Gasses:
• In gasses, the particles are far apart as compared to those present in solid or liquid states and their
movement is easy and fast.
• Gasses have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
• On heating, a solid usually changes to a liquid, and the liquid on further heating changes to gas (or
vapour). In the reverse process, a gas on cooling liquifies to the liquid and the liquid on further cooling
freezes to the solid.
5th state of matter (Bose Einstein Condensates)
• Albert Einstein and Indian scientist Satyendra Nath Bose proposed the existence of a Bose-Einstein
condensate almost a century ago.
• When atoms of certain elements are chilled to temperatures approaching absolute zero, an unusual
substance emerges.
• Clusters of atoms begin to behave as a single quantum object with both wave and particle qualities at that
moment.
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• BECs are highly fragile, and even the tiniest interaction with the outside world can cause them to overheat
and condense.
4th state of Matter
• Plasma, the fourth state of matter, is an ionized gas consisting of approximately equal numbers of
positively and negatively charged particles.
3.3. METALS
• More than 75% of the known elements have the characteristic properties of metals.
• The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wires is called ductility. Gold is the most ductile metal. Thus, metals
can be given different shapes according to our needs.
• The metals that produce a sound on striking a hard surface are said to be sonorous.
• They are Good conductors of Electricity.
• Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. Different metals show different reactivities
towards oxygen.
o Ex: Potassium and sodium react so vigorously that they catch fire if kept in the open. Hence, to protect
them and to prevent accidental fires, they are kept immersed in kerosene oil.
• At ordinary temperature, the surfaces of metals such as magnesium, aluminum, zinc, lead, etc., are covered
with a thin layer of oxide. The protective oxide layer prevents the metal from further oxidation.
• All metals do not react with water. Metals like potassium and sodium react violently with cold water.
• Magnesium does not react with cold water. It reacts with hot water to form magnesium hydroxide and
hydrogen.
• Mercury is the only metal which is found in liquid state at room temperature.
Difference between Mass and Weight
• Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present in it, while weight is the force exerted by gravity on
an object.
• The mass of a substance is constant, whereas its weight may vary from one place to another due to change
in gravity.
3.4. BASICS OF METALLURGY

• Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical
Metallurgy is a term that refers to the process of extracting metals in their purest form.
• Minerals are metal compounds that are mixed with soil, limestone, sand and rocks.
• Metals are mined commercially from minerals at a low cost and with little effort.
• Ores mined from the earth are usually contaminated with large amounts of impurities such as soil, sand, etc.,
called gangue.
• The impurities must be removed from the ore prior to the extraction of the metal.
• The metals produced by metallurgy are not very pure. They contain impurities, which must be removed to
obtain pure metals.
• The most widely used method for refining impure metals is electrolytic refining.
Electrolytic Refining
• Many metals, such as copper, zinc, tin, nickel, silver, gold, etc., are refined electrolytically.
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• In this process, the impure metal is made the anode and a thin strip of pure metal is made the cathode. A
solution of the metal salt is used as an electrolyte.
• The soluble impurities go into the solution, whereas, the insoluble impurities settle down at the bottom of
the anode and are known as anode mud.
3.5.NON METALS
• Materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They break down into a powdery mass on
tapping with a hammer.
• They are not sonorous and are poor conductors of heat
• and electricity. These materials are called non-metals.
• Non-metals generally do not react with acids.
• Non Metals generally do not conduct electricity. But in exceptional cases it can conduct electricity.
3.5.1 Corrosion and Rusting:

• Corrosion is the process by which certain materials, metals and non-metals, deteriorate as a result of
oxidation.
• The most important form of corrosion is the rusting of
• iron and steel.
• Rusting is a process of oxidation in which iron combines with water and oxygen to form rust, the
reddish-brown crust that forms on the surface of the iron.
• The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling, greasing, galvanising, chrome plating,
anodising or making alloys.
• Galvanisation is a method of protecting steel and iron from rusting by coating them with a thin layer
of zinc.
• The galvanized article is protected against rusting even if the zinc coating is broken.
• Although metals like aluminum, chromium and zinc corrode more readily than iron, their oxides form
a coating that protects the metal from further attack.
3.5.2 Anodising:
• Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminum. Aluminum develops a thin oxide layer
when exposed to air. This aluminum oxide coat makes it resistant to further corrosion.
3.5.3 Aqua regia:

• Aqua regia is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and concentrated nitric acid
in the ratio of 3:1.
• It can dissolve gold, even though neither of these acids can do so alone.
• Aqua regia is a highly corrosive, fuming liquid. It is one of the few reagents that is able to dissolve gold
and platinum.
Pure gold, known as 24 carat gold, is very soft. It is, therefore, not suitable for making jewellery. It is alloyed
with either silver or copper to make it hard. Generally, in India, 22 carat gold is used for making ornaments.
It means that 22 parts of pure gold are alloyed with 2 parts of either copper or silver.
3.6.DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOUND

• Compounds are defined as substances containing two or more different chemical elements. They have
distinct chemical structures characterized by a fixed ratio of atoms held together by chemical bonds.
• Covalent Compounds: Covalent or molecular compounds form when elements share electrons in a covalent
bond to form molecules. Molecular compounds are electrically neutral.
• Ionic compounds: Ionic compounds are compounds composed of ions, charged particles that form when an
atom (or group of atoms, in the case of polyatomic ions) gains or loses electrons.
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3.7. CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Chemical reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds between atoms to produce new
substances.
Figure 3.7: Chemical Reactions
• A combination reaction is a reaction in which two reactants combine to form one product.
• Decomposition Reactions: Decomposition reactions are those in which one compound breaks down (or
decomposes) to form two or more products.
• Displacement Reactions: Displacement reactions are those in which an element reacts with a compound to
form a new compound.
• Double Displacement Reaction: reactions in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants are
called double displacement reactions.
• Oxidation and Reduction: one reactant gets oxidised while the other gets reduced during a reaction. Such
reactions are called oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactions.
• Exchange Reactions: Exchange reactions are those in which cations and anions that were partners in the
reactants are interchanged in the products.In exchange reactions, the products must remain electrically
neutral.
3.8.ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

3.8.1 Acids:
• An acid is a substance which furnishes hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. For example, in its
aqueous solution hydrochloric HCl (aq) dissociates as: HCl (aq) 🠆 H + (aq) + Cl–(aq)
3.8.2 Base:
• A base is a substance which furnishes hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water. For example,
sodium hydroxide NaOH (aq), in its aqueous solutions, dissociates as: NaOH (aq) 🠆 Na + (aq) + OH –
(aq)
Acids Bases
Taste sour Taste bitter
Are corrosive to metals Feel slippery or soapy
Changes blue litmus red Change red litmus blue
Become less acidic on mixing with bases Become less basic on mixing with acids
3.8.3 Salts:
• Salts are ionic compounds made of a cation other than H + ion and an anion other than OH– ion.
o Acids react with metal oxides to produce salt and water.
o Bases react with non-metal oxides to produce salt and water.
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3.8.4 Some Commonly Used Salts:

• Baking soda: Baking soda, also known as sodium bicarbonate or bicarbonate of soda, is a popular
baking ingredient. It gives foods like bread, cakes, muffins and cookies a light, fluffy texture.
• Washing soda: Washing soda is used for washing clothes. It is mainly because of this chemical that the
clothes washed by a washer man appear so white. Chemically, washing soda is sodium carbonate
decahydrate.
• Bleaching Powder: Bleaching is a process of removing colour from a cloth to make it whiter. Bleaching
powder has been used for this purpose for a long time. Chemically, it is calcium oxychloride.
• Plaster of Paris: These are made of plaster of paris, also called POP. The only difference between gypsum
and plaster of paris is in the less amount of water of crystallization.
3.9. DRUGS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

• Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses (~100 – 500u). These interact with macromolecular targets
and produce a biological response.
• When the biological response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and are used in
diagnosis, prevention and treatment of diseases.
3.9.1 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs:

• Antacids: Antacids are medicines that counteract (neutralize) the acid in your stomach to relieve
indigestion and heartburn. Example: Ranitidine
• Antihistamines: Antihistamines are a class of drugs commonly used to treat symptoms of allergies.
Example: Synthetic drugs, brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane), act as
antihistamines.
• Neurologically Active Drugs: Tranquilizers and analgesics are neurologically active drugs. These affect
the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
o Tranquilizers are a class of chemical compounds used for the treatment of stress, and mild or even
severe mental diseases. E.g. Sleeping Pills
o Equanil is used in controlling depression and hypertension.
• Analgesics: Analgesics reduce or abolish pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, incoordination or paralysis or some other disturbances of the nervous system. These are
classified as follows:
1. Non-narcotic (non-addictive) analgesics: Aspirin and paracetamol belong to the class of non-
narcotic analgesics. Aspirin is the most familiar example.
2. Narcotic drugs: Morphine and many of its homologues, when administered in medicinal doses,
relieve pain and produce sleep.
• Antimicrobials: An antimicrobial tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic
action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral
agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively.
• Antibiotics: Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for humans and
animals.
o An antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis, which in
low concentrations inhibits the growth or destroys microorganisms by intervening in their metabolic
processes.
o Antibiotics have either a cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes. A few
examples of the two types of antibiotics are as follows:
1. Bactericidal: Penicillin and
2. Bacteriostatic: Erythromycin
• Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Antiseptics and disinfectants are also the chemicals which either kill or
prevent the growth of microorganisms.
o Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin surfaces.
Examples are furacine, soframicine, etc.Commonly used antiseptic, dettol is a mixture of
chloroxylenol and terpineol
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o Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system, instruments, etc.
Same substances can act as an antiseptic as well as disinfectant by varying the concentration. For
example, 0.2 per cent solution of phenol is an antiseptic while its one percent solution is disinfectant.
• Antifertility drugs: Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and
progesterone derivatives.
o Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses ovulation.
o Synthetic progesterone derivatives are more potent than progesterone. Norethindrone is an example
of synthetic progesterone derivative most widely used as an antifertility drug.
3.10. CHEMICALS IN THE FOOD

• Chemicals are added to food for their preservation, enhancing their appeal, and adding nutritive value in
them. Example: Food colours.
3.10.1 Artificial Sweetening Agents:

• Natural sweeteners, e.g., sucrose add to calorie intake and therefore many people prefer to use artificial
sweeteners.
o Ortho-sulfabenzamide, also called saccharin, is the first popular artificial sweetening agent.
o Aspartame is the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener. It is roughly 100 times as
sweet as cane sugar.
• Food Preservatives: Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. The most
commonly used preservatives include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils and sodium benzoate.
3.11. POLYMERS
• The word polymer is coined from two Greek words: poly means many and mer means unit or part. The
term polymer is defined as very large molecules having high molecular mass (103 -107u).
• The process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called polymerisation.
• One of the common classifications of polymers is based on the source from which the polymer is derived.
Figure 3.11: Some Commercially Important Polymers
3.11.1 Under this type of classification, there are three sub categories:
• Natural polymers: These polymers are found in plants and animals. Examples are proteins, cellulose,
starch, some resins and rubber.
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• Rubber is a natural polymer and possesses elastic properties. It is also termed as elastomeric polymer.
o In elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains are held together by the weak intermolecular forces.
o These weak binding forces permit the polymer to be stretched.
• Semi-synthetic polymers: Cellulose derivatives as cellulose acetate (rayon) and cellulose nitrate, etc.
are the usual examples of this sub category.
• Synthetic polymers: A variety of synthetic polymers such as plastic (polythene), synthetic fibers (nylon
6,6) and synthetic rubbers (Buna -S) are examples of man-made polymers extensively used in daily life
as well as in industry.
• Polythene: Polythenes are linear or slightly branched long chain molecules.
o Low density polythene: It is obtained by the polymerisation of ethene under high pressure of 1000
to 2000 atmospheres at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces of dioxygen or
a peroxide. Low density polythene is chemically inert and tough but flexible and a poor conductor of
electricity.
o High density polythene: It is formed when addition polymerisation of ethene takes place in a
hydrocarbon solvent in the presence of a catalyst such as triethyl aluminum and titanium
tetrachloride at a temperature of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure of 6-7 atmospheres. High
density polymers are also chemically inert and more tough and hard. It is used for manufacturing
buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc.
Biodegradable Polymers
• These polymers contain functional groups similar to the functional groups present in biopolymers.
• Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of biodegradable polymers.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-4: NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
4.1. ATOMS
• Acharya Kanda, born in 600 BCE, originally known by the name Kashyap, was the first proponent of the
atomic theory.
• He formulated the theory of very small indivisible particles, which he named Paramanu (comparable to
atoms). He authored the text Vaiseshika Sutras.
• According to him, all substances are aggregated form of smaller units called atoms (Paramanu), which are
eternal, indestructible, spherical, suprasensible and in motion in the original state
• Atoms are matter and composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.
Figure 4.1: Structure of Atom
• Constituents of an Atom: An atom consists of three fundamental subatomic particles - ¯Electron, Proton and
Neutron.
• Atomic number (Z) = number of Protons.
• Atomic mass number (A) = number of Protons + Neutrons
• Isotopes: an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in each atom.
o Example: Hydrogen has 3 types of isotopes, Protium (light water), Deuterium (heavy water) & Tritium
and Uranium-238, Uranium-235 etc.
• Nuclear Force: Acts between protons and neutrons of atoms and binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus
together. So, nuclear force is strongest in nuclei and weak between electrons and nuclei.
4.2. RADIOACTIVITY
• Radioactive decay is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation.
• It was discovered by Henri Becquerel in 1896.
• A material containing unstable nuclei is considered radioactive in nature.
• Three of the most common types of decay are alpha decay, beta decay, & gamma decay, all of which
involve emitting one or more particles or photons.
• Half-life refers to the time for half the radioactive nuclei in any atom to undergo radioactive decay.
Electron Neutron Proton
• Discovered by J.J Thompson. • James Chadwick had • E. Rutherford had

