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proportions (porosity, saturations) of the interstitial fluids. Log analysts distinguish only
two categories of solid component in a rock-“matrix” ** and “shale”. This classification
is based on the sharply contrasting effects they have, not only on the logs themselves,
but on the petrophysical properties of reservoir rocks (permeability, saturation, etc.).
Shale is in certain cases treated in terms of two constituents, “clay” and “silt”. We will
discuss this log-analyst terminology in more detail.
1.3.1. Matrix
For the log analyst, matrix encompasses all the solid constituents of the rock (grains,
matrix *, cement), excluding shale. A simple matrix lithology consists of single mineral
(calcite or quartz, for example). A complex lithology contains a mixture of minerals: for
instance, a cement of a different nature from the grains (such as a quartz sand with
calcitic cement). A clean formation is one containing no appreciabIe amount of clay or
shale. (Thus we may speak of a simple shaly sand lithology, or a clean complex lithology,
and so on). Table 1-1 summarizes the log characteristics (radioactivity, resistivity,
hydrogen index, bulk density, acoustic wave velocity ...) of some of the principle
minerals found in sedimentary rocks.
1.3.2. Shale, silt and clay
A shale is a fine-grained, indurated sedimentary rock formed by the consolidation of clay
or silt. It is characterized by a finely stratified structure (laminae 0.1-0.4 mm thick)
and/or fissility approximately parallel to the bedding. It normally contains at least 50%
silt with, typically, 35% clay or fine mica and 15% chemical or authigenic minerals. A silt
is a rock fragment or detrital particle having a diameter in the range of 1/256 mm to
1/16 mm. It has commonly a high content of clay minerals associated with quartz,
feldspar and heavy minerals such as mica, zircon, apatite, tourmaline, etc.. . A clay is an
extremely fine-grained natural sediment or soft rock consisting of particles smaller than
1/256 mm diameter. It contains clay minerals (hydrous silicates, essentially of
aluminium, and sometimes of magnesium and iron) and minor quantities of finely
divided quartz, decomposed feldspars, carbonates, iron oxides and other impurities
such as
** For a log analyst, matrix is “all the solid framework of rock which surrounds pore
volume”. excluding clay or shale (glossary of terms and expressions used in well logging,
S.P.W.L.A.. 1975).
organic matter. Clays form pasty, plastic impermeable masses. The crystal lattices of clay
minerals take the form of platelets. The stacking of these platelets gives the minerals a
flaky nature. There are several types of clay minerals, classified according to the
thickness of the platelets or the spacing of the crystal lattice (Fig. 1-1). Table 1-2 is a
summary of the mineralogical and chemical properties, and log characteristics of the
various minerals. Clays have a high water hydrogen content, which has an effect on log
response. The hydrogen is present: (a) in the hydroxyl ions in the clay mineral molecule;
(b) in a layer of adsorbed (or “bound”) water on the clay particle surface; and (c) in water
contained in the spaces between the clay platelets. The quantity of this “free-water”
varies with the arrangement and compaction of the platelets. The clays found in
sedimentary series will rarely show the theoretical log characteristics appearing in Table
1-2. They usually include several mineral types, and may be mixed with silts and
carbonates in varying proportions. Their pore-space will depend on the arrangement of
the particles and on the degree of compaction of the rock. These pores generally contain
water, but it is quite possible to find solid or liquid hydrocarbons or gases in them. So
the log response to a clay depends very much on its composition, porosity and
hydrocarbon content. Log response to a rock containing clay minerals will vary according
to the clay fraction and its characteristics.
1.3.3. Fluids
The arrangement of the grains usually leaves spaces (pores and channels) which are
filled with fluids: water, air, gas, oil, tar, etc. (Fig. 1-2). Just how much fluid is contained
in a rock depends on the space, or porosity, available. With the exception of water, these
pore-fluids have one important property in common with the large majority of matrix
minerals- they are poor electrical conductors. Water, on the other hand, conducts
electricity by virtue of dissolved salts. The electrical properties of a rock are therefore
strongly influenced by the water it contains. The quantity of water in the rock is a
function of the porosity, and the extent to which that porosity is filled with water (as
opposed to hydrocarbons). This explains why the resistivity of a formation is such an
important log measurement. From the resistivity we can determine the percentage of
water in the rock (provided we know the resistivity of the water itself). If we also know
the porosity, we may deduce the percentage of hydrocarbons present (the hydrocarbon
saturation).
