WORKING MEMORY AND ITS IMPACT ON LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT AMONG

PRIMARY STUDENTS: A SYSTEMATIC LITERATURE REVIEW

ANG PING HOONG

ABSTRACT

This systematic literature review aims to explore the relationship between working memory

and language achievement among primary school students. Working memory is a cognitive

process involved in the temporary storage and manipulation of information, which plays a

crucial role in various cognitive tasks, including language processing. Understanding the

impact of working memory on language achievement is essential for informing educational

practices. Understanding the impact of working memory on language achievement is

essential for informing educational practices and interventions. Through a comprehensive

search and analysis of relevant studies, this review aims to provide an overview of the

existing evidence and identify key findings, research gaps, and implications for future

research and educational strategies.

Keywords: working memory, language achievement, primary students, systematic

literature review, cognitive processes, education

1.0 Introduction

In the modern era, globalization has brought the world’s different cultures

closer than ever before, this had led to a significant increase in people who speak

multiple languages. It is not uncommon today for someone to be proficient in

languages that are not their mother tongue. One could even say that there lies a

possibility that knowing multiple languages will become the new norm (Damian,

2020). Hence, learning in the 21st century requires language learners to equip

themselves with mastering multiple languages. In this era, learning a language is

beyond knowing grammar or memorizing key points or vocabulary so that students

are able to communicate with others.

Language achievement is a fundamental aspect of academic success,

particularly among primary school students who are in the crucial stages of

language development. Effective language skills are essential for comprehension,

communication, and overall cognitive growth. However, not all students perform

equally well in language-related tasks, and various factors contribute to individual

differences in language achievement. Recent studies have shown that bilingual

children typically score lower than their monolingual peers (Clayden et al., 2023).

Importantly, the effects of bilingual or multilingual experience in childhood have

been associated with changes beyond the linguistic domain, namely in executive

functions, which are higher-level cognitive processes required in goal-directed

behaviors and problem-solving. Executive functioning is a type of top-down mental

processing that requires concentration and attention and is utilized when intuition

or automatic behavior is either ill-advised or impossible (Damian, 2020). Thus, one

cognitive process that has gained significant attention in educational research is

working memory.
 There are numerous studies that indicated individual differences concerning

working memory may directly influence academic performance in language learning

among primary students (Chang et.al, 2019; Shen, W., & Park, H., 2020; Catherine

et. al., 2021; Teng, 2022). For instance, investigating the relationship between

working memory capacity (L2 reading span) and English reading comprehension

performance among Chinese middle school students, Chang et. al., (2019) found a

significant correlation between them. Catherine (2021) studied the association

between bilingualism and working memory capacity in 116 studies (involving 177

pairs of participants) by comparing age, characteristics of working memory tasks

(simple span, transformation, and complex span tasks, and domain verbal as well

as nonverbal) and the results showed that verbal working memory was a stronger

predictor of second language (L2) students compared to first language students.

Furthermore, Teng (2022) exploited the role of working memory capacity in the

vocabulary learning performance of 180 Chinese students.

Thus, this systematic literature review (SLR) aims to explore the relationship

between working memory and language achievement among primary school

students. Working memory refers to the cognitive system responsible for

temporarily storing and manipulating information. It plays a critical role in various

cognitive tasks, including language processing, by enabling individuals to hold and

manipulate linguistic information in real time. Understanding the impact of working

memory on language achievement can provide valuable insights into the cognitive

mechanisms involved in language learning and inform educational practices and

interventions.
 This review evaluated and compared papers seeking to establish the role of

working memory in language achievement from the perspective of the different

potential mechanisms explaining the relationship. Working memory may play a

facilitation role, in directly influencing language achievement by enabling other

contributory functions to occur. By reviewing the literature from the differing

perspectives of direct and indirect influences of working memory, a deeper insight

can be gained into the role it plays in language achievement. Below are the

following research questions in this review:

1. What is the relationship between working memory and vocabulary acquisition

in language achievement among primary students?

