Depositional systems

and its Implication in

Petroleum exploration
•The depositional system (Sedimentary
environment) is a geomorphic unit characterized by
a unique set of physico-chemical and biological
parameters in which deposition take place .

•The characters of sediments produced are

determined by both the rate and intensity of the
formative process operating on them besides
duration through which such action is continued.

•Geomorphic units are complex in nature within

which the operative process vary in intensity from
place to place.
Of these three,

• The physical process - hydrodynamic conditions

like current, wave intensity and water depth can be
deciphered from primary sedimentary structures
both inorganic and organic, and grain size
parameters.

• Recognition of minerals precipitated would give

valuable information on Eh, pH and salinity of
depositional media,

• Biological criteria - information about water depth,

temperature, turbulence, and rate of deposition.
A depositional system can be erosional and / or depositional
Erosional
Characterized by denudational process
Depositional
its leaves behind its imprint in sediments and produces a
distinct sedimentary sequence.

Both are complementary to each other.

The sedimentary packages formed by interaction of

sediment supply, eustatic sea level and subsidence. There
is no sedimentary basin without tectonic subsidence.

It has a primary control in creation and destruction of

accommodation, influences the rate of sediment supply to
the basin and shaping the record.
Deposits of each geomorphic unit are very much
influenced by the climate and basin
configuration.

Floral and faunal contents together with

mineralogical and chemical parameters provide
clue to the paleoclimate.

Thus palaeogeography provides a vital clue on

sedimentary tectonics.
 As there is no direct method of detection of hydrocarbons in the sub-
surface ,Oil exploration is based primarily on concepts and ideas .

The doctrine of uniformitarianism is the bedrock of every geological

study which envisages that the genesis of all sedimentary strata (layered
rocks) can be explained on the basis of process that are now in
operation or on the basis of experimental results.

It is considered as the Principle of actualism (The present is key to the

past).

The study of present day environments provides vast information on the

basis of which models can be constructed.

Making due concessions for post depositional and diagenetic changes,

these models can be compared with the information available on the rock
unit.
 CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA

Depositional systems with reference to physiography are broadly classified

as fluvial, paralic and deep marine. Each is further divided into sub-
environments.

The paralic systems include delta, estuary, coastal plain and shore-shelf.

Deep marine environment depending on water depths include shelf (low

tide to 200m), bathyal (200m-2000m) and Abyssal ( >2000m).

The agents involved are streams, rivers, tides, waves, currents ( density
and long shore) and wind.

The major landforms are point bars, distributory mouth bars, delta front
sands, barrier bars, cheniers (raised beaches), dunes, spits, washover
fans and submarine fans etc.
 The sedimentary features, grain size and textural
parameters help to recognize the depositional system.
Eg. Cross bedded sandstone facies

• Braiding
• Meandering
• Tidal channel
• Longshore currents
• Tidal currents in open shelf
Addition to Facies knowledge

thickness of each facies and its evolution in space(depth)

and time-discrimination between one or two possible
environment
Fossils determining the time surfaces based on their evolution
- especially foraminifera either free floats on water surface
(Planktonic) or bottom dwellers( benthics ) .

Geographical distribution and short life span - serve as good

index fauna;

Physico-chemical conditions - good environmental indicators

as index fauna.

With the known established range of taxa the relative age is

assigned to the sample.

Radiolaria - a new biostratigraphic tool in age dating.

 SEDIMENTS IN OIL EXPLORATION

Knowledge of depositional system is essential for mineral

resources like hydrocarbons, coal, phosphates and uranium
etc. They associated to specific depositional environments.

How are sediments indispensable in oil industry(?).

In petroleum exploration one of the essential objectives is

evaluation of the hydrocarbon potential of a basin.

This calls for determination of the quality, the thickness and

lateral extension of different facies which represent source,
reservoir and cap rock.
The basic prerequisites for hydrocarbon

Petroleum exploration is a synergy of-

• Sedimentary processes direct evidence cores & cuttings
• Biostratigraphy process direct evidence cores &cuttings
• Geochemical signatures-assigning source, generation
• potential ,oil window etc
• Seismics –physical characteristics of layered strata- an
indirect evidence
• Electrologs
The gamut of oil exploration is dependent on the
knowledge of sand geometry-i.e. shape (morphology),
horizontal dimension and its orientation.

Each system gives rise to a unique sedimentary sequence

for example elongate sand bodies(long dimension 2-100
times>width) more common in alluvial and fluvial channels,
barrier bars and Chenier's (raised beaches)

Equidimensional sand bodies like blanket, sheet and ribbon

are common in shallow marine shelves and submarine
channels
For determining the sand body geometry

Correlation techniques

Organic - Index fauna, faunal assemblage

Inorganic- core, electro log

Facies mapping ( Isoliths, Isopachs )

Sp and resistivity curve shapes
A source rock is one which contains an optimum amount
of organic matter(>3%) and has potential to generate
hydrocarbons.

