Evaporites and brines – geological,

hydrological and chemical aspects of resource

estimation
S. Border* and L. Sawyer
Modern salt lakes are complex systems which are exploited for a variety of minerals, including
solid and dissolved phases (brines). Phases commonly exploited include lithium, potassium and
boron minerals, mainly from brines, and solid minerals including halite and gypsum. Resource
estimation and successful exploitation of either solid minerals or brines require good
understanding of the complex interactions within these systems. This includes careful definition
of climate, geology, hydrogeology (hydrology), fluid flow dynamics and lastly chemical ion
concentrations. Therefore estimation involves multidisciplinary team work. Brines are mobile
resources which change through time, sometimes seasonally, so estimators must understand
the climatic, hydrological and geological factors governing flows of both water and salts into and
out of the system. Commercial extraction of brines involves brine collection (usually by pumping
from wells) at rates that make the extraction economic, so brine resources should include only
extractable brines, which are those in accessible aquifers available for pumping. Estimators
must take into account potential limits on sustainable extraction rates when assessing the
prospects for eventual economic extraction to determine whether a resource is present. Drilling
on salt lakes can present significant challenges in safe access, and in recovery of
uncontaminated samples of host rocks, which are often unconsolidated, and of brines. The
merits of various methods of drilling and sampling are discussed. We recommend a combination
of different sampling methods and the use of downhole geophysics to assist in detailed
geological interpretation. Well-designed pump testing will provide hydrogeological parameters
and enable derivation of the specific yields of all targeted aquifers, which are required to
estimate total extractable brine resources. Reliable repeatable chemical analyses of brine
samples are hard to achieve, and filtering, minimising storage times, and the choice of a reliable
laboratory experienced in brine analyses will all assist in this objective. Stringent quality control
is required, and this should include check analyses at one or more independent laboratories.
Resampling of the same sample sites will measure seasonal and other fluctuations. Resource
reporting must include discussion of all material factors and assumptions, and include
discussion of limiting extraction rates, and risks to the sustainable extraction of the resource,
which may include climatic risks and risk from neighbouring production. All resources need to
have reasonable prospects for economic extraction, so the estimator must be familiar with
potential exploitation methods (which include dredging or conventional mining for solid minerals,
and for brines pumping from wells, brine recovery via ditches, evaporation and chemical
separation) and the factors that affect the cost or feasibility of these methods. The potential for
extraction to affect the remaining resource (e.g. by brine pressure reduction, increasingly dilute
inflows into a brine resource, dissolution or enhanced crystallisation of solid minerals) must be
considered. Resource classification must take into account the definitions of the higher

Geos Mining, Level 3, 68 Alfred St, Milsons Point, NSW 2061, Australia
*Corresponding author, email sue.border@geosmining.com

ß 2014 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining and The AusIMM

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute and The AusIMM
Received 3 June 2014; accepted 2 August 2014
DOI 10.1179/1743275814Y.0000000053 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 2 95
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
confidence (Indicated and Measured) resources to be able to support mine planning, and we
consider these classifications require a hydrological model, based on at least preliminary field
testing for indicated, and a geological model and knowledge of chemistry across the resource
volume.
Keywords: Evaporites, Brines, Resource estimation
This paper is part of a special issue on Mineral Resource Estimation
Introduction
Minerals commercially recovered from evaporate/brine
systems include salt, gypsum, potash, lithium and boron.
Evaporite/brine systems are complex dynamic systems
which truly demonstrate the principles of quantum
physics, that any attempt at observation, including
physical sampling, can affect the system we are trying to
observe. The interactions between the solid phases
(evaporite crystals, other minerals including clays), the
liquid phase (brines at varying levels of concentration,
and sometimes inflows of fresh water), and free void
space involve chemistry and hydrology, which in term
are controlled by the climate, geology and mineralogy of
the system. This complicates both resource estimation
and the potential for successful exploitation of these
systems. Despite this, profitable exploitation is common.
This paper focuses on brines and evaporite/brine
systems, although some of the aspects of resource
estimation discussed here may also affect ‘dry’ or fossil
evaporite systems. Dry evaporite systems include the
important potash deposits of the Devonian Prairie
Evaporite Formation in Saskatchewan, and the halite
deposits of the Zechstein Basin in Europe, which have
been exploited over hundreds of years. We define
evaporite/brine systems to include those where the target
minerals may be in the crystalline or dissolved form, but
where crystalline evaporates are exploited, the interac-
tion between the two forms materially affects both the
resource and its exploitation.
Figure 1 shows locations of the evaporite and
evaporite brine systems mentioned in this paper.
Most recent western world attention has been focused
on the salar systems of the high Andean Altiplano-Puna,
which crosses the borders of Argentina, Bolivia and
Chile (Fig. 2), as the lithium content of these brines has
been the focus of attention by a number of companies,
which have reported resource estimates. Another impor-
tant high altitude inland system is located in central
Asia, covering parts of Qinghai and Tibet in China,
which is exploited primarily for salt and potash. Lakes
in the Rift Valley of East Africa have also been exploited
for a variety of evaporites, while the Dead Sea, on the
same rift system, is an important source of potash.
Coastal systems, or sabkhas, have received less attention
in terms of resource reporting, but we refer to one well
documented coastal system, that of Lake MacLeod in
WA. Brines in this lake have been exploited for salt,
while solid gypsum has also been extracted, and this
system serves as an example of a contrasting style of
evaporite/brine system.
Evaporite/brine systems
Modern surface evaporite/brine systems occur in arid
environments, and can be broadly divided into inland
96 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014
systems (salars or salinas), where the soluble mineral
content is derived from the surrounding surface and
subsurface lithologies, and coastal systems (sabkhas),
where the soluble mineral content is predominantly or
completely derived from sea water. The Dead Sea system
is an interesting example of a mixed source system,
where the salt content is derived from the interaction of
seawater filling the late Neogene Sedom lagoon with
the Cretaceous carbonate rocks exposed in the basin-
bounding escarpments (Gavrielli and Stein, 2006).
Subsurface systems include brines which have mig-
rated down from surface evaporite systems and systems
where groundwaters have come into contact with buried
fossil evaporites. Our focus in this paper is on surface
systems, but some conclusions may also be applicable to
subsurface systems.
A typical system involves an inflow of fresh or dilute
water, usually from rainfall, but often includes inflow
from intermittent creeks, or in coastal systems an inflow
of seawater. Most inflows are at surface but some
inflows are from groundwater, as is the case of many
sabkha systems where seawater seeps in to a basin
through dunes or coastal limestone barriers. At Lake
MacLeod, brine in the basin is recharged largely by
seepage of seawater through a barrier of permeable
Tertiary limestone with some Holocene aeolian dunes.
Seawater percolation is driven by gravity, as the lake
surface is 3 m below sea level.
Basin systems may be closed, where water is lost from
the system only by evaporation, or open systems, where
some brines may escape through gradual seepage or
periodic overflows (Fig. 3). Salar de Atacama is an
example of a closed basin (Orris, 2011) while Lake
MacLeod is an example of an open basin (Logan, 1987).
Free-flow basins have open access to larger water bodies,
usually oceans, by a restricted passage often over a shallow
sill, but modern examples of these (such as Hamelin Pool,
Shark Bay, WA) are not often of commercial interest, as
brine concentrations are usually limited.
As water evaporates from any basin system, increas-
ingly saline brine is produced. Most commercial
exploitation of surface evaporite systems are confined
to climates where the evaporation from free water
surfaces exceeds 2 m per annum, and in some areas may
reach 8mpa. Evaporation may also occur from ground-
water where the water table is less than 1?5 m below
surface (Logan, 1987), and this biases the results of near
surface brine samples. In many examples the lakes will
flood seasonally or periodically, and evaporation will be
more rapid while the brines are exposed at surface. Salt
concentrations in samples from brines close to the lake
surface may therefore not represent the bulk of the
underlying brine volume, and this has been confirmed to
our knowledge by comparison of drill and surface
sample results in at least two Argentinian salars.
VOL 123 NO 2

