MODULE 4.

VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Time Frame: 2 weeks

Objectives: At the end of this module, the student is expected to

1. Find the limits, derivative, and integral of a vector valued function
2. Solve for the length of arc of curves and curvature of vector valued functions
3. Find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a particle moving according to the
given law.

Limits and Continuity of Vector Valued Functions

Definition. A function f with domain contained in 𝑅1 and range contained in 𝑉 2 is called a

vector function. That is, for some set of numbers S in 𝑅1 , and each t ∈ S there is exactly
one v ∈ 𝑉 2 such that f(t) = v.

Definition. A vector function f is continuous at 𝐭 = 𝐚 if f(a) is defined and if for each ε > 0
there δ > 0 such that
|𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑎)| < 𝜀 for all t such that 0 < |𝑡 − 𝑎| < 𝛿.

Note: 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑎) is a vector, the symbol |𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑎)| stands for the length of a vector.

Remark: The continuity of a vector function asserts that as t → a the vector f(t) approaches
the vector f(a) in both length and direction.
When f is continuous at a, we also write
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑡→𝑎

When i and j are customary unit vectors associated with a rectangular coordinate
system in the plane, a vector function f can be written in the form
f(t) = 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑗, where 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are function in the ordinary sense.

Theorem. A function f is continuous at t = a if and only if 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are continuous at t =

a.

Definition. Let I be an open interval containing c, and let f(t) be a vector-valued function
defined on I, except possibly at c. The limit 𝐟(𝐭), as t approaches c, is vector L,

lim 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑡→𝑐

means that given any ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that for all t ≠ c, if |𝑡 − 𝑐| < 𝛿, we
have ‖𝑓(𝑡) − 𝐿‖ < 𝜀.

Note: 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝐿 is a vector, ‖𝑓(𝑡) − 𝐿‖ is the length or magnitude of vector.

Theorem. Limits of Vector-Valued function

1. Let f(t) = 〈𝑓1 (𝑡), 𝑓2 (𝑡)〉 be a vector-valued function in ℝ2 defined on an open
interval I containing c. Then
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = 〈lim 𝑓1 (𝑡), lim 𝑓2 (𝑡)〉
𝑡→𝑐 𝑡→𝑐 𝑡→𝑐

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

2. Let f(t) = 〈𝑓1 (𝑡), 𝑓2 (𝑡), 𝑓3 (𝑡)〉 be a vector-valued function in ℝ3 defined on an open
interval I containing c. Then
lim 𝑓(𝑡) = 〈lim 𝑓1 (𝑡), lim 𝑓2 (𝑡) , lim 𝑓3 (𝑡)〉
𝑡→𝑐 𝑡→𝑐 𝑡→𝑐 𝑡→𝑐

Derivatives of Vector Valued Functions

Definition. If f is a vector function, we define the derivative 𝑓 ′ as

𝑓(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓 ′ = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
whenever the limit exists.

Remark: If f is given in terms of functions 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 by

𝑓(t) = 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑗

then the derivative may be computed by the simple formula

𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑓1 ′ (𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑓2 ′ (𝑡)𝑗

Example 1. Find the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) if f(t) = (𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 − 1)𝑖 + (3𝑡 3 − 2)𝑗

Solution: 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = (2𝑡 + 2)𝑖 + 9𝑡 2 𝑗

Example 2. Given that f(t) = (sin 𝑡)𝑖 + (3 − 2 cos 𝑡)𝑗 , find 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡).

Solution:
𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = cos 𝑡𝑖 + 2 sin 𝑡𝑗
𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = − sin 𝑡𝑖 + 2 cos 𝑡𝑗

Example 3. Given f(t) = (3𝑡 − 2)𝑖 + (2𝑡 2 + 1)𝑗. Find the value of 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡).

Solution:
𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 3𝑖 + 4𝑡𝑗
𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 4𝑗
𝑓 ′ (𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = (3𝑖 + 4𝑡𝑗) ∙ (4𝑗) = 3(0) + (4𝑡)(4) = 16𝑡

Remark: The derivative of a vector function has a simple geometric interpretation in terms
of directed line segments.

