POWER ELECTRONICS FORMULAE

INVERTERS
(1) Single phase Bridge Inverter: Single-phase bridge inverters are two types:
(a) Single-phase half bridge inverter (b) Single-phase full bridge inverter
(a) Single-phase half bridge inverter

 It consists of 2 SCRs, 2 diodes and 3-wire dc supply.

 For 0 < t < T/2, T1 conducts and vo = Vs/2.
 For T/2 < t < T, T2 conducts and Vo = -Vs/2
 Load voltage is a square wave having amplitude Vs/2 and of frequency 1/T Hz.
 Frequency of Vo can be changed by controlling T.
 Main drawback is the requirement of 3-wire dc supply.
(b) Single-phase full bridge inverter

 It consists of 4 SCRs, 4 diodes.

 The number of SCRs and diodes are twice that of half-bridge inverter.
 The amplitude of output voltage and output power are double that of half bridge inverter.
 From t = 0 to t= T/2, T1T2 conducts and V o = V s
 From t = T/2 to t = T, T3T4 conducts and V o = −V s
NOTE: For R-loads, V o and I o are in phase. For inductive loads, I oIo will not be in phase with V o . Therefore,
diodes are connected in antiparallel with thyristors to allow the current to flow when thyristors are turned-
off. These diodes are called ‘feed back diodes’ or ‘energy recovery diodes’.
Steady state analysis of single-phase inverter
 The load voltage waveform does not depend on the nature of load.
 The load current depends up on the nature of load.
For half-bridge inverter, Vo = Vs/2 for 0<t<T/2
= -Vs/2 for T/2<t<T
For full-bridge inverter, Vo = Vs for 0<t<T/2
= -Vs for T/2<t<T

i o=−I o at t=0, T, 2T, 3T, …..

i o=I o at t=T/2, 3T/2, 5T/2, …..

For full-bridge inveter:
Vo is shown in fig. (b)
i o for R load is shown in fig. (c).

i o for RL overdamped load is shown in fig. (d).

i o for RLC overdamped load is shown in fig. (e).

i o for RLC underdamped load is shown in fig. (f).

NOTE: Load commutation is possible if the load is RLC underdamped.

NOTE: Load commutated inverters are used in high frequency inverters used for induction heating.
Fourier analysis of single-phase bridge inverter output voltage
 The voltage waveform of single-phase half-bridge inverter can be resolved into Fourier series as:
∞
2Vs
v o= ∑ sin nωt
n=1 ,3 , 5 ,… nπ

 The voltage waveform of single-phase full-bridge inverter can be resolved into Fourier series as:
∞
4Vs
v o= ∑ nπ
sin nωt
n=1 ,3 , 5 ,…
Where n = order of harmonic
ω = frequency of output voltage in rad/sec
If n = 1:

 Fundamental component of output voltage of half-bridge inverter is given by:

2V s
v o= sin ωt
π
 Fundamental rms component of output voltage of half-bridge inverter is given by:
2V s
V o 1= sin ωt
π . √2
 Fundamental component of output voltage of full-bridge inverter is given by:
4V s
v o= sin ωt
π
 Fundamental rms component of output voltage of full-bridge inverter is given by:
4Vs
V o 1= sin ωt
π . √2
 The load current i o is given by:
∞
4Vs
i o= ∑ nπ . Z n
sin ( nωt −ϕ n )
n=1 , 3 ,5 ,…

 Fundamental component of load current of half-bridge inverter is given by:

2Vs
i o= sin(ωt−ϕ 1)
π . Zn

 Fundamental component of load current for full-bridge inverter is given by:

4V s
i o= sin(ωt−ϕ 1)
π . Zn

 Fundamental rms component of output current of half-bridge inverter is given by:

2V s
i o 1= sin( ωt−ϕ 1)
π . √ 2 . Zn

 Fundamental rms component of output current of full-bridge inverter is given by:

4Vs
i o 1= sin( ωt−ϕ 1)
π . √ 2 . Zn

Where Z n = load impedance at frequency n.f

ϕ n = phase angle

√[ ( )]
2
2 1
Z n= R + nωL−
nωC
 ϕ n=tan
−1
( nωL−
1
nωC )
R
If I o 1 = RMS value of fundamental component of load current
 The fundamental output power is given by:
2
Po 1=I o 1 R=V o 1 I o 1 cos ϕ1
Forced Commutated Thyristor Inverters
(1) Modified McMurray Half-Bridge Inverter

 This is also known as auxiliary commutated inverter.

 3-wire dc supply is required.

i c =V s
√ C
L
sin ω o t=I cp sin ω o t

 Where I cp=V s
√ C
L
1
ω o=
√ LC
 Circuit turn-off time for main thyristor T1 is

t c=
1
ωo [
π −2 sin
−1 I o
I cp ( )]
 The value of resistance that gives critical damping is

Rd =2
√ L
C
Modified McMurray Full-Bridge Inverter

 The number of thyristors, diodes and other components are double that of half-bridge inverter.
Modified McMurray Bedford Half-bridge Inverter

 It uses less number of thyristors and diodes compared to Modified McMurray half-bridge inverter.
 This is a complementary-commutated inverter.
 Circuit turn-off time
π
t c< √ LC
2
V s tq
L=2.35
I om
I om t q
C=2.35
Vs
t q = thyristor turn-off time

I om = maximum load current to be commutated

Modified McMurray Bedford Full-Bridge Inverter

Three-Phase Bridge Inverters

 A basic 3-phase inverter is a six-step bridge inverter.

  It uses a minimum of 6 thyristors or 6 IGBTs.
 For one cycle of 360°, each step would be of 60° interval for a six-step inverter.
 Thyristors would be gated at regular intervals of 60° in proper sequence.
 There are two possible patterns of gating the thyristors:
(a) 180° conduction mode (each thyristor conducts for 180°)
(b) 120° conduction mode (each thyristor conducts for 120°)
 In both 180° and 120° conduction modes, gating signals are applied and removed at 60° intervals of
the output voltage waveform.
(a) 180° Conduction mode

 Each thyristor conducts for 180° of a cycle.

 Thyristors in the upper and lower groups conducts at an interval of 120°.
 In every step of 60° duration, only three SCRs are conducting, one from upper group and two from
lower group or two from upper group and one from lower group.
  Phase voltages have six steps for a cycle whereas line voltages have one positive pulse and one
negative pulse (each of 120°) per cycle.
 The phase and line voltages are out of phase by 120°.
 The three-line output voltages can be described by the Fourier series as follows:

( )
∞
4Vs nπ π
v ab= ∑ nπ
cos sin n ωt +
6 6
n=1 ,3 ,5 , ..

( )
∞
4V s nπ π
v bc= ∑ nπ
cos
6
sin n ωt −
2
n =1 , 3 ,5 ,..

( )
∞
4V s nπ 5π
v ca= ∑ nπ
cos
6
sin n ωt +
6
n=1 ,3 , 5 ,..

3π
 For n = 3, cos =0. Thus, all triplen harmonics are absent from the line voltages.
6
 For linear delta connected load, phase and line currents are obtained from the above expressions.
 The line voltage waveforms represent a balanced set of three-phase alternating voltages.
 The line voltages are independent of the nature of the load circuit which may consist of any
combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance and the load may be balanced or
unbalanced, linear or nonlinear.
 Line to neutral voltage using Fourier series can be expressed as:

∞
2V s
v ao= ∑ nπ
sin nωt
n=6 k ±1

∞
2V s
v bo= ∑ nπ
sin(nωt−120o )
n=6 k ±1

∞
2V s
v ao= ∑ nπ
sin(nωt−240o )
n=6 k ±1

Where k = 0, 1, 2, …..

 RMS value of nth component of line voltage

4 Vs nπ
V ln = cos
√ 2 . nπ 6

 RMS value of fundamental component of line voltage

4V s π
V L1= cos =0.7797 V s
√ 2. π 6

 RMS value of line voltage

V L ( rms )=
√ 2
V =0.8165 V s
3 s
 RMS value of phase voltage
 V L (rms) √ 2
V ph ( rms )= = Vs
√3 3

 RMS value of fundamental phase voltage

2Vs V L1
V ph 1 ( rms )= =0.4502 V s=
√2 π √3
(b) 120° Conduction Mode:

 Each thyristor conducts for a period of 120° of a cycle.