2. What is the relationship between working memory and reading comprehension

in language achievement among primary students?

3. What is the relationship between working memory and writing ability in language

achievement among primary students?

By examining the existing literature on working memory and language

achievement among primary students, this review aims to synthesize the findings

and comprehensively understand the topic. The insights gained from this review

can guide educators, psychologists, and policymakers in developing effective

instructional approaches and interventions to support students with diverse working

memory capacities and enhance their language proficiency.

2.0 Working Memory and Its Component

2.1 Definition and Theoretical Framework

Working memory is a dynamic processing system responsible for the

control, regulation, and active maintenance of information under the

existence of other distracting information (Chang et. al., 2019). Although

there are many different theoretical approaches to working memory (e.g.,

Baddeley, 2000; Cowan, 2005; Alloway, 2017), all of them consider that

working memory mainly deals with the storage and processing of

information in cognitive tasks, which requires ignoring irrelevant information

and concentrating on specific aspects of the task. For instance, working

memory is required for holding information in mind such as a phone number

whilst looking for a notepad to write on. Working memory is also used to

manipulate information, change it, or synthesizing it with information from

long-term memory. Examples of this could be mentally rearranging a series

of letters to form a word or employing long-term memory to identify the

connection between the names John, Paul, George, and Ringo.

Working memory is generally measured using span tasks such as

the reverse digit span task in which the participant hears a list of numbers

which they must then repeat back in reverse order (Thomas, 2022). Other

variations include reordering items, such as animals, by size, or the

sentence span task in which participants listen to a series of sentences,

ascertain whether they are true or false, then state the last word in each

sentence. The principle of these measures is to simultaneously test storage

and processing; passive storage tests simply measure short-term memory.

2.1.1 Working Memory and Reading Comprehension

Reading fluency is a complex skill that requires the

coordinated use of various cognitive and linguistic processes

(Cevriye, 2022). It encompasses the ability to read text quickly,

accurately, and with appropriate expressions, including decoding

words and converting them into spoken language (Chang et. al.,

2019). Automatic analysis, particularly in terms of decoding, is

essential for fluency (Cevriye, 2022). Research has linked

vocabulary-related skills such as decoding and vocabulary

knowledge with general cognitive abilities (Cevriye, 2022).

Additionally, studies have suggested that the acquisition of

orthographic knowledge influences the processing of word syllables

or phoneme structures, which is associated with fluent reading and

working memory.

The relationship between working memory and reading

fluency has been explored in literature, with a particular focus on the

verbal component of working memory. It has been suggested that

individuals with better verbal working memory can accurately

convert letters into sounds, store them in memory, and blend and

segment these sounds during decoding. Working memory tasks

require individuals to remember relevant information while

completing the task and ignore or block out irrelevant items (Cevriye,

2022). Reading comprehension also relies on focusing on specific

elements in the text, processing the text, understanding its meaning,

 and integrating new information with existing knowledge (Chang et.

al., 2019).

While reading comprehension involves various foundational

literacy skills and cognitive abilities, it exhibits stronger relationships

with working memory compared to other reading skills (Daneman &

Merikle, 1996; Savage et al., 2007). Working memory plays a critical

role in integrating information during text comprehension (Cevriye,

2022). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have

demonstrated the significant contribution of working memory to

reading comprehension, even when controlling for decoding and

language skills (Chang et.al., 2019; Cevriye, 2022).