1.3.3.1. Porosity
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of the total volume of a rock that is not occupied by
the solid constituents. There are several kinds of porosity: (a) Total porosity, $I,, consists
of all the void spaces (pores, channels, fissures, vugs) between the
We distinguish two components in the total poros1ty: 9, is the primary porosity, which
is intergranular or intercrystalline. It depends on the shape, size and arrangement of the
solids, and is the type of porosity encountered in clastic rocks. +2 is the secondary
porosity, made up of vugs caused by dissolution of the matrix, and fissures or cracks
caused by mechanical forces. It is a common feature of rocks of chemical or organic
(biochemical) origin. (b) Interconnected porosity, +cconnec,, is made up only of those
spaces which are in communication. This may be considerably less than the total
porosity *. (Consider pumice-stone for instance, where is of the order of 5056, but
+Lii,nnect is zero because each pore-space is isolated from the others: there are no
interconnecting channels.) (c) Potential porosity, GPO,, is that part of the
interconnected porosity in which the diameter of the +t=9, +92 (1-2) (1-1) connecting
channels is large enough to permit fluid to flow (greater than 50 pm for oil, 5 pm for
gas).
* Pores are considered to be unconnected when electrical current and fluids cannot flow
between them.
may in some cases be considerably smaller than q5cconnccl. Clays or shales, for
instance, have a very high connected porosity (40-50% when compacted, and as much
as 90% for newly deposited muds). However, owing to their very small pores and
channels, molecular attraction prevents fluid circulation. (d) Effective porosity, Ge, is a
term used specifically in log analysis. It is the porosity that is accessible to free fluids,
and excludes, therefore, non-connected porosity and the volume occupied by the clay-
bound water or clay-hydration water (adsorbed water, hydration water of the exchange
cations) surrounding the clay particles. N.B. Porosity is a dimensionless quantity, being
by definition a fraction or ratio. It is expressed either as a percentage (e.g. 30%), as a
decimal (e.g. 0.30) or in porosity units (e.g. 30 P.u.). The geological and sedimentological
factors influencing the porosity of a rock will be discussed later on in this book. of sides
measuring 1 metre, with a resistivity R = 1 ohm m2/m, would have a resistance of 1 ohm
between opposite faces. The electrical conductivity (C) is the measure of the material’s
ability to conduct electricity. It is the inverse of the resistivity, and is usually expressed
in units of millimhos/m (mmho/m) or mS/m (milli Siemens per metre) C (mmho/m) =
IOOO/R (ohm m2/m) (1-3) There are two types of conductivity: (a) Electronic
conductivity is a property of solids such as graphite, metals (copper, silver, etc.),
haematite, metal sulphides (pyrite, galena) etc. (b) Electrolytic conductivity is a property
of, for instance, water containing dissolved salts. Dry rocks, with the exception of those
mentioned above, have extremely high resistivities. The conductive properties of
sedimentary rocks are of electrolytic origin-the presence of water (or mixtures of water
and hydrocarbons) in the porespace. The water phase must of course be continuous in
order to contribute to the conductivity. The resistivity of a rock depends on: (a) The
resistivity of the water in the pores. This 1.3.3.2. Resistivitv and conductivity The
resistivity (R) of a substance is the measure of its opposition to the passage of electrical
current. It is expressed in units of ohm m2/m. A cube of material
will vary with the nature and concentration of its dissolved salts. (b) The quantity of
water present; that is, the porosity and the saturation. (c) Lithology, i.e. the nature and
percentage of clays present, and traces of conductive minerals. (d) The texture of the
rock; i.e. distribution of pores, clays and conductive minerals. (e) The temperature.