• They have a negative charge. discovered the neutrons. discovered the Protons.
• They are present outside the • They do not carry any charge • They are positively charged.
atomic nuclei. • They are found within the Atomic • They are slightly smaller
nuclei than neutrons.
• They lie within the Atomic
nuclei.
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Discovery of the X ray
• Wilhalm Roentgen (1845-1923) in 1895 showed that when electrons strike a material in the cathode
ray tubes, they produce rays which can cause fluorescence in the fluorescent materials placed outside the
cathode ray tubes. Since Roentgen did not know the nature of the radiation, he named them X-rays and
the name is still carried on.
• Discovery of Radioactivity: Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) observed that there are certain elements
which emit radiation on their own and named this phenomenon as radioactivity and the elements known
as radioactive elements.
4.3. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
4.3.1 Nuclear Fusion:

• Nuclear Fusion is defined as the combining of two lighter nuclei into a heavier one.
• Fusion reactors do not produce radioactive waste with a high activity or a long half-life. Helium, an
inert gas, is used as the fuel in fusion reactors
• Release higher energy than Nuclear fission.
• Produce many highly radioactive particles.
• It involves chain reaction and requires a high speed neutron.
• In fusion reactors, tritium and deuterium (hydrogen isotopes) atoms are employed.
• Take high energy to split two atoms.
4.3.2 Nuclear Fission:

• Fission is the splitting of a heavy, unstable nucleus into two lighter nuclei, which releases a
tremendous amount of energy.
• Fission reactors produce highly radioactive fission products.
• Release low energy than Nuclear fusion.
• Few radioactive particles are produced.
• It does not involve chain reaction and requires high temperatures.
• Uranium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission reactors.
• Extremely high energy is required to bring two or more protons close enough that reaction can proceed.
4.3.3 Nuclear Power Reactors (Fission Reactors):

• A nuclear reactor is a device that contains and regulates nuclear chain reactions over a long period of
time.
• Reactors are used to generate power, move aircraft carriers and submarines, and produce medical
isotopes for imaging and cancer treatment.
• They are also used to perform research.
4.3.4 How does a nuclear reactor produce electricity?

• The release of energy from splitting the atoms of particular elements is produced and controlled by a
nuclear reactor.
• The energy released in a nuclear power reactor is used as heat to create steam, which is then used to
generate electricity.
4.3.5 Working of The reactor:
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• When a neutron hits A nucleus of a radioactive atom, it triggers the break-up of that nucleus into large
pieces called fission fragments.
• In addition to these two fragments neutrons are usually released which in turn did the nucleus of the
atom in the reactor and this set up the chain reaction.
• The chain reaction generates a heat which in turn is used to move a turbine to produce electricity.
4.3.6 Components of Nuclear reactor:

• Fuel: Uranium is the primary source of energy. Typically, uranium oxide (UO2) pellets are stacked in
tubes to make fuel rods. In the reactor core, the rods are stacked into fuel assemblies.
• Moderator: The neutrons emitted from fission are slowed by material in the core, causing additional
fission. Water is most commonly used, however heavy water or graphite can also be used.
• Control rods: These are constructed of neutron-absorbing materials like cadmium, hafnium, or boron,
and are added or removed from the core to control or stop the reaction.
• Coolant: A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat from it. In light water reactors the
water moderator functions also as primary coolant.
Figure 4.3: Nuclear Reactor based on Thermal Neutron Fission.
4.4. URANIUM ENRICHMENT

• Uranium found in nature consists largely of two isotopes, U-235 and U-238.
• The production of energy in nuclear reactors is from the fission or splitting of the U-235 atoms, a process
which releases energy in the form of heat.
• U-235 is the main fissile isotope of uranium.
• Natural uranium contains 0.7% of the U-235 isotope. The remaining 99.3% is mostly the U-238 isotope
which does not contribute directly to the fission process.
• Isotope separation is a physical process to concentrate (‘enrich’) one isotope relative to others. Most
reactors are light water reactors (of two types – PWR and BWR) and require uranium to be enriched from
0.7% to 3-5% U-235 in their fuel.
• U-233 (not found naturally) is produced in Thermal breeder reactors where Thorium-232 absorbs a
neutron to form U-233 which is fissile.
On the basis of enrichment, two types of Uranium
1. Low Enriched Uranium (LEU): LEU is used for peaceful purposes like fuel in nuclear reactors
(Kudankulam (1.5%) & Jaitapur (5%) required enriched Uranium.
2. High Enriched Uranium (HEU): HEU is weapon grade uranium used for conducting nuclear tests and
nuclear weapons.
4.5. THREE STAGES OF NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME
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• Homi Bhabha devised India’s three-stage nuclear power programme in the 1950s to ensure the country’s
long- term energy independence by utilizing uranium and thorium supplies found in the monazite sands of
South India’s coastal regions.
STAGE DESCRIPTION
• The first stage entailed using natural uranium to power PHWRs
Stage 1- Pressurized Heavy while Plutonium-239 was produced as a byproduct.
Water Reactor (PHWR) • For the first stage, PHWRs were chosen since, in the 1960s, India had
the most efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilization.
• The second stage entails producing fuel from plutonium- 239 for
use in Fast Breeder Reactors.
Stage 2- Fast Breeder Reactor • Plutonium 239 is fission to generate energy.
(FBR) • Thorium will be used in the reactor to make Uranium-233 once a
sufficient amount of plutonium-239 has been built up. The third stage
requires this uranium.
• The fundamental goal of stage 3 is to create a long-term nuclear fuel
cycle.
• Uranium-233 and Thorium would be combined in the advanced
Stage 3- Advanced Heavy Water nuclear system.
Reactor (AHWR) • India has a large amount of thorium that could be used in a thermal
breeder reactor.
• Thorium was saved for the last step because, despite its widespread
availability, its use in energy production has been fraught with
difficulties. It can’t be used straight away.
Figure 4.5: Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)
4.5.1 Nuclear reactors in India:

• In 2020, about 3.3 percent of the total power generated in India was derived from nuclear energy.
• Nuclear power corporation of India, founded in 1987, Controls the Nuclear power plants in India.
• Currently India has 22 nuclear reactors operating in 7 plants.
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4.5.2 Nuclear Fusion reactors:

• Nuclear fusion reactors are only under experimental stages.
• They are not commercially viable when compared to nuclear fission reactors.
• ITER is an ongoing research to achieve the advancement in Fusion reactions.
4.6. INTERNATIONAL THERMONUCLEAR EXPERIMENTAL REACTOR (ITER)

• ITER (“The Way” in Latin) is one of the most ambitious energy projects in the world today.
• The ITER members include China, the European Union, India, Japan, South Korea, Russia and the United
States (35 nations) are collaborating to build the world’s largest tokamak, a magnetic fusion device that has
been designed to prove the feasibility of fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source of energy based on
the same principle that powers our Sun and stars.
4.6.1 What is Tokamak?

• The tokamak is an experimental machine designed to harness the energy of fusion. Inside a
tokamak, the energy produced through the fusion of atoms is absorbed as heat in the walls of the vessel.
• Just like a conventional power plant, a fusion power plant will use this heat to produce steam and then
electricity by way of turbines and generators.
• It is designed to:
o Produce 500 MW of fusion power
o Demonstrate the integrated operation of technologies for a fusion power plant
o Achieve a deuterium-tritium plasma in which the reaction is sustained through internal heating
o Test tritium breeding
o Demonstrate the safety characteristics of a fusion device
4.6.2 India’s Contribution:

• India joined the ITER project in 2005 and is in charge of cryostats, in-wall shielding, cooling water
systems, cryogenic systems, heating systems, the Diagnostic Neutral Beam System, power supplies, and
some diagnostics.
• India is providing approximately $2.2 billion to this initiative.
• The Indian domestic agency, ITER-India, is a specifically authorized initiative of the Institute for Plasma
Research (IPR), a Department of Atomic Energy-aided enterprise.
4.7. COLD FUSION

• Cold fusion is a type of nuclear reaction that is thought to take place at or near room temperature.
• It would be in sharp contrast to the hot fusion that occurs naturally in stars and artificially in hydrogen bombs
and prototype fusion reactors under great pressure and at temperatures of millions of degrees.
Akademik Lomonosov:
• The world’s only floating nuclear power plant began commercial operation in the Russian Arctic city
of Pevek.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-5: SPACE TECHNOLOGY
5.1. ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE: BIG BANG THEORY

• It is believed that the universe was born about 13.8 billion years ago in an event called the Big Bang. It
is the most prevailing cosmological model for the birth of the universe.
5.1.1 Big Bang Theory:

• It states that at some moment all of space was contained in a single point of very high-density and high-
temperature state from which the universe has been expanding in all directions ever since.
• After the initial expansion, the universe cooled sufficiently to allow the formation of subatomic particles
and later simple atoms.
• The majority of atoms produced by the Big Bang were hydrogen and helium along with trace amounts
of lithium and beryllium.
• Giant clouds of these primordial elements (hydrogen and helium) later coalesced through gravity to
form stars and galaxies.
5.1.2 Dark Energy:

• Dark energy is an unknown form of energy which is hypothesized to permeate (spread throughout) all
of space, tending to accelerate the expansion of the universe.
5.1.3 Dark matter:

• It is a hypothetical form of matter that is thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the
universe. Dark energy plus dark matter constitutes 95% of the total content of the universe.It is
believed that dark matter is considered as the factor for unexplained motion of stars in galaxies.
5.2. OBSERVING SPACE THROUGH TELESCOPES

• Space: It is a three dimensional region that begins where the earth’s atmosphere ends.
• A telescope is an optical tool that observes distant objects using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of
the two.
5.2.1 Hubble Telescope:

• Since its launch, the observatory has produced important discoveries in the area of astronomy. It is the
first big optical telescope to be mounted in space.
• It takes photographs of deep space and aids scientists with their understanding of the cosmos by seeing
the furthest stars, galaxies, and planets.
5.2.2 James Webb Telescope:

• NASA’s primary infrared observatory is the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).
• NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) are working
together on this project.
• It will:
o Look for the first galaxies or bright objects that appeared after the Big Bang.
o Determine the evolution of galaxies.
o Observe the evolution of stars from their earliest beginnings through the development of planetary
systems.
o Measure the physical and chemical features of planetary systems, including our own Solar System,
and look into the possibility of life elsewhere.
5.2.3 Event Horizon Telescope project:

• EHT is a group of 8 radio telescopes used to detect radio waves from space.
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• In 2019, Scientists from the EHT project released the first- ever optical image (or shadow image) of a
Black hole located in the center of galaxy Messier 87 in the constellation Virgo.
• Sagittarius A* is the 2nd black hole to get photographed.
Chandrasekhar Limit
• Chandrasekhar Limit of 1.4 solar masses, is the theoretical maximum mass a white dwarf star can have
and still remain a white dwarf. Above this mass, electron degeneracy pressure is not enough to prevent
gravity from collapsing the star further into a neutron star or black hole.
• The limit is named after Nobel laureate Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar, who first proposed the idea
in 1931.
5.3. SUN CYCLE

• The Sun is a massive, electrically charged ball of heated gas. When this charged gas travels, it creates a
strong magnetic field. The magnetic field of the Sun passes through a cycle known as the solar cycle.
• The Sun’s magnetic field totally turns every 11 years. The north and south poles of the Sun will transfer
locations as a result of this. After that, it takes another 11 years for the Sun’s north and south poles to revert.
• As the magnetic fields change, so does the amount of activity on the Sun’s surface.
• One way to track the solar cycle is by counting the number of sunspots. The beginning of a solar cycle is
a solar minimum, or when the Sun has the least sunspots. Over time, solar activity—and the number of
sunspots—increases.
• The middle of the solar cycle is the solar maximum, or when the Sun has the most sunspots. As the cycle
ends, it fades back to the solar minimum and then a new cycle begins.
• Sunspots are the areas with the strongest magnetic fields, and therefore a good indicator of solar activity.
• The appearance of dark sunspots lowers the total luminosity of the Sun only by about 0.15% at sunspot
maximum, and thus the variation of the sunlight has a negligible effect on the Earth’s climate. This activity
can have effects on Earth. For example, eruptions can cause lights in the sky, called aurora, or impact radio
communications. Extreme eruptions can even affect electricity grids on Earth.
5.4. GEOTAIL
• A location in space where the finest observations may be made. The zone exists as a result of the Sun’s and
Earth’s interactions.
5.4.1 Formation of GEoTail:
Figure 5.4: Formation of GEoTail

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• The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun.
• These particles are encased in the Sun’s extended magnetic field.
• The magnetic field of the Earth obstructs the solar wind plasma.
• A magnetic envelope forms around Earth as a result of this interaction.
• The envelope is squeezed on the Earth’s side facing the Sun into a zone about three to four times the Earth’s
radius.
• On the other side, the envelope is extended into a long tail, known as the Geotail, that reaches beyond the
Moon’s orbit.
• The Moon travels through the Geotail for around six days every 29 days.
5.5. PULSARS
• A pulsar is a celestial phenomenon that generates thousands of pulses per second of radio waves and
other electromagnetic radiation.
• Pulsars are compact, fast spinning neutron stars that are left over when a big star bursts.
5.5.1 Solar Eclipse:

• When the moon passes between the sun and the earth, a solar eclipse occurs. The moon stops the sun’s
light from reaching the earth when this happens. The planet is then bathed in the moon’s shadow.
• There are three types of solar eclipses: annular solar eclipse, total solar eclipses, partial solar eclipses.
• When the sun, moon, and earth are not perfectly aligned, a partial solar eclipse occurs.
• A total solar eclipse occurs when the sun, moon, and earth are all aligned in a straight line.
• Annular eclipse: It is a form of complete solar eclipse known as an annular eclipse.
o It occurs when the sun, moon, and earth are all on the same plane and not just in a straight line.
o The moon must also be farther away from the earth in order for it to not entirely obscure the
sun’s disc, resulting in a narrow band of light around the dark colour of the moon that reveals the
ring of fire.
o As a result, it’s also known as the eclipse of the ring of fire.
5.6. GRAVITY
• Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. The force of gravity
keeps all of the planets in orbit around the sun.
• Anything that has mass also has gravity.
• Objects with more mass have more gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects
are to each other, the stronger their gravitational pull is.
5.6.1 Relation between Gravity, Mass and weight:

• Earth’s gravity comes from all its mass. All its mass makes a combined gravitational pull on all the mass
in your body. That’s what gives you weight.
• And if you were on a planet with less mass than Earth, you would weigh less than you do here.
Attention
• Gravity isn’t the same everywhere on Earth. Gravity is slightly stronger over places with more mass
underground than over places with less mass.
• NASA uses two spacecraft to measure these variations in Earth’s gravity. These spacecraft are part of the
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) mission.
5.7. GRAVITY AND BLACK HOLE
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• A black hole is an object in space that is formed after the death of a star (core runs out of fuel) and is so dense
and has strong gravity that no matter or light can escape its gravity pull.
• Because no light can escape, it is black and invisible.
• Black holes pack so much mass into such a small volume that their gravity is strong enough to keep anything,
even light, from escaping.
• The point where all that mass is trapped is called a singularity. It may be infinitely small, but its influence is
enormous.
Black holes are divided into three types:
1. Stellar black holes (also known as unicorns),

2. Supermassive black holes, and
3. Intermediate-mass black holes.
5.8. GRAVITATIONAL WAVES (GW)

• Gravitational waves were first proposed by Albert Einstein, 100 years ago as part of the Theory of
Relativity.
• In 2016, scientists at Laser Interferometer Gravitational- wave Observatory (LIGO) first detected the
gravitational waves.
• GWs are ripples in space-time that move at the speed of light and are created by some of the Universe’s most
furious and intense processes.
• They hold information about their cataclysmic origins, as well as crucial insights regarding gravity’s nature.
• They form when:
o Things move at extremely high speeds,
o When a star explodes asymmetrically (known as a supernova),
o When two large stars orbit one other, and
o When two black holes orbit each other and join.
5.9. GRAVITATIONAL LENSING

• One of the most remarkable predictions of Einstein’s theory of general relativity is that gravity bends light.
• That effect was first demonstrated during a total solar eclipse in 1919, when the positions of stars near
the Sun were observed to be slightly shifted from their usual positions.
• Gravitational lensing occurs when two objects are nearly perfectly aligned along the line of sight.
• The gravitational field of the nearer object bends the light of the background object and produces several
effects, including multiple imaging and magnification of the brightness.
• Gravitational lensing can provide information on the expansion rate and geometry of the Universe and about
the distribution of mass in the Universe, particularly dark matter.
5.9.1 LIGO- India – InDIGO:

• LIGO-India project is an Indian Initiative in Gravitational wave observations, expected to be completed
by 2025.
• Aims to move one advanced LIGO detector from Hanford to Maharashtra (Hingoli district), India.
• Project is piloted by the Dept. of Atomic Energy (DAE) and Dept. of Science and Tech (DST).
• This project will help Indian scientists to be a major player in the emerging research frontier of GW
astronomy.
5.10. PLANET
• The most recent definition of a planet was adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 2006. It says
a planet must do three things:
1. It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).
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2. It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape.
3. It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of a similar size near its orbit around
the Sun.
5.10.1 Dwarf Planet:

• As per the International Astronomical Union (IAU):
o A dwarf planet is a celestial body that circles the sun, has enough mass to assume a roughly round
shape, has not cleared the neighborhood surrounding its orbit, and is not a moon.
o Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake, and Haumea are the first five dwarf planets discovered.
5.10.2 Key Terms:
5.10.2.1 Kuiper Belt:

• The Kuiper Belt is a ring of icy rocks & dust bodies just outside of Neptune’s orbit, known as Kuiper
belt objects or trans-neptunians.
• Pluto is the largest known Kuiper Belt Object instead of the 9th planet of our Solar system.
• There are bits of rock and ice, comets, and dwarf planets.
5.10.2.2 Asteroid Belt:
Figure 5.10: Asteroid Belt
• Asteroids are remnants of planetary formation mainly composed of refractory rocky and metallic
minerals and some ice, that circle the sun in a zone lying between Mars and Jupiter.
• The circular chain of asteroids is called the asteroid belt or main asteroid belt.
5.10.2.3 Ploonets:
• A celestial object, which are orphaned moons that have escaped the bonds of their planetary parents.
• The researchers explain that the angular momentum between the planet and its moon results in the moon
escaping the gravitational pull of its parent planet.
5.10.2.4 Goldilocks Zone:

• The ‘Goldilocks Zone,’ or habitable zone – ‘the region around the star where a planet could sustain liquid
water on its surface’.
• Our Earth is in the Sun’s Goldilocks zone.
• If Earth were where the dwarf planet Pluto is, all its water would freeze; on the other hand, if Earth were
where Mercury is, all its water would boil off.
5.10.2.5 Kessler Syndrome:

• The Kessler syndrome is a theory proposed by NASA scientist Donald J. Kessler in 1978, used to describe
a self- sustaining cascading collision of space debris in LEO.
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5.10.2.6 Asteroids:
• Big chunks of rocks float through space and orbit the sun, mostly found in the main asteroid belt i.e.,
between Mars and Jupiter.
• The biggest one is Ceres (940 km wide), twice as big as the Grand Canyon.
5.10.2.7 Meteor:
• When a meteoroid enters the earth’s atmosphere, it begins to burn up and falls to the ground.
• This burning trail is known as meteor or falling stars.
5.10.2.8 Meteoroid:
• Smaller rock pieces that break off from an asteroid, float through interplanetary space.
• Can be as small as grain of sand or as large as a meter across.
5.10.2.9 Meteorite:
• If a meteoroid rock doesn’t completely burn up as it falls to Earth- the rock left behind is called a
meteorite.
5.10.2.10 Comets:
• Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices,
ranging from few miles to tens of miles wide.
• Orbits closer to the sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head visible in the
atmosphere.
• Comets have highly elliptical orbits, unlike planets which have near-circular orbits.
5.10.2.11 Van Allen Radiation Belts:

• It is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the solar wind.
• The particles are captured by and held around a planet by that planet’s magnetic field.
• These are intense over the Equator and are absent over the poles.
5.11. ORBITS
• An orbit is the curved path that an object in space (such as a star, planet, moon, asteroid or spacecraft)
takes around another object due to gravity.
• Objects of similar mass orbit each other with neither object at the center, whilst small objects orbit around
larger objects.
• In our Solar System, the Moon orbits Earth, and Earth orbits the Sun, but that does not mean the larger object
remains completely still.
• Because of gravity, Earth is pulled slightly from its centre by the Moon (which is why tides form in our oceans)
and our Sun is pulled slightly from its centre by Earth and other planets.
• The height of the orbit, or distance between the satellite and Earth’s surface, determines how quickly the
satellite moves around the Earth. An Earth-orbiting satellite’s motion is mostly controlled by Earth’s gravity.
• The orbits can be categorized as High Earth orbit, Medium Earth orbit, or Low Earth orbit based on the
height of satellites from the earth.
5.11.1 Low Earth Orbit:

• An orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface. It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km but
could be as low as 160 km above Earth.
• LEO is commonly used for communication and remote sensing satellite systems, as well as the
International Space Station (ISS) and Hubble Space Telescope.
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• Satellites placed in LEO orbit generally circle the Earth once in 90 minutes.
5.11.2 Middle Earth Orbit:

• Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
• It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used by a
variety of satellites with many different applications.
• The range of this orbit is between 2000 km - 35,780km.
• Generally, it takes 12 hours for the satellite to complete one rotation around the Earth.
• MEO is commonly used for navigation systems, including the U.S. Global Positioning System (GPS).
History Of Space Exploration

• The USSR was the first to launch a satellite into space. Sputnik 1 was sent in 1957 and the first human
spacecraft was Vostok 1 by the USSR.
• The Apollo 1 Mission was concluded by NASA. It was the first mission in which a human landed in space.
• The first human to walk on the lunar surface was Neil Armstrong.
• Interplanetary mission is Voyager 1, the first artificial object to leave our solar system.
5.11.3 High Earth Orbit:

• When a satellite reaches 42,164 kilometers from the Earth’s center (about 36,000 kilometers from the
surface), it is said to be in high Earth orbit.
• Because satellites in this orbit provide a steady view of the same surface, geostationary orbit is
particularly useful for weather monitoring and communication (phones, television, radio).
• At this height, the orbital height of the satellite becomes equal to the Earth’s rotational speed.
• So, this orbit at this height is called a geosynchronous or Geostationary Orbit.
5.11.4 Geostationary Orbit:

• A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO).
• A geosynchronous orbit is a high Earth orbit that allows satellites to match Earth’s rotation. Located at
22,236 miles (35,786 kilometers) above Earth’s equator.
• Because the satellite orbits at the same speed that the Earth is turning, the satellite seems to stay in place
over a single longitude.
5.11.5 Polar orbit and Sun Synchronous orbit (SSO):

• Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east,
passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
• Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
• Satellites in SSO, traveling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun. This means they are
synchronized to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun. This means that the satellite
always visits the same spot at the same local time.
• This means that the satellite will always observe a point on the Earth as if constantly at the same time of
the day.
• It serves a number of applications; for example, it means that scientists and those who use the satellite
images can compare how something changes over time.
5.11.6 Transfer orbits and Geostationary Transfer Orbit:

• Transfer orbits are used to get from one orbit to another.
• When satellites are launched from Earth and carried to space with launch vehicles, the satellites are not
always placed directly on their final orbit.
• Often, the satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by using relatively little energy
from built- in motors, the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
• This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without actually needing the
launch vehicle to go all the way to this altitude, which would require more effort.
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5.11.7 Lagrange point:

• Lagrange Points are positions in space where the gravitational forces of a two body system like the Sun
and the Earth produce enhanced regions of attraction and repulsion.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
• Lagrange points are named in honor of Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange.
• There are five special points where a small mass can orbit in a constant pattern with two larger masses.
5.11.8 Halo Orbit:

• It is an orbit around the Lagrange points.
5.12. TYPES OF SATELLITES

• Satellites can be classified by their function since they are launched into space to do a specific job.
• There are nine different types of satellites i.e.
1. Communications Satellite
2. Remote Sensing Satellite
3. Navigation Satellite
4. Geocentric Orbit type satellites - LEO, MEO, HEO
5. Global Positioning System (GPS)
6. Geostationary Satellites (GEOs)
7. Ground Satellite
8. Polar Satellite
9. Nano Satellites, CubeSats and SmallSats
5.13. SPACE TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

5.13.1 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO):
• Nodal space research agency of Government of India
• Founded on 15th August, 1969.
• Headquarter: Bengaluru, Karnataka
• Managed by the Department of Space (DOS), which reports directly to the PM.
5.13.2 Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (In-Space):

• The Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre (IN-SPACe) was established by the
Indian government to encourage private sector participation in a wide range of space activities.
• It will regulate and encourage Indian industry and startups to construct routine satellites, rockets,
and commercial launch services
• It will have its own technical, legal, safety and security, monitoring, and activity promotion directorates.
• It will serve as a liaison between ISRO and private parties, assessing how India’s space resources might
be best utilized and space-based activities expanded.
5.13.3 New Space India Limited (NSIL):

• It is ISRO’s commercial arm, with the primary goal of enabling Indian businesses to participate in high-
tech space activities.
• It is completely owned by the Government of India, which reports to the Department of Space (DOS).
• NSIL will collaborate with IN-SPACe to enable industry consortiums to take on some of ISRO’s
responsibilities.
5.13.4 Antrix:
• Antrix was founded in 1992 as a government-owned private limited corporation with the mission of
promoting and commercializing space products, providing technical consulting services, and transferring
ISRO-developed technologies.
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5.14. TYPES OF LAUNCH VEHICLES BY ISRO

• Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space. India has two operational launchers:
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).
• In India there are 4 generations of launch vehicles:
1. 1st Generation: Satellite launch vehicles.
2. 2nd generation: Augmented satellite launch vehicle
3. 3rd generation: Polar satellite launch vehicle(PSLV)
4. 4th Generation: Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle(GSLV)
• Primarily used to launch remote sensing satellites.
• PSLV can deliver payloads of up to:
o 3,250kg to LEO (Low Earth Orbit)
o 1600 kg to SSO (Sun Synchronous orbit)
o 1400 kg to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit)
• Most famous launches by the PSLV:
o Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and
o Mangalyaan/Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013.
• PSLV-C37 launched 104 satellites on February 15, 2017, the highest number of satellites launched in a
single flight so far.
Figure 5.13: Launch Services Vehicles
5.14.1 Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV):

• GSLV is a 3-stage Launch vehicle with solid fuel in the 1st stage, liquid in the 2nd stage and
cryogenic in the 3rd stage.
• It was developed primarily to launch communication satellites (INSAT Series) of 2.5-tonne class in
Geostationary Transfer Orbit and about 4.5 tons class in Low Earth Orbit.
5.14.2 GSLV Mk II:

• This is the largest launch vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
• This fourth-generation launch vehicle is a three-stage vehicle with four liquid strap-ons.
• The indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS) forms the third stage of GSLV Mk II.
• Liftoff mass: 4.14 tones.
5.14.3 GSLV Mk III:

• This is a 3-stage heavy-lift rocket with an indigenous cryogenic engine in the 3rd stage.
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• GSLV Mk III (ISRO’s Fat boy) is designed to carry 4-ton class of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer
Orbit (GTO) or about 10 tons to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability of the GSLV
Mk II.
• Most famous launches: injected Chandrayaan-2, India’s second Lunar Mission, into Earth Parking Orbit
on July 22, 2019, from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
• Further, India’s first human space flight Gaganyaan to be launched using GSLV Mk III in 2022.
5.14.4 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):

• Designed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, to launch payload capacity of 500 kg to Low Earth
orbit & 300 kg to Sun-synchronous orbit for launching small satellites.
• Objective: to commercially launch small satellites at a lower price and higher launch rate as compared to
PSLV.
• Unlike the PSLV and GSLV, the SSLV can be assembled both vertically and horizontally.
• The first three stages of the vehicle will use a solid propellant, with a fourth stage being a velocity-
trimming module.
5.15. SOUNDING ROCKETS

• Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper atmospheric
regions and for space research.
• They also serve as easily affordable platforms to test or prove prototypes of new components or subsystems
intended for use in launch vehicles and satellites.
• The launch of the first sounding rocket from Thumba near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on 21 November
1963, marked the beginning of the Indian Space Programme .
• Sounding rockets made it possible to probe the atmosphere in situ using rocket-borne instrumentation.
5.16. ROCKET FUEL

• The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is using the very poisonous and corrosive fuel UDMH
(Unsymmetrical Di-Methyl Hydrazine), combined with the oxidiser nitrogen Tetroxide. This is
referred to as a “dirty combo.”
• Other space programmes throughout the world have switched to a cleaner and greener fuel, liquid methane
or kerosene.
• Changing to liquid methane would need the usage of a cryogenic engine, as any gas must be stored at
extremely low temperatures to remain liquefied.
5.16.1 Propellant Used in Rocket:

• The propellant is a chemical mixture that comprises a fuel and an oxidizer that is burned to provide thrust
in rockets.
• For propulsion, fuel is a substance that burns when mixed with an oxidizer.
o The oxidizer is a substance that releases oxygen in order to be combined with a fuel. The mixture
ratio is the proportion of oxidizer to fuel.
o The condition of a propellant is classified as liquid, solid, or hybrid.
• Liquid Propellant: The fuel and oxidizer are stored separately in a liquid propellant rocket and delivered
to a combustion chamber by a system of pipes, valves, and turbopumps, where they are mixed and burned
to produce thrust.
o Cryogenic propellants are liquefied gases kept at extremely low temperatures, with the most
common fuel being liquid hydrogen (LH2) and the oxidizer being liquid oxygen (LO2 or LOX).
o At temperatures of -253 C (-423 F), hydrogen remains liquid, while oxygen remains liquid at
temperatures of -183 C. (-297 F).
• Solid propellant rockets are the most basic of rocket designs. They are made of a steel casing loaded
with a mixture of solid compounds (fuel and oxidizer) that burn rapidly and produce thrust by ejecting
hot gases from a nozzle.
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• Hybrid propellant engines are a type of engine that falls somewhere between solid and liquid
propellant engines. One of the components is solid, which is generally the fuel, and the other is liquid,
which is usually the oxidizer.
5.16.2 Cryogenic Engine:

• A cryogenic rocket engine uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidizer, which means the fuel or oxidizer (or both)
are gases that have been liquefied and kept at extremely low temperatures.
• In comparison to solid and earth-storable liquid propellant rocket stages, cryogenic rocket stages are
more efficient and produce greater thrust per kilogramme of propellant burned.
5.16.3 Air Breathing Engines:

• In the burning of fuel, air-breathing engines utilise oxygen from the environment. The turbojet,
turboprop, ramjet, and pulse-jet are among them.
• Other methods in use are heavier, less efficient, and less cost-effective than this one.
• Types of Air Breathing Engines:
1. Ramjet: A ramjet is a type of air-breathing jet engine that compresses incoming air for combustion
without the use of a revolving compressor.At supersonic speeds, ramjets are most efficient, but at
hypersonic speeds, they are ineffective.
2. Scramjet: A scramjet engine is superior than a ramjet engine because it can run at hypersonic speeds
while still allowing supersonic combustion.
3. Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) is a kind of jet engine that converts from a ramjet to a scramjet over the
Mach 4-8 range, allowing it to function efficiently in both subsonic and supersonic combustion modes.
5.17. INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

• The International Space Station (ISS) is a low-Earth- orbiting, habitable artificial satellite.
• NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada) are among the
five space agencies involved in the project.
• The station serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory, where astrobiology,
astronomy, meteorology, physics, and other fields are studied.
• On board the ISS, the atmosphere is identical to that of Earth.
Recent Developments
• India is seeking to launch its own space station by 2030, joining the league of US, Russia, and China to an
elite space club.
• China has launched an unmanned module of its permanent space station, which it intends to finish by
the end of 2022.
• The module, called Tianhe or Harmony of the Heavens was launched on China’s heaviest carrier
rocket, the Long March 5B.
5.18. EXPLORATION OF THE SUN

• The Parker Solar Probe is the first spacecraft to reach the solar corona’s lower layers. The structure and
dynamics of the Sun’s coronal plasma and magnetic field will be studied.
• Parker measured particles and magnetic fields in the Sun’s upper atmosphere, known as the corona,
according to NASA.
o Aditya L-1 Mission: The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is gearing up for Aditya-L1, the
country’s first scientific mission to study the Sun.
o It would be positioned in the L1 Lagrange point, which is a location in space.
o Aditya L1 will be launched with seven payloads (instruments) aboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV) XL.
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• It will conduct round-the-clock imaging of the Sun and investigate the corona, photosphere,
chromosphere, solar emissions, solar winds and flares, and Coronal Mass Ejections.
5.19. MISSIONS TO MOON

• Numerous space missions have been launched to explore Earth’s natural satellite as part of human
exploration of the Moon.
• The Soviet Union’s Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to reach the Moon’s surface safely.
• Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to make a controlled soft landing, while Luna 10 was the first mission to enter
orbit, both in 1966.
• Crewed missions to the Moon were carried out by the United States as part of the Apollo programme
between 1968 and 1972. Apollo 8 was the first crewed mission to enter orbit in 1968.
• Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon during Apollo 11 in July 1969.
• So far, 24 humans have visited this massive landmass, 12 have walked on it.
India’ s Missions to Moon

• India’s first mission to the Moon, was launched in 2008
• Chandrayaan 1 reached the lunar orbit 21 days after its launch and after making 3400
orbits around the Moon and transmitting data.
Chandrayaan 1 • In late November 2008, Chandrayaan 1 began experiencing abnormally high
temperatures.
• The last contact with Chandrayaan 1 was on August 28, 2009. It still circles around the
Moon.
• The failure of Chandrayaan-2, India’s second mission to the Moon, to make a soft-
landing on the lunar surface had led to much disappointment.
Chandrayaan 2 • The lander and rover malfunctioned in the final moments and crash-landed, getting
destroyed in the process.
• But that did not mean the entire mission had been wasted. The Orbiter part of the
mission has been functioning normally.
• With Artemis missions, NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the
Recent Moon, using innovative technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever
Developments before.
• The Chandrayaan-3 mission is expected to be launched in August 2023.
5.20. MISSIONS TO MARS

