Water Desalination Methods

Atef Gad Ali Ellaamy

Mechanical Power Engineering Department, Faculty of

Engineering, Ain Shams University, Egypt

Abstract

water desalination is a promising solution to the world's water scarcity

problem. The different methods of water desalination each have their
advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method will depend
on various factors. Continued research and development in this field
are necessary to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of water
desalination while minimizing its environmental impact.

Desalination plants can be found in many parts of the world,

particularly in arid regions where freshwater resources are limited.
The largest desalination plant in the world is currently located
in Saudi Arabia, with a capacity of producing over 1 million cubic
meters of water per day.
While desalination is an effective way to produce fresh water, it has
some environmental concerns, including the discharge of brine and
other byproducts into the ocean and the energy consumption required
to operate desalination plants. However, technological advancements
and increased investment in research and development are making
desalination more efficient and sustainable over time.
1. Introduction
Desalination is the process of removing salt and other impurities from
seawater, brackish water, or other sources of saline water to produce
fresh water that can be used for drinking, irrigation, and other
purposes. The process of desalination is becoming increasingly
important as freshwater resources become scarcer due to
drought, population growth, and climate change.

Desalination can be accomplished through several methods,

including reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation, multiple
effect distillation, electrodialysis, and ion exchange. Each method has
its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, energy
consumption, and efficiency.

for example, is a widely used method of water desalination that has

been around for centuries. However, it is energy-intensive and
requires a significant amount of heat to produce freshwater. In
contrast, reverse osmosis is a highly efficient process that can produce
freshwater with a low salt content. It is widely used in countries with
large populations that face water scarcity, such as Saudi Arabia.

Electrodialysis and ion exchange are also effective methods of water

desalination. Electrodialysis is a relatively energy-efficient process
that can produce freshwater with a moderate salt content. It is used in
areas where energy consumption is a concern, such as remote areas
that rely on solar power. Ion exchange, on the other hand, is a low-
cost process that can produce freshwater with a moderate salt content.
It is commonly used in industrial applications, such as in the
production of electronics and pharmaceuticals.
Membrane distillation is a newer method of water desalination that
has gained popularity in recent years. It is a relatively energy-efficient
process that can produce freshwater with a low salt content. It is also
less prone to fouling than other methods, making it a promising option
for long-term use.

It is important to note that while water desalination is a promising

solution to the world's water scarcity problem, it is not without its
challenges. The high energy consumption and cost of
desalination remain a concern, as does the environmental impact of
discharging the brine left behind after the desalination process.
Continued research and development in this field are necessary to
improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of water desalination while
minimizing its environmental impact.

2. Classification of Desalination Water

The classification of desalinated water is important because it
determines the appropriate use of the water and the treatment process
required. The quality of the water produced and the salinity level are
key factors in determining the suitability of the water for different
purposes.

There are several methods of desalination that can be used to produce

different types of desalinated water. The classification of desalinated
water types is based on the level of salinity and the quality of the
water produced. The most common classifications of desalinated
water include:
• Potable Water: This is desalinated water that has been treated to
meet drinking water standards. It typically has a salinity level of
less than 500 mg/L and is suitable for human consumption.

• Brackish Water: This is water that has a lower level of salinity

than seawater but is still too salty for most uses, including
drinking. Brackish water typically has a salinity level between
1,000 and 10,000 mg/L.

• Seawater: This is water that is sourced directly from the ocean and
has a salinity level of around 35,000 mg/L. Seawater can be
desalinated to produce potable or non-potable water, depending on
the treatment process used.

• Industrial Process Water: This is water that has been desalinated

to remove salts and other minerals for use in industrial processes,
such as cooling and manufacturing. It typically has a higher
salinity level than potable water and may not be suitable for human
consumption.

• Irrigation Water: This is water that has been desalinated for use
in agriculture and irrigation. It typically has a higher salinity level
than potable water and is used to irrigate crops and plants.
3. Method of Desalination Water:
The choice of desalination method depends on several factors,
including the quality of the source water, the required quantity and
quality of the product water, energy efficiency, and cost. Each method
has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the optimal method for
a given application will depend on a careful assessment of these
factors.

