Braking of DC Motor

Plugging

o Supply to armature terminals is reversed whole field is left undisturbed.

o The current reverses resulting into negative torque & that brings rotor quickly to rest.

I' a =
V  E  a

R a
 R ex 

EaIa
o Plugging Torque  ,  = speed of rotor

 V - Ea 
Before plugging, Ia 
Ra
EaIa
Load Torque 

Breaking Torque = (Load Torque + Plugging Torque)

Synchronous Machine
Induced emf

Phase voltage  4.44 Nph f

Nph : number of turns per phase

 : flux per pole

f : frequency

This phase voltage is rms value

Armature Winding

o Usually, coil span is 180 (electrical)

o If coil span = 180 (electrical), coil is called as full pitch coil.
o  
If coil span = 180   (electrical), coil is called as Chorded coil or short pitched winding.

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 
o Pitch Factor, KP = cos
2
o Induced emf   4.44 N ph f K P 
o For nth harmonic
Induced emf   4.44 N ph f K P 
 n
KP = cos  
 2 
To eliminate nth harmonic
n 
=
2 2
180
 =
n
 electrical
Distributed Winding

number of slots
m=
number of poles  no. of phase

number of slots
Coil Span =
number of poles

180
=  electrical ;
coil span

 m 
sin  
Distribution Factor, K d 
 2 
m sin  2  
For nth harmonic,  is replaced by n 

 mn 
sin  
Kd   2 
 n 
m sin  
 2 

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  n  n
o For uniform distribution replace sin   by
 2  2

Winding Factor, K w = KPK d

Induced emf = 4.44 Nphf K w

Armature Resistance

Generally winding resistance is measured using voltmeter ammeter –method.

For star connection

V voltmeter reading
Rm = =
I ammeter reading

Rm = 2R

Rm
R=
2

For Delta Connection

voltmeter reading
Rm =
ammeter reading

2
Rm = R
3

3
R= R
2 m

This resistance is dc resistance but ac resistance is higher due to skin effect.

Raac = 1.2 to 1.3R

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Armature Reaction

Power factor Generator Motor

Unity

Zero pf lagging

Zero pf leading

Lagging pf  cos 

Leading pf  cos 

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Leakage Flux

Leakage flux links only one winding but not both so if it is present in stator, it won’t link to rotor &
vise versa.

Equivalent Circuit

X s = synchronous reactance

 X ar  X l

= sum of armature reaction & leakage reactance

E   V 0 + Ia  (R a  jX s ) , for Synchronous Generator

E     V 0 - Ia  (R a  jX s ) , for Synchronous Motor

Where Φ is power factor angle (leading)

for lagging power factor we replace Φ by “– Φ”

Voltage Regulation

EV
Voltage regulation   100%
V

For zero voltage regulation

 Xs 
   = 180  = tan-1  
 Ra 


cos  = load pf leading 

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For maximum voltage regulation

=

cos  = load pf lagging 

Characteristics of Alternator

OCC & SCC

Open circuit characteristics & short circuit characteristics

open circuit voltage at same field current

ZS =
short circuit current at same field current

Generally, open circuit voltage is given as Line to Line value so, before calculating Z S , we
need to find phase voltage

Voc / 3
ZS = : For Star Connection
Isc
If = constant

Voc
ZS = : For Delta Connection
Isc I = constant
f

Short circuit ratio

Field current required for rated open circuit voltage

SCR =
Field current required for rated short circuit current

1

X S pu 

XS pu = synchronous reactance in pu

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Finding Voltage Regulation

There are usually 4 methods to find voltage regulation

o EMF Method
o MMF Method
o Potier Triangle Method
o ASA Method

Order of voltage regulation: EMF  ASA>ZPF>MMF

Power Angle Equation

Output of generator

VtEf Vt2
Pout = cos       cos 
ZS ZS

VtEf V2
Qout = sin       t sin 
ZS ZS

Input of motor

Vt 2 VE
Pin = cos S  t f cos     
ZS ZS

Vt 2 VE
Qin = sin   t f sin     
ZS ZS

Synchronous Impedance = Z s = R a  jXS = Z S 

X 
  tan-1  S 
 Ra 

If R a = neglected, Z s = jXS = XS 90

Ef Vt V
Pout g =
XS
sin  ;  Qout  = t Ef cos   Vt 
g XS

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Developed power in synchronous motor

Ef Vt E2
Pdev = cos       f cos 
ZS ZS

Ef Vt E2
Q dev = sin       f sin 
ZS ZS

If ra is neglected, ZS = XS 90

Ef Vt
Pdev = sin 
ZS

Ef Vt Ef 2
Q dev = cos  
ZS ZS

o Developed Power is the power available at armature of motor.

o In all power expressions, all voltages are line voltages and if we want to use phase voltage, we
must multiply all expressions by a factor of 3.

Parallel operation of Alternators

Necessary Conditions

1) Terminal voltage of incoming alternator must be same as that of existing system.

2) Frequency should be same.
3) Phase sequence should be same.

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Synchronization by Lamp Method

1) Observe if 3 lamps are bright & dark simultaneously, that means phase sequence of
incoming alternator is same as that of existing system.
Otherwise, phase sequence is opposite and stator terminals must be interchanged to
reverse phase sequence of incoming generator.
2) The frequency of alternator is usually a bit higher than infinite bus.
3) To understand the concept better, refer Ques. 39 of GATE – 2014 EE-01 paper.

o If two alternators are supplying a load and we change either excitation or steam input of one
machine is varied, then following effects will happen:
o If excitation of machine 1 is increased

Parameter Machine 1 Machine 2

Real Power Same Same
Reactive Power Increases Decreases
Armature Current Increases Decreases
Power Factor Decreases Increases

o If steam input of machine 1 is increased

Parameter Machine 1 Machine 2

Real Power Increases Decreases
Reactive Power Constant Constant
Armature Current Increases Decreases
Power Factor Increases Decreases

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Droop Characteristics

fNL  fFL
droop of generator =  100%
fFL

Example: Refer Kuestions on Electrical Machines Type-8

Salient Pole Machine

o In case of salient pole machine, There are 2 reactances

Xd & Xq
X d : Direct axis reactance
Xq : quadrature axis reactance
o Id = Ia sin        90
Iq = Iacos      

 =   

For synchronous generator

Vsin  IaX q   lagging pf

tan  = ;
V cos   IaR a -  leading pf

For synchronous motor

Vsin  IaX q   leading pf

tan  = ;
V cos   IaR a -  lagging pf

Power – Angle Characteristics

VtEf V2  1 1 
P= sin   t    sin2
Xd 2  Xq Xd 
Excitation Reluctance power
power

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Slip Test

If machine is run by prime mover at a speed other than synchronous speed & voltages & currents
are observed

Maximum Voltage
Xd =
Maximum Current

Maximum Voltage
Xq =
Maximum Current

Power Flow Diagram

3 EfIa cos 
Input Shaft Power Pe
3Vt Ia cos 
Field Rotational SC load
Circuit loss Loss 
loss 3Ia2ra 
Power Flow for Synchronous Generator

3 EfIa cos 
Input Pe Shaft Power
3VtIa cos 
Field SC load Rotational
Circuit loss  2
loss 3Ia ra  Loss

Power Flow Diagram for Synchronous Motor

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