The organic matter could be derived from marine and/ or

terrestrial organisms,
Which may be in the form of proteins, carbohydrates,
fats, fatty acids and fat soluble compounds etc.

Controls on organic richness and source potential are-

• Physiogeography of the basin

• Climate
• Terrestrial organic productivity
• Marine organic productivity
• Oceanic circulation
• Sedimentation rate and water depth
Marine shales and carbonate muds are excellent source
for hydrocarbon generation.

Reservoir rock
It should have a good amount of interconnected pore
space and permeability.
Most hydrocarbon reservoirs are in sedimentary rocks

Sandstones, Limestones and Dolomites

Rarely shales and crystalline basement rocks are

also known to be reservoirs due to fracturing but
such situations are rare and anomalous
Cap or seal rock

impervious rock overlying the reservoir- as to arrest

the upward movement of hydrocarbons and facilitate their
accumulation.

Fine grained sedimentaries like shales, tightly cemented and

chemically precipitated limestones and evaporite beds form
very good seal.

Recognition and inference of depositional systems wherein

all the four pre-requisites are met with is therefore, very
critical in petroleum exploration and exploitation.

The dwindling resources of fossil fuels , and ever increasing

demand – supply gap and the realization that the
sedimentary process is a key factor for more successful
exploration needs no emphasis.
The process sedimentological interpretation of
conventional core is critical for determining the true origin
and distribution of reservoir sands.

The process sedimentology , together with high resolution

bio -stratigraphy , seismics and wireline logs would hold a
key to effective exploration in finding hitherto
undiscovered hydrocarbon resources
The depositional systems - hydrocarbon exploration point of
view
Alluvial system

Characterized by coarse grain size, fan or cone shape ,

arkose to lithic wackes , highly immature both physically
and chemically.

Sedimentary features are trough cross bedding , grain

supported usually fining up;

The lower contact irregular to erosional and upper is

gradational.

These deposits neither good source(lacks organic matter)

nor good reservoirs(lacks lateral continuity to source facies)
Also do not have proper seals; Ø and K are low
Fluvial systems

Fluvial systems are one of the best studied of all

depositional systems.

Four traditional styles of fluvial channels are commonly

recognized-

Braided, meandering ,anatomizing and straight

The last two are very rare in the rock record.

Grain size is the key parameter to sub-divide the fluvial

systems because the ease with which it can be
determined in both ancient and modern , at outcrop and
in the subsurface.
On this basis,

River systems can be classified as high bed load, bed load ,

mixed load and suspension load.

In fluvial environments braided channels and meandering

channels(Point bars) form attractive prospects as the
sediments are generally thick, laterally extensive, coarse
grained with high porosity and high sand shale ratio.

This facies makes an excellent reservoir beneath

unconformities where there is a major break in time and
tectonic regime.

Braided alluvium occurs on horsts buried beneath marine

shale.
Braided fluvial are texturally and chemically immature ;
sand-shale ratio>1(means sands are more than shale);

Lithic arenites and lithic wackes common facies.

Sorting is poor to moderate, lower erosional and upper

abrupt bedding contacts;

Important sedimentary features are large scale cross

bedding, ripple bedding, fine sand/mud having horizontal
bedding (=abandoned channels); definite fining up units:

Potential reservoirs with Ø upto 30%;K=100 md: high radio

activity Due to feldspar and radioactive zircon.
Meandering fluvials

Moderately chemically mature, fining up quartz or lithic arenite

.
Sand-shale ratio<1(i.e. sand less than shale):

Sedimentary features are similar to braided system : potential

reservoirs with Ø up to 30% and K=1000md;

Impermeable floodplain shales can form stratigraphic traps

with its own source rock facies.

Potentially gas prone rather than oil.

Radioactivity is moderate to high.

Lacustrine facies

Small and rare in the stratigraphic record whose organic rich

muds and carbonaceous shales/coals constitute a good
source rock facies.

Eolian facies

Characterized by fine to medium grained(0.2-0.5mm), well

sorted (absence of fine clays , mica and winnowing gives rise
to high GM ratio), well rounded ,

Positively skewed and clean sands with excellent reservoir

capability. These are rare in the rock record
These sequences are characterized by large scale high
angle cross strata >35° both planar and tabular with well
defined fining up and thinning up units: lower bedding
contacts are same.

They overlie the barrier bar/ barrier island/spits and such

other marginal marine settings.