1. Reverse Osmosis (RO): This method involves using a semi-

permeable membrane to remove salts and other impurities from
seawater. The advantages of RO include its high efficiency, low
energy consumption, and ability to treat a wide range of water
sources. The disadvantages include the production of brine waste,
the need for pre-treatment to remove particulates and organic
matter, and the potential for membrane fouling. RO is used in
applications such as drinking water production, industrial process
water, and agricultural irrigation.

Advantages:
➢ RO is a relatively efficient process and can remove up to 99%
of dissolved salts and other impurities.
➢ It is a cost-effective method of water treatment compared to
other desalination methods.
➢ RO systems are modular and can be scaled up or down
depending on the needs of the community.
Disadvantages:
➢ RO systems require a significant amount of energy to operate,
making them relatively expensive to run.
➢ The concentrated salt solution produced by the RO process can
be harmful to the environment if not disposed of properly.
➢ RO membranes can be fouled by organic matter, which reduces
their efficiency and lifespan.

Applications:
➢ RO is commonly used in small-scale applications, such as in
homes or on boats, as well as in larger municipal or industrial
applications.

Fig. (1) Schematic diagram of A standard RO plant and its control loops
[https://www.researchgate.net].
 Fig (2) Schematic flowsheet of reverse osmosis plant
[https://www.researchgate.net].

2. Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF): This method involves

heating seawater to produce steam, which is then condensed to
produce freshwater. The advantages of MSF include its proven
reliability, high capacity, and low sensitivity to feedwater quality.
The disadvantages include its high energy consumption, high
capital cost, and the production of brine waste. MSF is used in
large-scale applications such as municipal water supply and power
plant cooling water.

Advantages:
➢ MSF is a well-established technology and has been used for
decades.
➢ It is a relatively energy-efficient process compared to other
thermal desalination methods.
➢ MSF is particularly well-suited for large-scale desalination
projects.
 Disadvantages:
➢ MSF systems require a significant amount of energy to operate,
particularly to heat the seawater.
➢ The concentrated brine produced by the process can be harmful
to the environment if not disposed of properly.
➢ MSF systems are expensive to build and maintain.

Applications:
➢ MSF is commonly used in large-scale municipal and industrial
applications, particularly in the Middle East.

Fig (3) Schematic flowsheet of multi-stage flash distillation

[https://www.researchgate.net].

3. Multi-Effect Distillation (MED): This is a similar method to

MSF, but instead of several stages of boiling, several chambers
with decreasing pressure are used to evaporate seawater. The
advantages of MED include its high efficiency, low maintenance
requirements, and ability to handle variable feedwater quality. The
disadvantages include its high capital cost and the production of
brine waste. MED is used in applications such as municipal water
supply, industrial process water, and power plant cooling water.

Advantages:
➢ High efficiency: MED is an energy-efficient desalination
method that utilizes waste heat from other processes or
renewable energy sources to reduce energy consumption.
➢ Good water quality: MED produces high-quality water with
low levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) and other impurities.
➢ Scalability: MED can be easily scaled up or down to meet the
specific needs of the application.
➢ Durability: The equipment used in MED is durable and has a
long lifespan, making it a cost-effective solution over the long
term.

Disadvantages:
➢ High capital costs: The upfront investment required for MED is
high due to the complex and specialized equipment needed.
➢ Maintenance costs: MED requires regular maintenance to keep
the equipment functioning at optimal levels, which can add to
the overall cost of the process.
➢ Limited feed water options: MED is not suitable for highly
saline or brackish water sources as it can cause scaling and
fouling of the heat exchangers and evaporators, leading to
reduced efficiency and increased maintenance costs.
Applications:
➢ Municipal water supply: MED is a viable option for providing
freshwater to urban areas facing water scarcity.
➢ Industrial processes: MED can be used in various industrial
processes, including the production of food and beverages,
pharmaceuticals, and electronics.
➢ Offshore oil and gas platforms: MED can be used to treat
seawater for use in offshore oil and gas platforms, where
freshwater is scarce.
➢ Agriculture: MED can be used to provide freshwater for
agricultural irrigation in arid regions.
➢ Remote communities: MED can be used to provide freshwater
to remote communities that lack access to a reliable freshwater
source.