2.1.2 Working Memory and Vocabulary Learning

From a WM perspective, researchers have examined the

acquisition of second language (L2) vocabulary. For instance,

Mandy et. al., (2017) utilized non-word span tasks to measure

phonological memory and found that it underlies L2 vocabulary

acquisition in a group of 7th-grade students in United State. Other

studies have separately investigated the role of phonological short-

term memory and EWM in L2 vocabulary learning. Teng (2022)

examined phonological short-term memory using N-back task with

native English speakers. They found that phonological short-term

memory predicted the ability to learn singular forms of vocabulary. In

contrast, Yang et al. (2017) investigated the role of WM in vocabulary

learning across different exercises with first-year English majors in

 China. They found that WM, assessed through a reading span task,

significantly predicted vocabulary gain scores in comprehension-

only and gap-fill exercises but did not influence delayed vocabulary

test scores.

To assess working memory, psychologists have developed

various span tasks that target different facets of WM. These tasks

include simple storage-focused span tasks, such as digit span, letter

span, and non-word repetition span tasks, as well as complex

memory span tasks, such as reading span tasks, operation span

tasks, task-switching, and n-back tasks. Assessing WM typically

involves focusing on the phonological and executive components.

Phonological working memory (PWM) is measured through tasks

like digit span and word/non-word span tasks, while executive

working memory (EWM) is assessed using reading span tasks and

operation span tasks. Complex memory span tasks, like the n-back

task, have also been suggested to explore WM capacity.

2.1.3 Working Memory and Sentence Processing

Differences in the relationship between words within a sentence,

compared to a mere list of unrelated words, have been extensively debated

(Olena, 2021). The central executive component of working memory, which

plays a crucial role in higher-level writing processes such as planning,

linguistic encoding, and revision, has been posited as a central cognitive

resource required for composition (Olena, 2021). This perspective suggests

that the proficiency and efficiency of working memory resources are closely
tied to lexical complexity and the successful execution of higher-order

writing processes (Olena, 2021). In the context of second language learners

(L2), limited or inadequate knowledge of the second language may present

specific challenges in sentence processing, where working memory

demands are heightened (Olena, 2021).

Furthermore, research examining the impact of socioeconomic

status (SES) has shown a positive correlation between sentence

comprehension and nonverbal measures of working memory (Mandy et al.,

2017). Regardless of syntactic complexity, age-related declines in working

memory and sentence recall further support the role of domain-general

working memory resources (Mandy et al., 2017). Impairments in

multitasking, such as combining verbal and nonverbal tasks, also align with

the notion that domain-general working memory resources support

sentence processing (Mandy et al., 2017). These findings provide additional

evidence of the relevance and influence of working memory on sentence

comprehension and production.

Figure 1: Baddeley’s component model of working memory

(Baddeley, 2000)
2.2 Components of Working Memory

Although there are different theoretical approaches to explaining

working memory as a processor that can quickly access information

required for cognitive activity, the multi-component working memory model

proposed by Baddeley (2000) is widely accepted in the related literature.

According to this model, working memory consists of different components

that undertake three functions, namely verbal storage, visual-spatial storage,

and coordination function.

2.2.1 Verbal Short-Term Memory

Verbal short-term memory refers to the ability to hold and

manipulate verbal information in the mind for a brief period. It is

typically assessed using tasks that involve recalling a sequence of

verbal information, such as digit span and word span task (Baddeley,

1998). For instance, research suggests that one of the main roles

of verbal short-term memory is to facilitate the acquisition of the

phonological structure of a language, which is crucial for long-term

learning (Baddeley et al., 1998). Verbal short-term memory

measures have consistently demonstrated superior predictive power

for various complex tasks, including language abilities and reading

comprehension when compared to measures of short-term memory

(Daneman & Carpenter, 1980). The findings from the study of Chang

et. al. (2019) revealed that verbal working memory plays a significant

role in reading comprehension especially Chinese students with

higher reading spans tended to exhibit better performance in reading

comprehension. This is evident from the significant differences

 observed between high and low reading comprehension groups in

terms of accuracy rates. These differences align with the distribution

pattern of average scores in both midterm and final exams for

second language learning.