 This inverter requires six steps, each of 60° duration, for completing one cycle of the output ac
voltage.
 The sequence of firing the six thyristors is the same as for the 180° conduction mode.
 During each step, only two thyristors conduct – one from the upper group and one from the lower
group.

 The phase voltages have one positive pulse and one negative pulse (each of 120° duration) for one
cycle of output alternating voltage.
 The line voltages have six steps per cycle of output alternating voltage.
 The Fourier analysis of phase voltage waveform gives:
 ( )
∞
2Vs nπ π
v ao= ∑ cos sin n ωt +
n=1 ,3 ,5 , .. nπ 6 6

( )
∞
2Vs nπ π
v bo= ∑ cos sin n ωt−
n=1 ,3 ,5 , .. nπ 6 2

( )
∞
2V s nπ 5π
v co= ∑ nπ
cos
6
sin n ωt +
6
n=1 ,3 , 5 ,..

 The Fourier analysis of line voltage waveform:

( )
∞
3.V s π
v ab = ∑ nπ
sin n ωt +
3
n=6 k ±1

( )
∞
3. V s π
v bc= ∑ sin n ωt −
n =6 k± 1 nπ 3
∞
3. V s
v ca= ∑ sin n ( ωt−π )
n=6 k ± 1 nπ

Where k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….

 RMS value of fundamental phase voltage

2Vs π
V ph 1= . cos =0.3898V s
√2 . π 6

 RMS value of phase voltage

V ph ( rms )=
√ 2 Vs Vs
. = =0.4082V s
3 2 √6

 RMS value of fundamental line voltage

3V s
V L1= =0.6752 V s =√3 V ph 1
√2 π
 RMS value of line voltage
Vs
V L= √ 3 V ph= =0.7071V s
√2
Comparison of 120° mode and 180° modes of operation
(i) In the 180° mode, during commutation of thyristors in the same leg, there is a possibility of direct short-
circuit of dc source. In 120° mode, this difficulty is overcome as there is a 60° interval between the turning
off of one device and turning on of complementary device which is in the same leg.
(ii) The analysis of the performance of 120° mode is complicated for a general load circuit.

Voltage control methods in Single-phase Inverters:

(a) External control of ac output voltage
(b) External control of dc input voltage
(c) Internal control of inverter
(a) External control of ac output voltage
There are two possible methods of external control of ac output voltage inverter output terminals.
(i) AC voltage control (ii) Series-inverter control
(i) AC voltage control
 The voltage input to the ac load is regulated using an ac voltage controller.
 This method gives rise to higher harmonic content in the output voltage, particularly when the
output voltage from the ac voltage controller is at low level.
 This method is rarely employed except for low power applications.

(ii) Series Inverter Control

 In this, two or more inverters are connected in series.

V o =√ V o 1 +V o 2 +2. V o 1 .V o 2 . cos θ
2 2

 The frequency of input voltages V o 1 and V o 2 should be same.
 When θ = 0, V o =V o 1 +V o 2
 When θ = π, V o =0 in case V o 1=V o 2
(b) External Control of DC input voltage

Advantages:
  Output voltage waveform and its harmonic content are not affected appreciably as the inverter
output voltage is controlled through the adjustment of dc input voltage to the inverter.
Disadvantages:
 Increased number of power conversion stages result in more losses and reduced efficiency of the
entire scheme.
 Reducing the ripple content of dc voltage input to the inverter, filter circuit is required in all types of
schemes. This increases the cost, weight and size and at the same time reduces efficiency and
makes the transient response sluggish.
 For a large variation of output voltage for a constant load current control of dc input voltage is not
conducive.
(C) Internal Control of Inverter

 The most efficient method of controlling the output voltage of an inverter internally is Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) control.

Pulse Width Modulation Control (PWM)

 In this method, a fixed dc input voltage given to the inverter and a controlled ac output voltage is
obtained by adjusting ON and OFF periods of the inverter components.
Advantages of PWM:
 No additional components are used
 Lower order harmonic can be eliminated or minimized along with its output voltage control. As
higher order harmonics can be filtered easily, the filtering requirements are minimized.
 SCRs used in this method are expensive as they must possess low turn-on and turn-off times.
PWM Inverters
 PWM techniques are characterized by constant amplitude pulses. The width of these pulses
modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its harmonic content.
 In PWM inverters, forced commutation is essential.
 Different PWM techniques are:
(1) Single-Pulse Modulation
(2) Multiple-Pulse Modulation
(3) Sinusoidal-Pulse Modulation

(1) Single-Pulse Modulation

  Pulse width = 2d
 The output voltage is controlled by varying pulse width 2d.
 The shape of the output voltage is quasi square waveform.

∞
4Vs nπ
v o= ∑ nπ
sin
2
sin nd sin nωt
n=1 ,3 , 5 ,…

v o=
4V s
π [ 1 1
sin d sin ωt− sin 3 d sin 3 ωt + sin 5 d sin 5 ωt … ..
3 5 ]
 When pulse width 2d = π, then the fundamental component of output voltage, has a peak value of
4V s
v o 1m =
π

 For pulse width other than 2d = π, the peak value of fundamental component is
4V s
v o 1m = sin d
π
π 2π
 If nd=π or d= or if pulse width is made equal to 2 d= , shows that nth harmonic is eliminated
n n
from the inverter output voltage.
o
2× 180
 To eliminate 3rd harmonic, pulse width of 2d = = 120°.
3
o
2× 180
 th
To eliminate 5 harmonic, pulse width of 2d = = 72°.
5
o
2× 180
 To eliminate 7th harmonic, pulse width of 2d = = 51.42°.
7
 The peak value of nth harmonic is

4Vs
v onm= sin nd
nπ

v onm sin nd
=
vo1 m n

 In this method a great deal of harmonic content is introduced in the output voltage, particularly at
low voltage levels.
  The rms value of output voltage

V ¿ =V s
√ 2d
π
(2) Multiple Pulse Modulation
 It is an extension of single pulse modulation.
 In MPM, several equidistant pulses per half cycle are used.

 The waveform can be described by Fourier series as:

∞
8Vs nd
v o= ∑ nπ
sin nγ sin
2
sin nωt
n=1.3 , 5..

 The nth harmonic voltage of the two-pulse waveform is

8V s nd
v n= sin nγ sin
nπ 2
 v n depends on γ and d.
π 2π
 When γ = and d= , nth harmonic can be eliminated from the output voltage. However, the
n n
fundamental component of output voltage is reduced.
 For N pulses per half cycle, there are (N+1) equidistant spaces, each of width θ1 as shown in fig. For
these equidistant spaces, v o=0 . Total width of these (N+1) equidistant spaces = (N+1) θ1 = (π-width
of N pulses) = (π-2d).

π−2 d
θ1=
N +1
d
 θ2=¿ half of the pulse width =
N
π−2 d d
γ= +
N +1 N
Where N = number of pulses per half cycle.
  Fundamental component of output voltage is lower for two-pulse modulation than it is for single-
pulse modulation.
 For larger value of pulses per half cycle, the amplitudes of lower order harmonics are reduced but
those of some higher order harmonics are increased significantly which can be filtered out easily.
1
 For traingular carrier wave, pulse width = f
c

1
 For square reference wave, width of half-cycle =
2f
 Number of pulses per half cycle = Number of hill tops for half cycle

Number of half −cycle of square reference wave

¿
Width of one cycle of traingular carrier wave

1/2 f f c ωc
N= = =
1/f c 2 f 2 ω

 Pulse width
2d
N [ ]
= 1−
Vr π
Vc N

 The rms value of output voltage

V ¿ =V s
√ 2d
π

(3) Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

 Several pulses per half cycle are used.

 In MPM, the pulse width is equal for all pulses whereas in SPM, the pulse width is a sinusoidal
function of the angular position of the pulse in a cycle.
  When peak of the triangular carrier wave coincides with zero of the reference sine wave, there are
fc
N= pulses per half cycle.
2f
 When zero of the triangular carrier wave coincides with zero of the reference sine wave, there are

( N−1 ) or [ fc
2f ]
−1 pulses per half cycle.

V r Peak value of reference wave Peak of sine wave

 Modulation Index (MI) = = =
VC Peak value of carrier wave Peak of traingular wave

 Modulation Index controls the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform.
 The magnitude of fundamental component of output voltage is proportional to MI.
 MI can never be greater than unity.

