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Educational Psychology and Guidance

COURSE CODE. (6501)

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN

UNIVERSITY

ASSIGNMENT NO.(02)

Zahir Muhammad

Tutor:- Uzma Noorin

Name: Zahir Muhammad

Roll No:

Registration No

Course Code: 6501

Level: M.A (2 Years)

Semester: First (1st)

Phone No: 0349060239

ASSIGNMENT No. 02

Q1 Compare Maslow's theory of self-actualization with

Murray's theory of motivation. Which theory provides more
realistic and comprehensive picture of motivation and how?
Answer
The Maslow motivation theory is one of the best known and most influential theories on
workplace motivation. Here is one of our Manage in a Minute pages, with a short
introduction to the basics of this well known theory.
Psychologist Abraham Maslow first developed his famous theory of individual
development and motivation in the 1940‘s. He suggested that human beings have a
hierarchy of needs. That is, that all humans act in a way which will address basic needs,
before moving on to satisfy other, so-called higher level needs.
Maslow represented this theory as a hierarchical triangle. This shows how basic needs
must be met before one can ―climb‖ the hierarchy, to address more complex needs. For
example, first one must meet the basic, physiological need for food, water and warmth.
After that the focus would be on the need to be safe, then the need to belong to social
groups, and so on up the hierarchy.
The important thing to recognize is Maslow‘s contention that one‘s sense of well-being.
i.e. the ‗feelgood factor‘ increases as the higher level needs are met.
Maslow Motivation Theory: the Hierarchy of Needs
The Maslow motivation theory is typically represented by 5 steps:
Physiological needs – such as hunger, thirst and sleep
Safety needs – such as security, protection from danger and freedom from pain.
Social needs – sometimes also referred to as love needs such as friendship, giving and
receiving love, engaging in social activities and group membership.
Esteem needs – these include both self-respect and the esteem of others. For example,
the desire for self-confidence and achievement, and recognition and appreciation.
Self-actualization – This is about the desire to develop and realize your full potential. To
become everything you can be.
Maslow Motivation Theory
Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow believed that human beings have a strong desire to reach their full potential. In
his own words:
a man‘s desire for self-fulfilment, namely the tendency for him to become actualised in
what he is potentially: to become everything that one is capable of being….
Understanding Maslow‘s Needs Hierarchy
To understand Maslow‘s thinking it‘s worth noting some of his main assertions:
Broadly, as one set of needs is met, the next level of needs become more of a motivator
to an individual.
A satisfied need is not a motivator.
Only unsatisfied needs motivate an individual. We have an innate desire to work our
way up the hierarchy, pursuing satisfaction in higher order needs.
Self-actualization stimulates a desire for more due to what Maslow explained as ―peak
experiences‖, created by the overall effect of reaching one‘s full potential.
Transcending Maslow‘s Original Theory
Later in his life, Maslow discussed an added motivational need: transcendence. This in
some ways added to or refined the self-actualisation level of his hierarchy.
Transcendence relates to personal fulfillment beyond simply being one‘s best. It comes
from commitment to things beyond the self. For example through spiritualism,
community engagement, charitable work or anything inspired by altruistic intent.
Critiques of Maslow‘s Theory
There have been numerous academic criticisms of the theory. These are largely based
on the relative narrowness of his original research data, and arguably subjective
selection of the sample. Maslow‘s original work was based on observations of healthy,
college students, representing only 1% of the overall population.
The theory has also been criticised for overlooking cultural factors. Inferring the fixed
rankings of a universal human hierarchy of needs from his research ignores a wide
range of social factors which differentiate people all across the world.

We have illustrated several examples of this in our motivational stories, especially in our article:
Benefits of Time Management.
Finally, critics have argued that Maslow’s theory does not allow for changes in personal
circumstances or attitudes. These may occur due to changes or pressures from any external
factors, often categorised in the PESTLE tool. For example, one’s perception of the importance
of a motivational factor may well be influenced by the economics of a recession, or the
privations of a war.
The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic will certainly have changed people’s perceptions of
what’s important in life. And arguably, the numerous examples of people caring and
contributing to the needs of neighbours, regardless of their own welfare or financial security,
may make us think again about the rigid hierarchy of the model.