Fig (4) Schematic diagram of multi-effect distillation

[https://www.researchgate.net]
4. Electrodialysis (ED): This method uses an electric field to remove
salts and other ions from seawater. The advantages of ED include
its low energy consumption, ability to handle high salinity water,
and ability to recover valuable minerals such as lithium. The
disadvantages include its sensitivity to feedwater quality and the
production of acid and base waste streams. ED is used in
applications such as industrial process water and brackish water
treatment.

Advantages:
➢ ED is a relatively energy-efficient process, requiring less energy
than other desalination methods.
➢ The process is well-suited for treating brackish water and other
non-seawater sources.
➢ ED systems are modular and can be scaled up or down
depending on the needs of the community.

Disadvantages:
➢ ED systems are less effective at removing certain impurities,
such as organic matter, than other desalination methods.
➢ The membranes used in ED systems can be expensive and
require frequent replacement.
➢ ED systems may require pre-treatment to remove particulate
matter before the water can be desalinated.
Applications:
➢ ED is commonly used in small-scale applications, such as in
homes or on boats, as well as in larger municipal or industrial
applications.

Fig (5) The electrodialysis desalination technology [https://www.researchgate.net].

5. Ion Exchange (IE): This method involves passing seawater
through a bed of resin that selectively absorbs some ions, such as
sodium and chloride. The advantages of IE include its low energy
consumption, ability to remove specific ions, and ability to
regenerate the resin for reuse. The disadvantages include the need
for pre-treatment to remove particulates and organic matter and the
production of brine waste. IE is used in applications such as
industrial process water, boiler feedwater, and pharmaceutical
production.

Advantages:
➢ High water quality: Ion exchange produces high-quality water
that is free from dissolved minerals and other impurities.

➢ Scalability: Ion exchange can be easily scaled up or down to

meet the specific needs of the application.

➢ Low energy consumption: Ion exchange is an energy-efficient

process, requiring relatively low energy inputs compared to
other desalination methods.

➢ Low maintenance costs: Ion exchange systems require minimal

maintenance, making them a cost-effective solution over the
long term.

Disadvantages:
➢ Limited feed water options: Ion exchange is not effective for
treating highly saline water sources, as the resin can become
saturated, reducing efficiency and increasing maintenance costs.
➢ High capital costs: The upfront capital investment for ion
exchange systems is high, as specialized equipment and resins
are required.

➢ Resin replacement costs: The resin used in ion exchange

systems needs to be periodically replaced, which can add to the
overall cost of the process.

Applications:
➢ Industrial processes: Ion exchange is widely used in various
industrial processes, including the production of electronics,
pharmaceuticals, and food and beverage production.

➢ Drinking water treatment: Ion exchange can be used to treat

drinking water, either as a standalone process or in combination
with other treatment methods.

➢ Wastewater treatment: Ion exchange can be used to remove

heavy metals and other contaminants from wastewater, making
it suitable for discharge into the environment or reuse.

➢ Nuclear power plants: Ion exchange is used in nuclear power

plants to remove radioactive isotopes from water used for
cooling.
 Fig (6) A schema of an Ion-Exchange Resin desalination plant
[https://www.researchgate.net].

6. Nanofiltration (NF): Nanofiltration is a membrane-based

desalination process that operates similarly to reverse osmosis but
with a larger pore size. The larger pore size allows for the removal
of larger molecules such as divalent ions and organic matter, while
still retaining smaller ions such as sodium and chloride. This
makes it useful for desalinating brackish water and wastewater.

Advantages:
➢ NF is a relatively energy-efficient process, requiring less energy
than reverse osmosis.
➢ It is effective at removing organic matter and other impurities
that can foul RO membranes.
➢ NF systems are modular and can be scaled up or down
depending on the needs of the community.
 Disadvantages:
➢ NF systems are less effective at removing certain impurities,
such as bacteria and viruses, than other desalination methods.
➢ The membranes used in NF systems can be expensive and
require frequent replacement.
➢ NF systems may require pre-treatment to remove particulate
matter before the water can be desalinated.

Applications:
➢ NF is commonly used in small-scale applications, such as in
homes or on boats, as well as in larger municipal or industrial
applications.

7. Solar Desalination: Solar desalination is a thermal desalination

process that uses solar energy to evaporate seawater, which is then
condensed to produce pure water. This is a renewable energy-
powered method that can be particularly useful in remote areas
with limited access to electricity.

Advantages:
➢ It is a renewable energy-powered process that does not rely on
fossil fuels.
➢ Solar desalination can be particularly useful in remote areas
with limited access to electricity.
➢ It is a relatively simple process that can be operated with
minimal maintenance.
 Disadvantages:
➢ Solar desalination is a relatively slow process, producing a
relatively small amount of water per unit time.
➢ The process is affected by weather conditions, such as cloud
cover and temperature, which can affect the efficiency of the
process.
➢ Solar desalination systems can be expensive to build and
maintain.

Applications:
➢ Solar desalination is commonly used in small-scale
applications, particularly in developing countries.

8. Hybrid Desalination: Hybrid desalination combines two or more

desalination methods to achieve greater efficiency and cost-
effectiveness. For example, a hybrid system could combine reverse
osmosis with thermal desalination, or electrodialysis with
nanofiltration.

Advantages:
➢ Hybrid desalination can increase efficiency and reduce costs
compared to using a single desalination method.
➢ It allows for customization of the desalination process to meet
the specific needs of the community or industry.
➢ Hybrid systems can be designed to take advantage of the
strengths of each desalination method while mitigating their
weaknesses.
Disadvantages:
➢ Hybrid desalination systems can be complex and require
specialized expertise to design and operate.
➢ They may require additional maintenance and monitoring
compared to single-method desalination systems.
➢ Hybrid systems can be more expensive to build and maintain
than single-method systems.

Applications:
➢ Hybrid desalination is commonly used in large-scale municipal
and industrial applications.

4. Important considerations before starting

desalination projects.

1) Environmental Considerations: Desalination can have both

positive and negative environmental impacts. On the one hand,
it provides access to freshwater in areas where it is scarce,
reducing the need for unsustainable water extraction from rivers
and aquifers. On the other hand, desalination can have negative
impacts on marine ecosystems and energy consumption.

Advantages:
❖ Desalination can reduce the environmental impact of water
extraction from rivers and aquifers.
❖ It can provide a reliable source of freshwater in areas with
limited access to water resources.
 ❖ Desalination can promote sustainable water use and reduce
the risk of water scarcity.

Disadvantages:
❖ Desalination can impact marine ecosystems through the
intake and discharge of seawater and the disposal of
concentrated brine.
❖ It can contribute to climate change through the use of
energy-intensive desalination processes.
❖ Desalination can be expensive, particularly for low-income
communities.

Applications:
❖ Desalination should be carefully considered and planned to
minimize negative environmental impacts and promote
sustainable water use.

2) Energy Recovery Devices: Energy recovery devices are used

in desalination processes to recover energy from the
concentrated brine stream and reduce the energy required to
operate the desalination process. This can significantly reduce
the energy consumption and cost of desalination.

Advantages:
❖ Energy recovery devices can significantly reduce the energy
consumption and cost of desalination.
❖ They can improve the efficiency and performance of
desalination systems.
 ❖ Energy recovery devices can be used in conjunction with
various desalination methods, including reverse osmosis and
multi-stage flash distillation.

Disadvantages:
❖ Energy recovery devices can be expensive to install and
maintain.
❖ They can be complex and require specialized expertise to
design and operate.
❖ The efficiency of energy recovery devices can be affected by
various factors, including the salinity and temperature of the
water.

Applications:
❖ Energy recovery devices are commonly used in large-scale
municipal and industrial desalination applications.

3) Brine Disposal: Brine is the concentrated salt and mineral

solution that is produced as a byproduct of desalination. Proper
disposal of brine is critical to prevent harm to marine
ecosystems and ensure the sustainability of desalination
projects.

Advantages:
❖ Proper brine disposal can minimize the environmental
impact of desalination.
❖ It can prevent harm to marine ecosystems and ensure the
sustainability of desalination projects.
 ❖ Proper brine disposal can be achieved through various
methods, including diffusers, outfalls, and evaporation
ponds.