Resistivity may be anisotropic by virtue of stratification (layering) in the rock, caused,
for instance, by deposition of elongated or flat particles. oriented in the direction of a
prevailing current. This creates preferential paths for current flow (and fluid movement),
and electrical conductivity is not the same in all directions. We define horizontal
resistivity ( R,) in the direction of layering, and vertical resistivity (R,) perpendicular to
this. The anisotropy coefficient, A, is: x = ( R,/R{i)1’2 ( 1-4) This can vary between 1.0 and
2.5, with R, generally larger than R,. It is R, that we measure with the laterolog and other
resistivity tools (induction), whereas the classical electrical survey reads somewhere
between R,, and R,. The mean resistivity of an anisotropic formation is: R=(R,,R,)”’ (1-5)
The anisotropy of a single uniform layer is microscopic anisotropy. When we talk of the
overall characteristic of a sequence of thin resistive layers, this is inacroscopic
anisotropy. In such a series, the current tends to flow more easily along the layers than
across them, and this anisotropy will affect any tool reading resistivity over a volume of
formation containing these fine layers. Microscopic anisotropy occurs in clays, and
mudcakes. In the second case, the resistivity measured through the mudcake
perpendicular to the wall of the hole is higher than that parallel to the axis. This has an
effect on the focussed micro-resistivity tools (MLL, PML) which must be taken into
account in their interpretation. A mud-cake of anisotropy, A, and thickness, h mc, is
electrically equivalent to an isotropic mud-cake having a resistivity equal to the mean,
R,,Rv with thickness, Ah,,,. Summarizing, what we call the true resistivity (R,) of a
formation is a resistivity dependent on the fluid content and the nature and
configuration of the solid matrix. 1.3.3.2.1, The relurionship between resistivity and
salinip We have mentioned that the resistivity of an elec0 100 000 290 O00 400 000
CONCENTRATION - PPM Fig. 1-3. The dependence of resistivity on dissolved salt
concentration. trolyte depends on the concentration and type of dissolved salts.
Referring to Fig. 1-3, notice that the resistivity decreases as concentration increases, up
to a certain maximum beyond which undissolved, and therefore non-conducting, salts
impede the passage of current-carrying ions. The salinity is a measure of the
concentration of dissolved salts. It can be expressed in several ways: (a) parts per million
(ppm or pg/g of solution); (b) g/litre of solvent; and (c) g/litre of solution. The chart of
Fig. 1-4 permits easy conversion between these units. Sodium chloride (NaCI) is the most
common salt contained in formation waters and drilling muds. It is customary to express
the concentrations of other dissolved salts in terms of equivalent NaCl for evaluation of
the resistivity of a solution. Figure 1-5 shows the multipliers (Dunlap coefficients) for
conversion of some ionic concentrations to their NaCl equivalents. For a solution of
mixed salts simply take Na CI bpm) Fig. 1-4. The equivalence between the various units
of concentration.
the sum of the equivalent concentrations of each type of ion present. 1.3.3.2.2.
Relutionship between resistivity und temperature The resistivity of a solution decreases
as the temperature increases. The chart of Fig. 1-6 can be used to convert the resistivity
at a given temperature to that at any other temperature. Arps' formula approximates
this relationship by: where R,, is the solution resistivity at formation temperature T("F).
75°F is a commonly used reference temperature. More generally: TI + 21.5 R,,, = Rw,, (
1 -7a) ( 1 -7b) 1.3.3.3. The resistivity of duys With the exception of pyrite, haematite.
graphite and a few others. the dry minerals have infinite resistivity. Certain minerals do
exist that appear to be solid conductors. Clay minerals are an example. According to
Waxman and Smits (1967), a clayey sediment behaves like a clean formation of the same
porosity. tortuosity and fluid saturation, except that the water appears to be more
conductive than expected from its bulk salinity (Fig. 1-7a). Clays are sheet-like particles,
very thin (a few Angstroms), but have a large surface area depending on the clay mineral
type (Fig. 1-7b). There is a deficiency of positive electrical charge within the clay sheet.
This creates a strong negative electrical field perpendicular to the surface of the clay
sheet which attracts positive ions (Na+, K+, Ca*+. . . ) and repels the negative ions (Cl-,
...) present in the water (Clavier et al., 1977). The amounts of these compensating ions
constitute the Cation Exchange Capacity which is commonly referred to as the CEC
(meq/g dry rock) or Q, (meq per cm' total pore volume). CEC is related to the specific
area of clay and so depends on the clay mineral type. It has its lowest value in kaolinite
and its highest values in montmorillonite and vermiculite (Table 1-2). The excess of
conductivity observed within clays is due to these additional cations held loosely captive
in a diffuse layer surrounding the clay particles (Fig. 1-8).
