Voltage Divider model answer

Air conditioner need to come on at a lower temp,

Why is this example of modulation? should the resistor be increased or decreased. Explain.
Tension in vertical circular motion A lower temp means higher resistance. For the voltage to
This is an example of modulation as a
Since the ball was travelling at a constant speed, the net remain at 8V, the ratio must be unchanged. So if the
variation in the electrical signal was thermistor resistance increases, the resistance of the
(centripetal) force required was the same at the top and converted into a variation in the light
bottom. At the top, the tension and weight combine to provide resistor must also increase.
Connected bodies brightness
the net force T top+ mg = mv2/r, so T top= mv2/r –mg. At the Projectile Motion:
bottom, T bottom–mg = v2/r, so T bottom= mv2/r + mg.
F net=m1*g Series Circuit:
uv = u*sinθ Graphing Voltage
m total=m1+m2 V= V1 + V2 + …
Vertical Circular motion Formulas a=F net/m total uh= u*cosθ Amplfication
R = R1 + R2 +...
Contact is loss when normal x= ut+ 1/2at2 Reading Graphs
√
vf= (vh2+vv2)
Forward-biased diode: connected
Clipping?
I=I1=I2=I3=...
force equals 0N, ie Fnet=Fg x= vt- 1/2at2 2Usinθ u sin θ
2 2
correctly, has virtually no resistance. Inverted?
D-T, m=velocity T= H= Has a switch on Voltage, or Scale? Parallel Circuits:
p= √ 2 mE k x=1/2(u+v)t V-T, m=acceleration g 2g threshold voltage
v=u+at V-T, a=displacement
2
R=U sin ⁡¿ ¿ Reverse-biased diode: very high V = V1 = V2...
Counting Squares
v2= u2+2ax resistance, virtually no current can Gain (ratio) I=I1+I2+...
Only Force is Weight

| |
A-T, a=velocity flow through it. Has a negligible
>1/2, count Link is time
IF max height the same yet twice the thermal leakage current.
∆ V out 1 1 1
<1/2, ignore kmh-1/3.6=ms-1 Energy (J) v=√ 2 gh A v= = + …
Actually number KE=½mv2
distance, flight time and acceleration ∆V¿ R R1 R2
ms-1*3.6=kmh-1 Ug=mgh
will be the same Modulation is the superimposition of a signal wave onto a carrier wave
Work= ½k(x12-x22) them Electrical Power: Watts [W]
%Efficient=Ef/Fi This is so that the signal can be transported using a medium such as light
Work (J) (Nm) Power (W) (Js ) -1
Demodulation is the separation of the signal and carrier wave. Rate at which energy is
Hookes Law Ability to do work
W=Fx P=w/t=Fx/t=Fv It is the process of getting the signal wave back after transmission.
released by a resistor
Fs=-kx WD=KE=½mv2-½mu2 Extracts the variation in the amplitude of the carrier wave, that is, the
K=stiffness of spring (Nm-1) W=E=Fxcosθ Amount of Work over time variation of the light beam and provides it as an electrical signal V2
Scalar Power =VI=I2R= =Et
Elastic Potential Energy (Us) Elastic Collisions Impulse (Ns) Banked Corners R
Photodiode: Ohm’s Law: V=IR
Spring Can do work Energy Changes KE Conserved Change of momentum F net Reverse Bias= photoconductive mode
Us=½kx2= ½Fx Area F-x graph P Conserved Force-time graph area tanθ= Forward bias= normal diode Biasing a transistor circuit means setting it
V ¿∗R2
F-x graph, a=Us mg2 up so that when there is no AC input, the
V out =
I=Ft=mv=p v output voltage is the value in the middle of its
R1 + R 2
m=k Circular Motion tanθ= possible output range. This allows for the
Momentum (kgms-1) Centripetal force/acceleration Vector rg greatest variation in VIN without any
distortion occurring.
p=mv Has a period (revolutions/seconds) Explain “apparent weightlessness”
Velocity direction is tangent to path MOMENTUM CONSERVED Appartent weightlessness is the feeling as if you have no weight.
Clipping is a form of amplifier distortion. It Efficiency=Pout/Pin*100
occurs when the input signal is outside the
p=pf-pi Cause can be friction, gravity, tension and The force that gives us the experience our own weight is the reaction amplifier’s input limits. As the input voltage
m1u1+m2u1= m1v1+m2v2 normal force for vertical circular
Gravitational Fields (Nkg-1) from the surface we are in contact with. If the reaction forces is zero, then exceeds its cut-off voltage, then it has
Same as acceleration you will feel weightlessness. Your gravitational weight force is the Force by reached saturation and its output voltage will
= (m1+m2)v the Earth on you; the reaction force is the force by the surface on you
2
v 4π R
2 GM be “flat” at its maximum.
a= = 2 g=
Universal Gravitation R T R2 Circular Motion, constant speed yet net force does not equals 0 The function of the modulation device is to use the input signal to vary the
intensity (or brightness) of the light beam. The light beam transfers the
Speed does not take into account the direction of motion yet
Attraction Equal
m v2 m 4 π2 R F mg information from the modulator to the demodulator. The demodulation
Centre of each mass F=ma= = a= = =g velocity does. Moving at constant speed, its direction of motion device produces an Electrical output signal with an amplitude that depends
r m m
GMm T2 is constantly changing, its velocity is changing. Acceleration is on the change in intensity (or rightness) of the light beam.
F= GMm the rate of change of velocity, this means the ball has
F g=mg= 2
R2 R
acceleration, thus the net force on the ball cannot equal zero
km vs m!! d 2 πR
G=6.67*10-11Nm2kg-2 v= = Earth radius= 6.4*106m In the same scenario, impulse
t
Kepler’s 3Trd Law remains constant. Since Intensity increase but no electrons Lack of time delay in photoelectric affect
Satellite Formulas Earth mass=5.98*1024kg impulse is given by Fnet*t , an The wave model of light is focused upon the build-up of
2 2 Particle model, intensity means more
v 2 4 π 2 r GM T 4π 1 day= 86400s increase in time results in a photon with same energy. Wave model, energy and it predicts that it will take a certain amount
a= = 2 = 2 =g = of time for the energy of an electron to build p to a
R GM
3 smaller average force felt increase intensity means more energy in
R T R Newton’s 3rd Law the wave when it hits an electron, so certain stage where it has enough energy to eject
2 2
m v 4 π Rm GMm Ratio so don’t worry When one body exerts a force on Read the question before and electrons should now be ejected The particle model represents more of a collision,
F g= = = 2 =mg about SI units another body, the second body after answering the question!!!
where the photon will hit the electron and if there is
R T
2
R exerts an equal force in the Einstein’s conclusion of the nature of light enough energy, the electron will be straight away and if
Inclined Planes Light consists of particles called photons not there will be no emission
opposite direction on the first Brackets when dividing!
a= g Sinθ The experimental results show the second explanation

√
FA on B=-F B on A
GM 2 πr ma=mg Sinθ
v= = For falling objects, the reaction
R T Fg=mg force is the earth being pulled
Fnet=Fg Sinθ
Banked corners and the normal force
Fn=g Cosθ In a banked curve, the normal reaction
Use constant a to find force is now longer straight up, thus, it
Final velocity has a component in the horizontal
direction, towards the centre as well
Thus Fnet=FFriction+Nsinθ
Since the net force is greater, with the
mass and the radius of the turn being
the same, the velocity can be higher
without the car skidding
Energy is proportional to their frequency
The intensity of light is proportional to the is in tune with the observation and hence, the
Why is the p of the 2.4 block is greater
number of photons instantaneous emission of light support the particle
than the p of the lighter block pinitial? model of light
Momentum is a vector
The momentum of the 2.4kg block Describe how the wave-particle duality of Particle over wave model for existence of a
after the collision is to the right, while electrons can be used to explain the quantised threshold frequency:
that of the 1.2kg mass to the left. energy levels of an atom? If the wave model is applied, then an electron can
The vector addition of these two equal Electrons have a de Broglie wavelength. continuously accumulate energy so that it
both in magnitude and direction, the Electrons will only exist in states where a eventually has enough to escape from the metal
initial momentum of the 1.2 kg mass. standing wave can be formed around the surface irrespective of the frequency of the light,
nucleus. Accordingly, only specific wavelengths but this does not happen in reality.
and their associated energies would be allowed.
How did de Broglie explain why the energy states are quantised? According to
Explain the formation of bright and dark regions in terms of the wavelike nature of light? de Broglie, each electron orbit in an atom is actually a circular standing
The different regions are an interference pattern where the bright bands resulted from
constructive interference (or path difference 0λ, λ, 2λ, etc.) and the dark bands from
wave and .: must consist of a whole number of wavelengths. This
explains the discrete energy levels in Bohr's model of a hydrogen atom.
destructive interference (or path difference ½ λ, 1 ½ λ, etc.)
 Magnetic Flux (WB or Tm2)
Magnetic Flux Density=B
Φ=¿ BA cosθ
Electromagnetic Induction
EMF is induced when there is a
change in magnetic Flux
Current exist if there is a
complete circuit
Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced
current is such that its magnetic
field is in the opposite direction
to the change in magnetic flux
Earth’s Magnetic Field
5*10-5T
USE RIGHT HAND!!
EMF=4fnΦ
EMF=BLV
Transformers
V p Is N p
= =
V s Ip Ns
Why DC cannot work
Because it does not change,
hence, no change in flux
Without change in flux, voltage
will not be induced in the
secondary coil; hence, the
transformer will not work
Check IRMS vs Ipeak when
calculating F=nBIL graphs
EMF is the negative gradient of a flux time graph
Force on parallel, current carrying wires
Right hand grip rule for direction of field
Right hand slap for the direction of the force
Lenz’s Law Model explanation
The magnetic field is to the right and is
decreasing, so the induced magnetic
field is to the right
DC not working in transformers
To induce a voltage in the secondary coil,
there need to be a changing magnetic flux
through the coil.
Since the battery produce a constant
current, no change in flux occur.
Since there is no change in flux, no
voltage would be induced
DC Motors
Torque is a maximum when coil is
parallel to magnetic field and 0 when
perpendicular to the field
Split Ring Commutators (DC)
Motors: Change the direction of
the current & force pairs every
half turn to allow the torque to
be in the same direction
Transmission
Step-up voltage when transmitting
Higher voltage means less current due to
power being constant
Powerloss: I2R
Therefore, decreasing the current reduce
the power less exponentially
Use Vdrop not Vtotal
Reduce R: thicker, shorter or better
quality materials cables
DC equivalentV RMS =V p /√ 2
Magnetic Field
Lines:
North to South
Do not touch
Are continuous
Closeness
represents
strength
Transmission Lines, goes up
and back so divide by 2 when
calc distance
Electrons in a magnetic field North Pole is positive
hence, they are attracted to the North Pole
Faraday’s Law vs Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s law gives the magnitude of the induced
voltage, while Lenz’s law gives the direction.
Light Formulae Constants Matter Formulae ROYGBIV
c=f𝜆 c=3.0*108ms-1 h
Ephoton=hf=hc/ 𝜆=pc pmatter =mv =√ 2 m Ek =
Slip rings vs split ring h=6.63*10-34Js λ Photoelectric Effect
For slip rings, 2 are required, each Pphoton=h/𝜆 =hf/c=E/c = 4.14*10-15eVs De Broglie wavelength W=hf0
ring stay connected throughout the Elight=N*hf Me=9.11*10-31kg h Ek=eV=hf-W
eV=1.602*10-19J
cycle and produce AC. 𝜆=h/p=h/mv=
For split rings, one ring is used with Young’s double slit experiment Interference √2 m E k
p.d.= |s1p-s2p|
Increase Fringe Spacing ch(j)= 1.989*10-25
two gaps, swaps the connection Monochromatic Light
Light is shown through 2 slits p.d.=n𝜆 = constructive Increase 𝜆 (decrease f) ch (eV)= 1.242*10-6
twice every cycle, produces DC.
Notice multiple bright & dark spot (anti-node) Increase distance
For energy level drop, make
Magnetic Force on a wire Implies interference which is a wave p.d.=(n-0.5) 𝜆 destructive Decrease slit separation
F=nBIL=nBIL*sinθ (NB: units phenomenon (node) sure to count double drops
Photoelectric Effect Wave Model Failures KE vs F graph Vstop=h(f-f0)
especially for the length m) Why are there discrete energy levels
Evidence for the particle model Threshold Frequency Gradient=h
Intensity doesn’t affect KE but Intensity does not affect KE Xint=threshold Voltage to accelerate for a hydrogen atom?