1 Selected economically important evaporite/brine systems (NB Zechstein and Saskatchewan are fossil systems)
As evaporation proceeds, brine density increases and
crystallisation commences with the least soluble dis-
solved minerals. Evaporating seawater leads to the
crystallisation of the mineral series in the order first
demonstrated by Usiglio in 1849, i.e. carbonate,
gypsum, halite, and the bitterns salts (mainly potash
and magnesium salts). The more soluble salts, including
potassium, lithium and boron, will usually only crystal-
lise in closed basins, when they form a minor proportion
of the total volume, and hence in modern systems these
metals are usually exploited from brines. Elements such
as lithium and boron are concentrated in salars in areas
of recent volcanism, such as the Puna – Altiplano areas
of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia (Fig. 3).
Evaporation in continental basins leads to a very wide
range of minerals and brine compositions, due to factors
including regional setting and tectonics, major element
ratios of inflows (Hardie and Eugster, 1970), pH (Clarke
2014), biological activity (De Deckker, 1983) and minor
element composition. Minor changes can determine
whether a mineral is precipitated or not, and precipita-
tion of one mineral changes the composition of the
remaining brine, determining the next phases to be
precipitated.
Newly crystallised minerals usually form an extremely
porous unconsolidated crystal mush, and these form
potentially productive aquifers, but increasing maturity
leads to solid layers of gypsum and halite, which often
have low porosity and permeability. Periodic inflows of
clastic sediment in many basins increase the variety of
aquifers and aquicludes. Salars where clastic sediments
are dominant are termed immature (Houston et al.,
2011). Any inflows of fresh water or dilute brines may
lead to dissolution of previously crystallised evaporites,
leading to caverns, which can have a major effect on
brine volumes and brine flows within the basin.
Unconsolidated crystals and clastic sediments, toge-
ther with the potential for cavern formation within more
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
solid strata, lead to significant safety hazards in operating
on salt lakes, and this creates major problems with safely
collecting representative samples from all parts of many
recent salt lakes. Often light weight equipment must be
used, or extensive earthworks may be required to build
trafficable roads on the salar surface.
Brines within an aquifer system are not of uniform
composition. The composition at any point within a
basin is affected by dilution from any inflow, surface
evaporation, stratification of brine layers of different
density, and local interaction with solid evaporites and
other host rocks. In addition, many basins include brines
of different compositions, and possibly different ages
and origins, trapped in separate aquifers.
Complications in estimation of brine systems arise due to:
N seasonal and other climatic effects
N chemical interactions between solid salts and brines
N interactions with non evaporite minerals, clays and
clastic materials
N sampling and working in unconsolidated materials.
Table 1 compares the characteristics of some of the
major deposits referred to in this paper.
Resource classification and reporting
All major CRISCO resource reporting codes (JORC,
SAMREC and CIM definitions) confine their applica-
tion to solid minerals, so do not officially cover brines.
Houston et al. (2011) raised the need for new standards
for estimating brine deposits. The Ontario Securities
Commission issued Staff Notice 43-704 (2011) on
standards of disclosure for mineral projects, confirming
that NI 43-101 (the Canadian standard for public
reporting on mineral projects) should apply to brine
projects. CIM then issued best practice guidelines for
resource and reserve definition for lithium brines (Hains,
2012), which we commend as valuable reading for any
competent person estimating any brine resources. Hains
2014 VOL 123 NO 2 97
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines

2 Salars of the high Andes

98 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 2

3 Simplified examples of open and closed basin systems
notes that NI 43-101 and the CIM definitions apply to
solid minerals, and advises that public reports relating to
brine resources ‘should strive to provide a level of clarity
and technical detail meeting the spirit and intent of NI
43-101’. We concur with this advice, and suggest that
reports and classification of brine resources are stated to
be compliant with the spirit and intent of the relevant
reporting code.
We note that, despite the efforts of the Canadian
authorities, their lead has to our knowledge not been
followed by other national standards. No standard that
we are aware of has yet explicitly addressed the potential
time-dependant variability of the systems, nor the
potential that economic reserves could differ for
different extraction rates.
The recent JORC 2012 update (Joint Ore Reserve
Committee, 2012) mandates the attachment of a
technical checklist (referred to as ‘JORC Table 1’) to
public announcements of resources which are new or
materially changed, unless the project is not a significant
project for that company. The danger of this checklist
approach is that this may be considered to cover all
material items that are required for reporting. Being
designed for solid minerals, JORC Table 1 does not
include all items significant for brines, or for crystalline
evaporites in brine/evaporite systems. Recent guidance
from the JORC Committee (Hunt 2014, presentation on
6/6/2014) is that although no JORC Table 1 heading
should be omitted, additional headings may be included,
and this is strongly recommended when reporting on
brine resources.
The dynamic evaporite/brine systems pose special
problems in classification of resource confidence, into
inferred, indicated and measured resource categories.
We refer here to the JORC code and Australian practice
but this discussion is also relevant to the sister CRISCO
codes which all have similar classification definitions.
From the JORC definitions of inferred, indicated and
measured resources, we can see that:
N Inferred Resources must be at least ‘more likely than
not’ (JORC, 2012) to be exploited, so a minimum
50% probability is expected for any part of the
resource to be minable
N Indicated Resources must be known with sufficient
confidence ‘to allow the application of the modifying
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
factors in sufficient detail to support mine planning’
(‘modifying factors’ are defined in the JORC code to
be all factors that impact whether a resource may be
economically mined). This is generally accepted by
industry as implying it should be meaningful to
schedule the resource on an annual basis
N Measured Resources should be capable of supporting
‘detailed mine planning and final evaluation of
economic viability’, which is usually interpreted to
mean mine scheduling on a quarterly basis and
acceptable as an input to a definitive feasibility study.
A common industry guideline (Glacken and Trueman,
2014) is that the estimators should aim that Indicated
Resources have an error of ¡15% at 90% confidence for
annual production volumes, while for Measured
Resources the same confidence limits apply to quarterly
production volumes. Glacken and Trueman also note
that different companies have a greater or lesser risk
appetite and therefore may vary these confidence limits.
We would note also that different commodities and
types of deposit may necessitate different confidence
limits.
In the case of brine exploitation, we anticipate that
grades will usually vary less between adjacent produc-
tion periods than for traditional metal deposits, but
there are greater potential risks to the effective life of the
deposit. Hence the industry guidelines above for
Indicated and Measured Resources are not directly
applicable.
The requirement that Indicated Resources ‘allow
the application of the modifying factors’ does, in our
opinion, mean that a hydrological model must have
been completed for the deposit, in sufficient detail to
give the estimator confidence that the stated resource
can be extracted, within a reasonable error limit. We
would tentatively suggest a 90% confidence of less than
25% error in the total recoverable metal to be a
reasonable requirement for preliminary mine economic
planning. Therefore there must be confidence in both
sustainable metal grade and extractable brine volume.
This must mean at least preliminary pump tests have
been completed to demonstrate the feasibility of
extraction. We agree with Houston (Houston et al.,
2011) that resource volumes should be based on specific
yield. The metal content of the brine should have been
2014 VOL 123 NO 2 99
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines

tested at different times and locations across the brine

Main reference
host, and the system should be sufficiently well under-

(Logan, 1987)

(Gavrielli and

(Orris, 2011)
Stein, 2006)
stood to have confidence in the likely interactions

and Gunn,
(Houston
between brine, any inflows, and host rock.

2011)
Measured resources imply valid short term production
estimates, which require detailed geological and hydro-
geological models. Sufficient pump tests to determine
Runoffzhot springs;

Runoffzhot springs;
hydrogeological parameters and chemistry for all por-
recent volcanic tions of the production field, and knowledge of seasonal

recent volcanic
Brine source

groundwater
environment
or occasional climatic effects (flood events, etc.) are

environment
Seawaterz
therefore required, in addition to a high level of resource

Seawater
drilling across the field to enable strong definition of
geological, chemistry and resource continuity.
We have heard of one case where a single point
Closed salar, immature;

of observation (a twinned well) was the basis for a

mature, graben setting

Closed salar, mature,

Closed salar, mature

Sabkha, open basin,

description of a brine resource as a Measured Resource;

silts and clays with
interbedded sand,

graben setting we strongly disagree with this approach. We consider

that the coverage of data points should be adequate to
halite beds

have confirmed the chemistry of the brine across the

salar (or the relevant portion of this to be included in
Type

resources). Data spacing for any resource classification

will depend on the parameter variation between initial
data points. In some mature salars, the chemistry and
July 2014. Measured plus
Orocobre website, as at

SQM presentation 2009

permeability will be relatively uniform, certainly across

WA government data

the central portion of the salar, but sufficient data must

indicated resources

(Gavrielli and Stein,

Rio annual reports,

be obtained to demonstrate this.