Features of SPM:

 For MI < 1, largest harmonics amplitudes in the output voltage are associated with harmonics of
fc
order ± 1 or 2N ± 1, where N is the number of pulses per half cycle. Thus by increasing the
f
number of pulses per half cycle, the order of dominant harmonic frequency can be raised, which
can then be filtered out easily. If N = 5, 9th and 11th harmonics are dominant in the output voltage.
 With increase in N, order of significant harmonic increases, and the filtering requirements are
reduced.
 Higher value of N requires higher switching frequency of thyristors. This increases switching losses
and reduces inverter efficiency. Thus a compromise between the filtering requirements and inverter
efficiency should be made.
 For MI > 1, lower order harmonics appear. Also, pulse width is no longer a sinusoidal function of
the angular position of the pulse.

Reduction of harmonics in the inverter output voltage

 In industrial applications a harmonic content of 5% of its fundamental component of input voltage is

allowed. However, the inverter output voltage has more than 5% harmonic content.
 One method to reduce harmonic content is to use filters between the load and inverter.
  If the inverter output contains high frequency harmonics, a low-size, low-cost filter is sufficient.
 To filter out low frequency harmonics, the size of filter component increases. This makes the filter
costly, bulky, and weighty. Also filter transient response becomes sluggish. Therefore, lower order
harmonics are reduced by some other means.

Harmonic reduction by PWM

 When there are several pulses per half cycle, lower-order harmonics are eliminated.
 Output voltage waveform that can be obtained form an inverter is shown below.

 This waveform needs ten commutations per cycle instead of two in an unmodulated wave.
 The voltage waveform is symmetrical about π as well as π/2.
 The amplitude of the fundamental voltage is 83.91% or 0.8391 times the amplitude of fundamental
component of unmodulated wave.
 3rd and 5th harmonics are eliminated from the inverter output voltage wave.
 7th, 9th and 11th harmonics are 24.78%, 40.86% and 30.37% of the fundamental component of the
unmodulated wave.

Disadvantages:
 Inverter is derated by 16.09%.
 Additional 8 commutation per cycle leads to more switching losses.
Harmonic reduction by transformer connections

 Output voltage from two or more inverters can be combined by means of transformers to get a net
output voltage with reduced harmonic content.
 The essential condition is that output voltage waveforms from the inverters mus be similar but
phase-shifted from each other.
  With this type of connection, 3rd and triplen harmonics are eliminated from net output voltage
wave.
 The amplitude of fundamental component of v o
4Vs
V o 1 m= √3
π
 When there is no phase shift between the voltages v o 1 and v o 2, the amplitude of fundamental
component would be
8Vs
V o 1 m=
π
 With phase shift between voltages v o 1 and v o 2, the amplitude of fundamental voltage =
√3 times
2
the amplitude of fundamental voltage with no phase shift.
 With this type of method, the derating of inverter is 13.4%.
 The main disadvantage of this method is the requirement of a greater number of inverters and
transformers of similar ratings.
Harmonic reduction by stepped wave inverters
 In this method, pulses of different widths and heights are superimposed to produce a resultant
stepped wave with reduced harmonic content.
 The two transformers used have different turns ratio from primary to secondary.
 Inverter-1 output is two level modulated and inverter-2 output is three level modulated.

Current Source Inverters

  In voltage source inverters, input voltage is maintained constant and the amplitude of output
voltage does not depend on the load. However, the waveform of load current as well as its
magnitude depends upon the nature of the load impedance.
 In current source inverters, input current is constant but adjustable. The amplitude of output
current from CSI is independent of the load. However, the magnitude of output voltage and its
magnitude depends upon the nature of load impedance.
 The dc input to CSI is obtained from a fixed voltage ac source through a controlled rectifier bridge
and a chopper. In order to make input current to CSI almost ripple free, L-filter is used before CSI.
 A CSI converts the input dc current to an ac current at its output terminals. The output frequency of
ac current depends upon the rate of triggering the SCRs.
 A CSI does not require any feedback diodes, whereas these are required in a VSI.
 In CSI, commutation circuit is simple as it contains only capacitors.
 GTOs, power transistors, power MOSFETs cannot be used in CSI.
Applications:
 Speed control of ac motors
 Induction heating
 Lagging Var compensation
 Synchronous motor starting
Ideal single-phase CSI

 CSI may be load or force commutated.

 Load commutation is possible when load pf is leading.
 For lagging pf loads, forced commutation is essential.
Single-phase capacitor commutated CSI with R-load
  For high inverter frequency, CSI has a sinusoidal waveshape for output load current or load voltage.
T
 For obtaining square wave of the load current, >5 . Turn-off time for the SCRs used in CSI,
2 RC
1 0.069
t q=0.69 RC . Maximum frequency, f max= = .
10 RC tq
 For obtaining sinusoidal wave of the load current,
R
X c at 3 f min ≤
2
0.106
C≥
R . f min

Series Inverters
 Inverters in which commutating components are permanently connected in series with the load are
called ‘series inverters’. The series circuit so formed must be underdamped.
 Series inverters are also classified as ‘self-commutated inverters’.
 These inverters operate at high frequencies (200Hz to 100kHz), the size of commutating
components is therefore, small.
 These inverters are used in induction heating and fluorescent lighting.
Basic series inverter

 R is load & L, C are commutating components.

 L and C values are chosen such that the circuit should form an under damped circuit.
π π 1 1 1
t q ,min = − = −
ω ωr 2 f f r [ ]
 √ ( )
2
R 1 R
ξ= , ωr = −
2L LC 2 L
Resonant frequency, ω o=√ ω r +ξ
2 2

Single-phase parallel Inverter

DC CHOPPERS

 A chopper is dc equivalent to an ac transformer having continuously variable turns ratio.

 A chopper is a static device that converts fixed dc input voltage to a variable dc output voltage
directly.
Advantages:
 They are more efficient as they involve one stage conversion.
 Smooth speed control
 Fast response
 Regeneration
Principle of operation:
 A chopper is a high speed ON/OFF semiconductor switch.

 Average load voltage,

 T on
V o= V
T on +T off s
T on
¿ V
T s
¿ f . T on . V s

¿ D .V s

T =T on+T off = chopping period

T on
D= = Duty cycle
T
Vo
 Average thyristor current, V o , Th=
R
 RMS load voltage, V orms =√ D .V s

 RMS thyristor current, I Th,rms =

√ D. V s
R
 Average source current = Average thyristor current
R
 Effective input resistance of the chopper =
D
2
V orms
 Power output or power delivered to load Po =
R
 Power input to chopper P¿ =V s I o
 Efficiency of chopper = Po / P¿
 Load voltage is independent of load current.

Control Strategies for varying D

(i) Constant frequency system (f constant) (ii) Variable frequency system (f variable)
(i) Constant frequency system (f constant)
 T on is varied but f or T is kept constant.

 This scheme is also called pulse-width-modulation scheme.

 This is also known as ‘time-ratio control’.

Disadvantage:
  T on cannot be reduced to near zero. Low range of D control is not possible in PWM. Increasing or
decreasing chopping period is possible.
(ii) Variable frequency system
 F or T is varied and either (a) T on is kept constant (b) off-time is kept constant.
 This is called ‘frequency modulation scheme’.

Disadvantages of frequency modulation scheme:

 f has to be varied over a wide range for the control of output voltage. Filter design for such wide
frequency variation is quite difficult.
 For the control of D, variation in f would be wide. There is a possibility of interference with signaling
and telephone lines in frequency modulation.
 Large off-time may make the load current discontinuous.

Step-up choppers

 In this, the average output voltage is greater than input dc.

 Average load voltage,

1
V o= V
1−D s
Types of chopper circuits
(1) Type-A Chopper (1st quadrant)
  Power flow is always from source to load.
(2) Type-B Chopper (2nd quadrant)

 Load must contain a dc source.

 Power flow is always from load to source.
 This is a step-up chopper.

(3) Type-C shopper (II quadrant type A chopper)

 Type-C is obtained by connecting Type-A and Type-B choppers in parallel

 Used for motoring and regenerative braking of dc motors.