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

The directed line segment 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represent f(t). Let 𝑂𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represent f(t + h). Then
f(t + h) − f(t) is the directed line segment 𝑃𝑄⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Multiplying f(t + h) − f(t) by 1 gives a vector
ℎ
1
in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 , but times as long. As h tends to zero, the quantity
ℎ

𝑓(𝑡 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑡)
ℎ
tends to a vector tangent to the curve C at the point P. We conclude that 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) is the
vector tangent to the curve f(t).

Example 4. Let C be a curve described by the parametric equations

x(t) = 𝑡 2 + 6 and y(t) = 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡, where t is in 𝑅1 . Find parametric equations for the
tangent line to C at the point on the curve corresponding to t = 3 .

Solution:
A point P(t) on C is given by P(t) = (𝑡 2 + 6, 𝑡 3 − 3𝑡) and P(3) = (15,1 8)
f(t) = (𝑡 2 + 6)𝑖 + (𝑡 3 − 3𝑡)𝑗 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 2𝑡𝑖 + (3𝑡 2 − 3)𝑗
The tangent vector at t = 3 is 𝑓 ′ (3) = 6𝑖 + 24𝑗.

Using the parametric equations for a line passing through (15, 18) in the direction 6𝑖 + 24𝑗
yields x(t) = 15 + 6t and y(t) = 18 + 24t as the equations for the tangent line to C at
the point P(15, 18).

Example 5. Let C be a curve described by the parametric equations

x(t) = cos t and y(t) = t sin t . Find parametric equations for the line tangent to C
1 𝜋√3
at point P (2 , 6
).

Solution:

1 𝜋√3
To find t we will use P (2 , 6
), we have
1 𝜋√3
cos 𝑡 = and t sin t =
2 6

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋√3
From cos 𝑡 = 2 , t= 3
to check if t = 3
is true we will substitute it to t sin t = 6
.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √3 𝜋√3
Thus 3
sin 3 = 3 ( 2 ) = 6
.

f(t) = cos 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑗 and 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = − sin 𝑡𝑖 + (𝑡 cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡)𝑗

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The tangent vector at t = 3
is 𝑓 ′ ( 3 ) = − sin 3 𝑖 + ( 3 cos 3 + sin 3 )𝑗
√3 𝜋 1 √3
=−2
𝑖 + [( 3 ) (2) + 2
]j
√3 𝜋+3√3
= +( −2 𝑖 6
)j
The parametric equations for the line tangent to C
1 𝜋√3
at point P ( , ) are
2 6
1 √3 𝜋√3 𝜋+3√3
x(t) = 2
+= − 2 𝑡 and y(t) = 6
+( 6
) 𝑡.

Exercises

1. Calculate 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡)

a. f(t) = (𝑡 2 + 1)𝑖 + (𝑡 3 − 3𝑡)𝑗
𝑡−3 𝑡 2 +1
b. f(t) = ( )𝑖 −( )𝑗
𝑡+1 𝑡 2 +𝑡+1
c. f(t) = (tan 3𝑡)𝑖 + (cos 𝜋𝑡)𝑗
1 1
d. f(t) = 𝑡 𝑖 − 𝑡 2 +1 𝑗
e. f(t) = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑗
f. f(t) = (𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑖 + (𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑗

𝑡 2 +1
2. a. Find f(t) ∙ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) if f(t) = 𝑡 2 +2 𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗
𝑑 1
b. Find [𝑓(𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)] if f(t) = 2ti + 𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝑡+1
𝑑
c. Find [𝑓 ′ (𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡)] if f(t) = (3𝑡 + 1)𝑖 + (2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3 )𝑗
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 2
d. Find [𝑓 ′ (𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡)] if f(t) = (log 𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑 ′′ ′′′ 3𝑡 −3𝑡
e. Find [𝑓 (𝑡) ∙ 𝑓 (𝑡)] if f(t) = 𝑒 𝑖 + 𝑒 𝑗
𝑑𝑡