• The Soviets sent a series of probes to Mars beginning in 1960.
• Mariner 9 became the first space probe to circle another planet when it entered orbit around Mars on
November 14, 1971.
• In 1997, NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor was launched into orbit around Mars. The primary mapping mission
was completed in early 2001, and the mission was a perfect success.
• In 1997, NASA’s Mars Pathfinder landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars, carrying the robotic exploration
spacecraft Sojourner.
• In 2001, NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter was sent into orbit around Mars.
5.20.1 India’ s Missions on Mars: Mangalyaan:

• ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission, commonly known as Mangalyaan, on November 5, 2013.
(ISRO). On September 24, 2014, it was successfully placed into Martian orbit.
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5.20.2 Voyager Mission:

• The twin spacecraft Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 were launched by NASA in separate months in the summer
of 1977 from Cape Canaveral, Florida.
• As originally designed, the Voyagers were to conduct closeup studies of Jupiter and Saturn, Saturn’s
rings, and the larger moons of the two planets.
• During planetary flybys, Voyager 2 is the only probe that has ever studied Neptune and Uranus.It
is the world’s second man-made object to orbit the sun.
• Voyager 2 is the only spacecraft to have visited all four gas giant planets — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune — and found 16 moons, as well as phenomena such as Neptune’s seemingly ephemeral
Great Dark Spot, Europa’s ice shell fissures, and ring structures on each planet.
5.21. GAGANYAAN MISSION

• Gaganyaan is an Indian Space Research Organisation mission (ISRO).
• Three Gaganyaan flights will be sent into orbit, according to the Gaganyaan programme.
• Two unmanned missions and one human spaceflight are planned.
• Three Indian astronauts, including a woman, will be aboard the Gaganyaan system module, dubbed the
Orbital Module.
• For 5-7 days, it will orbit Earth in a low-earth-orbit at a distance of 300-400 kilometres.
• The three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle GSLV Mk III, also known as the LVM-3 (Launch Vehicle Mark-3),
will be utilised to launch Gaganyaan because it has the appropriate payload capabilities.
• Gaganyaan’s important missions, including as the test vehicle flight to validate the crew escape system’s
performance and Gaganyaan’s first uncrewed mission (G1), are planned for the second half of next year
(2022).
• The second uncrewed trip, which will contain Vyommitra, a spacefaring human robot, will launch at the end
of 2022.
5.22. SPACE DEBRIS

• Space debris encompasses both natural meteoroid and artificial (human-made) orbital debris. Meteoroids
are in orbit about the sun, while most artificial debris is in orbit about the Earth (hence, the term “orbital”
debris).
• Orbital debris is any human-made object in orbit about the Earth that no longer serves a useful
function.
• Such debris includes non-functional spacecraft, abandoned launch vehicle stages, mission-related debris, and
fragmentation debris.
• There are approximately 23,000 pieces of debris larger than a softball orbiting the Earth.
• They travel at speeds up to 17,500 mph, fast enough for a relatively small piece of orbital debris to damage
a satellite or a spacecraft.
Cause of concern for Space debris
• With the increasing amount of space debris and the advent of mega-constellations of thousands of
satellites, there are fears that collisions such as that between Iridium 33 and Cosmos 2251 could set off
a chain reaction.
• This chain reaction is called the Kessler syndrome, in which the resulting space debris would destroy
other satellites and so on, with low Earth orbit eventually becoming unusable.
5.22.1 Instances of Misfortune:

• In 1996, a French satellite was hit and damaged by debris from a French rocket that had exploded a
decade earlier.
• On Feb. 10, 2009, a defunct Russian spacecraft collided with and destroyed a functioning U.S. Iridium
commercial spacecraft.
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• The collision added more than 2,300 pieces of large, trackable debris and many more smaller debris to
the inventory of space junk.
• China’s 2007 anti-satellite test, which used a missile to destroy an old weather satellite, added more than
3,500 pieces of large, trackable debris and many more smaller debris to the debris problem.
5.23. IRNSS-NAVIC
• The Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) satellite system is an autonomous regional navigation
satellite system that provides location data in the Indian area and 1500 kilometers surrounding the Indian
landmass.
• IRNSS would offer two types of services Standard Positioning Services, which would be available to all
users, and Restricted Services, which would only be available to permitted users.
• There are seven satellites in all. Three will be geostationary above the Indian Ocean and four will be
geosynchronous.
• This setup assures that at any one moment, at least one of fourteen ground stations is tracking each satellite,
with a good likelihood that most of them will be visible from anywhere in India.
5.24. SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• Gagan Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information (GEMINI) device.
• GEMINI is a portable satellite receiver connected to ISRO spacecraft. Because the gadget can send signals
up to 300 nautical miles, fishermen beyond the signal range of their phone providers (i.e. 10-12 km) may
also obtain warnings and alarms.
• It will make satellite-based communication easier, which will be especially important in the event of storms,
strong seas, or tsunamis.
• The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and the Airports Authority of India collaborated on
GAGAN.
• It is India’s first satellite-based global positioning system, relying on the GSAT satellites of ISRO.
• The disadvantage of this technology is that it only permits one-way communication, which means that
fishermen cannot use it to make calls.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-6: BASIC CONCEPTS OF PHYSICS
6.1. GRAVITY
• Gravity is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center. The force of gravity
keeps all of the planets in orbit around the sun.
• Universal Law Of Gravitation: Anything that has mass also has gravity. Objects with more mass have more
gravity. Gravity also gets weaker with distance. So, the closer objects are to each other, the stronger their
gravitational pull is.
• The universal law of gravitation successfully explained several phenomena which were believed to be
unconnected:
o Force that binds us to the earth;
o Motion of the moon around the earth;
o Motion of planets around the sun; and
o Tides due to the moon and the Sun.
6.2. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

• Newton formulated the well-known laws of motion. He designed an astronomical telescope to carry out
astronomical observations. He invented a new branch of mathematics, called calculus.
• First Law: An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled to
change that state by an applied force.
o In other words, all objects resist a change in their state of motion.
o Means a body/object wants to remain in an undisturbed situation. If it is motion then want to remain in
motion or if in rest then want to remain in rest. (Inertia)
• Second Law: states that the rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the applied
unbalanced force in the direction of force.
• Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
o The statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting
objects.
o The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object.
6.3. NANOTECHNOLOGY
• Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at the nanoscale, at dimensions between
approximately 1 and 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications.
• Types of Nanotechnology: The many types of nanotechnology are divided into two categories based on how
they work (top-down or bottom- up) and the medium in which they work (dry or wet):
o Descending (top-down): At the nanometric scale, which ranges from one to 100 nanometres in size,
mechanisms and structures are miniaturized. It is the most common to date, particularly in the
electronics industry.
o Ascending (bottom-up): You start with a nanometric structure — a molecule, for example — and build
a larger mechanism by a mounting or self-assembly process.
o Dry nanotechnology entails the use of nanoparticles in a dry state. It’s used to make structures that don’t
work with humidity out of coal, silicon, inorganic materials, metals, and semiconductors.
o Wet nanotechnology is based on biological systems found in water, such as genetic material, membranes,
enzymes, and other cellular components.
6.4. NANOMATERIALS
• Particles with particle size less than 100 nm are called nanoparticles.
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Types of Nanoparticles
1. Carbon Based: It includes Graphene and other carbon based products.

2. Metal based: The main component of these nanomaterials are metals. They include Nano silver and metal
oxides.
6.5. GRAPHENE
• Carbon atoms are organized in a honeycomb-like arrangement on a one-atom-thick sheet of graphene.
Graphene is thought to be the world’s thinnest, strongest, and most electrically and thermally conductive
substance.
• Graphene is the world’s strongest substance, and it can be used to make other materials stronger.
• Graphene is the most heat conducting material ever discovered. Because graphene is both strong and light,
it’s an excellent material for heat-spreading applications like heat sinks and heat dissipation films.
• Graphene is a promising material for use in batteries and supercapacitors because of its extraordinarily high
surface- area-to-volume ratio.
6.6. CARBON NANOTUBES

• Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylinder-shaped molecules made up of rolled-up single-layer carbon atom
sheets (graphene).
• Single-walled nanotubes (SWCNT) have a diameter of less than 1 nanometer (nm), while multi-walled
nanotubes (MWCNT) have diameters of more than 100 nm and are made up of multiple concentrically
interconnected nanotubes. Their length might range from a few micrometers to millimeters.
• Applications of Nanotechnology: It can be used in diverse fields like Health sector, Space technology,
Agriculture field, Environment and economy.
6.7. LASER TECHNOLOGY

• In 1960, Theodore H. Maiman of Hughes Research Laboratories created the first practical laser.
• LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a device that stimulates electronic
or molecular transitions to lower energy levels to produce an intense, coherent, directional beam of light.
• A laser, unlike a regular light source, creates a narrow beam of extremely brilliant light.
The Properties Of Laser Light Are As Follows
• It is homochromatic because it includes only one wavelength of light (one specific colour). The amount
of energy released when an electron falls to a lower orbit determines the wavelength.
• Coherent: This means that the emitted light waves are in phase with one another, and that they move in
a straight line without dispersing over large distances. Light from typical light sources, such as an
incandescent bulb, on the other hand, diffuses in all directions. Laser Light is a directional beam that is
exceedingly tight, strong, and concentrated.
6.7.1 LiDAR:
• It’s a remote sensing technique that uses pulsed laser light to measure ranges (varying distances) to
the Earth.
• A lidar instrument is made up of three parts: a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver.
• The most frequent platforms for collecting lidar data over large areas are planes and helicopters.
• LiDAR works on the basis of a basic principle: shoot laser light at an object on the ground and calculate
how long it takes for the light to return to the LiDAR source.
• Given the speed of light (about 186,000 miles per second), the process of measuring the exact distance
using LiDAR looks to be extremely quick.
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CHAPTER-7 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
7.1. NETWORK
• A network is a collection of computers, servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or other devices
connected to allow data sharing. An example of a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people
all over the world.
• Web refers to the World Wide Web (WWW), the internet’s core information retrieval system.
• Web 2.0 is the current version of the web with which we are all familiar, while Web 3.0 represents its next
phase that will be decentralized, open, and of greater utility.
• Web 3.0 is built upon the core concepts of decentralization, openness, and greater user utility.
7.2. DARK NET AND DEEP WEB

• The darknet is a computer network with limited access that is mostly used for criminal operations on
the internet, such as drug sales and the sale of personal information.
• The darknet is part of the larger “deep web,” which is a network of encrypted Internet material that is not
searchable through regular search engines.
• The phrases “deep web” and “darknet” are sometimes used interchangeably. This, however, is incorrect.
• The darknet is a subset of the deeper web. All unindexed sites that don’t show up when you conduct an
Internet search are considered part of the deep web.
• Not all acts related to the deep web are illegal. Most of the time, regular search engines are unable to find
these pages.
7.3. METAVERSE
• Augmented reality: “The real-time usage of information in the form of text, visuals, audio, or other virtual
upgrades merged with real-world objects” is how augmented reality (AR) is described.
• Virtual reality (VR) is a computer-generated simulation in which a person may interact with an artificial
three- dimensional world with the use of electronic equipment such as special eyewear with a screen or
sensors-equipped gloves.The user can enjoy a realistic-feeling experience in this simulated artificial world.
• Metaverse: It is a network of always-on virtual environments in which numerous individuals may
interact with one another and digital things through virtual representations of themselves.A metaverse is a
mixed reality environment that combines augmented and virtual reality.
7.4. BASICS OF COMPUTERS

• Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information.
• The term hardware refers to the physical components of your computer such as the system unit, mouse etc.
• The software is the instructions that make the computer work. Software is held either on your computer’s
hard disk or in DVD ROM.
7.4.1 Types of Memory:

• Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory (RAM and ROM) and Secondary memory
(hard drive, CD, etc).
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is primary-volatile memory and Read-Only Memory (ROM) is primary-
non- volatile memory.
7.4.2 How Computer Memory Is Measured?
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• Bit: All computers work on a binary numbering system, i.e. they process data in one’s or zero’s. This 1 or
0 level of storage is called a bit.
• Byte: A byte consists of eight bits.
• Kilobyte: A kilobyte (KB) consists of 1024 bytes.
• Megabyte: A megabyte (MB) consists of 1024 kilobytes.
• Gigabyte: A gigabyte (GB) consists of 1024 megabytes.
7.4.3 Types of Computers:

• Mini and Mainframe Computers Very powerful, used by large organizations such as banks to control the
entire business operation.
• Personal Computers Cheap and easy to use. Often used as stand-alone computers or in a network.
7.5. SUPERCOMPUTERS
• These are large systems that are specifically designed to solve complex scientific & industrial challenges.
• The performance of a supercomputer is measured in Floating-Point Operations per Second (FLOPS).
• The top Five Supercomputers in the world:
• India has 4 supercomputers in the list of world’s top 500 supercomputers with Pratyush & Mihir being
the fastest supercomputers in India.
• The first indigenous supercomputer was developed indigenously in 1991 by Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing which was called as PARAM 8000.
• Application areas: Climate Modeling, Computational Biology, Atomic Energy Simulations, National Defence,
Disaster management etc.
7.5.1 National Supercomputing Mission (NSM):

• It was Launched in 2015
• NSM is jointly steered by the MeitY and Department of S&T (DST).
• Implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), Pune & the IISc,
Bengaluru.
• Objective: to connect national academic and R&D institutions with a grid of over 70 high-performance
computing facilities.
• These will be networked on the ‘National Supercomputing Grid’ over the National Knowledge
Network (NKN).
7.6. QUANTUM COMPUTING

• Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and
perform computations.
• A classical computer performs operations using classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1.
• Quantum computer uses quantum bits or Qubits, which can be both 0 and 1 at the same time.
• ‘Qubits’ are the units of computation in quantum computers (or quantum bits). They take advantage of
quantum mechanics’ characteristics, which regulate how matter behaves at the atomic level.
• The laws of quantum physics are used to achieve functioning of quantum computing.
1. Superimposition: Each quantum bit (basic unit of information in a quantum computer) can represent
both 1 and 0 at the same time, which is known as superposition.
2. Quantum entanglement: Subatomic particles become “entangled” (connected) in quantum
entanglement, which means that any change in one upsets the other, even though they are at opposite
ends of the universe.
• Major advantages: Faster, Accurate, & Energy efficient.
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• SYCAMORE: it is Google’s Quantum Computer, which recently claimed Quantum Supremacy.

• Quantum Supremacy: refers to quantum computers being able to solve a problem that a classical computer
cannot.
7.7. CLOUD COMPUTING

• It is the supply of computer services over the Internet (“the cloud”), including servers, storage, databases,
networking, software, analytics, and intelligence, in order to provide speedier innovation, more flexible
resources, and economies of scale.
• The Government of India has launched an ambitious programme called “GI Cloud,” which has been dubbed
“MeghRaj,” in order to utilize and harness the benefits of Cloud Computing.
• The goal of this programme is to implement a variety of components, including governance structures, to
enable Cloud adoption in government.
7.8. EDGE COMPUTING

• Edge computing is a distributed information technology architecture in which client data is processed
at the periphery of the network.
• Data is analyzed locally.
Cloud Computing Edge Computing

Computation is not done at the source Computation is done near- source
Preferred to process normal data Preferred to process time- sensitive data.
Latency is more Reduced latency
Less secure More secure
7.9. BIG DATA & DATA MINING

• Big Data constitutes a large volume of structured or unstructured data.
• Big data is so huge that the traditional data processing system is inadequate to process.
• Data mining is a process used to extract usable data from a larger set of any raw data
• By analyzing this data, a useful decision can be made in various cases such as:
o Tracking Customer Spending Habit, Shopping Behavior
o Smart Traffic System
o Auto Driving Car
o Virtual Personal Assistants
o Internet of Things etc.
7.10. COMPUTER VIRUSES

• A computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written to alter the way a computer operates and
is designed to spread from one computer to another.
• In the process, a virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming the system
software by corrupting or destroying data.
7.10.1 What are the different types of computer viruses?

Boot sector virus: This type of virus can take control when you start — or boot — your computer. One
way it can spread is by plugging an infected USB drive into your computer.
• Web scripting virus: This type of virus exploits the code of web browsers and web pages. If you access
such a web page, the virus can infect your computer.
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• Browser hijacker: This type of virus “hijacks” certain web browser functions, and you may be
automatically directed to an unintended website.
• Resident virus: This is a general term for any virus that inserts itself in a computer system’s memory. A
resident virus can execute anytime when an operating system loads.
• Direct action virus: This type of virus comes into action when you execute a file containing a virus.
Otherwise, it remains dormant.
• Polymorphic virus: A polymorphic virus changes its code each time an infected file is executed. It does
this to evade antivirus programs.
• File infector virus: This common virus inserts malicious code into executable files — files used to
perform certain functions or operations on a system.
• Multipartite virus: This kind of virus infects and spreads in multiple ways. It can infect both program
files and system sectors.
• Macro virus: Macro viruses are written in the same macro language used for software applications.
• Such viruses spread when you open an infected document, often through email attachments. A computer
worm is malware, just like a virus, but a worm takes a copy of itself and propagates it to other users.
7.11. MOBILE TECHNOLOGY

• Mobile communication involves transmitting voice or data using wireless radio transmission.
• Mobile generations refer to change like mobile wireless communication network speed, technology, data
capacity, frequency, latency etc.
7.11.1 6G technology:
• It will be able to operate at higher frequencies than 5G networks, resulting in significantly increased
capacity and lower latency (delay).
• One of the 6G internet’s goals will be to provide communication with a one-microsecond latency (a
communication delay of one microsecond).
• This is 1,000 times faster than one millisecond throughput – or 1/1000 the latency.
• It aims to make use of the currently underutilized terahertz frequency spectrum.
• 5G is the next-generation cellular technology that will provide faster and more reliable communication
with ultra-low latency.
• Latency is a measure of delay. In a network, latency measures the time it takes for some data to get to its
destination across the network.
• 4G mobile technology provides wireless mobile broadband internet access in addition to voice and other
services of 3G.
• Applications include improved web access, Internet Protocol (IP) telephony, Video Conferencing, Cloud
Computing, Gaming Services, High-Definition Mobile TV etc.
• 4G uses LTE (Long Term Evolution) technology, which allows voice & data-communication
simultaneously.
Beamforming:
It is the application of multiple radiating elements transmitting the same signal at an identical wavelength and
phase, which combine to create a single antenna with a longer, more targeted stream which is formed by reinforcing
the waves in a specific direction
7.12. NET NEUTRALITY

• Net neutrality refers to the fact that governments and internet service providers treat all data on the internet
equally and do not charge users more for higher-quality delivery or give some websites preferential
treatment.
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• The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) recently proposed the formation of a multi-stakeholder
body (MSB) to guarantee that internet service providers in the nation follow net neutrality principles.
• All Internet service providers (ISPs) must provide the same amount of data access and speed to all traffic
under network neutrality, and traffic to one service or website cannot be banned or downgraded.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-8: EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
8.1. BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

• Blockchain technology is a structure that stores transactional records (also known as block), of the public
in several databases, known as the chain, in a network connected through Peer-to-peer (P2P) nodes.
• This storage is referred to as a digital ledger.
• Every transaction in this ledger (storage) is authorized by the digital signature of the owner, which
authenticates the transaction and saves it from any tampering.
• Blockchain Key characteristic features include decentralization, persistence, and anonymity.
• Blockchain technology discards the need for any third- party or central authority for peer-to-peer
transactions.
8.1.1 Cryptocurrency:
• Cryptocurrency is a digital payment system that doesn’t rely on banks to verify transactions. It’s a peer-
to-peer system that can enable anyone anywhere to send and receive payments.
• In many countries, cryptocurrency is unregulated & they are not a legal tender payment system. For
example, Bitcoin.
8.1.2 Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC):

• CBDC is a digital version of fiat currency that may be exchanged using blockchain-based wallets and is
controlled by the central bank. It is a digital type of legal money issued by a central bank.
• An official digital currency would lower the cost of currency administration while allowing real-
time payments to be made without the need for interbank settlement.
• Another advantage of CBDC is that, to the degree that huge amounts of cash can be replaced by CBDC,
the cost of printing, transporting, and keeping paper money may be significantly decreased.
• The Indian government has declared in its Budget 2022- 23 that its central bank will issue a digital
currency as early as 2022-
8.2. WEARABLE TECHNOLOGY

• These are smart electronic devices designed to be worn on the user’s body. Ex: Smart jewellery,
Wristbands, watches etc.
• These devices detect, analyze, and transmit information.
• Wearable technology is evolving into an important category of the Internet of things, with life-changing
applications in medicine and other fields.
8.3. NEAR-FIELD COMMUNICATION (NFC)

• NFC is a short-range contactless communication technology based on a Radio Frequency (RF) field
using a base frequency of 13.56 MHz.
• NFC-enabled devices must be either physically touching or within a few centimeters of each other for data
transfer to occur.
8.4. RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

• RFID technology uses radio waves to passively identify a tagged object.
• An RFID tag consists of a tiny radio transponder; a radio receiver and transmitter.
• Unlike a barcode, the tag doesn’t need to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in
the tracked object.
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8.5. FASTAG
• The FASTag is a reloadable tag that allows tolls to be deducted automatically without the need to stop
for a cash transaction.
• Once activated, the tag employs Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology and is attached to the
vehicle’s windscreen.
• It was first used in April 2016, and on December 1, 2017, the government made it mandatory for all new
automobiles and trucks to be fitted with a FASTag before being sold.
• The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) returns 5% of total monthly transactions to encourage
the usage of FASTags.
8.6. INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

• IoT is the interlinking of digital devices, people, machines, appliances, & other objects with one another
through wireless networks.
• It allows machines & people to be connected and communicate as well.
• IoT Applications are many including works of daily life, Industry, Agriculture, Healthcare, Transportation,
Governance etc.
8.7. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

• Artificial intelligence (AI) is the ability of a computer or a robot controlled by a computer to do tasks
that are usually done by humans because they require human intelligence and discernment.
• AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence in machines that are programmed to think like humans and
mimic their actions.
• AI is a self, adaptive learning system.
• Applications: Industrial automation, Space science, self- driven cars, Healthcare sector, weather forecasting
etc.
• 3 Types of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI)
2. Artificial General Intelligence (AGI)
3. Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)
8.7.1 Working Mechanism of artificial intelligence:

• AI works by combining large amounts of data with fast, iterative processing and intelligent algorithms,
allowing the software to learn automatically from patterns or features in the data.
• AI is a broad field of study that includes many theories, methods and technologies, as well as the following
major subfields:
o Machine learning automates analytical model building. It uses methods from neural networks,
statistics, operations research and physics to find hidden insights in data without explicitly being
programmed for where to look or what to conclude.
o A neural network is a type of machine learning that is made up of interconnected units (like
neurons) that processes information by responding to external inputs, relaying information between
each unit. The process requires multiple passes at the data to find connections and derive meaning
from undefined data.
o Deep learning uses huge neural networks with many layers of processing units, taking advantage of
advances in computing power and improved training techniques to learn complex patterns in large
amounts of data.
o Computer vision relies on pattern recognition and deep learning to recognize what’s in a picture or
video. When machines can process, analyze and understand images, they can capture images or
videos in real time and interpret their surroundings.
o Natural language processing (NLP) is the ability of computers to analyze, understand and generate
human language, including speech. The next stage of NLP is natural language interaction, which
allows humans to communicate with computers using normal, everyday language to perform tasks.
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8.8. DEEPFAKES
• Deepfakes use a form of artificial intelligence called deep learning to make images of fake events, hence the
name deepfake.
• The origin of the word “deepfake” can be traced back to 2017 when a Reddit user, with the username “deep
fakes”, posted explicit videos of celebrities.
• Deep Fakes are created by machine learning models, which use neural networks to manipulate images and
videos.
• A model such as this “analyzes video footage until it is able algorithmically to transpose the ‘skin’ of one
human face onto the movements of another.
• The usage of a technique called Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN), which employs two AI
algorithms — one that creates false material and the other that assesses the system’s efforts, allowing it to
improve — has resulted in more accurate deep fakes.
8.9. LI-FI
• It is a bidirectional, fully networked wireless communication technology that transmits data using
visible light rather than radio frequencies.
• A router is made out of an adapted LED bulb.
• It can provide more resilient and reliable wireless networks that complement and enhance existing cellular
and Wi-Fi networks by providing greater security, data rates, and density.
• It delivers ultra-fast data connections, which are particularly beneficial in metropolitan regions where radio
spectrum is congested, as well as in rural locations where Fiber Optic Cables or networks are unavailable.
• A standard LED bulb is linked to a gadget, which is linked to the Internet.
• The Internet data enters the bulb via the gadget and is transported by light waves.
• Light waves delivering Internet data fall on a receiver or a dongle attached to the computer on the other end.
8.10. BIOMETRICS
• Biometrics are biological measurements — or physical characteristics — that can be used to identify
individuals.
• For example, fingerprint mapping, facial recognition, and retina scans are all forms of biometric technology,
but these are just the most recognized options.
8.10.1 Digital Signature Certificates (DSC):