Source/date

Prospects for economic exploitation

2006)

Exploitation methods
Potential resource estimation must start with a con-
sideration of whether the minerals of economic interest
8.4% Na???
5730 ppm
1050 ppm

7780 ppm

2700 ppm

are to be exploited from minerals or brines (the

690 ppm

crystallised solid or dissolved salts), or may exist in

Grade

.95%

concentrations of economic interest in both forms. The

more soluble minerals (which include lithium, boron and
Published resources or past production

Produced over 50 Mt,

Produced over 85 Mt,

magnesium) are usually or exclusively exploited from

resourceszreserves

very large resource

Contained mineral

estimated.190 Mt

brines, while the less soluble gypsum is invariably

exploited from crystals.
40Mt reserves,
large resource

Potash is exploited from both brines and solid

evaporites, with the most common solid phase exploited
.360 Mt
tonnes
Table 1 Characteristics of selected major evaporite brine systems*

1.85M

being the simple chloride, sylvite, but alunite and

1.2M

10M

glaserite (mixed sulphates) have also been exploited. In

a brine/evaporite system, acidity may be the most
Crystal gypsum

Lithium in brine
Lithium in brine

Potash in brine

Potash in brine

important factor in determining whether potassium

Boron in brine

Halite in brine
Mineral/type

concentrates in the brine or is deposited as a sulphate

(Clarke, 2014).
Exploitation of solid mineral phases may use a variety
of traditional mining techniques, most commonly open
cut mining of consolidated materials and dredging of
Lake area/km2

less consolidated minerals. At Lake McLeod dredging

220 leased,
630 leased

was used successfully to exploit the unconsolidated layer

2000 total

of gypsum crystals. Where solid minerals are exploited,

3000

the brines are only relevant to resource estimation as

605

they interact with the target minerals. This may happen

if brines are drained before or during mining, and are
*All Lake areas approximate.
Israel/Jordan

Puna (Chile)
(Argentina)

replaced by inflows of more dilute or chemically

Australia
Western

different waters, which can partially dissolve the solid

Region

Puna

phases. This possibility should be assessed as part of

economic feasibility, and for this reason, it is important
to understand the brine chemistry even where only solid
Lake McLeod