3. Find parametric equations for the line tangent to C at point the P

a. x = 2𝑡 3 − 4, 𝑦 = 𝑡 + 3; 𝑃(−2,4)
b. x = t𝑒 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡 ; 𝑃(0,1)
c. x = 1 + sin 𝑡 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑡 ; 𝑃(1,1)
d. x = 𝑡 2 + cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = e𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ; 𝑃(0,1)
e. x = 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = (𝑡 2 + 1)2 ; 𝑃(−1,4)

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Vector Function in Space. Derivative. Tangents. Arclength

Definition. A function f with domain contained in 𝑅1 and range contained in 𝑉 3 is called a

vector function in three space, or simply a vector function. That is, for some set of
numbers S and 𝑅1 and each t ∈ S there is exactly one v ∈ 𝑉 3 such that f(t) = v.

Theorem. Suppose that f(t) = 𝑓1 (𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑓2 (𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑓3 (𝑡)𝑘 is a vector function and that the
vector c = 𝑐1 𝑖 + 𝑐2 𝑗 + 𝑐3 𝑘 is a constant. Then
a. f(t) → c as t → a if and only if 𝑓1 (𝑡) → 𝑐1 and 𝑓2 (𝑡) → 𝑐2 and 𝑓3 (𝑡) → 𝑐3 .
b. f is continuous at a if and only if 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 are continuous.
c. 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) exists if and only if 𝑓1 ′ (𝑡), 𝑓2 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑓3 ′ (𝑡) exist.
d. We have the formula f ′ (t) = 𝑓1 ′ (𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑓2 ′ (𝑡)𝑘 + 𝑓3 ′ (𝑡)𝑘 .
e. If v(t) = aw(t) , then 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑎𝑤 ′ (𝑡) , where a is a constant.
f. If v(t) = c(t)w(t), then 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑐(𝑡)𝑤 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑐 ′ (𝑡)𝑤(𝑡).
𝑤(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡)𝑣 ′ (𝑡)−𝑐 ′ (𝑡)𝑣(𝑡)
g. If v(t) = 𝑐(𝑡)
, then 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = [𝑐(𝑡)]2

Theorem. If u(t) and v(t)are differentiable, then the derivative of f(t) = u(t) ∙ v(t) is given
by
𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = u(t) ∙ 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡) ∙ 𝑣(𝑡).

The derivative of w(t) = u(t) × v(t) is given by

𝑤 ′ (𝑡) = u(t) × 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑢′ (𝑡) × 𝑣(𝑡).

Example 1. Given f(t) = 3𝑡 2 𝑖 − 2𝑡 3 𝑗 + (𝑡 2 + 3)𝑘, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑡), 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡), 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑡)

Solution:

𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = 6𝑡𝑖 − 6𝑡 2 𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘

𝑓 ′′ (𝑡) = 6𝑖 − 12𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑡) = −12𝑗

Example 2. Find the derivative 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑤 ′ (𝑡) of f(t) = u(t) ∙ v(t) and
w(t) = u(t) × v(t) when u(t) = (𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘 and
v(t) = 2ti + (𝑡 4 − 1)𝑗 + (2𝑡 + 3)𝑘 .

Solution:

f(t) = [(𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘] ∙ [2ti + (𝑡 4 − 1)𝑗 + (2𝑡 + 3)𝑘 ]

𝑓 ′ (𝑡) = [(𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘] ∙ [2𝑖 + 4𝑡 3 𝑗 + 2𝑘] +
[2ti + (𝑡 4 − 1)𝑗 + (2𝑡 + 3)𝑘][𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 3𝑡 2 𝑘]
= 2(t + 3) + 4𝑡 2 𝑡 3 + 2(𝑡 3 − 1) + 2𝑡 + 2𝑡(𝑡 4 − 1) + 3𝑡 2 (2𝑡 + 3)
= 2t + 6 + 4𝑡 5 + 2𝑡 3 − 2 + 2𝑡 + 2𝑡 5 − 2𝑡 + 6𝑡 3 + 9𝑡 2
= 6𝑡 5 + 8𝑡 3 + 9𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

w(t) = [(𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘] × [2ti + (𝑡 4 − 1)𝑗 + (2𝑡 + 3)𝑘 ]