(4) Type-D Chopper (2 quadrant type-B chopper)

 (c) V o positive for T on> T off (d) V o negative for T on< T off

(5) Type-E Chopper

 For a basic dc to dc converter, the critical inductance of the filter circuit is,

( V s −V o ) T on V o2 ( V s −V o )
L= =
2 Io 2 f V s Po
V o =¿ Load voltage, V s =¿ Source voltage, Po =¿ Load power, f = Chopping frequency

Steady state analysis of Type-A chopper

 If type-A chopper is feeding an RLE load, the average input (or thyristor) current is
D ( V s −E ) L
I T , av=
R
− ( I −I )
RT max min
 If type-A chopper is feeding an RLE load, the maximum value of average thyristor current is
2
E
I T , max=
4 VsR

 If type-A chopper is feeding an RLE load, the average value of freewheeling diode current is
I max −I min E
I fd , av= − ( 1−D )
TR R
 If type-A chopper is feeding an RLE load, the average load current is
DV s−E
I o ,av =
R

( V s−E ) . T on=L. ∆ I
  In type-A chopper, under continuous mode of operation, the peak to peak (p.u) ripple in load
current is maximum when D = 0.5.

Vs
 The maximum value of ripple current, ∆ I max =
4 fL
 Maximum value of ripple current is inversely proportional to chopping frequency and the
inductance.
 In type-A chopper, for discontinuous current mode, the average voltage is given by,

V o =DV s + 1− [ ] tx
T
E

t x =¿ Extinction time

Fourier Analysis of Type-A Chopper

 For continuous load current,

∞
v o=V o + ∑ v n
n =1

Where v n = nth harmonic voltage

2V s
v n= sin nπD . sin ( nωt+ θn )
nπ
V o =D .V s

T on
D=
T
sin 2 πnD
θn =
1−cos 2 πnD
 Maximum value of nth harmonic occurs when sin nπD=1 and its value is
2V s 0.6366 V s
=
πn n
 RMS value of nth harmonic is
2V s 0.45V s
=
πn √ 2 n

 The harmonic current in the load is,

 vn
i n=
zn

Where z n is the impedance at harmonic frequency nf.

Z n=√ R + ( nωL )
2 2

 As n increases, harmonic current decreases.

 AC ripple voltage,

V r =√ V rms2−V o2

V r =V s √ D−D2

AC ripple voltage V r
Ripple voltage= =
Average voltage V o

R . F=
√ 1−D
D
=
√1
D
−1

Voltage commutated thyristor chopper

 This chopper is also known as ‘parallel-capacitor turn-off chopper’.

 It is also called ‘impulse-commutated chopper’ or ‘classical chopper’.
 This chopper is used in high power circuits where load fluctuation is not very large.
 It is simple in construction.

Disadvantages:

 A starting circuit is required.

 Load voltage at once rises to 2V s at the instant commutation of main SCR is initiated. Freewheeling
diode is therefore subjected to twice the supply voltage.
 It cannot work at no load.
Design considerations:
tc . I o
(i) C=
Vs
 C Vs
(ii) Turn-off time for T1, t c =
Io

π
(iii) Turn-off time for TA, t c1 = √ LC
2

(iv) Peak capacitor current, I cp=V s .

√ C
L

( )
2
Vs
(v) Commutating inductor, L ≥ C
Io

(vi) Peak current through Main thyristor T1, i T 1 p=I o +V s .

√ C
L
(vii) Peak current through Auxiliary thyristor TA, i TAp =I o
(viii) Peak voltage across T1 and TA, ¿ ± V s
(ix) Peak voltage across freewheeling diode ¿ 2 V s

(x) Peak diode current = Peak capacitor current ¿ V s .

√ C
L
Vs '
(xi) Average load voltage, V o = . T on
T
' 2V s
(xii) Effective on period, T on =T on + C
Io
' '
T on is load dependent. Greater the load, less is the T on .
π
(xiii) Minimum on-period of the chopper, t 1= =π √ LC
ωo

(xiv) Minimum duty cycle, Dmin =πf √ LC

(xv) Maximum value of Duty cycle, Dmax =( 1−2 f t c )

(xvi) Minimum load voltage, V o , min =f . V s . ( π √ LC−2 t c )

(xvii) Maximum load voltage, V o , max =V s . ( D max−2 f t c )=V s

(xviii) Total commutation interval = 2t c
Io t
(xix) Capacitor voltage after TA is triggered ¿ −V s
C
2V s C
(xx) Time needed to recharge capacitor from −V s to V s ¿
Io
Current commutated chopper

 This chopper is widely used in traction cars.

Advantages:
 Commutation is reliable so long as the load current is less than the peak commutating current.
 Capacitor is always charged with correct polarity.
 TA is naturally commutated as its commutating current passes through zero value in the ringing
circuit formed by L and C.
Design Considerations:

(i) Peak commutating current, I cp=V s .

√ C
L

[
(ii) Circuit turn-off time for main SCR T1, t c = π−2 sin
−1
( )]
Io
I cp

[
(iii) Turn-off time for main SCR ¿ π−2sin
−1
( )] √
Io
I cp
LC

(iv) Turn-off time for auxiliary thyristor ¿ π−sin

[ −1
( )] √
Io
I cp
LC

(v) Peak capacitor voltage, V cp =V s + I o

√ L
C

T
(vi) The value of charging resistor, Rc ≤
3C

Load commutated chopper

Design considerations:
 2Vs
(i) I o=C
T on

2
2. V s .C . f
(ii) V o =
Io

(iii) Minimum chopping period ¿ T on

1
(iv) Maximum chopping frequency, f max=
T on

Io
(v) C=
2.V s . f max

C .V s
(vi) Circuit turn-off time for each thyristor, t c =
Io

2. C . V s
(vii) Total commutation interval ¿ T on=
Io

Advantages:

(i) It is capable of commutating any amount of load current.

(ii) No commutating inductor is required that is normally costly, bulky and noisy.

(iii) Filtering requirements are minimal.

Disadvantages:

(i) Peak load voltage is equal to twice the supply voltage. This peak can however be reduced by filtering.

(ii) For high-power applications, efficiency may become low because of higher switching losses at high
operating frequencies.

(iii) Freewheeling diode is subjected to twice the supply voltage.

(iv) The commutating capacitor has to carry full load current at a frequency of half the chopping frequency.

(v) One pair of SCRs should be turned on only when the other pair is commutated. This can be done by
sensing the capacitor current that is alternating.

Multiphase Choppers

 It consists of two or more choppers connected in parallel.

  In the in-phase operating mode, the frequency of harmonics in the input current is equal to the
switching frequency (=1/T) of each chopper.
 In phase-shifted operating mode, the frequency of harmonics in the input current is twice the
switching frequency (=1/T) of each chopper. Therefore, the size of filter is reduced in the phase-
shifted chopper. Hence, phase-shifted operation is usually preferred.
 A multiphase chopper is used where large load current is required.
 The main advantage of this chopper over a single chopper is that its input current has reduced
ripple amplitude and increased ripple frequency. As a consequence of it, size of filter for a
multiphase chopper is reduced.
 The disadvantages are: (i) extra commutation circuits (ii) additional extra inductors (iii) complexity in
the control logic.
For the circuit shown in fig.,

I max=
Vo Vo
+
R 2 fL [ ]
1−
Vo
Vs
 I min =
Vo V o
−
R 2 fL
1−
[ ]
Vo
Vs
Vo
∆ I =I max −I min= T
L off

CHOPPERS (NED MOHAN)

Control of DC-DC Converters
(1) PWM: Switching at a constant frequency (i.e., constant switching time period T) and adjusting the on
duration of the switch to control the average output voltage.
Duty ratio, D is defined as the ratio of the ON duration to the switching time period, is varied.
(2) Frequency Modulation: Both the switching frequency (time period) and the ON duration of the switch
are varied. This method is used only in dc-dc converters utilizing force-commutated thyristors. Variation in
switching frequency makes it difficult to filter the ripple components in the input and the output
waveforms of the converter.

t on v control
D= =
Ts V^ st

Step-Down (BUCK) Converter

 t on
V o= V =D V d
Ts d
Vd
V o= v =k v control
V^ st control

Vd
k= =constant
V^ st

 V o varies linearly with the control voltage.