evaporites are the target for exploitation . For example

Dead Sea

Atacama
Salar de

Salar de

at Lake McLeod fresh water sprays were used to lower

Deposit

Olaroz

the salt content of the gypsum, and drainage water had

the potential, if not properly managed, to form solution

100 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL 123 NO 2

4 Purpose built evaporation ponds, Salar de Olaroz (from Orocobre Limited, 2012)
cavities which could impede operations, and ultimately
dilute the brines which were being exploited in another
part of the lake for salt production.
In addition, in many cases where solid minerals are
exploited, the brines are the ultimate source of the solid
minerals, which are often still actively depositing. In
these cases, detailed understanding of the brines is
required to understand and estimate the solid mineral
resource.
Solid mineral phases may also be exploited by
solution mining, and in this case any brine(s) within
the formation to be exploited will interact with and
potentially contaminate the fluids pumped out during
mining. Therefore resource estimation where solution
mining is a potential method of exploitation should
include an assessment of the quantity and chemistry of
any contained brines.
Exploitation of brines involves:
N brine collection (from surface ponds, boreholes or
trenches)
N pumping
N evaporation, usually in purpose built evaporation
ponds (Fig. 4)
N selective crystallisation, which often includes chemical
modification to ensure the desired salts are deposited,
and
N collection and purification of the final products
N product transport and marketing.
Assessment of economic prospects of brine
exploitation
To be economically exploited, there must be sufficient
brine to justify the required capital expenditure, and all
steps involved in exploitation must be technically and
economically feasible. In contrast to solid minerals,
brines are mobile within the timeframe of a mine life,
which adds complexity to resource estimation.
The estimator must assess:
N Brine volume available to be extracted. This is not
merely an estimation of storage volume, derived from
the volume of aquifer and porosity of that aquifer,
but more precisely that of specific yield, the potential
yield of drainable fluid obtained under gravity flow
from the interconnected pore volume (Hains, 2012).
Hains states ‘in general only approximately one-third
of the total brine volume can be recovered’
N The likely maximum rate of brine collection. An
individual well can be pumped dry if pumped too
hard, and this rate is governed by permeability
limiting the rate of recharge. Up to a point closer
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
spaced wells or extraction points will permit higher
rates of extraction, but practical and economic
considerations will restrict this. Potential extraction
rates should be studied in detail during reserve
estimation, but the resource estimator should con-
sider recharge rates, and discuss the impact of these
on potential extraction rates in the resource report:
N The effect of extraction on the resource. In many
systems, extraction will draw fresh water into the
brine body, and extraction plans must be designed to
restrict this dilution to ensure concentrations will not
drop prematurely
N For example, at Lake MacLeod current brine
collection for salt production is at an average rate
of 55 m3 per minute (Dampier Salt Limited, 2014),
and the operation may be expanded in the future. One
of the advantages of this operation is the brine
concentration, which is 10 times saltier than seawater.
Fortunately the lake is large, and the hydrogeological
system is well understood, so the impact of any
increased extraction on brine concentration can be
modelled, as in this system increasing extraction
could potentially lead to increased inflows of sea
water and lower density brines
N In addition, many salars, particularly in Latin
America, are not under single mineral title/conces-
sion. Pumping by a neighbour will inevitably affect
mine life and extraction rates in adjacent tenements,
as brines do not respect tenement boundaries in their
migration. Resource risk due to neighbouring extrac-
tion operations should be discussed in the resource
report. Note that the converse is not true, as any brine
currently not within the tenement(s) being assessed is
not owned by the tenement holder, so our opinion is
that brines currently outside the tenement boundary
cannot be included in any resource, despite the
fact that these brines may later migrate into the
tenement
N Minimum extractable grade (cut-off grade). Where
metal concentrations in brines are expected to
decrease with time of extraction, the estimator must
only include in the resource brine volumes that are
anticipated to be extractable at above a minimum
grade that is likely to be economic to process. Any
discrete aquifers containing brines which are on
average too low grade, or of too unfavourable
chemistry, for likely economic extraction must not
be included in a resource. The potential for brine
mixing during extraction must always be assessed
prior to application of a cut-off grade
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Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
N Climate will govern the evaporation rate and hence
speed and economics of evaporation in open ponds.
Where open evaporation is likely to be used in the
extraction, climate should be discussed in the resource
report. Storms and/or flooding may impact on the
brines themselves, and also interrupt production by
dilution of evaporation ponds, and these risks should
be identified and where possible quantified using
meteorological records
N Brine chemistry, including all soluble salts in the
brine, must be assessed, not simply the concentration
of the desired elements, as this will control the
complexity and hence cost of the selective crystal-
lisation process
N Any other factors that may impact on the ability to
extract or economics of extraction. All the modifying
factors for reserves should be considered. Examples
include government policies and permitting, environ-
mental and social factors, market for the commodity,
infrastructure availability and costs.
The JORC 2012 requirement that any resource should
more likely than not be eventually economically extracted
is quite a stringent test to pass. Where the competent
person can see that all the above factors are similar to or
more favourable than current viable operations, then in
our opinion a resource is present. Where one or more
factors are significantly different and less favourable than
current operations, then further studies should be carried
out before the competent person should publically sign
off on any resource. These studies may be simple, almost
back of the envelope calculations (e.g. infrastructure cost
will be large, but extractable brine volume is also large, so
estimated infrastructure costs are likely to add only a few
cents per pound to the cost of the lithium carbonate
produced). Alternatively studies may need to be more
detailed, and may extend to a full scoping study to
demonstrate likely costs of production. In most cases the
competent person should use experts in fields other than
their own expertise to carry out some or all of the
necessary work, but the competent person must take
responsibility for the quality of the work done. In all
cases, the competent person should be careful to record
the reasons, information and studies used in making the
decision that a resource is present.
Sampling
Drilling methods
The primary requirements are to identify host geology
and sediment formations, and to sample available brines
from identified aquifers. Surface brine sampling from
near surface pits, and inflow points (streams and or
springs) are often not representative of the whole brine
system, hence there is a need to identify potential aquifers
(surficial and at depth), and sample all brines within these
aquifer(s) throughout the area of interest. Access to
samples of deeper brines throughout the area of interest is
only achieved by significant drilling and hydrogeological
studies (pumping tests). The host formations of the brine
system are often unconsolidated and may contain solid
hard material as interbedded layers, lenses or partial
interfingering units, which often create drilling problems.
Typically there is very low recovery with diamond core
drilling in near surface and deeper aquifer formations
which are often unconsolidated or semi-consolidated.
102 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014 VOL
Sonic drilling techniques, or dual/triple tube reverse
circulation (RC) drilling techniques, have been used
successfully to identify formations and sample brines in
shallower holes (,100 m). Sonic drilling methods can
obtain relatively undisturbed samples of saturated
materials. Dual tube wire line reverse circulation drilling
methods can also achieve good sediment sampling, and
both methods can recover representative samples of brine
from targeted shallow aquifer horizons during drilling.
A combination of Sonic and RC drilling methods are
recommended due to the strengths and characteristics of
these two drilling methods. Sonic drilling recovered core
is far better for geological information collection within
saturated and unconsolidated sediments. Reverse circu-
lation drilling is usually faster and cheaper and is
considered better for sampling at greater depths though
the recovered sediment is more disturbed. Both drilling
methods can use push spilt-spoon samplers to acquire
sediment samples ahead of the drill face for density and
porosity testwork. Split spoon samplers, of y30–40 cm
length, are pushed into the sediment ahead of the drill
bit to garner a representative relatively undisturbed
sample of the sediment yet to be drilled. Such push
samplers obtain a good sample in semi-unconsolidated
clay rich and mixed sand clay horizons. However they
can be less than effective in saturated sand units or if
encountering hard interlayered beds such as cobble beds
or halite.
Drilling is best coupled with down hole geophysical
(natural gamma, neutron, sonic, density, and calliper)
surveys to identify aquifer physical parameters and
assist in geological correlation.
Reverse circulation drilling combined with downhole
geophysics will give reasonably reliable geological
information at a reasonable cost, while sonic drilling
will give undisturbed geological samples and geological
information to enable accurate interpretation of the
downhole geophysics.
Brine sampling
We agree with Kunasz (2013), that aquicludes such as
silt/clay units and solid halite beds/lenses will not
contain significant exploitable brine(s), due to low
permeability and specific yield, and as such these must
be excluded from resources. Hence these units should
not be targeted for brine sampling as this is a waste of
project time, resources, and money. Prescriptive sam-
pling programmes, such as sampling every 3 m run, can
result in ineffective campaigns with delays caused by
time spent trying to sample brines from low- or non-
yielding silts, clays or solid halite beds.
The occurrence of aquicludes and aquitards, even
where thin, must be recorded as understanding their
distribution is vital to resource estimation. Therefore, a
high standard of onsite geological logging and sampling
control is critical.
To reliably sample brine of targeted aquifers within
existing or proposed drill holes, there is a strong need for
carefully constructed cased extraction wells specifically
aimed at sampling the aquifer required. These can be
either single aquifer extraction bores or multi-aquifer
sampling bores, which require a high level of precision
construction. Brine samples obtained by simply drilling
a hole and sampling the contained brine can, at best, be
described as a mixed brine sample from the entire hole
and are indicative only of a drill hole – combined aquifer
123 NO 2