𝑤 ′ (𝑡) = [(𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘] × [2i + 4𝑡 3 𝑗 + 2𝑘 ] +
[𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 3𝑡 2 𝑘] × [2ti + (𝑡 4 − 1)𝑗 + (2𝑡 + 3)𝑘 ]
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
= | 𝑡 + 3 𝑡 2 𝑡 3 − 1| + | 1 2𝑡 3𝑡 2 |
2 4𝑡 3 2 2𝑡 𝑡 4 − 1 2𝑡 + 3
2
=|𝑡3 𝑡 3 − 1| 𝑖 − |𝑡 + 3 𝑡 3 − 1| 𝑗 + |𝑡 + 3 𝑡2 | 𝑘 −
4𝑡 2 2 2 2 4𝑡 3

| 42𝑡 3𝑡 2 | 𝑖 + | 1 3𝑡 2 | 𝑗 + | 1 2𝑡
|𝑘
4
𝑡 − 1 2𝑡 + 3 2𝑡 2𝑡 + 3 2𝑡 𝑡 −1

= (2𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 6 + 4𝑡 3 )𝑖 − (2𝑡 + 6 − 2𝑡 3 + 2)𝑗 + (4𝑡 4 + 12𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 2 )k +

(4𝑡 2 + 6𝑡 − 3𝑡 6 + 3𝑡 2 )𝑖 − (2𝑡 + 3 − 6𝑡 3 )𝑗 + (𝑡 4 − 1 − 4𝑡 2 )𝑘

= (−7𝑡 6 + 4𝑡 3 + 9𝑡 2 + 6𝑡)𝒊 + (8𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 − 11)𝒋 + (𝟓𝑡 4 + 12𝑡 3 − 6𝑡 2 − 1)𝒌

Definition. The length of an arc C in three space is the formula

𝑏

𝑙(C) = ∫ √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡

𝑎
and
𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2

where 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) is an arc length function. In vector form,

𝑏
𝑙(C) = ∫𝑎 |𝑟 ′ (𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡, 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = |𝑟 ′ (𝑡)|

𝑟 ′ (𝑡)
Definition. If 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) ≠ 0, we define the vector T(t) = |𝑟′ (𝑡)| as the unit tangent vector to
the path corresponding to the value t. The line through the point 𝑃0 corresponding to r(𝑡0 )
and parallel to T(𝑡0 ) is called the tangent line to the arc at 𝒕𝟎 ; the line directed in the same
way as T(𝑡0 ) is called the directed tangent line at 𝒕𝟎 .

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Definition. If t denotes time in the parametric equations of an arc r(t), then 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) is the
velocity center v(t) and 𝑟 ′′ (𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) is called the acceleration vector. The quantity
𝑠 ′ (𝑡) ( a scalar) is called the speed of a particle moving according to the law
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k.

𝑡2 𝑡3
Example 1. Given C: x = t, y = , 𝑧= ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 . Find 𝑙(C).
√2 3

Solution:

x = t, 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = 1 [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 1
𝑡2 2𝑡
y= 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 2𝑡 2
√2 √2
3
𝑡
𝑧= 𝑧 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 𝑡 4
3
𝑏

𝑙(C) = ∫ √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 𝑑𝑡

𝑎

2
= ∫0 √1 + 2𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡

2
= ∫0 √(𝑡 2 + 1)2 𝑑𝑡

2
= ∫0 (𝑡 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑡

𝑡3 2
= [ 3 + 𝑡]
0
23 14
= 3
+2= 3

Example 2. The graph of the equation x = a cos t, y = a sin t, z = bt is called a helix.

a. Find 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)
b. Find the length of that part of the helix for which 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
c. Show that the unit tangent vector makes a constant angle with z axis.