More on Maslow
If you wish to find out more you can read Maslow’s original article here. Or you may like to read
some of our articles related to this topic, for example on flow. You may also find it useful to
look at the detailed discussions in some of our related articles, such as Positive Attitude in the
Workplace.

Q.2 Explain some ways to measure individual differences among students, How
as a teacher will you manage individual differences in your classroom!
ANS:- Around the world, every public school system is faced with the challenge of
educating large numbers of students efficiently while also meeting the needs of each
student. The waves of international migration taking place today make this challenge
particularly daunting: Schools, teachers, and school systems have to respond to an
increasingly diverse student body and very different needs.
The fundamental question is this: How can we ensure that all students have the
opportunity to learn and reach their full potential—regardless of their place of birth,
family of origin, religion, gender or cognitive abilities?
One common response to this challenge has been to group students with similar
achievement levels into courses, study programs, or schools – a practice known as
tracking. The aim is to create more homogeneous groups of students, with the
assumption that this will make it easier for teachers to tailor instruction to students‘
needs.
Tracking exacerbates educational inequalities
Most school systems in developed countries practice some form of tracking, in particular
in secondary schools. In several European countries (e.g. Germany, Switzerland,
Belgium), students of different achievement levels even attend separate secondary
schools. In other countries (e.g. the US, the UK, Portugal), students go to the same
school but are grouped by ability for some or all of their subjects.
While tracking is motivated by worthy goals, its effectiveness has been the subject of
heated debate among both policymakers and researchers. There is empirical evidence
that tracking exacerbates educational inequality. With less demanding curricula, lower
instructional quality, lower expectations, and fewer resources, lower tracks provide less
opportunity to learn. Even more alarming, the assignment to a given track is often
biased by race or social class. So tracking is hardly an ideal solution for dealing with
student heterogeneity.
So what to do? Policymakers and researchers are beginning to recognize that the
success of a school system is determined less by its structure or institutional
arrangements – such as tracking – than by what actually happens in the classroom. In
recent years, more and more policymakers have been urging schools to personalize
learning, individualize instruction and adapt teaching to students‘ needs in
heterogeneous classrooms.
―Because all students are capable learners, you as a teacher must demonstrate that all
students are expected to fully participate in all activities. Sometimes you will want to
offer options for students to choose from, but everyone should be involved in learning.‖
—Susan Winebrenner, author of Teaching Kids with Learning Difficulties in the Regular
Classroom
The following are some creative teaching strategies you can use to teach students with
different needs in the ways they learn best. It summarizes some of these methods that
help to better understand and respond to these students
Differentiate instruction. It‘s important to recognize that ―fairness‖ in education doesn‘t
mean that all children are taught in the exact same way. Instead it means accounting for
the needs of individual students and adjusting the curriculum accordingly. Differentiation
allows you to provide individualized instruction by changing the pace, level, or style of
teaching to engage student strengths and interests. Students with mental health and
learning disorders are not the only children who benefit from this instructional
philosophy—all children in your classroom can achieve at higher levels when you are
conscientious about providing instruction that fits how they learn best. Differentiating
instruction includes, when appropriate, reducing assignments or extending deadlines to
accommodate a child‘s abilities.
Capitalize on learning styles. Students learn in a number of different ways. Visual
learners learn most effectively from visual information, while auditory learners learn best
from verbal or audio presentations. Tactile-kinesthetic learners do well when touching or
moving in some way as they take in information (experiential learning). While students
can often learn to some degree in all of these different ways, many excel in one area so
that instruction based on a particular style is much more effective than that of another.
Deficits in one or more areas of learning can be particularly common in students with
learning disabilities. Incorporate multiple intelligences into curriculum. Students often