** Para um analista de log, matriz é “toda a estrutura sólida de rocha que circunda o
volume dos poros”. excluindo argila ou xisto (glossário de termos e expressões usados
em perfilagem de poços, S.P.W.L.A.. 1975).
pode, em alguns casos, ser consideravelmente menor que q5cconnccl. Argilas ou xistos,
por exemplo, têm uma porosidade conectada muito alta (40-50% quando compactadas
e até 90% para lamas recém-depositadas). No entanto, devido aos seus poros e canais
muito pequenos, a atração molecular impede a circulação do fluido. (d) Porosidade
efetiva, Ge, é um termo usado especificamente na análise de perfil. É a porosidade que
é acessível aos fluidos livres, e exclui, portanto, a porosidade não conectada e o volume
ocupado pela água ligada à argila ou água de hidratação da argila (água adsorvida, água
de hidratação dos cátions de troca) ao redor das partículas de argila. . N.B. A porosidade
é uma quantidade adimensional, sendo por definição uma fração ou razão. É expresso
em porcentagem (por exemplo, 30%), como decimal (por exemplo, 0,30) ou em
unidades de porosidade (por exemplo, 30 P.u.). Os fatores geológicos e
sedimentológicos que influenciam a porosidade de uma rocha serão discutidos mais
adiante neste livro. de lados medindo 1 metro, com uma resistividade R = 1 ohm m2/m,
teriam uma resistência de 1 ohm entre faces opostas. A condutividade elétrica (C) é a
medida da capacidade de conduzir eletricidade. É o inverso da resistividade e
geralmente é expresso em unidades de milimhos/m (mmho/m) ou mS/m (mili Siemens
por metro) C (mmho/m) = IOOO/R (ohm m2/m) ( 1-3) Existem dois tipos de
condutividade: (a) A condutividade eletrônica é uma propriedade de sólidos como
grafite, metais (cobre, prata, etc.), hematita, sulfetos metálicos (pirita, galena) etc. (b)
Eletrolítica a condutividade é uma propriedade de, por exemplo, água contendo sais
dissolvidos. Rochas secas, com exceção das mencionadas acima, têm resistividades
extremamente altas. As propriedades condutoras das rochas sedimentares são de
origem eletrolítica - a presença de água (ou misturas de água e hidrocarbonetos) no
espaço poroso. A fase aquosa deve, obviamente, ser contínua para contribuir para a
condutividade. A resistividade de uma rocha depende: (a) Da resistividade da água nos
poros. Este 1.3.3.2. Resistividade e condutividade A resistividade (R) de uma substância
é a medida de sua oposição à passagem de corrente elétrica. É expresso em unidades
de ohm m2/m. Um cubo de material variará com a natureza e concentração de seus sais
dissolvidos. (b) A quantidade de água presente; isto é, a porosidade e a saturação. (c)
Litologia, ou seja, a natureza e porcentagem de argilas presentes e traços de minerais
condutores. (d) A textura da rocha; ou seja, distribuição de poros, argilas e minerais
condutores. (e) A temperatura. A resistividade pode ser anisotrópica em virtude da
estratificação (camada) na rocha, causada, por exemplo, pela deposição de partículas
alongadas ou planas. orientado na direção de uma corrente predominante. Isso cria
caminhos preferenciais para o fluxo de corrente (e movimento do fluido), e a
condutividade elétrica não é a mesma em todas as direções. Definimos resistividade
horizontal (R,) na direção da estratificação e resistividade vertical (R,) perpendicular a
isso. O coeficiente de anisotropia, A, é: x = ( R,/R{i)1'2 ( 1-4) Isso pode variar entre 1,0 e
2,5, com R, geralmente maior que R,. É R, que medimos com o laterolog e outras
ferramentas de resistividade (indução), enquanto o levantamento elétrico clássico lê em
algum lugar entre R e R. A resistividade média de uma formação anisotrópica é:
R=(R,,R,)”' (1-5) A anisotropia de uma única camada uniforme é anisotropia
microscópica. Quando falamos da característica geral de uma sequência de camadas
resistivas finas, isso é inacroscópico anisotropia. Em tal série, a corrente tende a fluir
mais facilmente ao longo das camadas do que através delas, e essa anisotropia afetará
qualquer resistividade de leitura da ferramenta sobre um volume de formação contendo
essas finas camadas. A anisotropia microscópica ocorre em argilas e tortas de lama. No
segundo caso, a resistividade medida através da torta perpendicular à parede do furo é
maior que a paralela ao eixo. Isso afeta as ferramentas de microrresistividade focadas
(MLL, PML) que devem ser levadas em consideração em sua interpretação. Uma torta
de lama de anisotropia, A, e espessura, h mc, é eletricamente equivalente a uma torta
de lama isotrópica tendo uma resistividade igual à média, R,,Rv com espessura, Ah,,,.