Disadvantages:
❖ Improper brine disposal can harm marine ecosystems and
lead to the buildup of toxins and pollutants.
❖ Brine disposal can be expensive and require specialized
expertise to design and implement.
❖ The choice of brine disposal method will depend on various
factors, including the location and environmental conditions
of the desalination project.

Applications:
❖ Brine disposal must be carefully planned and implemented
to minimize negative environmental impacts and ensure the
sustainability of desalination projects.

4) Cost Considerations: The cost of desalination is an important

consideration when planning and implementing desalination
projects. The cost of desalination can vary depending on the
desalination method, the size of the project, and the location.

Advantages:
❖ Desalination can be a cost-effective solution for providing
access to freshwater in areas where it is scarce.
❖ The cost of desalination has decreased over time as
technology has advanced and economies of scale have been
achieved.
 ❖ Desalination can be a sustainable solution for meeting water
demand in areas where other sources of freshwater are
limited.

Disadvantages:
❖ The cost of desalination can be high, particularly for small-
scale and rural projects.
❖ The cost of desalination can be affected by various factors,
including the cost of energy, labor, and materials.
❖ The cost of desalination may be higher than alternative
solutions, such as water conservation and wastewater
recycling.

Applications:
❖ The cost of desalination should be carefully considered
when planning and implementing desalination projects,
particularly for small-scale and rural projects.

5) Water Quality Considerations: The quality of the water

produced by desalination can vary depending on the
desalination method and the quality of the source water. It is
important to ensure that the water produced by desalination
meets appropriate quality standards and does not pose a health
risk to consumers.

Advantages:
❖ Desalination can produce high-quality drinking water from
seawater and brackish water sources.
 ❖ Desalination can remove a wide range of contaminants,
including salt, minerals, and organic matter.
❖ Desalination can provide a reliable source of safe drinking
water in areas where other sources of water are limited or
contaminated.

Disadvantages:
❖ The quality of the water produced by desalination can be
affected by various factors, including the quality of the
source water and the desalination method used.
❖ Some desalination methods may not effectively remove
certain contaminants, such as bacteria and viruses.
❖ The cost of ensuring water quality can be high, particularly
for small-scale and rural projects.

Applications:
❖ The quality of water produced by desalination should be
carefully monitored and ensured to meet appropriate quality
standards and ensure public health.

6) Social Considerations: Desalination projects can have social

impacts on the communities where they are implemented. It is
important to consider the social impacts of desalination projects
and to engage with local communities to ensure that their needs
and concerns are taken into account.
Advantages:
❖ Desalination can provide access to clean drinking water,
improving health and quality of life in communities where
water is scarce or contaminated.
❖ Desalination projects can create jobs and economic
opportunities in local communities.
❖ Engaging with local communities can help to ensure that
their needs and concerns are taken into account in the
planning and implementation of desalination projects.

Disadvantages:
❖ Desalination projects can have negative social impacts, such
as displacement of communities, loss of livelihoods, and
conflicts over water resources.
❖ Local communities may not have the resources or expertise
to participate effectively in the planning and implementation
of desalination projects.
❖ Desalination projects may not address the root causes of
water scarcity, such as over-extraction of groundwater or
inadequate water management.

Applications:
❖ Social considerations should be taken into account when
planning and implementing desalination projects, and local
communities should be engaged in the process to ensure that
their needs and concerns are considered.
7) Policy Considerations: Desalination projects can be affected
by various policies and regulations at the local, national, and
international levels. It is important to consider the policy
context in which desalination projects are implemented.

Advantages:
❖ Policies and regulations can provide guidance and support
for the planning and implementation of desalination
projects.
❖ Policies and regulations can promote sustainable water
management and ensure that desalination projects are
implemented in an environmentally and socially responsible
manner.
❖ Policy frameworks can promote innovation and investment
in desalination technology.