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Solution:
a. x = a cos t 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = −𝑎 sin 𝑡 [𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡
y = a sin t 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑎 cos 𝑡 [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡
z = bt 𝑧 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑏 [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2 = 𝑏 2

𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = √[𝑥 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑦 ′ (𝑡)]2 + [𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]2

= √𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 + 𝑏 2
= √𝑎2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) + 𝑏 2
= √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
2𝜋
b. 𝑙(C) = ∫0 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋
= √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑡|
0
2
= 2𝜋√𝑎2 + 𝑏

𝑟 ′ (𝑡)
c. T(t) = |𝑟′ (𝑡)| note that 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = |𝑟 ′ (𝑡)| and 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡)i + 𝑦 ′ (𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑧 ′ (𝑡)𝑘

(−𝑎 sin 𝑡)𝑖+(𝑎 cos 𝑡)𝑗+𝑏𝑘

= √𝑎2 +𝑏 2
−𝒚𝒊+𝒙𝒋+𝒃𝒌
= √𝑎2 +𝑏 2

𝑏
Letting ϕ be the angle between T and k, we get cos ϕ = .
√𝑎2 +𝑏2

Example 3. Let t be the time in seconds and s be the length in meters. Given
r(t) = 𝑡 2 𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + (𝑡 3 − 1)𝑘 . Find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a particle moving
according to the given law.

Solution:

Velocity v(t): 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 2𝑡𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 3𝑡 2 𝑘

Speed : 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = √(2𝑡)2 + (2)2 + (3𝑡 2 )2 = √9𝑡 4 + 4𝑡 2 + 4
Acceleration 𝑣 ′ (𝑡): 𝑟 ′′ (𝑡) = 2𝑖 + 6𝑡𝑘

Example 4. Given f(t) = √4 − 𝑡 2 𝑖 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑡 + 1)𝑘. Find the domain of f and determine
where f is continuous.

Solution:
√4 − 𝑡 2 ⟹ 4 − 𝑡 2 ≥ 0 𝑒 −3𝑡 ⟹ −∞ ≤ 𝑡 ≤ +∞
𝑡2 ≤ 4
−2 ≤ t ≤ 2

𝑙𝑛(𝑡 + 1) ⟹ 𝑡 + 1 > 0
t > −1

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Note that f is continuous at a if and only if 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 and 𝑓3 are continuous.

Thus f is continuous on the interval (−1,2].

Exercises.

1. Find the derivatives 𝑓 ′ (𝑡) and 𝑓 ′′ (𝑡).

a. f(t) = 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (𝑡 2 + 1)𝑗 + (2 − 3𝑡)𝑘
b. f(t) = (2𝑡 3 + 𝑡 − 1)𝑖 + (𝑡 −1 + 1)𝑗 + (𝑡 2 + 𝑡 −2 )𝑘
c. f(t) = (cos 2𝑡)𝑖 + (sin 2𝑡)𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘
d. f(t) = 𝑒 2𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑘
𝑡2 1
e. f(t) = ( )𝑖 + ( )𝑗 + (𝑡 2 + 1)𝑘
𝑡 2 +1 𝑡 2 +1
3𝑡
f. f(t) = (log 2𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑒 𝑗 + log 𝑡)𝑘 (𝑡
g. f(t) = (cos 𝑡)𝑖 + (tan 𝑡)𝑗 + (sin 𝑡)𝑘
h. f(t) = (𝑡 2 + 6)𝑖 + (cos 𝑡)𝑗 + (𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑘

2. Find the domain of f and determine where f is continuous

a. f(t) = 𝑡 3 𝑖 + tan 𝑡𝑗 + 3𝑘
1 1
b. f(t) = 𝑡 3 𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + cos 𝑡 𝑘
𝑡 2 −9
c. f(t) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑖 + (2 + 𝑡)−1 𝑗 + ( 𝑡−3 ) 𝑘
3
d. f(t) = ln(1 − 𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + √𝑡 𝑘
1
e. f(t) = (𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡 )𝑖 + ( 𝑡 ) 𝑗 + (cos 𝑡)𝑘