2.2.2 Visuo-Spatial Working Memory

Visuo-spatial working memory involves the temporary

storage and manipulation of visual images, spatial relationships, and

object locations in the mind. It enables individuals to mentally

visualize and manipulate visual and spatial information, such as

remembering the layout of a room or recalling the spatial

arrangement of items on a map. In Mandarin learning, visuo-spatial

working memory helps students process and retain visual and

spatial information related to Chinese characters, stroke order, and

the overall structure of the language. It also helps in remembering

and reproducing complex character forms, understanding the spatial

relationships between characters, and recalling the visual patterns

and components that make up the written language. In a study by

Jarvis and Gathercole (2003) utilizing tasks to assess visuo-spatial

working memory, it was discovered that both verbal and visuo-spatial

working memory tasks independently predicted academic

achievements among students aged 11 and 14. These findings

indicated that verbal and visuo-spatial working memory represent

distinct and significant cognitive skills that play a crucial role in

supporting learning outcomes.

 2.2.3 Central Executive System

The central executive system serves as the control center of

working memory, overseeing and coordinating cognitive processes.

One of its primary functions is attentional control, allowing

individuals to selectively attend to relevant information while filtering

out distractions. It enables task switching, facilitating the ability to

shift attention, change strategies, and adapt to changing demands.

The central executive is also involved in updating and manipulating

information, actively maintaining and rearranging data held in

working memory. Additionally, it exercises inhibitory control,

suppressing irrelevant or interfering information and enabling

cognitive flexibility. These functions collectively contribute to

effective problem-solving, decision-making, and goal-directed

behavior.

Empirical studies have extensively explored the strong link

between the central executive component of working memory and

complex cognitive skills involved in second language learning,

including listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Teng, 2022;

Chang et. al., 2019; Olena, 2021). These studies provide

compelling evidence of the central executive's role in facilitating

these language skills. Additionally, research suggests that the

central executive is instrumental in effectively inhibiting negative

transfer from the learner's first language, further highlighting its

importance in second language acquisition (Chang et. al., 2019).

2.3 Role of working memory in language processing

 In essence, individuals acquire two types of languages during their

lifetime: the first language (L1) and the second language (L2). The first

language corresponds to a person's mother tongue, the language they first

hear and attempt to acquire after birth. On the other hand, the second

language refers to the language they learn after attaining proficiency in their

first language. Typically, individuals acquire a second language through

formal education in schools.

It is essential to acknowledge that the acquisition of a first language

differs from the process of learning a second language. When acquiring a

second language, memory plays a significant role, and its impact on a

student's foreign language learning performance can be predicted. Our

mind contains two types of memory: short-term memory and long-term

memory. Short-term memory, also referred to as working memory, serves

three crucial functions before the information is transferred to long-term

memory or permanent memory. These three vital roles of working memory

in language learning encompass language processing, which includes

language comprehension, language production, and vocabulary acquisition.

2.3.1 Language Comprehension

In the context of language comprehension, working memory

plays a crucial role as a temporary storage space for information

before it is transferred to long-term memory in a recorded format.

When comprehending the messages conveyed by an interlocutor, it

is necessary to go beyond simply retrieving the meanings of

individual words. It becomes important to establish the relationships

 among word meanings based on the sentence's syntactic structure.

Consequently, there is a need for temporal storage to hold the

sequence of words and process them in order to comprehend the

spoken language, including foreign languages or unfamiliar

utterances.

Renowned psycholinguist George Miller proposed that

individuals can recall five to nine chunks of information within a short

timeframe when listening to someone speaking. These chunks of

information must first be reorganized into manageable units before

they can be held in working memory. In language learning, we strive

to remember a chunk of words spoken by our teacher or a native

speaker, which are then stored in our working memory. Subsequently,

our aim is not only to extract the meaning of individual words but also

to determine the relationships among these word meanings based

on the syntactic structure of the sentence. It's worth noting that this

process can be time-consuming when acquiring a new language.