Continuous conduction mode:

( V d −V o ) t on=V o ( T s−t on )
Io V d 1
= =
Id V o D
I d = Average input current

Boundary between continuous and discontinuous conduction:

 Average inductor current at the boundary is given by

1 t on DTs
I LB = i L , peak =
2 2L
( V d −V o )=
2L
( V d −V o ) =I oB
  If the average output current becomes less than I LB then i L will becomes discontinuous.
Discontinuous conduction mode:

(i) With constant V d :

 The average inductor current at the edge of continuous conduction mode is

T sV d
I LB = D ( 1−D )
2L

 The output current required for a continuous conduction mode is maximum at D = 0.5.
T sV d
I LB ,max =
2L
I LB =4 I LB, max D ( 1−D )

(ii) With constant V o :

 The average inductor current at the edge of the continuous conduction mode is
T sV o
I LB = ( 1−D )
2L
 If V o is kept constant, maximum value of I LB occurs at D = 0.
T sV o
I LB ,max =
2L
 I LB =( 1−D ) I LB ,max

D=
√
V o I o /I LB, max
V d 1−V o /V d

Output voltage ripple:

1 1 ∆ IL Ts
∆ V o=
2C 2 2
Ts Vo
∆ V o= (1−D ) T s
8C L

()
2 2
∆ V o 1 T s ( 1−D ) π 2 fc
= = ( 1−D )
Vo 8 LC 2 fs

 Where switching frequency f s=1 /T s and

1
f c=
2 π √ LC
 During t off ,
Vo
∆ I L= ( 1−D ) T s
L
Step-up (BOOST) Converter

(i) Continuous conduction mode:

Vo Ts 1
= =
V d t off 1−D
 Io
=( 1−D )
Id

Boundary between continuous conduction discontinuous conduction mode:

 The average value of inductor current at the boundary is

1 1Vd T sV o
I LB = I L , peak = t on= D ( 1−D )
2 2 L 2L
 Average output current at the edge of discontinuous conduction is
T sV o 2
I oB= D (1−D )
2L
 I LB reaches maximum at D = 0.5.

T sV o
I LB ,max =
8L
 I oB has its maximum at D = 1/3 = 0.333.

2 T sV o T sV o
I oB ,max = =0.074
27 L L
I LB =4 D (1−D ) I LB, max
 27 2
I oB= D ( 1−D ) I oB ,max
4
With constant V o , if the average load current falls I oB, the current conduction will become
discontinuous.

Discontinuous conduction mode:

V o ∆1 + D
=
Vd ∆1
Io ∆1
=
I d ∆1 + D

The average input current is equal to the inductor current, and is given by
Vd
I d= D T s ( D+ ∆1 )
2L

I o= ( )
TsVd
2L
D ∆1

D=
√[ 4 Vo Vo
(
27 V d V d
−1
)
Io
I oB , max
2
]
1 2 (V d D T s )
Li = w−s
2 L, peak 2L
Output voltage ripple:

Peak to peak ripple voltage is given by:

 Io D Ts V o D Ts
∆ V o= =
C R C

∆ V o DT s D T s
= =
Vo RC τ

(3) BUCK – BOOST CONVERTER

Continuous conduction mode:

D
V o= V
1−D d
 I o 1−D
=
Id D

Boundary between continuois and discontinuous conduction:

1 T sV d
I LB = i l , peak = D
2 2L
I o=I L −I d

Average output current and the output current at the border of continuous conduction in terms of V o
T sV o
I LB = ( 1−D )
2L
T sV o 2
I oB= ( 1−D )
2L
Both I LB and I oB result in their maximum values at D = 0.
T sV o
I LB ,max =
2L
T sV o
I oB ,max =
2L
I LB =I LB ,max ( 1−D )
2
I oB=I oB ,max (1−D )

Discontinuous conduction mode:

Vo D
=
V d ∆1
 I o ∆1
=
Id D
Vd
I L= D T s ( D+∆ 1)
2L

D=
Vo
√ Io
V d I oB ,max

Output voltage ripple:

Io D Ts V o D Ts
∆ V o= =
C R C
∆ V o DT s D T s
= =
Vo RC τ

CUK DC-DC CONVERTER

 Vo D
=
V d 1−D
I o 1−D
=
Id D

Where I L 1=I d and I L 2=I o

(5) FULL BRIDGE DC-DC CONVERTER

(i) PWM with bipolar voltage switching: Switches in each pair are turned on and off simultaneously. (TA+, TB-)
and (TA-,TB+) are treated as two switch pairs.
(ii) PWM with unipolar voltage switching (Double PWM switching): Switches in each inverter leg are
controlled independently of the other leg.
(i) PWM with bipolar voltage switching:
 (TA+, TB-) and (TA-,TB+) are treated as two switch pairs.
 Two switches in a pair simultaneously turned on and off.
 One of the two switch pairs is always on.
 The switching signals are generated by comparing a switching-frequency triangular waveform ( v tri)
with the control voltage v control.
 When v control > v tri, T A+ ¿¿ and T B−¿ ¿ are turned on. Otherwise, , T A−¿¿ and T B +¿¿ are turned on.
 On duration of switch pair 1 (T A+ ¿¿ and T B−¿ ¿) is
1
t on=2 t 1 + T s
2

 Their duty ratio is D1=

1
2 (
1+
v control
V^ tri )
 The duty ratio of switch pair 2 (T A−¿¿ and T B +¿¿) is D2=1−D1
 Average output voltage is given by V o =V AN −V BN =D1 V d −D2 V d=( 2 D1−1 ) V d

Vd
V o= v =k v control
V^ tri control

 The waveform for the output voltage V o shows that the voltage jumps between +V d and −V d .
Hence this switching strategy is called “Bi-polar switching voltage PWM”.
 The average output voltage can either be positive or negative.
(ii) PWM with unipolar voltage switching:

 A triangular waveform is compared with the control voltage v control and −v control for determining the
switching signals for leg A and leg B, respectively.
 A comparison of v control with v tri control leg A switches, whereas leg B switches are controlled by
comparing −v control with v tri in the following manner:
 T A+ ¿on :if v control > v tri ¿

 T B +¿on :if −v control >v tri ¿

 Duty ratio of T A+ ¿¿ is D1=

1
2 (
1+
v control
V^ tri )
 Duty ratio of T B +¿¿ is D2=1−D1
Vd
 Average output voltage, V o =( 2 D 1−1 ) V d= ^ v control =k v control
V tri

 The average output voltage in this scheme is same as that in the bi-polar voltage switching scheme
and varies linearly with v control.
  Fig (e) and fig (f) show the current waveforms and the devices conducting for I o >0 and I o <0, where
V o is positive in both cases.

NOTE: If the switching frequencies of the switches are the saame in these two PWM strategies, then
the unipolar voltage switching results in a better output voltage waveform and in a better frequency
response, since the ‘effective’ switching frequency of the output voltage waveformis doubled and the
ripple is reduced.

Switch utilization in dc-dc converters

 In step-down and step-up converters, if the input and the output voltages are of the same order of
magnitude, then the switch utilization is very good. Therefore, for nonisolated converters, it is
preferable to use either step-up or step-down converter from the switch utilization consideration.
 In the buck-boost and the Cuk converter, the switch is poorly utilized. If both higher as well as lower
output voltages compared to the input are necessary or a negative polarity output compared to the
input is desired, then the buck-boost or the Cuk converter should be used.
 The maximum switch utilization of 0.25 is realized at D = 0.5, which corresponds to V o =V d
 In the nonisolated full-bridge converter, the overall switch utilization is also poor. It is maximum at
V o =−V d and V o =V d respectively. Hence it should only be used if four quadrant operation is
required.
 Diode Circuits and Rectifiers
(I) Diode circuits with dc load:
(a) With R-load:
Vs
i=
R
(b) With RC-load:
V s −t
i (t )= . e RC
R

v ( t )=V (1−e )
−t
RC
c s

 Initial rate of change of capacitor voltage, [ ]

d vc
dt t =0
=
Vs
RC
Source voltage ,V s
RC =
 Time constant,
[ ]
d vc
dt t =0

(c) With RL-load:

( )
−R
Vs t
i (t )= . 1−e L
R
−R
t
L
v L ( t )=V s . e

 Initial rate of rise of current through the inductor, [ ] d iL

dt t=0
=
Vs
L
L
 Time constant τ =
R
(d) With LC-load:

i (t )=V s .
√ C
L
sin ωo t

1
Where ω o= =¿ Resonant frequency
√ LC
v c ( t )=V s ( 1−cos ω o t )

v L ( t )=V s cos ωo t
π
 Conduction time of diode, t o= =π √ LC
ωo

 Peak current through diode, I p=V s .