3. Find 𝑙(C).
3𝑡 2 3𝑡 3
a. C: x = t, y = 2
, 𝑧= 2
; 0≤𝑡≤2
𝜋
b. C: x = t, y = ln(sec 𝑡 + tan 𝑡) , 𝑧 = ln sec 𝑡 ; 0≤𝑡≤ 4
𝜋
c. C: x = t cos 𝑡 , y = t sin 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑡; 0≤𝑡≤ 2
d. C: x = 𝑡 2 , y = t sin 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 cos 𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
e. C: x = 𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 , y = 𝑒 𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝜋

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

4. Find 𝑓 ′ (𝑡)
1 1
a. f(t) = u(t) ∙ v(t) where u(t) = 3ti + 2𝑡 2 𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑡 3 𝑘
𝑡 𝑡
b. f(t) = u(t) ∙ v(t) where u(t) = (𝑡 2 + 2)i + t𝑗 + 3𝑘, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑡 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑡 2 𝑘
c. f(t) = u(t) × v(t) where u(t) = cos 𝑡 i + sin 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘, 𝑣(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 𝑖 + cos 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡 2 𝑘
d. f(t) = u(t) × v(t) where u(t) = ti + (𝑡 2 + 2)𝑗 + 𝑡 2 𝑘, 𝑣(𝑡) = (𝑡 2 + 2)𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘

5. The parameter t is the time in seconds. Taking s to be the length in meters.

Find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a particle moving according to the given
law.
a. r(t) = (𝑡 sin 𝑡)𝑖 + (𝑡 cos 𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘
b. r(t) = 𝑒 3𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡𝑒 3𝑡 𝑘

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Curvature. Tangential and Normal Components. The Moving Trihedral

𝑟 ′ (𝑡)
Note: unit tangent vector T(t) = |𝑟′ (𝑡)|

𝑇 ′ (𝑡)
Definition. The vector 𝐊(𝐭) defined by K(t) = 𝑠′ (𝑡)
is called the curvature vector of the
curve r = r(t). The magnitude |𝐾(𝑡)| = 𝐾(𝑡) is called the curvature. If K(t) ≠ 0, we define
the principal normal vector N(t) and the binormal vector B(t) by the relations
𝑲(𝒕)
𝐍(𝐭) = 𝑩(𝒕) = 𝑻(𝒕) × 𝑵(𝒕)
|𝑲(𝒕)|

The center of curvature C(t) id defined by the equation

1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ] = 𝑟(𝑡) +
v[𝑂𝐶(𝑡) 𝑁(𝑡)
𝐾(𝑡)
1
The radius of curvature is R(t) = 𝐾(𝑡) . The osculating plane corresponding to the value y
is the plane which contains the tangent line to the path and the center of curvature at t; it is
defined only for those values of t for which K(t) ≠ 0.

Example 1. Given the curve x = t, y = 𝑡 2 , 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑡 2 , find T(t) and K(t).

Solution:

We may write r(t) = ti + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + (1 + 𝑡 2 )𝑘. Then 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘 and

|𝑟 ′ (𝑡)| = √12 + (2𝑡)2 + (2𝑡)2 = √1 + 8𝑡 2 = 𝑠 ′ (𝑡)

𝑟′(𝑡) 1
Since T(t) = |𝑟′ , we have T(t) = (𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘 ).
(𝑡)| √1+8𝑡 2

3
1 1
Thus 𝑇 ′ (𝑡) = (2𝑗 + 2𝑘) + (𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘 ) [− (1 + 8𝑡 2 )−2 (16𝑡)]
√1+8𝑡 2 2
1 −8𝑡
= (2𝑗 + 2𝑘) + (𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 2𝑡𝑘 ) ( 3 )
√1+8𝑡 2 (1+8𝑡 2 )2

1 −8𝑡
(2𝑗+2𝑘)+(𝑖+2𝑡𝑗+2𝑡𝑘 )( 3)
√1+8𝑡2
𝑇 ′ (𝑡) (1+8𝑡2 )2
Hence K(t) = =
𝑠′ (𝑡) √1+8𝑡 2
(2𝑗+2𝑘) (𝑖+2𝑡𝑗+2𝑡𝑘 )(−8𝑡)
= 1+8𝑡 2 + (1+8𝑡 2 )2
(1+8𝑡 2 )(2𝑗+2𝑘) (𝑖+2𝑡𝑗+2𝑡𝑘 )(−8𝑡)
= (1+8𝑡 2 )2
+ (1+8𝑡 2 )2
−8𝑡 2 2
K(t) = (1+8𝑡 2 )2 𝑖 + (1+8𝑡 2 )2 𝑗 + (1+8𝑡 2 )2 𝑘

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Remark: The triple T(t), N(t), B(t) forms a mutually orthogonal triple of unit vectors at each
point, called the trihedral at the point.