2.3.2 Language Production

During language production, working memory serves as the

platform for organizing the pronunciations of words in linear order

based on syntactic and semantic relations, creating a motor program

that produces the intended utterance. When attempting to express

thoughts or produce speech in a foreign language, the sounds

 associated with the words need to be stored in working memory to

ensure accurate speech production.

2.3.3 Vocabulary Acquisition

In the process of acquiring new vocabulary, working memory

operates within a limited-capacity system known as the

"phonological loop," responsible for storing and maintaining

phonological material in a sequential and rehearsed manner.

Neuropsychological studies strongly indicate that the phonological

loop plays a vital role in vocabulary acquisition. The phonological

loop comprises two subsystems: a phonological store and an

articulatory rehearsal process. The phonological store receives

auditory information directly and automatically, encoding it in a

sound-based format. Although information in this store is susceptible

to decay and interference, it can be preserved and reinforced

through the articulatory rehearsal mechanism. Additionally, the

phonological store can also receive visually presented items, but

they must first be converted into an articulatory form before gaining

access to the store. The articulatory rehearsal process facilitates the

transfer of these items into the phonological store.

3.0 Methodology

The following databases were consulted: Scopus, ERIC, ScienceDirect,

ResearchGate, and Elsevier. The main search included the following equation:

“working memory” AND “language academic” OR “second language” OR

“bilanguage” AND “primary students” OR “elementary school”. Only journal articles

were selected.

3.1 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

For a study to be included, it had to respect all the following criteria:

1. Article published in English.

2. Participants were typically developing individuals without learning

disabilities, language impairment, cognitive disabilities, or known history

of neurological or psychopathological problems.

3. The study included working memory tasks. Studies that manipulated

working memory demands without any assessment of working memory

capacity were not included. Theoretical studies with no data collection

were not included.

4. The article is published in open access.

3.2 Data coding

We extracted the following information: year of publication, journal in

which the study was published, number of the study in case of multiple

studies articles, and the main purpose of the study. Besides, we extracted

the language(s) from the domain of reading comprehension, vocabulary

acquisition, and writing performance. The search tracked 24 related papers

written in English that were published in language learning journals.

After examining the 24 papers manually one by one, 14 papers were

rejected due to their low relevance to the topic. In the end, the remaining 10

research papers were downloaded from SCOPUS and imported into

 ELSEVIER and ScienceDirect (reference management software) to form a

paper database. Then, these 10 papers were systematically sorted into

empirical studies and non-empirical research content (Shen, W., & Park, H.,

2020), the 8 empirical studies were further summarized and analyzed into

three dimensions, which are reading comprehension, grammar acquisition

or vocabulary development, and writing ability. The results are performed in

the symmetric table (Appendix A).

4.0 Relationship Between Working Memory and Language Achievement

According to Shen, W., & Park, H. (2020), vocabulary grammar, reading

(discourse and sentence understanding), and listening from second language

understanding. Many of the current studies (54.67%) pay particular attention to the

link between working memory and second language understanding.There is a

consensus among researchers, either implicitly or explicitly, regarding the critical

role of working memory in the acquisition of L2 grammar and syntax. Mandy et. al.,

(2017) conducted a study to investigate the relationship between working memory

capacity of a child with low socioeconomic status background and the language

achievement. The results demonstrated that participants with high working memory

capacity achieved significantly higher scores in grammar judgment tasks compared

to those with low working memory capacity. This finding supports the notion that

low individual working memory capacity negatively impacts second language

grammar processing.

In another study conducted by Teng (2022), the role of working memory and

teaching methods in the acquisition of word-focused exercise on vocabulary

learning was investigated. Explicit and implicit teaching methods were employed to
teach four different types of relative clauses, followed by an immediate test to

assess the learners' understanding. The results indicated that learners with high

and medium working memory capacity performed better in learning the relative

clauses compared to those with low working memory capacity.