have areas of learning in which they are particularly strong. These learning strengths
can be engaged to help students succeed in the classroom and reach their full potential.
The multiple intelligences are a framework of strengths outlined by Harvard psychologist
Howard Gardner. They are linguistic, logical-mathematical, visual- spatial, musical-
rythmic, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Most students
have strengths in one or two of these areas.
Capitalize on student interests. One of the best ways to motivate students is to
incorporate their interests into the curriculum. As much as possible, allow students to
choose the topics they‘ll report on in a paper or project. Also look to include interests in
other smaller ways—such as in math word problems. Tying learning to interests is a
potentially powerful way to reinforce core curriculum concepts.
Involve students in educational goals. Students perform best when they feel they are
active participants, as opposed to passive subjects, in learning. Try to involve students
in creating goals related to learning activities. Children with mental health and learning
disorders may have a negative attitude toward schoolwork so incentives are required at
the outset. Your goal ultimately should be to have students genuinely engaged in
learning so that rewards become less important. Use computerized instruction. Most
students enjoy working with computers, which can stimulate their interest in schoolwork.
A wide assortment of available programs from reading instruction to voice recognition
software makes computerized instruction very relevant in helping students with special
needs. Activities and games that incorporate material from content themes can reinforce
concepts for visual and tactile learners.
Group students effectively. Group projects provide great opportunities for you to put
together the talents of students in complementary ways. A child who struggles in one
aspect of a subject may excel in another. Group students so that they can both
showcase strengths and learn from peers. Also give careful consideration to the social
dynamics of groups. Children who have mental health and learning disorders benefit
from working with students who are especially kind, patient, and empathetic.
Consider outside placement options. Some children may have needs you simply
cannot meet in the regular classroom. At these times, work with your school‘s
specialists to ensure skills are developed in other settings. A child with a communication
disorder might require intensive work with a speech language pathologist. An extremely
disruptive student may need to spend part of the day in a program set up for children
with serious emotional disorders.
Q.3 How as a teacher, can you detect maladjustment among students. What are
some common defense mechanism students with maladjustment may exhibit in
the classroom?
ANS:- Everyday life can be incredibly challenging for a maladjusted child. Children who
are maladjusted lack the social skills necessary to interact effectively with peers and
engage in healthy, cooperative activities. While maladjustment is not something that can
be rectified over night, with help, maladjusted children can operate as effective
members of society. By assisting a maladjusted child in navigating the complex web of
social relationships, you can help prepare the pupil for future interactions with others.An
individual‗s adjustment
is adequate, wholesome or healthy to the extent that he hasestablished harmonious
relationship between himself and the conditions, situations and persons who comprise
his physical and social environment.
Maladjustment refers to disharmony between the person and his
environment. Contrary to adjustment, maladjustment represents a condition or a state
in which one feels that one‗s needs are not fulfilled and he has been a failure
in establishing harmony with his self and the environment.
Causes of maladjustments:
The causes of one‗s maladjustment to his self and the environment
may be both of personal as well as environmental
To identify reasons
Attempt to identify reasons for the child's maladjustment and refer to family protective
services if necessary. Maladjustment can be spurred by a number of things. If you are
an educator or health care worker and you feel that the student's problems stem from
an issue within the home, you must report this to social services, as you are a
mandated reported
Speak daily with the child about his day
Speak daily with the child about his day. By engaging in regular communication, the
child can begin to learn the principles of socialization. Set aside 5 to 10 minutes daily
and devote this time to making small talk with the child.
Take the child to places
Take the child to places where he can interact with peers in play. Visit popular parks or
other recreation areas in which children commonly play. Encourage the child to engage