Remark: The equation of the oscillating plane at t = 𝑡0 is given by

𝑏1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏2 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑏3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )

where (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is the point on the curve corresponding to

t = 𝑡0 and B(𝑡0 ) = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘

Example 2. Given the helix x = 4 cost, y = 4sint, z = 2t, find

2𝜋
a. T, N, B and Curvature K for 3
b. the equation of the osculating plane and the equations of the tangent line

Solution
a. x = 4 cost, y = 4sint, z = 2t
r(t) = 4 costi + 4sintj + 2tk
r ′ (t) = −4 sinti + 4costj + 2k
𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = |r ′ (t)| = √(−4 sin)2 + (4cost)2 + 22
= √16(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) + 22
= √20 = 2√5

𝑟(𝑡) −4 sinti+4costj+2k 1
𝐓(𝐭) = |𝑟′ (𝑡)| = 2√5
= 2√5 (−𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 2𝑘)

1 1
𝑇 ′ (𝑡) = 2√5 (−4 costi − 4sintj) = 2√5 (−𝑥𝑖 − 𝑦𝑗)

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

−4 cost 2 −4sint 2
|𝑇 ′ (𝑡)| = √( ) +( )
√5 √5
16𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑡+16𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡
=√ 5

16 4
= √5 =
√5

4
|𝑇 ′ (𝑡)| √5 2
K(t) = = =
𝑠′ (𝑡) 2√5 5

1
𝐾(𝑡) 𝑇 ′ (𝑡) (−4 costi−4sintj)
√5
𝐍(𝐭) = = = 2 = −costi − sintj
|𝐾(𝑡)| 𝑠′ (𝑡)𝐾(𝑡) (2√5)(5)

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
For t = , 𝑥0 = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 4 (− ) = −2
3 3 2
2𝜋 √3
𝑦0 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 4( ) = 2√3
3 2
2𝜋 4𝜋
𝑧0 = 2 3 = 3

−4 sinti+4costj+2k −2√3𝑖−2𝑗+2𝑘 1
𝐓(𝐭) = 2√5
= 2√5
= (−√3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘)
√5
1 √3
𝐍(𝐭) = −costi − sintj = 2
𝑖− 2 j
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
−√3 −1 1
𝑩(𝒕) = 𝑻(𝒕) × 𝑵(𝒕) = || √5 √5 √5|
|
1 √3
2
−2 0
−1 1 −√3 1 −√3 1
√5 √5
−
√5 √5| 𝑗 √5 √5
= | 3 |𝑖 − | 1
+| |𝑘
√ 1 √3
−2 0 2
0 −2
2
√3 1 2
= 2√5 𝑖 − 2√5 𝑗 + 𝑘
√5
1
= 2√5 (√3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 4𝑘)
2𝜋 2
K( ) =
3 5

4𝜋
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0 𝑥+2 𝑦−2√3 𝑧−
3
b. The tangent line is 𝑎
= 𝑏
= 𝑐
⟹ = =
√3 1 −1
and since B is perpendicular to the osculating plane, the equation of the osculating
4𝜋
plane is √3(𝑥 + 2) + (𝑦 − 2√3) + 4 (𝑧 − 3
).

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Definition. If the particle moves according to the law r = r(t). the tangential and normal
components of any vector are its component along T and N, respectively.