Resumindo, o que chamamos de resistividade verdadeira (R,) de uma formação é uma
resistividade dependente do teor de fluido e da natureza e configuração da matriz
sólida. 1.3.3.2.1, Relação entre resistividade e salinip Mencionamos que a resistividade
de uma elec0 100 000 290 O00 400 000 CONCENTRAÇÃO - PPM Fig. 1-3. A dependência
da resistividade na concentração de sal dissolvido. trolyte depende da concentração e
do tipo de sais dissolvidos. Referindo-se à Fig. 1-3, observe que a resistividade diminui à
medida que a concentração aumenta, até um certo máximo além do qual sais não
dissolvidos e, portanto, não condutores, impedem a passagem de íons portadores de
corrente. A salinidade é uma medida da concentração de sais dissolvidos. Pode ser
expresso de várias maneiras: (a) partes por milhão (ppm ou pg/g de solução); (b) g/litro
de solvente; e (c) g/litro de solução. O gráfico da Fig. 1-4 permite uma fácil conversão
entre essas unidades. O cloreto de sódio (NaCI) é o sal mais comum contido em águas
de formação e lamas de perfuração. É costume expressar as concentrações de outros
sais dissolvidos em termos de NaCl equivalente para avaliação da resistividade de uma
solução. A Figura 1-5 mostra os multiplicadores (coeficientes de Dunlap) para conversão
de algumas concentrações iônicas em seus equivalentes de NaCl. Para uma solução de
sais mistos, simplesmente tome NaCl bpm) Fig. 1-4. A equivalência entre as várias
unidades de concentração.
a soma das concentrações equivalentes de cada tipo de íon presente. 1.3.3.2.2. Relação
entre resistividade e temperatura A resistividade de uma solução diminui à medida que
a temperatura aumenta. O gráfico da Fig. 1-6 pode ser usado para converter a
resistividade em uma dada temperatura para aquela em qualquer outra temperatura. A
fórmula de Arps aproxima essa relação por: onde R,, é a resistividade da solução na
temperatura de formação T("F). 75°F é uma temperatura de referência comumente
usada. Mais geralmente: TI + 21,5 R,,, = Rw,, ( 1 -7a) ( 1 -7b) 1.3.3.3 A resistividade dos
duys Com exceção da pirita, hematita, grafite e alguns outros, os minerais secos têm
resistividade infinita. Existem alguns minerais que parecem ser condutores sólidos.
Argila Os minerais são um exemplo. De acordo com Waxman e Smits (1967), um
sedimento argiloso se comporta como uma formação limpa da mesma porosidade,
tortuosidade e saturação de fluido, exceto que a água parece ser mais condutora do que
o esperado pela sua salinidade em massa (Fig. 1-7a). As argilas são partículas em forma
de folha, muito finas (alguns Angstroms), mas têm uma grande área de superfície
dependendo do tipo de mineral argiloso (Fig. 1-7b). Há uma deficiência de carga elétrica
positiva dentro do folha de argila. Isso cria um forte campo elétrico negativo
perpendicular à superfície do folha de argila que atrai íons positivos (Na+, K+, Ca*+. . . )
e repele os íons negativos (Cl-, ...) presentes na água (Clavier et al., 1977). As
quantidades desses íons compensadores constituem a capacidade de troca catiônica
que é comumente chamada de CEC (meq/g de rocha seca) ou Q, (meq por cm' de volume
total de poros). A CEC está relacionada à área específica da argila e, portanto, depende
do tipo de mineral argiloso. Tem seu menor valor em caulinita e seus maiores valores
em montmorilonita e vermiculita (Tabela 1-2). O excesso de condutividade observado
nas argilas é devido a esses cátions adicionais mantidos frouxamente cativos em uma
camada difusa ao redor das partículas de argila (Fig. 1-8).