in play with his peers. If he is hesitant to do so, enter the playing area with him at first,
so that he does not feel as if he is all alone. Gradually pull back, allowing him more
autonomy.
Introduce the child
Introduce the child to kind and helpful same-age peers. Some children are particularly
adept at working with peers who struggle. If you know of a conscientious and polite
child, ask this child to buddy up with the maladjusted child and engage in conversation
or participate in play.
Discuss misbehavior with the child
Discuss misbehavior with the child. Some maladjusted children misbehave because
they do not understand how to behave properly. It is not effective to merely punish the
child for this misbehavior, as she knows neither what she has done wrong nor what she
should have done in place of that behavior. In place of punishment, have a conversation
with the child. Explain to her why what she did was wrong, so she can better understand
why she shouldn't repeat the behavior.
Help the child
Help the child create a list of alternatives to misbehavior. If the maladjusted child
continually exhibits the same behavior, he may be doing so because he does not know
an alternative. If, for example, the child pushes his peers down and takes their toys
when he wants to play with them, help discover alternatives to this destructive behavior
by listing options. Tell him that he could ask the peers to share, he could wait his turn,
and so forth. As the child learns these alternatives, he may be more likely to use them in
the future.
Refer the child for special education testing
Refer the child for special education testing. In some instances maladjusted children are
eligible for special education services. If the child's maladjustment is so severe that it
impacts his academic abilities, he may be entitled to services. Follow the procedures at
your school to refer the child and ensure that he gets the testing he needs.
Once kindergarten has ended, you probably think that your child's adjustment period is
over. Your child has acclimated to his or her school, made friends and has started
learning to read, write and do basic math. But sometimes, first grade bring its own set of
emotional, behavioral, social or educational problems.
Separation Anxiety
You may think that your child will have no difficulty separating from you at the beginning
of the school year. After all, he made it through kindergarten. But first graders are still
young, and an entire summer at home may make some kids apprehensive when it‘s
time for classes to begin again. Most first grade teachers will be sensitive to this. Some
schools allow parents to visit children during lunch. One way to curb your child‘s anxiety
is to promise a weekly visit until he feels comfortable. If you have the time, become a
room parent or volunteer in the school. Just knowing that you are there is likely to make
your child feel better.
Behavior Problems
Some children may begin to experience behavioral issues in first grade. This can be
because of a number of factors. If children are exposed to stresses at home, such as
divorce or a move, they can begin to act out in the classroom. Or they may have
developed friendships with peers who are encouraging them to act out. Your child‘s
teacher will likely notify you if she is having behavior problems during school, and he or
she can work with you to develop a plan to improve behavior during the year. You
should also talk with your child on a regular basis to see what‘s happening during the
day and how she is feeling.
Social Problems
Another potential problem is social isolation or teasing. Unfortunately, first grade is not
too young for bullies. A child or group of children might decide to ostracize your child or
call her names. Even more likely, friends today might be enemies tomorrow. Young
children often change ―best friends‖ on a regular basis. This can be hurtful to a child
who felt he was the favorite one day and persona non-grata the next. In most cases,
parents should stay out of small fights. Children tend to work these out on their own. But
if your child is being taunted, teased or physically bullied, you should step in quickly and
talk to the teacher.
Skill Weakness
It can be upsetting to discover that your child is not keeping up with the rest of the class.
Skill weaknesses at the ages of 6 and 7 usually involve difficulty reading, writing or
doing basic math. There are several ways you can work with your child if he‘s behind.
First, you can practice at home. Try to spend fifteen extra minutes a night with your son
or daughter doing skill-building exercises. These can be fun. You can even use
technology to help. At school, your child‘s teacher will probably recommend a course of
action. Often, schools have special programs to help children who need more practice.
The teacher will likely keep you informed about his progress, but be sure to stay
involved and ask questions.