√ C
L

 With capacitor initial voltage of V o , I p=(V s−V o).

√ C
L
(e) Source free Diode LC-circuit:
 i (t )=V o .
√ C
L
sin ω o t

v c ( t )=−V o cos ωo t
π
 Conduction time of diode, t o= ω =π √ LC
o

(f) With RLC – Load:

Roots are: S=
−R
2L
±
√( R 2 1
2L
−
LC )
¿−ξ ± √ ξ 2−ω o2
R
Where ξ= = Damping factor
2L
1
ω o= = Resonant frequency
√ LC

 Ringing frequency, ω r=
1
−
LC 2 L√
R 2
( )
= √ ω o2−ξ 2

ω o=√ ω r2 +ξ 2

 If ξ <ω o, the roots are complex and the circuit is said to be underdamped.
 If ξ >ω o, the roots are real and the circuit is said to be overdamped.
 If ξ=ωo, the roots are equal and the circuit is said to be critically damped.
π
 Conduction time of diode t 1= ω
r

 Rate of change of current at t = 0, [ ]

di
dt t =0
=
Vs
L
(g) With RL – load and freewheeling diode:

( )
−R
Vs t
 When S is closed, i= 1−e L
R
Vs
 Final current, i=
R
V s −LR t
 When S is opened, i= .e
R
(h) Diode and L circuit:
 Vs
 When S is closed, i= t
L
Vs
 When S is opened, i fd = t
L 1
2
1 Vs
 Energy stored in the inductance, E= t
2 L 1
(2) Single-phase diode rectifiers
(i) Single-phase half wave rectifier (single-phase one-pulse rectifier)
(a) With R-load:
Vm
 Average value of output (load) voltage, V o =
π
Vm
 RMS value of output voltage, V ¿ =
2
Vo Vm
 Average load current, I o= =
R πR
V¿ Vm
 RMS value of load current, I ¿= =
R 2R
Vm
 Peak value of load or diode current, I m=
R
 Peak inverse voltage, PIV = V m =√ 2 V s
 Power delivered to resistive load = (RMS load voltage) × (RMS load current)
= V ¿× I¿
Vm Vm
= ×
2 2R
2
V
= m
4R
2
Vs
=
2R
= I ¿2 R

¿ V × I V √ 2V s
 Input power factor = Power delivered ¿ load = ¿ ¿= ¿= =0.707 lag
input VA V s × I ¿ V s 2V s
(b) With L – load:
 Vm
i o= ( 1−cos ωt )
ωL
v o=V m sin ωt=v s
 Average value of output voltage V o =0.
2Vm
 Peak value of current, I max=
ωL
2V m 1
 Average value of current, I o= = I
ωL 2 max
V s Io
 RMS value of fundamental current, I 1r = =
ωL √ 2

RMS value of rectified current = √ I o + I 1 r =1.225 I o

2 2


 Voltage across diode = 0.

(c) With C – Load:
i o=ωC V m cos ωt
v o=V m sin ωt=v c =v s
 Average value of voltage across diode, V D=V m=√ 2V s
Vm
 RMS value of fundamental component of voltage across diode, V 1 r=
√2
RMS value of voltage across diode = √ V D + V 1r =1.225 V m
2 2

(d) With RE – Load:

 Turn-on angle, θ1=sin

−1
( )
E
Vm

1
 Average value of current, I o=
2 πR
[ 2 V m cos θ1−E ( π −2θ 1) ]
 RMS value of the load current,

I ¿=
√ 1
2π R 2 {( s
V 2+ E 2 ) ( π −2 θ1 ) +V s2 sin 2θ 1−4 V m E cos θ1 }

2
 Power delivered to load, P=E I o + I ¿ R
 Supply power factor =
2
¿ E I o+ I ¿ R
Power delivered ¿ load =
( Source voltage ) ( RMS value of source current ) V s .I¿
 PIV for diode = ( V m + E )
(e) With RL – Load:
Vm
 Average value of output voltage, V o = ( 1−cos ωt )
2π
Vo
 Average value of load or output current, I o=
R
(f) With RL – Load and Freewheeling diode:
Vm
 Average output voltage, V o =
π
(3) Single-phase full-wave diode rectifiers:
2Vm
 Average output voltage, V o =
π
Vo
 Average output current, I o=
R
Vm
 RMS value of output voltage, V ¿ = =V
√2 s
V¿
 RMS value of load current, I ¿=
R
 Power delivered to load, P=V ¿ . I ¿ =I ¿ 2 R
 Input volt-amperes = V s . I ¿
V ¿.I¿
 Input power factor = =1
V s .I¿
 PIV = 2V m
(4) Single-phase full-wave diode bridge rectifier:
2Vm
 Average output voltage, V o =
π
Vo
 Average output current, I o=
R
Io
 Average value of diode current, I D ,av =
2
Io
 RMS value of diode current, I D ,rms =
√2
 For constant load current,
I ¿=I o
I s=I o
 Load power = V o I o
 Input power = V s I s cos ϕ
V o Io
 Supply power factor, cos ϕ=
V s Is
(5) Zener diode:
 V s −V z
 Source current, I s=
Rs
Vz
 Load or output current, I o=
R
 Current through Zener diode, I z =I s−I o
(6) Three-phase half-wave diode rectifier:
3 √3
V mp = √ V ph, rms
3 6
V o=
2π 2π
V mp=¿ Maximum value of phase voltage (line to phase voltage).
(7) Three-phase full bridge rectifier (or) 3-phase 6-pulse diode rectifier:
3 V mL 3 √ 2V Lrms
V o= =
π π
V mL is the maximum value of line or line to line voltage V L.

Phase-Controlled Rectifiers
(1) Single-phase half-wave controlled converter:
(i) With R-Load:
π
(a) Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
Vm
(b) Average load voltage, V o = ( 1+cos α )
2π
 Vo
(c) Average load current, I o=
R

(d) RMS load voltage, V ¿ =

Vm
2√ π √[ ( 1
π−α ) + sin 2 α
2 ]
V¿
(e) RMS load current, I ¿=
R
(f) Power delivered to resistive load = (RMS load voltage) × (RMS load current)
(g) Input volt-amperes = (RMS source voltage) × (Total RMS line current)
= V s . I¿

=
√ 2 V s2
2R√π √[ 1
( π−α ) + sin 2 α
2 ]
(h) Input power factor = Power delivered ¿ load ¿ V .I V
= ¿ ¿= ¿=
1
Input VA V s . I ¿ V s √ 2 π √[ ( 1
π −α )+ sin 2 α
2 ]
(ii) With RL – Load:
(a) Conduction angle = Extinction angle – Firing angle
γ =β−α
2 π−β
(b) Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
Vm
(c) Average load voltage, V o = ( cos α −cos β )
2π
Vo V m
(d) Average load current, I o= = ( cos α −cos β )
R 2 πR

√
Vm
(e) RMS load voltage, V ¿ = ( β−α )− 1 ( sin 2 β−sin 2 α )
2√ π 2
(iii) With RL – Load & FD:
π
(a) Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
Vm
(b) Average load voltage, V o = ( 1+cos α )
2π
Vo
(c) Average load current, I o=
R
(d) FD improves input pf, load current and load performance.
(iv) With RLE – load:

(a) Minimum value of firing angle, θ1=sin ( )

E
Vm

(b) Maximum value of firing angle, θ2=π −θ1

1
(c) Average load current, I o= [ V ( cos α −cos β ) −E ( β−α ) ]
2 πR m
 1
¿ [ V { cos α −cos (γ +α )} −E ( γ ) ]
2 πR m

( ) } ]
¿
1
2 πR [ { γ γ
2V m sin α + sin −E . γ
2 2

(d) Average load voltage, V =E+ I R=E [1−

2π ] π
sin (α + )sin
γ V γ γ m
o +o
2 2
2 π−β
(e) Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
(f) The magnitude of maximum reverse voltage = V m + E
(v) With RE – Load:
1
(a) Average load current, I o= {V ( cos α +cos θ1 )−E ( π −θ1−α ) }
2 πR m
1
(b) Average load voltage, V o =E+ I o R=E+ {V ( cos α +cos θ1 )−E ( π−θ1−α ) }
2π m