These studies provide evidence for the influence of working memory on the

acquisition of L2 grammar and syntax. Learners with higher working memory

capacity tend to exhibit better performance in processing and learning grammatical

structures. The findings emphasize the importance of considering individual

working memory capacity when designing teaching methods and instructional

approaches for L2 grammar instruction. By tailoring instruction to accommodate

learners' working memory capacities, educators can enhance the effectiveness of

grammar teaching and facilitate better language acquisition outcomes.

While second language reading comprehension is an active interaction

between the information from the input text and the information from readers’

schema, involving complex cognitive processes. Aside from finding a correlation

between working memory and second language reading performance, researchers

have also paid attention to reading material types and components of phonetic

awareness. For instance, text comprehension and working memory were found to

be positively correlated, but this was not strictly linear and was affected by schema

activation (Suzan, 2016). Gui (2018) inspected six components of reading

(semantic processing, syntactic processing, text structure, strategy processing,

phoneme processing, and working memory). Compared to semantic processing,

syntactic processing, and text structure, working memory had less influence on
reading comprehension, the correlation analysis showed that phoneme processing,

working memory, and reading comprehension were positively correlated.

Moreover, listening comprehension tasks in Mandarin language learning

involve not only the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad but also the

episodic buffer component of working memory (Baddeley, 1998). During listening

tasks, participants are required to carefully listen to audio input, process and

encode the information in their working memory, and then compare it with their

existing knowledge and expectations. The episodic buffer plays a role in

temporarily holding and integrating information from different modalities, allowing

learners to make connections, understand the context, and retain the information

for comprehension. This finding is supported by the work of Shen and Park (2020),

who examined the role of working memory in simultaneous listening and

discriminative comprehension tasks. The study revealed that translators with

higher working memory capacity demonstrated a cognitive advantage in effectively

processing and integrating information from short-term and long-term memory

resources.

Last but not least, the relationship between working memory and writing

processes among primary students is significant and multifaceted. The central

executive component of working memory is identified as a crucial cognitive

resource in various higher-level writing processes, including planning, linguistic

encoding, and revision (Olena, 2021). The efficiency of working memory resources

is closely linked to lexical complexity and the successful execution of higher-order

writing tasks (Olena, 2021). Moreover, evidence suggests that working memory

plays a role in sentence comprehension and production, as indicated by positive

 correlations between sentence comprehension and nonverbal measures of

working memory (Mandy et al., 2017). The age-related declines in working memory

and sentence recall further reinforce the importance of domain-general working

memory resources in the writing process (Mandy et al., 2017). Understanding and

supporting the relationship between working memory and the writing process can

inform instructional approaches that promote optimal writing performance and

development. By addressing working memory demands and facilitating efficient

cognitive processes, educators can enhance students' writing abilities and foster

their growth as proficient writers.

5.0 Interventions and Educational Strategies

Based on the findings of the systematic literature review on working memory

and its impact on language achievement among primary students, several

interventions and educational strategies can be recommended to enhance

language skills by targeting working memory abilities.

One effective approach is to provide working memory training programs that

focus on improving the capacity and efficiency of working memory through specific

exercises and tasks. Scaffolded instruction is another valuable strategy, which

involves breaking down complex language tasks into smaller, manageable steps

and providing clear guidance and visual aids to support students' working memory

demands. Mnemonic strategies, such as visualization and keyword associations,

can be taught to help students encode and retrieve language information more

effectively.
 Multisensory learning experiences that engage multiple modalities, such as

visual, auditory, and kinesthetic, can also enhance working memory engagement

and support language learning. Explicit instruction on metacognitive strategies

allows students to develop awareness and control over their working memory usage

during language tasks. Collaborative learning environments foster peer-to-peer

interactions and cooperative language activities, enabling students to practice their

language skills while benefiting from social support and shared cognitive resources.

Additionally, incorporating mindfulness and relaxation techniques can help

reduce anxiety and optimize working memory allocation for language processing.