Typical dunes contain >85% quartz and chemically mature

with negligible clays , coastal sand dunes (Bahamas); Oolitic
sandstones(Abu Dhabi); Gypseous sandstones (white sands
New Mexico)

Cements are either calcite or Dolomite related to water table(

Phreatic level) and most common is anhydrite. Porosities are
up to 30%.
Eolian facies normally heterogeneous reservoirs due to-

• lateral discontinuity

• impermeable or less permeable carbonates

interspersed with more permeable cross bedded units
and

• Cementation along individual laminae cause low

transmissivity across laminae.

Paralic systems- delta occupies a prominent place in

hydrocarbon exploration.

A delta is defined as the sediment prism that accumulates

where a river enters a standing body of waters . it comprises
both subaerial and subaqueous
These deposits are important hosts for oil and gas reservoirs
as they have adequate supply of sands to form
reservoirs( distributory channel , delta front sands) and
organic rich muds to form source and seal rocks(inter-
distributory, prodeltaic facies).

Porosities vary upto 30% K = 1000md;

Being coarsening up units top sands are good reservoirs

while in fluvial systems bottom sands are good reservoirs.

The subaqueous delta lies below low tide level to 10 – 300m

water depths.

Two critical factors in delta origin are-

• rate of subsidence and
• rate of deposition
Accordingly three alternatives are possible

• Delta Progradation = R sed>R sub

• Delta aggradation = R sed=R sub
• No delta = R sed<R sub

Among three types of deltaic environments the wave

dominated deltas characterized by strong wave
energy and show good reservoir sands parallel to the
palaeo-shoreline skewed in the direction of prevailing
long shore currents.

Recent hydrocarbon strikes in Krishna – Godavari

basin belong to this setting.
In tide dominate deltas sands lie parallel to the
estuary and/or perpendicular to the shoreline

while in fluvial deltas bar finger sands host good

reservoirs extend even upto middle shelf regime
Many deltas form in tectonically unstable areas;

The syn depositional structures formed in response

to tectonics and compaction of slope muds
generate growth faults.

These are responsible for rollover and fault traps .

Tectonic instability is often associated with high

geothermal gradients which are essential for
hydrocarbon maturation.
On marine dominated shorelines, where deltas are unable to
form, linear shorelines develop which pass seaward towards
marine shelf environments.

These are two major types

Shoreline sands
Shoal sands

In the shoreline sands barrier bars are important because

they are in close proximity with lagoonal and marine shales
which as potential source as well as cap rock.

frequently their geometry is irregular and discontinuous.

Which favours stratigraphic entrapment .

Shoal sands are deposited in high energy environment on

marine shelves and act as potential reservoirs.
In the shelf facies, as explained by X-Y-Z zone model of
Irwin(1964),all the three types of rocks i.e. source, reservoir
and cap or seal can be deposited adjacent to each other at
the same time.

The model is common to both the siliciclastic as well as

carbonate realms.

The “X” zone which is towards the sea forms the source and is
a low energy environment below wave base comprising
laminated shale (clastic) or laminated micritic
muds(Carbonate) .

The next shoreward zone.”Y” is a high energy environment

comprising shoal sands(clastic) and skeletal sandsholes and
reefs ( carbonate ) serve as good reservoirs.
The “Z” zone is characterized by low energy lagoons ,tidal
flats and marshes and comprises laminated , flaser
bedded- burrowed beds, and pellet muds , dolomites , algal
stromatolites and evaporites which form very good seal
and / or source facies.

Deep water sediments comprises of basin floor fans , slope

fans and prograding wedge complex .

To distinguish these deposits the critical input is

sedimentary process

where deposits of plastic flow rheology (i.e. sandy debris

flow) from that true fluidal laminar flow rheology(i.e. turbidity
current) is extremely important for petroleum geologists in
predicting reservoir geometry.
Plastic flows emplace sediment by freezing ,
which can result in formation of laterally
discontinuous sand bodies that are harder to
predict and develop.

In contrast turbidity currents can potentially

deposit more laterally continuous and
interconnected sand bodies .

That are easier to explore and more economical

to produce.
Basin floor fans are considered attractive
hydrocarbon prospects ,

Because they are sand- rich sheet mounds made up

of massive sands deposited as lobes or sheets in a
deep marine setting.

Lithologically these deposits are fining up sequences

, clean, well sorted sands with good reservoir quality.
Submarine channel facies also good reservoirs
wherein the

channels are filled with grain flow deposits which

are relatively clean,

matrix free sands with high porosity and

permeability and occur as multi-storey
sequences of considerable thickness.

Deep sea sands in restricted fault bounded

troughs with organic rich basinal shales are
highly prospective.
Oil exploration and production is a challenge

The individual with the best information wins the

battle.
new unconventional sources of future hydrocarbons
are-

• Deep basin centered gas plays

• Deep water prospects
• Gas Hydrates
• Coal bed methane