average content. This can be acceptable for sampling a
uniform brine lake system or if interested in a single salt
mineral, but not if you are targeting higher grade metal
ions within brines from specific aquifer(s).
Collection of brine samples within aquifers at the drill
face as the drilling advances is common practice. This is
not considered to be as high quality sampling as would
be obtained from adequately constructed, properly
cemented sampling bores. These bores need to be
adequately grouted and sealed, with gravel packed
intervals to isolate the targeted aquifers. Such properly
constructed ‘piezometer’ bores can be utilised over many
years and enable sampling over a longer time period to
give a more detailed picture of aquifer/brine variation
over time. Early construction of piezometer bores
permits repeat sampling of brines to determine changes
in chemistry with time, which is essential to under-
standing the brine system and seasonal and other
influences on the system.
Most drilling campaigns, particularly early in explora-
tion, are limited in time period. This limits the methods
used to obtain initial brine samples. Methods include the
use of slimline high flow down hole submersible pumps,
the compressed airlift method, or bailing method of
brine sample retrieval from the drill face, with the use of
suitable hole packers to limit inflow to the target horizon
and well point screens to filter particles.
Retrieval of sample by compressed air lift method has
obvious limitations of decreasing effectiveness with
increasing depth and size of drill hole (including cavities
encountered) and pressure of the air delivered. Inflow
leakage due to less than effective drill hole packer systems
resulting from partial obstruction or excessive caving of
the drill hole wall are obvious potential sources of
contamination. There is also potential for injection of
drilling fluids and overlying aquifer(s) brine into the
currently drilled aquifer by over pressurisation during
drilling and or hole ‘cleaning’ activities. The use of limited
amounts of non-reactive soluble dyes or fluorescent dyes
added to drilling fluid and down hole between the inner
rod and outer rod once the packers and well screen have
been emplaced can aid in determining whether such
contamination is significant. Field staff must ensure the
extracted brine is free of dye before being deemed suitable
for sampling. A standard rest period is required to allow
the brine to infill the ‘purged’ drill hole, equalise to the
brine level and settle; recovery of a suitable brine can then
take several attempts if contaminated and showing dye or
is of high turbidity.
A similar procedure is used in the case of a bailer
however the bailer can be used at all depths of the drill
hole. Point source bailers and an associated winch
mechanism are usually easily obtained and transported,
and can be used to extract samples from monitoring
bores to test for variations in the brine with time.
Slimline in-hole submersible pumps are able to extract
sufficient brine samples from a similarly setup drill hole,
however in hypersaline conditions and where there is a
high degree of particulate matter or following accidental
immersion into settled ‘mud’, pumps can prove prone to
malfunction. More expensive inline pumps are available
on the open market however these may be difficult to
obtain locally.
As shown by the British Geological Survey (BGS
2014), the use of a combination of different sampling
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
methods; down hole samples during drilling, standing
monitoring (piezometer) bore purge and sample, as well
as routine sampling of fluid influxes (springs, stream
inputs, etc.); adds a higher level of reliability and
confidence to any resource/reserve estimation than a
single sample set alone.
Brine analysis
Once the brine samples have been collected, and the
source aquifer(s) is recorded, the brine should be
analysed for all contained anions and cations. Brines
samples should be filtered through a 0?45 mm membrane
filter to remove particulate contaminants (syringe filters
are the cheapest option) and placed in a new HDPE
plastic bottle which has been rinsed 3 times with small
aliquots of the filtered brine sample. The sample is then
to be stored in a cool contaminant free place (large
insulated cooler boxes are suitable for this in the field, as
long as they are kept internally clean). Sampling
protocol must be reviewed with the progression of the
programme, any change to method recorded, and later
discussed by the competent person in any resource
classification reporting.
Accurate analyses are not easy to obtain. Sampled
brines change with time, will deposit salts in response to
temperature changes and sometimes due to interaction
with the holding container, and even reabsorb some of
those salts and deposit others as conditions change.
Such conditions may include temperature, fluid move-
ment (including vibration in transit), light (UV absorp-
tion); interaction with any clay/silt particles in the fluid.
The interaction between various salt species (and
contaminants, e.g. clay) in the brines makes low level
accurate analysis problematic and analytical repeatabil-
ity can be difficult. Creation of a project standard is
important, but brine standard samples will also age as
will ‘representative samples’ or ‘split’/repeat samples
held in secure storage.
In addition many water laboratories are not accus-
tomed to testing samples of highly concentrated brines
(Hains, 2012) and this may lead to biased or inaccurate
results, so results should be confirmed using diffe-
rent laboratories. Primary considerations in choice of
laboratory should be suitability of methods available,
accreditation in those methods, experience with brines,
speed of transport from site to laboratory, and
laboratory turn-around time, with analytical cost a
lesser consideration.
Quality control is vital for brine analyses, but duplicate
analyses can be materially affected by longer transit times
and resultant solution variation and/or by slight differ-
ences in analytical approach. Without umpire analyses
the competent person is left with a problem in deciding
which set of analyses are the more reliable. Brine chemical
and charge balance modelling can be a useful quality
control check, as long as a complete suite of elements
within the brine is analysed. The CP must record the QA/
QC sampling, analytical methods used and the evidence
or lack of it for limiting the ions and cations analysed for
to a specific subset. Round robin testing may assist with
identification of more reliable results. Sample security,
storage and transport protocols must be adequately
recorded, and must be available to be reviewed by the