Q4 What are the factors that influence the organization of guidance programs in
schools? As a head of school how would you evaluate school guidance program!
ANS:- As an integral part of education, guidance plays an important role in the
schooling system. Attending school is not our only target in the modern and complex
world. Rather present school should take a lot of initiatives and responsibilities to build
its students properly. For which they would be able to shoulder their carriers in the right
direction utilizing their potentialities to the maximum extent in relation to their limitations.
Otherwise they would not make themselves fit to adjust and cooperate positively and
perfectly in educational, occupational, personal as well as social life. It is keenly
observed that without proper guidance services- no student has ever been able to
maximize his talents and poten-tialities. So that organisation of guidance services in the
school has become an urgent need for the present society.
Mainly guidance services given in the school include all sorts of school guidance
activities and programmes which are meant for students in order to maximize their
potentialities, achieve self realization, self direc-tion and self development, choose
suitable career plan, carry a satisfactory occupation, get job satisfaction, make better
adjust-ment in the home, school and community.
In fact the organisation of guidance programme in the school is not a recent attempt by
the developed countries of the world. But in India, it has not got any clear picture and
due status like other developed countries. Only suitable saying and mere attempt of the
same will not contribute fruitful result to students as well as nation.
That is why careful attempts should be taken by the Government, related agencies,
schools and concerning personnel‘s to receive grand success in the organisation of the
guidance programmes in the schools.
Need and Importance of Organisation of School Guidance Service:
In past, school was considered as an institution to meet the literary ambition, to satisfy
thirst for theoretical information and knowledge, to spend leisure hours of the
pupils.Unfortunately, at present the same achievements are not sufficient for the
students to sui-vive in the ever changing world. Keeping this in view now- a-days school
should act for the preparation for the goals of stu-dents as well as education.
So it is natural that education should become a purposeful activity. It is not possible in
the part of an immature student to determine right goal of life and as such the goal of
education. In this context, Toynbee rightly remarks ―a civilization survives only so long
as it makes adequate response to the challenges of its times‖. So the students need
effective school guidance services which would be organised smoothly in right way.
The school guidance service is essential at primary as well as secondary school level
due to following needs:
(i) It enables teachers to know the talents and potentialities of the students.
(ii) It enables guidance workers to recognize the field and degree of interest and
potentialities of the students.
(iii) It gives ample opportunities to find essential, reliable and authentic and scientific
data on students.
(iv) It gives hints to the students to choose an appropriate career plan for future.
(v) It helps students to find out a suitable occupation by which they can get maximum
job satisfaction.
(vi) It offers adequate information and knowledge to the students for better adjustment
in the school and its surroundings.
(vii) It provides proper knowledge and information to the school going children to adjust
in the home and its sphere.
(viii) It provides knowledge and information the students to adjust in the community
satisfactory.
(ix) It helps parents and relatives to make a suitable career plan for better future of the
children.
(x) It helps in studying and understanding the students in regards to their natures, needs
and physical, intellectual, emotional and social abilities.
(xi) It helps concerning staff of the school to utilize and develop their knowledge, skill,
self interest, and training abilities for the same.
(xii) It helps guidance personnel‘s of school guidance programme in considering their
activities and functions.
(xiii) It gives ample opportunities to the students for achieving self realization, self
direction and self development for a bright future.
(xiv) It is a joint and concentrated venture of the headmaster, teacher, guidance
personnel and parents for the upliftment of students and society considering best
possible use of available community resources.
(xv) It saves time, energy and money if the school guidance programmes are
systematically organised.
Objectives of Organisation of School Guidance Service:
In-fact the students are the best human assets for the society. Aspiring for a better
future of the students and as well as nation it has become an urgent need to organize
school guidance services in the school keeping certain objectives. We can have a
developed nation if the human resources of the country are properly utilized and
developed.
Feeling this importance in the mind recently the school guidance services are taken into
consideration for this high time.
Certain aims and objectives of organisation of school guidance service are stated
below:
(i) To understand the needs, demands, potentialities, interests, attitudes, aspiration and
position of the students.
(ii) To assist students to understand themselves and develop self concepts within them.
(iii) To help students in framing future education plans.
(iv) To assist students in determining their occupational choices.
(v) To help students for satisfactory adjustment in the home.

(vi) To assist students for better adjustment in the school.

(vii) To help students for suitable adjustment in the community.

Scope of Organisation of School Guidance Service:
Like education, guidance is a continuous and a lifelong process. So that the
organisation of guidance and counselling services are most important in the life of
students. Actually the same services have wider scope covering various activities,
programmes, situa-tions of life and solution of faced problems by the students.
The organisation of school guidance service is a specialized service meant for the
students to know various necessary data about them and to guide and suggest
accordingly for their educa-tional, occupational, personal, as well as social
developments.
For this very purpose, information‘s are collected regarding students abilities,
intelligence, interests, aptitudes, attitudes, personality traits and extra talent of special
field etc.
The collection of said data can be possible taking the help of different tests such as
intelligence test, aptitude test, achievement test, interest inven-tory, adjustment
inventory, attitude scale, interview, schedules, observation, rating scale, check list,
questionnaire and sociometric technique, clinical studies etc.
In order to keep and record the data regarding students systematically cumulative
record card and anecdotal record are used at the time of organisation of guidance
programmes in the schools.
The organisation of guidance services comprise various oc­cupational information‘s
needed for the benefit of the students relating to a better job or occupation.
For the purpose of collection of occupational information‘s, the help of different
institutions and centers like colleges, universities. State Bureau of Guidance,
Employment Exchange, Institute of Vocational Guidance, Union Public Service
Commission, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, NCERT and Ministry of
Education and Social Welfare etc. are taken.
With this the help of career talk, career conference, career corner, demonstrations are
taken into consideration to avail more job information‘s and training facilities provided in
the country and abroad. Besides this the collection of more occupa-tional information‘s
is possible through certain publications like Employment News, Employment Bulletins,
Vocational Journals, Notices and Pamphlets etc.
Now-a-days the role of Radio, Television programmes and Internet relating to this
cannot be ignored in this context.
Counselling is an important guidance service which deals with educational, scholastic,
vocational, personal problems as well as adjustment problems of pupils. It includes
establishment of good rapport or some other way of personal contact which help in
knowing and solving the faced problems of the students.
In order to organize guidance and counselling services in schools trained teachers and
counsellors are required. For them in-service training, pre-service training and other
training facilities should be given to initiate the school guidance programmes.
The organisation of school guidance services includes program-mes for parent
education and parental awareness. Besides this, the organisation of school guidance
programmes include different periodic seminars and workshops and conferences for all
concerning members for the smooth running of the program-mes.
Q.5 Differentiate between counselling and psychotherapy. What are the
characteristics of a good counsellor?
ANS:- Spelling differences in American and British English are widespread and well-
documented.
From consonant doubling to -ise and ize suffixes, American writers and British writers
are likely to spell many common words differently, even when these writers may be
referring to the same thing.
Counseling and counselling are two spelling variants of the same word. Each language
community prefers a different spelling. While this might be a confusing difference for
international therapists, most of us only need to consider who our audience is before
deciding which version to use. Continue reading to learn more about this word.
What is the Difference Between Counselling and Counseling?
In this post, I will compare counselling vs. counseling. I will use each of these words in
example sentences, so you can see how they appear in context.
I will also show you how to use a mnemonic device to easily choose counseling or
counselling.
When to Use Counseling
definition of counseling definition of counsellingWhat does counseling mean?
Counseling is a verb. It is the present participle conjugation of to counsel, which
meansto give guidance.
For example,
The master cake decorator is counseling his young protégé in the ways of cake
decorating.
―For years, I have been counseling you to avoid giving straight answers to the press,‖
said the politician‘s media coach.
Counseling is also a gerund, which is a verb that can function as a noun in sentences.
Counseling means guidance or a type of therapy as a noun.
Here are some example sentences,
Jill goes to the clinic each week for grief counseling.
Group counseling can be an effective delivery tool for social skills training for adolescent
boys.
The late Roger Ailes ran Fox News for two decades, all the while counseling Republican
politicians on their careers — part of his previous professional life. –The Washington
Post
When to Use Counselling
counselling counseling differenceWhat does counselling mean? Counselling is an
alternative spelling of the same word. Where counseling is used in American English,
counselling is used in British English.
Counselling and other psychological therapies can do more harm than good if they are
of poor quality or the wrong type, according to a major new analysis of their outcomes. –
The Guardian
The charts below show this usage trend in both American and British English,
respectively.
American English:
counselling versus counseling
British English:
counseling counselling difference
These charts aren‘t scientific, but they are accurate enough to illustrate the British
preference for counselling over counseling and an American preference for the
opposite.
Interestingly, counseling was more common for a brief period in the 20th century, before
counselling regained its current, commanding lead.
Counselling is used exactly the same way as counseling in sentences. Here are some
examples,
It took years of counselling for Amanda to get over the loss of her sister.
When counselling children, it is important to remember that their developmental level is
not as high as yours.
This same American, British preference applies to the words counselor and counsellor.
Trick to Remember the Difference
Counseling and counselling are spelling variants of the same word. The difference
between them comes down to your intended audience:
Americans prefer counseling.
Those who use British English are used to seeing counselling.
Since counselling has an extra L, and the British city of London starts with an L, this
letter will be your clue that counselling is the British spelling of this word.
Summary
Is it counselling or counseling? Counseling is a verb that means giving guidance or
therapy. It can also be used as a noun, where it refers to this guidance or therapy.
Counseling is an American English spelling.
Counselling is the British English spelling of the same word.