Theorem. If a particle moves according to the law r = r(t), with t the time and T(t), N(t),
R(t) defined above, then the acceleration vector a(t) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) satisfies the equation
|𝑣(𝑡)|2
a(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)𝑇(𝑡) + 𝑁(𝑡)
𝑅(𝑡)

Remark: Since T, N, and B are mutually orthogonal vectors the above formula shows that
|𝑣(𝑡)|2
𝑠 ′′(𝑡) and 𝑅(𝑡)
are tangential and normal components respectively, of a(t)

Example 1. A particle moves according to the law x = t, y = 𝑡 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 . Find its

a. its vector velocity
b. its acceleration
c. its speed
d. the unit vector T
e. unit vector N
f. normal and tangential components of the acceleration vector
Evaluate all quantities at t = 1

Solution:
r(t) = ti + 𝑡 2 𝑗 + 𝑡 3 𝑘
velocity vector: v(t) = 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑗 + 3𝑡 2 𝑘
acceleration vector: 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑣 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑟 ′′ (𝑡) = 2𝑗 + 6𝑡𝑘
speed: 𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = |r ′ (t)| = √12 + (2𝑡)2 + (3𝑡 2 )2 = √1 + 4𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 4
1
1 4𝑡+18𝑡 3
𝑠 ′′ (𝑡) = 2 (1 + 4𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 4 )−2 (8𝑡 + 36𝑡 3 ) =
√1+4𝑡 2 +9𝑡 4

The path of the particle is sketched below

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

For t = 1
a. velocity vector: v = i + 2j + 3k
b. acceleration vector: a = 2𝑗 + 6𝑘
22
c. speed: 𝑠 ′ (1) = √14 𝑠 ′′ (1) =
√14
𝑟(1) 𝑣(1) 1
d. unit vector : 𝐓(𝟏) = |𝑟′ = = (i + 2j + 3k)
(1)| 𝑠′ (1) √14

2 2
(𝑠′ (𝑡)) (𝑠′ (𝑡))
a(𝑡) = 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)𝑇(𝑡) + 𝑅(𝑡)
𝑁(𝑡) ⟹ a(𝑡) − 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑅(𝑡)
𝑁(𝑡)

22 1
a(1) − 𝑠 ′′ (1)𝑇(1) = 2𝑗 + 6𝑘 − [ (i + 2j + 3k)]
√14 √14
11
= 2𝑗 + 6𝑘 − 7 (i + 2j + 3k)
1
= 7 (−11𝑖 − 8𝑗 + 9𝑘)

−11 2 −8 2 9 2 1 14 98
|a − 𝑠 ′′ 𝑇| = √( ) + ( 7 ) + (7) = 7 √266 = ⟹ R=
7 𝑅 √266

2
(𝑠′ (𝑡))
e. a(𝑡) − 𝑠 ′′ (𝑡)𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑅(𝑡)
𝑁(𝑡)
1 14
(−11𝑖 − 8𝑗 + 9𝑘) = 98 𝑁
7
√266
1
N= (−11𝑖 − 8𝑗 + 9𝑘)
√266

|𝑣(1)|2 14 √266
f. normal component = 98 =
𝑅(1) 7
√266

22
g. tangential component 𝑠 ′′ (1) =
√14

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 MODULE 4. VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

Exercises

A. Find the vectors a. T, N, B and Curvature K b. the equation of the osculating

plane and the equation of the tangent line
1. x = 1 + t, y = 3 − t, z = 2t + 4 t=3
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
2. x = 𝑒 cos 𝑡 , y = 𝑒 sin 𝑡 , z = 𝑒 t=0
1 2
3. x = 3 𝑡 3 , y = 2t, z = 𝑡
t=2
4. x = t, y = 3t, z = 4t t=1
1 3
5. x = t, y = 𝑡 2 , z = 3
𝑡 t=0

B. A particle moves according to the law given. In each case, find

a. Its vector velocity and acceleration and its speed
b. Radius of curvature of its path
c. Unit vector T and N
d. Tangential and normal components of acceleration

3 3
1. x = t, y = 𝑡 2 , z = 𝑡 3 t=2
2 2
𝑡3 2
2. x = 3
, y = 2t, z = 𝑡
t=1
3. x = t cos 𝑡 , y = t sin 𝑡 , z = t t=0

MAT061 Module 4| Calculus II 16