Solenoids
Loops of wire that magnifies the rather current Lack of time delay frequency electrons An electron has a De Broglie wavelength
electromagnetic affects Yint=Work function V=mv2/(2q) so it forms standing waves in orbit.
Can be used as an electromagnet Work Function Matter Scatter Experiment Due to this, it can only have orbits where
Right hand solenoid rule Minimum Energy to Same pattern= Lines are parallel the circumference of the orbit is an
Fingers wrap around in the direction free electrons Same momentum Bohr’s model for integer number of wavelength thus, only
of the magnetic field Properties of all metals Same wavelength discrete energy levels can exist.
the Atom 2πr=n𝜆
Thumbs points north W=eV0=hf0 ≠same energy!!!
AC vs DC for transmission Threshold Frequency
AC is better since transformers can Minimum frequency to
Electron Similar to Standing Waves Diffraction in the Macro World
Specific distance & do not lose energy Small Wavelength with a significant
step up the voltage and step down free electrons
Each electrons have a specific wavelength, larger slit width results in an
the current. With a smaller current
there will be less power loss. Diffraction hence a specific energy level unobservable diffraction
Cm2 to m2
F ∝𝜆/w
Divide by 10,000 De Broglie wavelength atom Electron microscope vs light microscope
Same order of
Faraday’s Law: Magnitude of EMF magnitude! Number=peak=trough Less diffraction due to smaller
∆Φ ∆ BA ∆ sinθ wavelength result in higher magnification
EMF=−N =−N =−NAB Diffraction vs interference pattern:
∆t ∆t ∆t
D: thicker in middle, decrease further out
Take note of size Split ring commutator I: equal size and spacing throughout the pattern
of area of coil vs. Without it, the direction of the force pairs will
not change, hence, the coil will oscillate when
size of magnetic
it reaches the vertical position and then will
Fibre Optics
field for drawing
eventually become stationary in that position Sharp bend in fibre optics Core has a higher refractive Index than the CLADDING
flux-time graph
In AC generators, produce pulsated DC Sharp bends reduce the incident Modal Dispersion to allow total internal reflection
angle rays make with the core- Different modes take different Angle of Incidence > Critical Angle (from the normal )
cladding interface times to transverse the fibre −1 n cladding
θc =sin
ncore
Comparison of Fibre Laser
Step-Index fibre Coherent light of the same wavelength
Multimodal Light Amplification by Simulated
Modal dispersion at max Emission of Radiation
Endoscope Graded index multimodal fibre LED Numerical Aperture
Illuminating fibre: Refractive index vary across the glass Electron drop from the conduction Measure of light
Sends light down, doesn’t
with the centre being higher than the band to the valence band. gathering ability
have to be coherent
Imaging Fibre: edges to limit modal dispersion The LED requires sufficient voltage NA=sqrt(ncore2-ncladding2)
Receives the light: 2km with LED & 15km with Lasers across the diode to raise the electrons to
the higher allowable energy state. Acceptance angle
Want to be a large
Single mode fibre =sin-1NA
(multimodal) fibre that is
coherent (graded index) No modal dispersion Causes of photon attenuation
Rayleigh scattering & photon absorption Attenuation
Material dispersion Rayleigh scattering Input Power
Different wavelength travel at Scattering of photons when they strike Fibre optics in water T =10 log 10
different speeds through the glass irregularities (Impurities in core)
Acceptance angle decrease, critical Output power
Reduce this by a shorter range of Occur more at lower wavelengths
angle will not change Attenuation rate= T/Distance
wavelength
Mercury vapour lamp (Discrete) Infrared absorption edge
Population inversion Energy transition of bound electrons Shorter wavelengths are slower Occur at large wavelengths
Using voltage to initially than longer wavelengths in glass.
excite the atoms into a Incandescent Light sources (continuous)
higher (stable) energy level Endoscopes: The bundle contains
Accelerating electrons emit photons
many fibres, each of which
Random thermal motion of electrons contributes one part of the image