Disadvantages:
❖ Policies and regulations can create barriers to the planning
and implementation of desalination projects, particularly in
developing countries with limited resources and institutional
capacity.
❖ Policies and regulations may not be designed to address the
specific needs and challenges of desalination projects.
❖ Policy frameworks may not be aligned with the goals and
objectives of desalination projects, such as promoting
sustainable water management.
Applications:
❖ The policy context in which desalination projects are
implemented should be carefully considered to ensure that
policies and regulations support the planning and
implementation of desalination projects in an
environmentally and socially responsible manner.

Summary

Water desalination has become increasingly important as the

demand for freshwater continues to rise worldwide, particularly
in countries with limited access to freshwater sources. Different
types of desalination processes have their own advantages and
disadvantages, and the choice depends on the availability of
different factors. Therefore, continuous research and
development in this field is necessary to improve the efficiency
and reduce the cost of desalination while minimizing its
environmental impact.

Recent research has shown that ongoing technological

advancements have led to increased efficiency and cost-
competitiveness of desalination on a global scale. This has been
made possible through the improvement of materials used in
desalination, incorporation of energy-recovery devices to
reduce electricity demand, and combining different desalination
methods into hybrid designs. In addition, renewable energy
sources are gradually being adopted to power desalination
 ‫‪plants, which will help ensure the long-term sustainability of‬‬
‫‪desalination.‬‬

‫‪However, there are still challenges in reducing energy demand‬‬

‫‪and‬‬ ‫‪managing‬‬ ‫‪waste‬‬ ‫‪products‬‬ ‫‪from‬‬ ‫‪desalination‬‬ ‫‪to‬‬
‫‪prevent adverse environmental effects.‬‬

‫الملخص‬
‫أمرا مه ًما بشكل متزايد مع استمرار زيادة الطلب على المياه‬
‫أصبحت عملية تحلية المياه ً‬
‫العذبه فى العالم وباالخص فى الدول التى تندر بها مصادر المياه العذبه‪ .‬تختلف أنواع تحلية‬
‫المياه في مزاياها وعيوبها‪ ،‬وسيتوقف االختيار عند مدى توفر العوامل المختلفة‪ .‬ولذلك‪ ،‬فإن‬
‫البحث والتطوير المستمر في هذا المجال ضروري لتحسين كفاءة تحلية المياه وتقليل تكلفتها‬
‫مع الحفاظ على تاثيرها على البيئه‪.‬‬

‫أظهرت االبحاث الحديثة أن التطورات التقنية المستمرة أدت إلى زيادة كفاءة تحلية المياه‬
‫وجعلها تنافسية من حيث التكلفة على المستوى العالمي‪ ،‬وذلك بسبب تحسين المواد‬
‫المستخدمة في تحلية المياه‪ ،‬ودمج أجهزة استرداد الطاقة للحد من استهالك الكهرباء‪ ،‬ودمج‬
‫مختلف أساليب تحلية المياه في تصاميم هجينة‪ .‬باإلضافة إلى ذلك‪ ،‬تم االعتماد تدريجيا ً على‬
‫مصادر الطاقة المتجددة لتشغيل محطات تحلية المياه‪ ،‬مما سيساعد على ضمان استدامة‬
‫تحلية المياه على المدى الطويل‪.‬‬

‫ومع ذلك‪ ،‬ال يزال هناك تحديات في الحد من الطلب على الطاقة وإدارة المخلفات الناتجة عن‬
‫تحلية المياه لمنع اآلثار البيئية السلبية‪.‬‬
 References

1. "Current status and future perspectives of seawater desalination

in Saudi Arabia" - Mohammad Al-Sofi and Hamed Al-
Mashharawi (2019)
2. "Integrated forward osmosis and membrane distillation for
sustainable water desalination" - Hongying Hou and Peng Wang
(2020)
3. "A review of seawater reverse osmosis desalination for
municipal water supply in the United States" - Karl Linden et
al. (2017)
4. "An overview of membrane distillation technology for water
desalination" - Nima Shahkaramipour and Ali Kargari (2019)
5. "Electrodialysis reversal for brackish water desalination: A
review" - Ahmed Alpatova and Thomas Waite (2019)
6. "The economics of desalination: Current and future trends" -
Corrado Sommariva et al. (2020)
7. "Ion exchange membranes in desalination: A review" - Jacek
Ryl and Wojciech Kujawski (2020)