By implementing these interventions and strategies, educators can create a

conducive learning environment that supports primary students in enhancing their

working memory capacities and improving their language achievement.

6.0 Limitations

One limitation of the study is the potential lack of diversity in participants'

English proficiency due to the bias toward sampling from a single education level,

such as undergraduate students. As the influence of working memory on second

language learning and processing can vary with L2 proficiency and learners' age,

this narrow focus on a specific age or educational level restricts the exploration of

how working memory operates differently at various stages of second language

learning.

Another limitation is the lack of consensus within the academic community

regarding whether working memory is domain-specific or domain-independent,

leading to inconclusive results when using measurement tools. The selection of

 working memory measurement tools should be approached with caution to ensure

the reliability, validity, and comparability of research findings. Additionally, the

absence of neurophysiological research methods stands out as a limitation in the

reviewed studies. The reliance on experimental psychology, psychometrics, and

brain imaging technologies such as fMRI, ERP, and PET in research design is

lacking in empirical research. The interdisciplinary field should incorporate applied

linguistics and cognitive sciences to obtain a more comprehensive understanding

of working memory.

Finally, a significant limitation is the predominant reliance on synchronic

observation in working memory research. Limited longitudinal tracking methods

have been employed to study the dynamic changes of working memory over time.

Observing the chronological changes in working memory would contribute to a

deeper understanding of its nature and underlying mechanisms.

7.0 Conclusion

In conclusion, this systematic literature review provides valuable insights

into the relationship between working memory and language achievement among

primary students. The findings highlight the significant impact of working memory

on various aspects of language learning, including sentence comprehension,

vocabulary acquisition, and language production. The review underscores the

crucial role of working memory in supporting cognitive processes involved in

language tasks and highlights the potential implications for educational

interventions. The evidence presented in the literature review indicates that working

memory capacity is associated with language performance and predicts language

achievement in primary students. Furthermore, the review suggests that working

memory resources play a vital role in the efficient processing and manipulation of

linguistic information. Students with stronger working memory abilities are likely to

exhibit better language skills and show more significant progress over time. The

findings from this systematic review have important implications for educators,

emphasizing the need to consider working memory capacities when designing

instructional strategies and interventions aimed at enhancing language

achievement. Targeted interventions that incorporate working memory training and

support can potentially benefit students with weaker working memory skills, leading

to improved language outcomes.

Overall, this systematic literature review contributes to the understanding of

the intricate relationship between working memory and language achievement

among primary students. It emphasizes the need for further research and highlights

the potential for leveraging working memory capacities to optimize language

learning experiences and outcomes in educational settings.