¿
Vm
2
(
E
cos α +cos θ1 ) + 1+
2 π (
θ1 + α
)
If thyristor is fired continuously, θ1=α
1
I o=
2 πR
[ 2 V m cos θ1−E ( π −2θ 1) ]
1
V o =E+ I o R=E+
2π
[ 2V m cos θ1−E ( π−2θ1 ) ]
(c) RMS value of load current,

I ¿=
√ 1
2π R 2 {(
E 2+V s2 ) ( π −2 α ) } +V s2 sin 2 α −4 V m E cos α

(d) Power delivered to load, P=I ¿ 2 R+ I o E

2
I ¿ R+ I o E
(e) Supply power factor =
V s .I¿
(2) Single-phase Full-wave mid-point controlled rectifiers:
(i) With R-Load:
Vm
 Average value of output voltage, V o = (1+cos α )
π
Vm
 Average value of output current, I o= (1+cos α )
πR

[ ]
1 /2
1 V max
 RMS value of load voltage, V orms = ( π −α )+ sin 2 α
√2 π 2

[ ]
1 /2
π −α sin 2 α
¿Vm +
2π 4π

[ ]
1/ 2
V V π −α sin 2 α
 RMS value of load current, I orms = ¿ = m +
R R 2π 4π
(ii) With RL-Load:
π −α
 Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
2Vm
 Average value of output voltage, V o = cos α
π
 PIV = 2V m
(iii) With RL-Load & FD
Vm
 The average dc output voltage, V o = ( 1+ cos α )
π
Vo Vm
 Average dc load current, I o= = ( 1+cos α )
R πR
α Vm
 Current through the freewheeling diode, I FD =I o = α ( 1+cos α )
π πR
(3) Single-phase full-wave converters:
(i) Half-controlled converter or semiconverter

 In symmetrical configuration, the voltage source and the load are connected in parallel across the
two semiconductor switches. In this configuration, the voltage across the load is always equal to the
voltage across the source.
 In asymmetrical configuration, the voltage source and the load are connected in series across the
two semiconductor switches. In this, the voltage across the load is not always equal to the voltage
across the voltage source. The voltage across the load depends on the conduction angle of the
semiconductor switch.
 Symmetrical configuration has a lower harmonic content in the input current than the asymmetrical
configuration.
 Supply RMS current and average output voltage are also same for both configurations.
 The waveforms of diode current i D and thyristor current i T for the two configurations are different.
 Let γ T = conduction angle of thyristor
 γ D = conduction angle of diode in period of 2π radians.

 For symmetrical configuration, γ T =γ D =π

 For asymmetrical configuration, γ T =(π −α ) and γ D=(π + α)
  I T (avg )∧I T (rms)in symmetrical configuration are higher. So SCR current rating should be higher in
symmetrical configuration.
 I D (avg) ∧I D (rms)in asymmetrical configuration are higher. So diode current rating should be higher in
asymmetrical configuration.
(a) With R – Load:
Vm
 Average output voltage, V o = ( 1+ cos α )
π

√
Vm 1
 RMS value of output voltage, V ¿ = ( π −α )+ sin 2 α
√2 π 2
(b) With RL – Load & with or without FD:
Vm
 Average output voltage, V o = ( 1+ cos α )
π

√
Vm 1
 RMS value of output voltage, V ¿ = ( π −α )+ sin 2 α
√2 π 2
(c) With RLE – Load:
π −α
 Circuit turn-off time for semiconverter, t c =
ω
Continuous conduction mode:
Vm
 Average output voltage, V o = ( 1+ cos α )
π
V o =R I o + E
 In case load is a dc motor, E=K m ωm
 Torque developed, T e =K m I a =K m I o
V o =I a r a + K m ω m
V o−I a r a
ω m=
Km
Vm
( 1+cos α ) r
π a
ω m= − 2 Te
Km Km
Discontinuous conduction mode:
(i) When π < β < ( π +α ):
 Conduction period: α <ωt < π , v o=v s.
For ( π +α ) ¿ 2 π , v o=v s
 Freewheeling period: π <ωt < β
FD conducts, i fd =i o and v o=0
For 2 π < ωt < ( π + β ), FD conducts, i fd =i o and v o=0
 Idle period: β <ωt < ( π +α ), No circuit component conducts, i o = 0 and v o = E
(ii) When β < π and V m sin β< E:
  Conduction period: α <ωt < β , v o=v s.
( π +α ) ¿ ( π + β), v o=v s
 Freewheeling period: Absent and i fd =0
 Idle period: β <ωt < ( π +α ) and ( π + β ) <ωt < ( 2 π + α ):
No circuit element conduct i o=0 and v o=E
For single-phase semiconverter for β < π :

( )
Vm γ
 Average output voltage, V o = ( cos α −cos β )+ E 1−
π π
where γ = conduction angle = ( β−α )
Vm E
 Average load current, I o= ( cos α −cos β )− ( β−α )
πR πR
For single-phase semiconverter with β > π :

( )
Vm γ
 Average output voltage, V o = ( 1+ cos α ) + E 1−
π π
Vm E
 Average load current, I o= ( cos α −cos β )− ( β−α )
πR πR
(ii) Single-phase Fully Controlled bridge converter
(a) With R-Load:
Vm
 Average dc voltage across load, V o = ( 1+ cos α )
π
Vo Vm
 Average load current, I o= = ( 1+cos α )
R πR

[ ]
1/ 2
Vm 1
 RMS value of load voltage, V ¿ = ( π−α ) + sin 2 α
√2 π 2

[ ]
1 /2
π −α sin 2 α
¿Vm +
2π 4π

[ ]
1/ 2
V o V m π−α sin 2 α
 RMS value of load current, I ¿= = +
R R 2π 4π
(b) With RL – Load:
2Vm
 Average output dc voltage, V o = cos α
π
2V m
 Average load current, I o= cos α
πR
 For firing angle α <90 ° , circuit acts as rectifier.
 o
For firing angle 90° < α <180 , circuit acts as inverter.
 Full converter with α >90 o is called “line-commutated inverter”.
(c) With RLE – Load:
  Power would flow from dc source to ac supply system, only when E ¿ V o .
π −α
 Circuit turn-off time for both converter and inverter operations, t c =
ω
Continuous conduction mode:
2Vm
 Average value of output voltage, V o = cos α
π
V o =Ri o + E
 In case load is a dc motor, V o =r a I a + K m ω m
2Vm
cos α
π ra
ω m= − 2 Te
km Km
Discontinuous conduction mode:
 For β > π , α to β , v o=v s
 β to ( π +α ), no SCR conducts, v o=E
 At (π+β), i o falls to zero, no SCR conducts, v o=E
 For β < π :
 α to β , v o=v s
 β to ( π +α ),no circuit element conducts, v o=E
 ( π +α ) to ( π + β ), v o=v s
LINE FREQUENCY DIODE RECTIFIERS (NED MOHAN)
(1) Single-phase diode bridge rectifier:
2√ 2 2Vm
 Average dc output voltage ¿ V s=0.9 V s =
π π
2 √2
 RMS value of fundamental harmonic of supply current I s 1= I =0.9 I d
π d
I s1
 RMS value of harmonic components of supply current I sh =
h
 Total harmonic distortion = 48.43%

 Displacement power factor = 1

I s1
 Power factor = DPF × = 0.9
Is
 2 ω Ls
 The reduction in the average output voltage due to source inductance Ls = Id
π
2 ω Ls
 The average output voltage with source inductance present V d =0.9 V s − Id
π
2 ω Ls I d
cos μ=1−
√ 2V s
Where μ = commutation interval
 All diodes conduct during the commutation interval, and hence V d =0.
(2) Three phase diode bridge rectifier:
 Each diode conducts for 120°.
3 V ml 3 √2 V ¿
 Average voltage, V o = = =1.35 V ¿
π π
Where V ml=¿ maximum line to line voltage
V ¿ =¿ RMS line to line voltage

 RMS value of the line current, I s=

√ 2
I =0.816 I d
3 d

 RMS value of fundamental component of source current, I s 1=

√6 I =0.78 I
d d
π
I s1
 RMS value of harmonic component of source current, I sh=
h
 Where h = 5, 7, 11, 13, … Even and triplen harmonics are zero.
 Displacement power factor = 1
3
 Power factor = = 0.955
π
3 ω Ls
 The reduction in average dc output due to source inductance effect = Id
π
3 √ 2 V ¿ 3 ω Ls
 The average dc output when source inductance is considered = − Id
π π
Comparison between single-phase and three-phase rectifiers:
 The line current in single phase bridge rectifier contains significantly more distortion compared to a
three phase bridge rectifier. This results in much poorer power factor in single phase rectifier
compared to a three phase rectifier.
 The displacement power factor is high in both the rectifiers.
 The ripple in the dc current is smaller in three phase rectifiers compared to single phase rectifiers.
Thus, the filter capacitance required is much smaller in three phase rectifier compared to single
phase rectifier.
 The maximum regulation in the dc voltage from no load to full load is much smaller in three phase
rectifier (<5%). This regulation is often much larger in single-phase rectifiers.
  Use of single-phase rectifiers in three phase, four wire systems introduces large currents in the
neutral.