CP for resource estimation.
Once an initial set of reliable analyses have been
obtained, regular resampling of designated monitoring
2014 VOL 123 NO 2 103
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
sites will measure seasonal and other fluctuations in
brine chemistry of the target aquifers. This is essential to
understanding the hydrogeology of the brine aquifer
system, and for confidence in resource and reserve
determinations.
Surveys
Construction of a realistic model requires understanding
of the interactive dynamics of the hydrology, geology
and brine chemistry of the system. Physically distinct
domains are common within these dynamic systems. In
volcanically active regions like the Andes, it is common
for ignimbrite debris flows to splay into the basin,
sealing a portion of the system beneath the flow. In
mature basins, a thick solid halite core with limited
porosity and brine content is geologically and hydro-
logically distinct from the surrounding mixed evaporite/
clastic sequence. Another common event is a major
flood event, depositing extensive clastic sediments within
a portion of the basin and introduced fresh diluting
(dissolving) waters, which may form caverns in older
evaporites.
Geophysical surveys of the brine basin are strongly
recommended to determine basin morphology and inter-
nal structure. Appropriate geophysical surveys, such as
ground based gravity and or 3D seismic, will also enable
continuity to be established between data points.
Determining of these domains by geophysical surveys
can save the cost of needless drilling and sampling of low
potential or areas of reduced potential. Geophysical
surveys may also enable recognition of sources of
contaminates such as travertine or sulphur springs,
areas of low salinity inflows and leakage points such as
faults, all of which are vital to understanding the system
and enabling accurate resource/reserve determinations.
Electrical conductivity may be useful to distinguish fresh
water from saline water, but is unlikely to materially
assist in differentiating relative salinities within many
brine systems.
Modelling
Sampling and data alone is insufficient; the data must be
assessed and interpreted. The main issue is that brines
are within dynamic systems; brines migrate with time,
react with the materials around them (especially with the
solid evaporite and charged clays), and progressive
dissolution and precipitation will alter the pathways the
brines travel through as well as the brine chemical
character itself. These changes happen naturally, sea-
sonally, with major floods, tectonic changes or volcanic
eruptions or other incursions which will impact materi-
ally upon the system. Once commercial extraction starts,
the whole system alters again to reform a new temporal
equilibration; introduction of increased brine extraction
capacity will again change the dynamics of the system.
For sustainable extraction of brines we need to
consider both brine components, the water balance
and salt balance over time. Where solid minerals are of
economic interest, it is still important to understand the
chemistry of any brines in the system, and any potential
changes, whether natural or induced as a result of
mining, as any change may dissolve the targeted
mineral, or deposit other minerals which can dilute the
resource or hinder exploitation. However for solid
mineral exploitation, the understanding and modelling
104 Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B) 2014
of the brine system may be less rigorous than that
required for brine exploitation.
Compared to solid metal resources, where we just
need to estimate tonnes and grade, for brine exploitation
we need:
N extractable brine volume5aquifer volume times
specific yield (accessible/drainable porosity)
N average brine chemistry
N permeability which determines brine hydraulic con-
ductivity and transmissivity, to factor how fast the
brine can be extracted. In an open system allowance
for recharge rate and the chemistry of the recharge
must be made, as well as the reactions the recharge
will undergo.
The initial framework for any model is an accurate solid
geology model. Sufficient drilling, geophysical downhole
probe logging and basin surveys are recommended to
form the basic data for modelling.
Hard boundaries are appropriate to model the contacts
of the basin and basement, but within the basin a good
understanding of the sedimentary packages will govern
whether hard boundaries are appropriate. For example,
clastic sediments may have clearly defined boundaries
(e.g. channel sands) or may interfinger with evaporite.
Within the basin the most critical units for modelling are
the aquifers and any solid evaporites (which may form
part of the resource, or may react with the brine).
Basin history will govern whether a stratigraphic (also
known as a seam or layer) model or a block model are
most suitable. For example, the Lake MacLeod system,
with distinct thin stratigraphic units each of 1 to 6 m
thick (Logan, 1987) is best modelled as a stratigraphic
model, while the deeper and more uniform halite
dominated Salar de Rincon (Pavlovic, 2004) is more
suited to a block model.
The dry bulk density is not easy to establish for less
consolidated sediments, but is critical in establishing
resources for solid evaporites. Geophysical data may
assist with obtaining an average bulk density. When
considering the bulk density from first principles, using
the specific gravity of components, the free void space
must be considered, as well as the density of the brine
and crystal components.
In some systems much of the brine volume can be
within caverns (within halite) in the system; these
are often best assessed on a probability basis. Seismic
surveys may assist with determining near surface
cavities, but it can be almost impossible to determine
exactly where caverns are at depth, and we rarely have
enough data to give a reliable estimate of how many or
the extent of caverns. Detailed gravity may assist in
determining the overall proportion of cavities, where
geological boundaries are well known. Good geological
understanding of potential pathways for dilute liquids
can help in predicting likelihood of caverns. Porosity of
cored samples and permeability measurements from
cored samples rarely indicate the extent of cavitation.
Hence the porosity and permeability can be understated,
or potentially exaggerated if cavities found in one unit
are assumed to be typical of the whole system.
While porosity and permeability are important factors
in a model, it is the specific yield and hydraulic
conductivity which will be the major determining factors
in the economics of the brine resource. These can be
VOL 123 NO 2