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Appendix A

Author Research Objectives Sample Instrument Discussion

Damian 1. Does multilingualism predict 280 1. Operation 1. Raven's Advanced

(2020) working memory task score students Span (Ospan) Progressive Matrices
performance when accounting (165 2. Symmetry were the only significant
for demographic variables? female, Span (Sspan) predictor for both
2. If multilingualism does affect 108 task Symmetry Span
working memory, is the number male) 3. Raven's (Sspan) and Operation
of languages spoken or Advanced Span (Ospan) scores,
language proficiency a better Progressive indicating its
predictor? 4. Language and importance in working
3. Are older multilinguals’ Social memory tasks.
subjective memory Background
assessments in-line with their Questionnaire
objective working memory (LSBQ)
measurements? 5. Subjective
4. Does multilingualism have a Memory
relation with subjective memory
perception?
Mark 1. Do three word-focused 245 1. English 1. Working memory
Feng exercise conditions, namely (a) students Proficiency Level (WM) was found to be a
Teng reading with marginal glosses; from (CET) significant predictor of
(2022) (b) reading plus gap-fill; and (c) southern 2. Working vocabulary learning
reading plus sentence writing, China (95 Memory: N-Back outcomes across
have differential effects on male, 85 test participant groups.
vocabulary learning (i.e. female) 3. Vocabulary 2. Phonological and
receptive and productive Knowledge Test complex working
vocabulary knowledge)? (VKS) memory have
previously been shown
2. Do learner-related factors to influence vocabulary
(i.e. English proficiency level learning outcomes.
and WM) predict individuals’ 3. The study highlights
vocabulary learning gain scores the joint influence of
in different word-learning learners' working
conditions? memory and English
 proficiency on
vocabulary learning
gains.
4. Working memory
significantly affects
vocabulary learning
performance in the
sentence-writing
condition, suggesting
that sentence writing
requires the activation
of memory resources.
Cevriye 1. What is the predictive power 450 1. Socioeconomic 1. Verbal memory has a
Ergul et. of verbal and visual working students Index Parent higher contribution to
al (2022) memory performances at the (126 low Information Form reading fluency and
primary level on reading SEC comprehension in the
fluency and reading level, 194 2. Working first and second grade
comprehension performances medium Memory: Digit compared to visual
in the fall and spring semesters SEC Recall, Word memory.
of the first grade? level, 130 Recall and 2. Verbal memory
upper Nonsense Word predicts reading
2. What is the predictive power
SEC Recall comprehension beyond
of the verbal and visual
level) fluency and vocabulary.
working memory performances
3. TONI-3 Non- 3. The relationship
at the primary level on the
Verbal between reading
reading fluency and reading
Intelligence Test comprehension and
comprehension performances
verbal working memory
of the second graders in the
4. Literacy should be approached
fall and spring semesters
Assessment carefully due to the
Battery (LAB) linguistic nature of the
tasks used in
assessments.
4. Visual working
memory may have a
greater contribution to
reading, especially in
languages Turkish.
Suzan et 1. Is semantic, but not 117 1. Dutch test 1. The regression
al. (2017) phonological, storage a direct Dutch (Diatekst) for analysis showed that
predictor of reading Fifth Reading semantic storage
comprehension? grade Comprehension significantly contributed
children 2. Raven’s to reading
2. Is processing, but not (62 boys, Coloured comprehension, while
storage, a direct predictor of 55 girls) Progressive phonological storage
reading comprehension? Matrices did not.
3. Decoding 2. The addition of
3. Is semantic, but not (Klepel) working memory
phonological, processing a 4. Forward Digit measures to the
direct predictor of reading Span for analysis revealed that
comprehension? Phonological semantic working
storage memory was a better
4. If so, does semantic storage 5. Conceptual predictor of reading
indirectly predict reading Span Test for comprehension than
comprehension via semantic Semantic storage phonological working
working memory? memory.
3. This finding is
consistent with previous
studies in adults,
children, and children
with reading
comprehension
difficulties, indicating
that linguistic
information tapped by
working memory
measures influences
their ability to explain
variation in reading
comprehension.
Olena 1. Is there a significant 59 native 1. Reading Span 1. Higher working
(2021) relationship between WMC and Spanish memory capacity
L2 writing performance, as young 2. Oxford Quick (WMC) was positively
assessed by means of holistic learners Placement Test associated with
ratings and by means of the of second (QPT) for second accuracy in L2 writing
quantitative measures of language language for lower proficiency
accuracy, complexity (linguistic English proficiency learners, consistent
and propositional), and (12 male, with previous studies.
fluency? 47 3. Video-retelling
female) Task for Writing 2. This finding supports
2. If so, does L2 proficiency the theory of
moderate the relationship compensation, which
between WMC and L2 writing suggests that
performance, as assessed by individuals with higher
means of holistic ratings and by WMC can compensate
means of the quantitative for gaps in L2
measures of accuracy, proficiency and
complexity (linguistic and effectively resolve
propositional), and fluency? linguistic challenges.

3. WMC may contribute

to accuracy in L2 writing
through improved
monitoring, reading,
revision processes, and
the ability to search for
linguistic alternatives.