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS
Integral cycle control:
 Output voltage is controlled by connecting the load to source for an integral number of cycles and
then disconnecting the load for a further number of integral number of cycles.
Let n = number of cycles for supply connected to load (number of on cycles)
m = number of cycles for supply disconnected to load (number of off cycles)
  In the above fig., n = 3 and m = 2.
 Power is delivered to load for n cycles.
 Integral cycle control is also known as ‘on-off control’ or ‘burst firing’ or ‘zero-voltage switching’ or
‘cycle selection’ or ‘cycle syncopation’.

 RMS output voltage, V ¿ =

√ n
.V =V s . √ k
n+ m s
n
Where k = = Duty cycle of ac voltage controller
n+m
V¿
 RMS load current, I ¿=
R

[ ]
2 2 2
V¿ V s n Vs
 Power delivered to load ¿ = =k .
R R n+m R
 RMS value of input current, I s=¿ RMS value of load current, I ¿
V¿
 Input VA ¿ V s . I s=V s . I ¿ =V s .
R

 Input power factor ¿ Power delivered ¿ load ¿ V

= ¿=
Input VA V s√ n
n+ m
= √k

Im
 Average thyristor current, I T , av=k .
π
Im
 RMS value of thyristor current, I T , rms= √ k .
2
 This method introduces less harmonics in to the supply system.
 This method is used for heating loads and for motor control loads.

Single-phase AC voltage controller with R-load:

 π
 Circuit turn-off time, t c =
ω
Vm
 Average thyristor current, I T , av= ( 1+cos α )
2 πR
Vm
 Maximum value of average thyristor current, I T , AVM =
πR

√
Vm
 RMS thyristor current, I T , rms= ( π−α ) + 1 sin 2 α
2 R √π 2
Vm
 Maximum RMS thyristor current, I RM =
2R
I RM π
=
I T , AVM 2

 RMS value of the output voltage, V ¿ =

Vm 1
√2 π √ 1
{
( π−α ) + sin 2 α
2 }
V¿
 RMS value of source or load current, I ¿=
R
2
V 2
 The average power delivered to load, P=I ¿ R= ¿
R

[ ]
2
Vm 1
P= ( π−α ) + sin 2 α
2 πR 2

[( ]
2
Vs 1
P= π −α ) + sin 2 α
πR 2
 Maximum power is delivered when α =0 .
2
Vs
P m=
πR
Real power V s I 1 cos ϕ 1 I 1
 Power factor ¿ = = cos ϕ 1
Apparent power V s . I rms I rms
I1m
I 1= = rms value of fundamental component of source current
√2
ϕ 1=¿ phase angle between V s and I 1

 Power factor ¿
V¿
Vs
=
√
1
π { 1
( π−α ) + sin 2 α
2 }
Single-phase AC voltage controller with RL load:
 π
 Circuit turn-off time for each SCR, t c =
ω
 Conduction angle, γ =β−α
 As α is decreased, γ increases.
 0 to ϕ – T2 conducts
 ϕ to (π+ϕ) – T1 conducts
 (π+ϕ) to (2π+ϕ) – T2 conducts and so on
When γ =π :
 0 to α – T2 conducts
 α to (π+α) – T1 conducts
 (π+α) to (2π+α) – T2 conducts and so on
 Load voltage is equal to the source voltage
 When α =ϕ then γ =π .

 The reduction of α below ϕ is not able to control the load voltage and load current.
 −1 ωL
 The minimum value of firing angle, α =¿ Load phase angle, ϕ ¿ tan
R
 The ac output power can be controlled only for α >ϕ . For α ≤ ϕ , γ remains equal to π. Thus the
control range of firing angle is ϕ < α <180o .
 The maximum value of rms load current occurs when α =ϕ.
Vs
 Maximum value of rms load current, I RM =
√ R + ( ωL )2
2

 Average thyristor current is maximum when α =π and conduction angle γ =π

Vm
I T AVM =
πZ
 Maximum value of rms thyristor current
Vm
I T rms m=
2Z

[ ] d io
dt max
=
ω .V m
Z
 CYCLOCONVERTERS
 Cycloconverter will provide either a variable frequency power from a fixed input frequency power
(as in ac motor speed control) or a fixed frequency power from a variable input frequency power (as
in aircraft or shipboard power supplies).
Single-phase to single-phase step-up cycloconverter
 A step-up cycloconverter requires forced commutation.
Mid-point type Cycloconverter

Bridge-type Cycloconverter

Single-phase to Single phase step down cycloconverters

 A step-down cycloconverter does not require forced commutation.
(1) Mid-point Cycloconverters
 This type of cycloconverters will be discussed both for discontinuous as well as continuous load
current. The load is now assumed to consist of R and L in series.
(a) Discontinuous load current:
 Discontinuous load current Continuous load current
1
 The frequency of output voltage and current, f o= f s.
4
Three-phase half-wave cycloconverter
(i) 3-phase to 1-phase cycloconverter
 The firing angle of three thyristors is varied progressively.

1
 In fig., output frequency, f o= f s
8
 For positive half cycle, α is varied from 90 o to zero and from zero to 90 o.
 For negative half cycle, α is varied from 90 o to 180o and from 180o to 90 o.
 Two 3-phase half-wave converters are connected in antiparallel.

 Intergroup reactor is connected between two converters to limit the circulating current.
o
α p +α n=180

(ii) Three-phase to 3-phase cycloconverter:

  A total of 18 thyristors are employed.
 It is a 3-pulse 3-phase to 3-phase cycloconverter.
Three-phase bridge circuit:
 It is used for large industrial drives.
 It uses 36 thyristors.
 It is a 6-pulse 3-phase to 3-phase cycloconverter.

 The magnitude of output voltage and total VA rating of bridge cycloconverter is double that of 18
thyristor cycloconverter.
 Gives smooth variation of output voltage.
 Control circuit is complex and expensive.
Output voltage equation for a cycloconverter
2π
 In m-phase half-wave cycloconverter, each phase conducts for radians in one cycle of 2π
m
radians.

 Average value of dc output voltage, V o =V m [ m

π
sin
π
m ]
cos α

 For α =0 o, V o =V m [ m
π
sin
π
m ]
m π
¿ √ 2V ph sin
π m
V ph =¿ RMS value of per phase supply voltage

 If V ¿ is the fundamental rms value of per phase voltage of cycloconverter,

m π
V ¿ =V ph . . sin
π m
 Let α mn is the minimum value of firing angle for positive group converter, maximum output voltage
per phase is
 V d ,max =V do .cos α mn=r .V do

Where r =cos α mn=¿ Voltage reduction factor

 Fundamental rms value of per phase voltage of cycloconverter,

[ ( ) ( )]
V ¿ =r V ph
m
π
sin
π
m

 The above equation is used for 3-phase to 3-phase or 3-phase to single phase cycloconverter
employing m-phase half wave circuits.
 The above equation is also applicable for 3-phase to 3-phase or 3-phase to 1-phase cycloconverter
employing 6-pulse bridge converter circuit, but then m is equal to the number of pulses and V ph is
replaced by line to line voltage.