derived from pumping tests of recognised brine bearing
aquifers.
Fluid flow modelling using data from long term
hydrogeological pumping tests is crucial to determining
specific yield, the parameters of production and hence
reserve estimations. Long term (20–40 days or longer)
pump test results are used in conjunction with geological
data as model inputs. These inputs include climatic data,
aquifer geometry, permeability, porosity, groundwater
pressures, and brine chemistry. This leads to salt and
water balance modelling that integrates rainfall and
surface water inputs with evaporation and other out-
puts/leakage. A 3D model of fluid flow and solute
transport that incorporates known variation in fluid
density across the salar can then be constructed and
attuned to the input data. The final model is usually
constructed by specialists in the field of fluid flow
modelling using recognised mathematical modelling
techniques, commonly finite difference modelling, within
software packages, such as USGS Modflow-Surfact
version 4 used at Salar de Olaroz (Orocobre Limited,
2012). Rates of extraction and long term effects are able
to be quantified and brine production capacity defined
over a period of time, demonstrating the prospects for
economic extraction for resources, and also giving
sufficient hard data to generate economic models and
estimate reserves.
Recommendations
N A multi-disciplinary team approach is mandatory for
any resource estimation in these systems. A thorough
understanding of geology forms the framework for
any resource, but in these systems geology alone is
not enough.
N Climate monitoring, including rainfall and records of
any surface inflows into the basin, is required for any
sustainable extraction of evaporites or brines from
salars or sabkhas, and this data should be collected
during exploration.
N Geophysics (both downhole and regional surveys)
assists in understanding geology and in reducing
unnecessary drilling. Geophysical surveys can model
the basin form, internal structure and any underlying
structure early in an exploration program to deter-
mine the likely basin type and areas of potential
discharge.
N In many systems a combination of sonic and reverse
circulation drilling with downhole geophysics will
produce reliable geological data in a cost effective
manner.
N Brine sampling adds significant time to drilling, and
the emphasis should be on sample quality rather than
speed of sampling. Brine samples should be collected
from aquifers, not on a regular downhole distance, as
aquitards such as silt and clay layers will not yield
extractable brines.
N Modelling starts with a reliable model of basin
geology, with particular attention paid to evaporite
targets, aquifers and aquitard units. Resource models
for brines must be limited to defined aquifers. For
this reason, specific yield should be tested early in a
program, by construction of piezometer holes and
preliminary pump testing. Hydrophysical measure-
ments on core (or split spoon) samples are useful
Applied Earth Science (Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B)
Border and Sawyer Evaporites and brines
checks but do not substitute for field measurement of
parameters.
N To ensure accurate brine chemistry, select suitable
laboratories and institute rigorous quality control,
which should include some round robin testing.
N Resampling of brines is required to determine
variation with time. A single set of samples from
one moment in time is unlikely to give high
confidence in the whole fluid flow cycle and reliability
of dataset. Multiple repeat periods and different
methods of brine sampling are desirable to increase
confidence in results.
N A fluid flow model based on the measured hydro-
geological parameters, including consideration of
brine chemistry, can demonstrate stability with time
and feasibility of extraction.
N There should be explicit discussion of limiting
extraction rates in any resource report. Climatic
(e.g. flood events) and other risks should also be
identified and discussed.
N We recommend the use of agreed or legislated buffer
zones between neighbouring tenements in a single
salar, with no wells to be developed in the buffer zone
without the explicit agreement of the neighbouring
tenement holder. This would reduce the risk of
extraction interaction, and give more security to
investors and developers that well life would not be
curtailed by the actions of neighbouring producers.
Where adequate buffers do not exist, and the salar is
split between different owners, the resource report
should discuss risks to the resource from aggressive
extraction by neighbours.
Conclusions
Modern evaporite/brine systems are complex and dyna-
mic, and there are significant hurdles in their evaluation.
A skilled multidisciplinary team with a well-designed
exploration program using modern techniques can
overcome these hurdles, and this work will form the
basis of reliable resource estimation. As there are so
many more parameters to estimate when compared
to traditional deposits, it will take longer to define
resources, and much effort to classify resources at a
higher level than inferred. We consider that climatic
data, significant hydrogeological studies including long
term pumping tests, resampling of brines over time and
a comprehensive fluid flow model of the basin would
usually be required to generate indicated or measured
brine resources.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Peter Rogers for preparing the diagrams for
this paper, and thanks to all the Geos Mining team for
stimulating discussions on resources and geology.
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