• DSC are the digital equivalent (that is electronic format) of physical or paper certificates.
• Certificates serve as a proof of identity of an individual.
• DSCs can be presented electronically to prove identity, to access information or services on the Internet
or to sign certain documents digitally.
8.11. 3D PRINTING
• 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a method of creating prototypes or functional
models of products by layering materials such as plastic, resin, thermoplastic, metal, fiber, or ceramic.
• With a market share of more than 35%, the United States is the global leader in 3D printing.China controls
almost half of the Asian market, followed by Japan (30%) and South Korea (10%).
8.11.1 Process of 3D Printing

• The process of 3D printing begins with the creation of a virtual model of the thing to be manufactured.
• A 3D modelling application, such as CAD (Computer Aided Design), or 3D scanners can be used to create
virtual designs.
• After that, the 3D digital copy is loaded into a 3D modelling application. In order to print the model, it is
next cut into hundreds or thousands of horizontal layers.
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• This prepared file is then sent to the 3D printer, which reads each slice in 2D format and then
builds the item layer by layer, with no apparent layering and a 3 dimensional structure as a result
8.11.2 3D bioprinting:
• The goal of 3D bioprinting was to provide 3D constructs with autonomous mechanical characteristics so
that they could resemble the body’s natural tissue.
• This method enables for the customization of microstructures for disease models.
• Scientists have created a 3D printing process that can replicate the complicated geometry of blood
vessels, which might be used to construct prosthetic arteries and organ tissues in the future.
8.12. DRONES
• A drone refers to an unpiloted aircraft or spacecraft. Another term for it is an “unmanned aerial vehicle,” or
UAV.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-9: INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS (IPR) AND

RELATED ISSUES
• In the economic, scientific, literary, and artistic areas, intellectual property rights (IPRs) are legal rights over
intangible creations, innovation, and discoveries.
• Intellectual property law’s principal goal is to encourage the creation of a wide range of intellectual
commodities.
9.1. INTERNATIONAL LAWS RELATED TO IPR

• The Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883) and the Berne Convention for
the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (1885) were the first to recognise the importance of IPR.
• The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is in- charge of both.
• Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes IPRs.
• The World Trade Organization (WTO) regulates IPR through the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS).
Intellectual Property Rights:

IPR is the creation of the minds of an individual which has a commercial and moral value. Intellectual property
rights (IPR) grants exclusive rights to an anchor for utilizing and benefiting from their creation.
9.1.1 Patent:
• A patent is a type of limited-duration protection that can be used to protect inventions (or discoveries)
that are new, non-obvious, and useful, such as a new process, machine, article of manufacture, or
composition of matter.
• A patent provides protection for 20 years. Once a patent expires protection ends and the invention
enters the public domain.
• In India, The Patent Act 1970 Act with the laws on patents. The office of the controller general of
patents designs and trademarks is an agency under the department of promotion of industry and
internal trade under the ministry of Commerce and industry looking into the Indian laws of patent.
• Product patent original inventor of the product conferred with the patent. It implies that no other
person except the inventor can manufacture the same product using the same process or other process.
• Process patent the patent is granted to a particular process and note to the end product. Any other
manufacturer can create the same product using a different process and this does not violate the patent
law.
• Evergreening of patents is referred to the practice whereby pharmaceutical firms extend the patent life
of a drug by obtaining additional 20-year patents for minor reformulations or other iterations of the drug,
without necessarily increasing the therapeutic efficacy.
• Prohibition on Evergreening: Chapter II of the Indian Patent Act, 1970 Section 3 deals with what is
not patentable.
o Sub-section (3d) which reads “the mere discovery of a new form of a known substance or mere
discovery of any new property or new use for a known substance or of the mere use of a known
process, machine or apparatus unless such known process results in a new product or employs at
least one new reactant.
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9.2. NEW PATENT REGIME IN INDIA

• The Indian Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005 introduced product patents in India and marked the
beginning of a new patent regime aimed at protecting the intellectual property rights of patent holders.
• The Act was in fulfillment of India’s commitment to the World Trade Organization (WTO) on matters
relating to the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).
• The Act brought in a definition of the term ‘new invention’ and also introduced restrictions as to the scope of
patentability (section 3(d)).
9.3. COMPULSORY LICENSING

• A compulsory license is a government-issued license or authorization that allows an applicant to make,
use, and sell a patented product or use a patented process without the patentee’s approval.
• Compulsory licensing is discussed in Chapter XVI of the Indian Patents Act 1970 and the Agreement on
Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights.
• After three years from the date of patent sealing, a compulsory license application can be filed at any time.
• Compulsory licenses can also be awarded suo-motu by the Controller of Patents in response to a
notification issued by the Central Government if there is a national emergency or great urgency, or in
circumstances of “public non-commercial use,” according to Section 92 of the Act.
9.4. TRADEMARK
• A trademark is a symbol that distinguishes one company’s goods or services from those of other companies.
• Trademark act 1999 governs the rules related to the trademark in India and it is implemented by the
Ministry of Commerce and industry.
• The Madrid System for International Registration of Marks provides trademark owners with a cost-
effective, user-friendly, and streamlined method of protecting and administering their international
trademark portfolio.
9.5. INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

• Govern under the Designs act 2000 in India.
• ‘An industrial design can include three-dimensional elements such as an article’s shape or two-dimensional
elements such as patterns, lines, or colour.
• Industrial designs are the result of creative activity that results in a product’s decorative or formal
appearance, and a design right is a novel or original design granted to the owner of a legitimately registered
design.
9.6. COPYRIGHTS
• Copyright is a legal word that refers to the rights that authors and artists have over their works of
literature and art.
• Books, music, paintings, sculpture, and films are all covered by copyright, as are computer programmes,
databases, ads, maps, and technical drawings.
• The Copyright Act, 1957 governs copyrights in India.
• A literary work can also be a piece of computer software or a programme. Computer programmes, tables,
and compilations, including computer databases, are considered literary work under the Copyright Act of
1957.
• Along with the application for registration of copyright for software items, Source Code must be provided.
• The 2012 amendments of the Copyrights Act, bring Indian copyright law in line with the WIPO
Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WIPO PPT).
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9.7. GEOGRAPHICAL INDICATIONS (GI):

• A geographical indication (GI) is a label that is applied to items that have a specific geographical origin
and that have traits or a reputation that are due to that origin.
• A sign must identify a product as coming from a specific location in order to operate as a GI. Furthermore,
the product’s traits, characteristics, or reputation should be primarily owing to its origin.
• The “Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration & Protection) Act, 1999” governs geographical
indicators in India.
9.7.1 India’s IPR Policy:

• The National IPR Policy, according to the government, is a vision document that intends to establish
and utilize synergies across all types of intellectual property (IP), as well as relevant statutes and
agencies.
• It establishes an institutional framework for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
• Its goal is to apply global best practices to the Indian situation.
9.7.2 Objectives of IPR policy:

• Awareness to raise public understanding of the economic, social, and cultural benefits of IPRs across the
board.
• Providing Legal frameworks have strong and effective IPR regulations that strike a balance between
the rights holders’ interests and the greater public interest.
• Commercialization of IPRs Commercialization can help to get more value out of your intellectual
property.
• Enforcement and Adjudication In order to counteract IPR infringements, the enforcement and
adjudicatory systems must be strengthened.
• IPR generation stimulates the generation of IPRs.
• Administration and Management update and strengthen IPR administration that is focused on service.
• Human capital development Human resources, institutions, and capacities for teaching, training,
research, and skill development in IPRs must be strengthened and expanded.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-10: ROBOTICS
• Robotics deals with the design, building, operation, structural depositions, manufacturing, and application of
robots.
• Robotics is a fast expanding field that continues to research, create, and manufacture new robots that serve
a variety of practical uses.
10.1. COMPONENTS OF ROBOTS

• Manipulator Just like the human arm, the robot consists of what is called a manipulator having several joints
and links.
• End Effector: The End Effector is expected to perform tasks normally performed by the palm and finger
arrangements of the human arm.
• The Locomotion Device The motors used for providing locomotion in robots are of three types depending
on the source of energy: Electric, Hydraulic or Pneumatic.
• The Controller: Sensors are nothing but measuring instruments which measure quantities such as position,
velocity, force, torque, proximity, temperature, etc.
10.2. APPLICATIONS
• Robots are highly beneficial for workers, industries and countries. If introduced properly, industrial
robots can augment the quality of life by freeing workers from dirty, boring, hazardous and heavy labour.
• Economic Survey 2017-18 recognised robotics as a focus area (along with blockchain, AI and other
futuristic technologies).
• It was speculated that robotics would have a special place under Make in India 2.0.
10.3. RECENT BREAKTHROUGH IN THE FIELD OF ROBOTICS

10.3.1 Artificial humans –NEON:
• Samsung’s future factory STAR Labs has developed Neon, AI-powered virtual beings that look and
behave like real humans.
• The Neons are still currently in their early development phase, acting mainly as AI chatbots in human-
like form.
• They look and behave like real humans, and could one day develop memories and emotions — though
from behind a 4K display.
There are two core technologies behind his virtual humans:
1. First, there is the proprietary CORE R3 technology that drives the “reality, real time and responsiveness”
behind NEONs.
2. Second technology is SPECTRA, which will complement CORE R3 with the “spectrum of intelligence,
learning, emotions and memory”.
10.3.2 Xenobots:
• Scientists in the United States have created the world’s first “living machines” — tiny robots built from
the cells of the African clawed frog that can move around on their own.
• They have named the millimeter-wide robots xenobots— after the species of aquatic frog found across
sub- Saharan Africa from Nigeria and Sudan to South Africa, Xenopus laevis.
• They discovered that these computer-designed and hand- assembled organisms can swim out into their
tiny dish, find single cells, gather hundreds of them together, and assemble baby Xenobots.
• The xenobots “can move toward a target, perhaps pick up a payload and heal themselves after being cut”.
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• AI-designed Xenobots reveal entirely new forms of biological self-replication—promising for

regenerative medicine.
10.4. ROBOTICS IN INDIA

• Mitra, the first indigenously built humanoid robot is capable of interacting with humans smartly.
• Robocop is a police robot that has been deployed in Hyderabad to help with law enforcement and traffic
control.
• Green seeker sensor This clever equipment assesses the demands of a plant and then applies the exact
amount of fertilizer and pesticides required. Green Seeker is a contraption that employs sensors to allow the
plant to communicate what it requires.
• Daksh, a robot developed by the Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO), is primarily
meant to detect and recover improvised explosive devices (IEDs). It was first used by the Indian Army in
2011. The Indian Army is said to be using 20 Daksh robots already.
Student’s Note:
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CHAPTER-11: DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
Organisation Important Information
Defence Research and • DRDO is the R&D wing of the Ministry of Defence, Government of India.
Development Organisation • Established in 1958.
(DRDO)
Defence Innovation • It is a ‘not for profit’ company registered under Section 8 of the
Organisation Companies Act 2013.
• Its two founding members are Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) &
Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) - Defence Public Sector Undertakings
(DPSUs).
• Nuclear Triad: A three-sided military-force structure consisting of land- launched nuclear missiles,
nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft with nuclear bombs and missiles.
Land Based Agni; Agni-I; Agni-II; Agni III; Agni- IV; ICBM - Agni-V; SLBM - Sagarika (K-15);
Cruise – Brahmos Supersonic etc.
Sea Based Arihant class submarine
Air Based Mig-27 Etc.
11.1. INDIAN MISSILE SYSTEM

• Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam to
enable India attain self-sufficiency in missile technology, in response to the Missile Technology Control
Regime.
• IGMDP was started in 1983 and completed in March 2012.
• It developed 5 types of missiles under it.
11.1.1 Prithvi:
• Tactical surface-to-surface short range ballistic missile.
• First missile developed under IGMDP in 1983.
• Uses either liquid or both liquid and solid fuels and are capable of carrying conventional as well as nuclear
warheads.
• Prithvi I- Army version-150 km range
• Prithvi II- Air force version-350 km range
• Prithvi III- Naval version-600 km range
11.1.2 Agni:
• It is an intercontinental surface-to-surface, nuclear capable ballistic missile developed by DRDO.
• At present, US, China, Russia, UK, France and Israel are known to have ICBMs.
• It has been equipped with very high accuracy.
• Ring Laser Gyro based Inertial Navigation System (RINS) and Micro Navigation System (MINS).
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11.1.3 Trishul:
• Short range surface-to-air missile for Indian Navy used for Immediate combat action.
• Range - 9km.
• Currently not in service.
11.1.4 Nag:
• Anti-tank guided missile developed by DRDO
• Range - 4km.
• 3rd generation ‘fire and forget’ guided missile where the target is identified and designated before
the weapon is launched.
• It is an all-weather condition with day and night capabilities.
• Launched from land and air-based platforms.
11.1.5 Akash:
• Group of 4 medium range surface-to-air missiles with a radar called Rajendra.
• Multi-target engagement capacity. Radar detects incoming objects and missiles are fired.
• Range – 30 km. Altitudes up to 18000 m.
• Already in use.
Note: PATNA is a short trick for remembering 5 missiles' names.
11.2. OTHER MISSILES
11.2.1 Astra:
• Astra is an all-weather beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM)
• Range - 80km.
• Payload capacity: 15 kg.
• First indigenously developed missile of India
• Uses solid fuel ducted Ramjet and has BVRAAM (beyond visual range air-to-air missile) technology.
• Can destroy enemy aircrafts at supersonic speed.
11.2.2 Prahaar:
• Solid-fuel, surface-to-surface tactical ballistic missile
• Range - 150 km.
• Payload capacity - 200 to 500kg.
11.2.3 Pralay:
• Solid fuel surface-to-surface tactical missile.
• Payload - 1 tonne and has a range of 350 km.
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11.2.4 Nirbhay:
• NIRBHAY is India’s first indigenous Long Range, all-weather, Sub-Sonic Cruise Missile,
• It can carry a warhead of 200 kg to 300 kg at a speed of 0.6 to 0.7 Mach with a launch weight of about
1500 kg.
• It can avoid detection as it has the ability to cruise at heights as low as 100 m.
• Can be launched from multiple platforms and is capable of carrying conventional and nuclear warheads.
• Two-stage missile powered by Solid rocket motor booster.
• Range of 1000 km.
11.2.5 Dhanush:
• It is also known as Prithvi-III.
• Sea-to-sea/surface short range ballistic missile.
• Range - 350 km.
• Capable of carrying nuclear as well as conventional warheads.
11.2.6 Brahmos Missile System:

• BRAHMOS is a joint venture between the Defence Research and Development Organisation of India
(DRDO) and the NPOM of Russia.
• Named after the rivers Brahmaputra (India) and Moskva (Russia).
• Two-stage (solid propellant engine in the first stage and liquid ramjet in second) air-to-surface missile.
• Range - around 300 km.
• Speed - Mach 2.8
• India’s entry into the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) has extended the range of the
BRAHMOS missile to reach 450 km-600km.
• Can be launched from land, air, and sea and is a multi-capability missile with pinpoint accuracy that works
in both day and night irrespective of the weather conditions.
• Operates on the “Fire and Forgets” principle.
• One of the fastest cruise missiles currently operationally deployed.
• Lower target dispersion and quicker engagement.
• Low radar signature.
11.2.7 Pinaka Missile System:

• Indigenous multi-barrel rocket launch system, for the Indian Army by DRDO
• The navigation system - aided by the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).
• Range is more than 70 km.
11.2.8 Rudra M-I:

• It is the first indigenous anti-radiation missile of the country.
• Range of up to 200 km depending upon the launch conditions.
• Can be launched from altitudes of 500 m to 15 km and speeds of 0.6 to 2 mach.
• Can locate and target any radiation-emitting source like enemy radars, communication sites and other
Radio Frequency (RF) emitting targets.
Anti-Satellite Weapons (ASAT) Mission Shakti:

• To develop highly potent Anti-satellite weapons (ASAT).
• It is a joint programme of DRDO and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• Anti-satellite (ASAT) System is a missile-based system to attack moving satellites.
• ASAT propels India to the coveted space-superpower league.
• India will now have the power to decimate satellites for pure military and strategic purposes.
• India will have the capability to interfere with satellites or engage in direct attacks.
• ASAT missiles can be air, sea or land based.
• Can also help in creating nuclear missile deterrence.
• In March 2019, India successfully tested its ASAT missile.
• joining a select group of nations – USA, Russia and China with a similar technology.
107
• India used the Kinetic Kill space technology.

• The ASAT missile destroyed a live satellite in Low Earth orbit (283-kilometre).
• As per DRDO, the missile is capable of shooting down targets moving at a speed of 10 km per second at an
altitude as high as 1200 km.
11.3. AIR DEFENCE SYSTEMS

11.3.1 Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme:
• India’s BMD development began in 1999, after the Kargil war.
• It is a two-tiered defence system and will be able to intercept any incoming missile launched 5,000 km
away.
o Prithvi Air Defence (PAD): It’s designed for High altitude interception (exo-atmospheric
interception).
o Advanced Air Defence (AAD): It’s endo-atmospheric interception system (for low altitude
interception).
Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems
S-400 Triumf Missile System Russia - It is a mobile,

surface-to-air missile system.
THAAD-Terminal High US- a transportable, ground- based

Altitude Area Defence system
Iron Dome Aerial Defence System Israel
11.4. SUBMARINES
11.4.1 Nuclear-powered:
• Gets energy from a nuclear reactor so it can stay submerged in water for months.
• Difficult for the enemy to detect.
• Can float near territorial waters of enemy nations.
• Provide excellent second-striking capability
• SSN: submersible ship nuclear-powered-specifically designed for attacking and sinking other
submarines/ ships. Generally, do not carry long range missiles.
• SSBN: submersible ship Ballistic Nuclear-Powered-have the capability to deploy submarine launched
ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads.
11.4.2 Diesel-powered:
• Come on waterbody surface after regular intervals because burning of diesel needs oxygen
• Easy for enemy to detect
• Can’t float near territorial waters of enemy nation
• Don’t possess that advantage
11.4.3 Attack Submarines:
• Generally small submarines designed for specific tasks, which include attack on the enemy in combat.
• It uses torpedoes and other small range missiles.
• These submarines have limited range and need to come out of the water after some time.
108
11.4.4 Ballistic Missile Submarines:

• Bigger in size and are more destructive for the enemy.
• It is used as a launch platform for ballistic or long-range missiles.
• These can carry nuclear warheads.
• These submarines are nuclear powered submarines. As a result, they have almost unlimited range
because of the availability of unlimited power supply.
• These can remain underwater for months and can travel up to thousand miles.
11.5. PROJECTS BY NAVY
11.5.1 Project 75:

• Part of a 30-year submarine building plan from 2007 upto 2030.
• This project envisages the construction of six conventional submarines with better sensors and weapons
and the Air Independent Propulsion System (AIP)- Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir and Vagsheer.
11.5.2 Project 28:

• Under this 4 Anti-Submarine Warships have to be built indigenously in India.
• Four corvettes- INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan and INS Kavaratti.
• The warships are named after the islands in the Lakshadweep archipelago.
11.5.3 Project 17a:

• Involves the building of seven stealth frigates.
11.6. INITIATIVES TO MODERNIZE DEFENCE INDUSTRY

11.6.1 Strategic Partnership (SP) Model:
• It identifies a few Indian private companies who would initially tie up with global Original Equipment
Manufacturers (OEMs) to seek technology transfers to set up domestic manufacturing infrastructure and
supply chains.
11.6.2 iDEX:
• Launched in 2018.
• Aims to promote innovation and technology development in Defence and Aerospace by engaging
Industries (which includes MSMEs, start-ups, individual innovators, R&D institutes & academia)with
funding and other support to carry out Research & Development.
• It will be funded and managed by the Defence Innovation Organization (DIO) and will function as the
executive arm of DIO.
11.7. COASTAL RADAR NETWORK

• The goal is to establish an information network and marine domain awareness in the strategically important
Indian Ocean region.
• This would also enable India to increase its capacity- building support to Indian Ocean littoral states.
• The information gathered would eventually be sent into the Indian Ocean Region’s Information Fusion
Center.
109

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2.3. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................................................................................... :

5.11. ORBITS ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER-10: ROBOTICS ........................................................................................................................................................................... 103

Figure 1.1: Structure Of The Cell (Animal Cell)

Cells Differ Greatly In Size, Shape And Activities

1.1.1 Components of the Cell:

Figure 1.2: Features All Cells

1.2. PLASMA MEMBRANE:

Figure 1.3: Plant Cell:

1.4. NUCLEOID OR NUCLEUS:

Figure 1.4: Nucleoid Or Nucleus

1.4.1 Major components of the Nucleus:

1.6. CELL ORGANELLES:

Figure 1.7: Mitochondria

Figure 1.7A: Five Roles Mitochondria Play in Cells

1.8. ENDO-MEMBRANE SYSTEM:

1.8.1 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

1.8.2 Golgi Apparatus:

1.10. STEM CELLS:

Figure 1.10: Types of Stem Cells

1.11. CLASSIFICATIONS OF CELLS:

Characteristic Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Cell division Binary Fission Mitosis

Number of One, but not true chromosome More than one

Plant cells Viz-a-Viz Animal cells:

S.N. Plant Cell Animal Cell

9. Lysosomes are rare Lysosomes present

1.11.1 Deviation from basic cell types:

Figure 1.11: A typical Enveloped Virus

1.11.2 General structure of the Viruses:

The Simplest Virions Consist of two Basic Components

• Nucleic acid (single- or double-stranded RNA or DNA);

1.11.3 What is a positive sense and negative sense RNA Virus?

1.12. GRADES OF THE ORGANISATION:

Figure 1.12: Grades Of Organization

1.13. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ORGANISMS:

1.13.1 Taxonomic Category:

1.14. FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION:

1.14.1 Kingdom Monera:

1.14.2 Kingdom Protista:

1.14.3 Kingdom Fungi:

Why is it associated with CoVID-19

1.14.4 Kingdom Plantae:

1.14.5 Animal Kingdom:

Character Five Kingdoms

1.15. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT KINGDOM:

• Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways.

Figure 1.15A: Parts of flower

• They are also called Flowering plants.

• Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants. It is a process by which new

Different types of vegetative propagation include:

1.16. CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS:

1.16.1 Phylum – Porifera:

1.16.2 Phylum – Coelenterata (Cnidaria):

1.16.3 Phylum – Platyhelminthes:

1.16.4 Phylum – Aschelminthes:

1.16.5 Phylum – Annelida:

1.16.6 Phylum – Arthropoda:

1.16.7 Phylum – Mollusca:

1.16.8 Phylum – Echinodermata:

1.16.9 Phylum – Chordata: