UNIT 14 GLOBALISATIONAND WOMEN: A

CRITIOUE -
Structure

14.0 Aims and Purpose

14.1 Introduction
~ -~-.--
~ ~ 1

142 Understanding Globalization

14.3 Globalization in India
-14.4 Impact of Globalisation on Women
14.4.1 Women and Employment
14.4.2 Women and Health
14.4.3 Women and Education
14.4.4 Public Distribution System
14.5 Globalization, Environmental Degradation and Women
14.5.1 Commercialization of Land
14.5.2 Commercial Forestry and Women
14.5.3 Displacement and Women

14.6 Concluding Remarks

14.7 Clarification of the Terms Used
14.8 Some Useful Readings

14.0 AIMS' AND PtTRPOSE

In this unit we have discussed the process of globalization and its impact on lndian women.
After reading this unit you should be able to:

explain the concept of globalization;

describe the various features of the Structural Adjustment Programme;
discuss the response of the Indian economy to the process of globalization;
- discuss the impact of globalization on women with reference to their employment, health,
education etc.; and
describe how environmental degradation due to macro-economic policies affect the lives
of tribal and rural women.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The term 'globalization' has been used to define various aspects of global expansion in the
past decade. It has been associated with key areas of change which have led to a marked
transformation of the world order. It is centred on the integration of international markets for
goods, services, technology, finance and labour. This essentially means opening up of national
economies to global market forces and corresponding reduction in the scope of the state to
shape macro-economic policies.
The process of globalization has far reaching consequences and poses serious questions.
The forces unleashed at the global level have repercussion that affect lives of Inen and
women at the micro-level through macro-policies. However, these policies have specific gender
effects. That is, women are affected differently because of pre-existing inequities in the
household, community and society. The patriarchal structure of power and control in the
society make the women more vulnerable. Their capacity to cope with changes are
circumscribed by their lack of political and economic bargaining power, organisation,
information and assets. It is however simplistic to treat women as a homogeneous category. Globalization and Women:
A Critique
Differences due to ethnicity, class, caste, race creates differential impact on their lives.
Women, especially in the developing countries, have been affected by globalization in the
most diverse aspects of their lives and in the furthest reaches of the world. The effect has
been multiple and contradictory, inclusionary and exclusionary. They have had to negotiate
complex and rapid changes in diverse and contrasting circumstances.

14.2 UNDERSTANDING GLOBALIZATION

One of the main vehicles of globalization has been the implementation of structural and
stabilization policies implemented largely as a result of IMF and WB conditionality programme.
It involves imposition of a new economic order on the more vulnerable debt-ridden countries.
These programmes are being implemented in over 70 third world and East European countries.
The IMF-WB sponsored structural adjustment programme has two phases:

1) The short-term (1-5 years) macro-economic stabilization programme. This attempts to

stabilize the economy in the face of an immediate crisis by reducing fiscal deficits,
curtailing demand and covering the rate of inflation.

2) Implementation of a necessary structural ref& ins phase. These are long-term (3- 10 years)
and focus on the supply side of the economic. Their aim is to reorganize structure of
production of achieve sustained growth.
In theory, stabilization should precede structural adjustment. In reality, however, both sets of
policy measures are implemented almost simultaneously. Consequently, the operational
distinction between the two gets blurred and the term 'Structural Adjustment Policy' (SAP)
is used to cover both sets of policies.

Structural adjustment has forced the pace of global integration. Its impact on the society is
multi-dimensional and all-pervasive. At the Political level, the process of the de-regulation
and liberalization had led to an apparent diminution of the state and a general assumption that
all states everywhere must become more democratic and secure 'good governance' over their
people.
At the Economic level, globalization has been associated with the trend towards increasing
economic liberalization. This is reflected in freer trade, more deregulated labour, goods and
financial markets. Transnational Corporations (TNC's) which have benefited from the removal
of national constraints on their activities now occupy an increasingly dominant position.

At the level of Technology, globalization has been facilitated by the innovation ofmass rapid
transportation and global communication networks leading to the information revolution.

The overall result has been the emergence of a global consumer society with a tendency
towards greater cultural homogenization. At its most expansive the global 'vision' has been
presented as a borderless world in which national boundaries are dissolving and there is a
unified global order. The result is an 'inter-linked' economy in which there is a free flow~of
capital, people, goods, services and information and where national government is displaced
by global governance (Ohmae 1990).

Think It Over 1
You must have come across the team "globalization" very often in newspapers, television
etc. Explain, in your own words, what do you mean by globalization. Cite examples which
evidence globalization.

14.3 GLOBALIZATION IN INDIA

The acceptance of structural adjustment programme in 1991 was the first step towards
liberalization of the India economy.
Development in Every Day Life The essentials of the New Economic Policy (NEP)are:

1) Privatization

2) Globalization

3) Modernization

4) Improving productive efficiency and growth rate.

The structural adjustment involved in seeking these objectives will be through:

-
i) Decontrol and De-regulation -

ii) Freedom of entry to foreign goods and investments

iii) Adoption of "Market friendly" fiscal, exchange, trade and credit policy
-
iv) Cutback in public expenditure -

v) Limitation of 'fiscal deficit' to low levels.

vi) Adoption of up-to-date technologies

vii) Concentration of Government investment in inbtructure, health, education and similar

soft areas.

viii) Exit policy

ix) Withdrawal of subsidies of all kind.

(Krishanmurthy 1993)

As theconsequences of structural adjustment have become institutionalized in the

development process, the coping strategies developed by women in times of crisis have
bgome embedded in their lives. In the backdrop of the above policies let us examine how
have the lives of Indian women been affected.

14.4 IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON WOMEN

It is a very difficult task to summarise the impact of globalisation on women. However, we will
highlight only a limited aspect here.

14.4.1 Women and Employment

Women (especially, but not exclusively, in wage-earning household) will be affected in several
ways by the macro-economic policies. The move from formal to informal employment and
public to private sector typically favours the feminization of 'employment at the margin'. It
would lead to much more insecure and poorly paid work conditions with minimum regards for
labour standards. Women may be literally pushed into the labour force, usually on highly
disadvantaged terms. This is due to the pressure to maintain minimum levels of household
income. For example, reduction of subsidies to basic amenities such as energy sources,
sanitation and water supply and to basic services s u ~ has health, not only reduces household
income but puts special burden on women who typically-bear the responsibility for provisioliing
these within the household.
There is a growing casualization of female labour and the clear indication that growing use of
female labour has been associated with greater insecurity of labour contracts and the generally
inferior conditions and pay.
The unorgai~isedsector, the biggest source of female employment (94%) will be affected by
foreign capital as well as trade liberalizationin terms of availability of employment opportunities
for women. The entry of MNC7ssuch as General Foods, Nestle, Coca Cola, Pepsi Cola and
Kellog in agro-processing industries is going to affect women workers where their Globalization and Women:
A Critique
concentration is large. The import of modem technology will lead to a cut back in low skill jobs
of women on the hand and push them into low wage regime or undertake more strenuousjobs
for the same pay (Krishnamurthy 1993).
Deflationary policies may force poor women in urban India to fend for themselves as self-
employed in the labour market. Devaluation with trade liberalization could be expected to
increase demand for female in the export industries, but the kind of employment offered would
be both insecure and low paid. Most importantly, women are likely to be exposed to working
conditions that are hazardous to their health.
Import of certain products provided by the informal sector will decrease employment. Example
can be cited of the import of waste paper and gum. Waste paper pickers, mainly women and
children in the cities, earn their livelihood by collecting waste paper, plastic, tin and other
scrap material. They sell these to the contractors who again sell it to the paper or plastic mills
for recycling. Recently large scale import of waste paper into India depressed the prices that
waste paper pickers got for their materials. As a result, their inqomes went down by half.
Similary, import of gum into India from Sudan depressed the prices given to gum collected
from 'Baval' trees from Rs. 12 per kg to Rs. 4 per kg.
Another implicit change evident is the increasing importance of contractors/subcontractors
and jobbers who emerge as important source ofjob access. Women working on wage either in
small manufacturing units in the export-of domestic sector outside their houses or others who
get work at home on piece rate would find that their dependence on middlemen would increase.
This is inevitable as production would no longer be carried out under the same roof. Once
again, this entails insecurity of employment and income, though other formS of abuse cannot
be ruled out.
Thus, given the low levels of education and skills of women workers, the patriarchal structures
of power and control, their obligatory domestic responsibility, the process ofmarginalisation
of women workers will increase.

Do You Know? 1

A 'Feminized' Industry in Bangladesh

The garment industry in Bangladesh has emerged as the country's principal foreign
exchange earner bringing in some 44% of total earnings. This particular industry is
disproportionately staffed by women, 85-90% of the workforce, while men hold
supervisory positions. Women workers are largely young, single (unmarried, abandoned,
divorced) women entering the wage labour market propelled by economic factors. Yet
they remain in an economic area characterized by low-cost labour, high production and
high profile margins with little scope for the acquisition of additional skills and training.
Source: Raana Haider

Learn From Your Experience I

You can interview 5 women working in the unorganised sector and ask them to enumerate
the changes they have observed in the last five years in their work area and in their own
employment potential.

14.4.2 Women and Health

The most visible and direct impact of the new climate ef liberalization and legitimization of
profit maximization can be seen in the health sector. Health is basically a function of proper
nutritional care of an infant beginning with pregnant mother's health, rational hours of work
burden, cleaner environment, occupational safety. Under SAP policies, like all other sectors
which influence women's entitlement, health sector has also come under the 'cost benefit'
syndrome.
The Eight plan, 1992-97, is a good indicator to understand the impact of SAP. The philosophy
of economic growth and market efficiency is reflected in the whole plan document. There are
Development in Every Day Life some 'new policy options' offered in the plan to make 'primary health care accessible,
acceptable and affordable to all'. However, on a closer look, this does not appear so.

The new options offered are:

i) Re-organisation of the Indian system of medicine and homeopathy.

ii) Encouragement of private sector (hospital, dispensaries, clinics) through tax incentives
and accreditations and other 'suitable returns'.

iii) Lowering birth rates through Family Planning Programme (EPP).

iv) Inclusion of non-communicable diseases in the priority list.

The primary healthcare infrastructure, the only affordable health delivery system for the poor
is absent in these new options. The degradation of environment and biotic medical resources
raise a question mark on the feasibility of the success of Indian system of medicine.
Encouragement to private sector by relief diverts resources to the rich.

For women, health is not a simple issue of distributing pills (be they nutritive, curative or
contraceptive). There are two basic prerequisites for women's health: a) A multi-pronged
attack on poverty, social injustice and cultural myths. b) Identification of critical health needs
and developing basic as'well as secondary and tertiary support services of provide
comprehensive PHC around then].

These basic tenets of women's health have been gradually undermined through international
policy decisions, heavily influenced by the monetary interests of the North. The International
Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 1994) converted women's health into
issues of 'safe abortions' and reproductive rights. It marginalised the issue of comprenensive
PHC, social security and investment in building infrastructural facilities.

Population control measures are part of IMFIWB conditionality programme under SAP. To
achieve this, attention is focussed on FPP in isolation. Contraceptives, oral, implanted or
technologically applied are all concentrated on women. Sterilization without proper safeguards
have become the norm for women. Unsafe experiments with contraceptives NET-EN or
NORPLANT, without proper testing are being conducted on women.

FPP subsume the largest part within the inter-sectoral distribution of funds and the curative
mechanism for the disease ofthe rich. AIDS has become another priority, getting large funding
from WB.

The justification for including reproductive tract infections, infertility, AIDS and further
expanding EPP as a part of PHC was from a cultural viewpoint. It was argued that 'unexpressed
needs' because of the 'culture of silence' of women, demands that their needs (as assessed
by the observer) be met.

This logic is belied by the Indian experience. Firstly, not more than 20% ofthe home deliveries
in rural India are conducted by trained personnel. This is because of the non-availability of
the trained personnel. Majority of PHC's do not have lady doctors. Thus, the most basic
issue of the strengthening the maternity care services need to be first dealt with.

Growing dependence on the private sector in health is coupled with rising drug prices (increase
between 50% 150'36 after 1993). The new drug policy (1 994) and the drug price control order of
1995 granted major concessions to the drug industry by way of reduced price and production
(Shiva 1995). Fees are now to be levied in the public hospitals too, a new innovation under
SAP dispensation.

The medical profession is also entering the corporate sector. The AIIMS, India's premier
medical institute, is being dwarfed by medical facilities established by Escorts, Apollo, etc.,
now becoming a status symbol for the well-off.

In all this, the real casualty is the women and their girl child who remains the most neglected.
The cure lies in tackling the root causes of poverty, illiteracy, provision of safe drinking water,
sanitary facilities and safe practices against occupational health hazards.
 Globalization and Women:
Thinks It Over 2 A Critique

Do you think that women's health is not being given priority by the Government in ter~rls
of the financial allocations, schemes formulated and the health areas targeted. What
needs to be done? Exchange your views with your classmates.
A

14.4.3 Women and Education

The productive base of Indian society as of world society is changing into more and rr~rxc:
tecl~nologicalorientation. Therefore, women's entitlement to educatio~ifor being prepareti to
play multiple roles --productive, reproductive and citizenship is essential. The NEP ( 1 986) as
amended in 1992, in its thrust on education for women's equality, the necessity of women's
larger access to vocational, professional and technological education in existing and emerging
technology areas has been recognised and emphasized once again. But the base of the
educational pyramid is rather narrow. The number of female illiterates is more than male
illiterates by 70 million even though the female population is less than the male populatio~iby
32 million. Rural female literacy is about half of urban female literacy. The female literacy rate,
as per 2001 census is 54.16% while for more it is 76%.

Another indicator for growth is access to education for women in terms of the enrolment of
girls as a ratio of total enrolment at various stages of education. Enrolment figures available
for 1991-92 indicate that it is 39% at the primary stage, 35% at the middle stage, 28% at the
secondary and higher secondary stage and 32.5% at the higher education stage. In rural
areas, for every I00 girls in class 1, there are only 40 in Class V, 18 in Class VJII, 9 in Class JX
and only I in Class XI]: In urban areas it is 82,62,32, 14 respectively.

The Programme of Action (POA) admits that if 10 to 12 years of basic education is the
requirement for entrance to technical education, rural girls hardly have a chance, moreover
these facilities are mostly located in urban centres. It is the urban middle class the rural well-
off who have used the opportunity offered by vast expansion of educational facilities.

AID Under Social Safety Net

The increasing availability of international aid under the social safety net programme particularly
for the elementary education, literacy, vocational education at the school level has been both
a blessing and a curse. It has eased the resource constraints to universalization of education
on the one hand and education for all the other. It has become possible to plan district level
primary education prqjects and literacy prqjects. However, it has caused a rise in the
development management costs of primary education and literacy efforts. It has been reported
that while earlier the village classroom for the primary school was built for Rs. 25,000, now the
cost has been stipulated at Rs. 1,25,000 (5 times more than the earlier cost).

While the com~nunityprovided support to the building up of infrastructure for the village
school, it now sees it as the responsibility of the state with so much money available.

Educational managers at the level of the State and the districts are quick to accord priority to
the copstruction of classrooms than locating the para-teachers in the local community who
could provide support to the enrolment, retention and performance aspect of school education.
Non-formal education appears to have become a low priority programme.

However more research in the area of trends in public expenditure, per capita expenditure,
enrolment rates at the primary level, rate of growth of enrolment at this level and vocational
and technical education is required.

14.4.4 Public Distribution System (PDS)

PDS has provided a source of food support and security especially in times of food scarcity.
In the backdrop of prevalence of massive poverty, dependence on agriculture along with its
uncertainties, provision of necessary food items at subsidized rates becomes imperative.

An almost universal system of PDS of necessary items -wheat, rice, edible oil, kerosene,
sugar and coal on subsidized prices was prevailing in the country until ~une'97.However, the
system suffered from inadequate and uneven allocation of food and poor delivery system.
With the SAP and NEP, the PDS has become a target of pro-liberalizers on the ground that
Development in Every Day Life subsidy provided in the system is detrimental to efficient resource allocation. A 'targeted'
PDS replaced the universal PDS. During the reform period, the central issue prices of PDS
items were increased -central issue prices of wheat and rice rose by 75% and 92% respectively
during Jan. '91 and Feb.'97. This combined with targeting, less allocation, poor delivery
system decreased the total take-off of essential items from PDS.
This has hit the poor household very hard. And within the household, the subsistence
burden has fanen on women. It is observed that women spent more time travelling to cheaper
shops, preparing cheaper food, eating less in order to feed the family.

Learn From Your Experience

In your area you can carry out a survey on the working of ration shops. How many
women own ration cards and out of that how many use it (also find the reason for non-
use)? What % of basic commodities do they purchase from the ration shops and from the
open market? What are the reasons given for non-availability of provisions, both by the
woman and the shopkeeper? This will enable you to gauge the effectiveness of the PDS
in your area.

14.5 GLOBALIZATION, ENVIRONMENTAL

DEGRADATION AND WOMEN
EnvironmentaLdegradation in India during the past five years has accelerated due to mindless
industrialization, export promotion and import of toxic wastes. TNC's have emerged as very
powerful global players and are looking for markets, cheap labour and cheap raw materials in
the global South (the former third world) (Bhambhri, 1997). This has led to a situation of neo-
colonialism, wherein, through advanced resources-intensive technologies, the TNC's attempt
to gain control over the natural resources ofthe South (Pattnaik & Panda 1992). The 'opening
up of economy' thus adds to the pressures on the fast depleting bio-resources of the country.
There is a mounting competition for natural resources like forests, fisheries, water, biomass,
etc.

14.5.1 Commercialization of Land

Women's knowledge and capacity to preserve the environment/natural resources even when
using them for survival, nourishment, employment or herbal cure has' been remarkable. The
capacity of exploitation of these resources by private and bureaucratic interests have caused
considerable damage to the environment and consequently women.
The move towards agricultural liberalization and expansion of agro-industries for export
(horticulture, floriculture, cash cropping and marine products) has resulted in prime food
producing land being diverted to export crops, threatening food security. In Haryana, the area
under floriculture has gone upto 1600 hectares from 50 hectares in a span of 4 years. The trend
of displacement of domestic foodgrain production by export crops for international markets
has take the form of in what Patnaik calls 'recolonization of Indian agriculture'.
Fall in food availability, in addition to withdrawal of subsidies, will give a fillip to price rise.
This is bound to have disastrous effects on the weaker sections in general and women in
particular due to gender differentials within the household in access to essential items-
food and health care. Malnutrition is a major problem which women face.
Production systems change people's entitlements (both individual and collective).
~ndiskiminatedeep sea mechanised fishing, mining, large dams and power projects have
affected the livelihood ofthousands of fisherfolk, farmers and artisans and displaced millions
from their land. There is an intense struggle between traditional fisherfolk communities and
the mechanised trawlers owned by corporate fishing companies collaborating with foreign
companies.
Producers of some ofthe exportables to the North are the poorest people in the world, getting
rock bottom prices. Recently, there has been violent agitations by the Karnataka Rajya Raitha
Sangh against the seed processing US multinational subsidiary Cargill Seeds India as the
 patent legislation will enable them to control the price and distribution of the varieties that the G l o b a l i z a t i o n and Women:
I A Critique
farmers produce. Patenting turns common natural and intellectual resources of people into
I
private property. Hybridization of 'Neem' seeds will lead to the gradual disappearance of the
I original neem that men and women in every village use.
I
Another example that can be cited is of the impoverished small fanners of Gujarat with minimal
irrigation and fertilizers producing psyllium (Isabgol) for MNC's (80% of the 10,000 tomes of
crop is exported annually) in about 50,000 hectares of land. The average farmer earns a
miserable Rs. 1,250 per annum per family. The processors, on the other hand, are earning ever
increasing profits as the demand for the product is going up in the health food market.

14.5.2 Commercial Forestry and Women

Another major area of concern is the growing privatisation of coinmunal property resources-
forests, pastures, Gram Sabha lands. By and by, over the last half a century, forests which
L
provided the greatest security to the tribals, where women had usufruct rights, have been
decimated. They could collect manor produce from forests for nutrition or marketing, raw
material for small-scale cottage industry. With Forest Corporations coming into existence,
with their huge corrupt bureaucratic machinery, women's traditional rights have been usurped.
This is evident from the falling sex-ratio, selling ranks of slum-dwellers and even hunger
deaths in Kalahandi or Bastar.
Village commons, too hold great importance for the rural which is especially high for fuel and
fodder.

It has been fairly well documented that the costs of degradation and declining availability of
forests and village commons are disproportionately borne by women and girl children. They
have to walk longer distance to collect fuel, fodder and water. In the mid 80's a study in Orissa
and Chattisgarh showed that the distance of forests had increased from an average 1 Km in
the early 1960s to around 7 f i n two decades later. That is, three hours of extra walk for the
woman to collect the minor forest produce (MFP). Moreover, older women and children who
used to help her till then are unable to walk this distance. Women's work in the rough terrain
of hills and deserts becomes even harder.
Another fallout of the trend of privatisation is the denotification of forest land, parks and
sancturies to lease forest land to industries for plantation. Plantation forestry will further
intensify the shortages. Together with plantation forestry, the WB encourages what it calls
the Eco development project meant to keep 5 to 6% of the country's landmass as natural
forests for wildlife protection. This will be a tourist attraction but the forest dwellers will be
excluded both from access to their livelihood and to other benefits even from tourism. For eg.
in Nagarhole National Park in Karnataka, over 1,500 tribal families are being relocated on the
plea that their presence would 'destroy the precious gene-pool' within the National Park.
Ironically within the same park the forest authorities have allowed the Taj group of Hotels to
start a resort (Bhanutej). The pertinent question then is 'can a five-star resort within a forest
range be more eco-friendly than the tribals who have lived in the jungles for generations and
have preserved it in a suitable manner?'
NGO protests resulted in renotification of some sanctuaries (eg. Gujarat) and forest lands.
Wherever it is not so, there is an intense conflict between the MNC's and the local people.

14.5.3 Displacement and Womeo

The process of development project induced displacement is a serious cause of concern.
Much more land than in the past is being taken over for industry and other schemes. A study
recently conducted in Orissa shows that a little over 23 lakh acres of land was taken over for
dams, industries, mines and miscellaneous projects in that state.

Many studies have shown the negative impact of displacement on the tribals in general and
amongst them women in particular. The tribal woman had greater control over the family
economy than in caste societies. Her greater decision-making power in the family and relatively
high status depended on the abundance of the natural resources and the control she exercised
over them, particularly over land and forests. Displacement deprives the community of these
resources that are the source of nutrition and other needs of the family. Besides, much of this
is the CPR (common property resource) and the tribal community gets little or no compensation
Development in Every D a y Life ' for it. This has an immediate impact on the woman whose social as well economic status
depended on the control she exercised over the resources.

Some projects gave one job per displaced family and it invariables goes to the man as thes,
considered man the head of the family. Consequently, the woman is deprived of the locus that
made her an economic asset and gave her a relatively high status, has to depend on the single
salary of the man, to run the household.
Secondly, the land and forest where she worked was also the place of her social relations
where she interacted with other women of her community, which she gets deprived of with
displacement.
When land for land is given as compensation, it is almost invariably in the name of the man.
Power in the form of land ownership passes from the man to his son. Women are excluded
from it. Thus, the woman who had some power in the traditional society loses it completely
and becomes totally subordinate to the man (Ganguly, Thukral and Singh 1980).

Thus environmental degradation further marginalise the weaker sections of the society.
Amongst them women paid the highest price.

Think It Over 3
Explain in your own words, how are women affected by the environmental degradation.
Do you think the impact is felt more due to the lower status accorded to women.

14.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Thus, the inescapable conclusion is that the suffering caused as a consequence of SAP will
be disproportionately borne by women. The measure recommended by WB such as enhanced
investment in female education and female health programme, etc. will be more pallatives,
unlikely to significantly reduce the suffering ofthe most vulnerable section of the population.
Recent experience in India has shown that budgetary and fiscal constraints will reduce these
women-specific allocation to a minimum.

Going by the experience of other countries, especially South Asia, the SAP is expected to
increase demand for female labour faster than in the past, offer diverse employment
opportunities in the non-farm sector and thereby widen women's occupational choice. In this
sense, change should be regarded as an improvement. But these are essentially long-term
changes. In the short-run, women are likely to be exposed to exploitation both in the labour
market and in the household. The former kind of exploitation, which is the consequence of
weak bargaining position in the labour market, could be reduced through efforts of both
NGO's and activists. But the latter would require a change in the attitudes and values in the
society and are difficult to happen in the short-run.

Grass roots organisations for the empowerment of poor rural women have been identified as
a critical strategy to counter negative forces. Women's representation in local governing
bodies has to be supported and strengthened.

The changes at the macro-level need to be studied and the opportunity and the dangers need
to be spelled out. Policy and action need to be built on such a research. This research should
not be merely academic but it should be of direct use for women's group and other agencies
which aim to strengthen women.

The 21 st century has presented women with difficult choices, but has also posed severe
threats to the patridrchal order that has shaped their lives and provided them with new
challenges and opportunities.
 Globalization and Women.
14.7 CLARIFICATION OF THE TERMS USED A Critique

Marco-policies : Policies concerning larger units of investigation.

Subsidy : Grant of money specially from government to the private party
for development activities.

Homogenization : A process of marking thing uniform.

-
14.8 SOME USEFUL READINGS -

CWDS 1998 Sh$ingSands, New Delhi.

Women's Link. Vol. 3 No. 4 Oct. - Dec. 1997.

References
Anan Suchitra et. al. 1986 Women at Work in India: A Bibliography. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Batliwala, S. 1983. Women in Poverty: The Energy, Health and Nutrition Syndrome. Mumbai:
Foundation for Research in Community Health.

Baviskar, Amita, 1995 In the Belly of the River, OUP, Delhi, 1995.

CWDS 1990 Sh$ingSands

Economic & Political Weekly. Aug. 16-23, 1997

Giddens, Anthony, 1991. Modernio) and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern
Age, Cambridge: Polity Press.

Gupta, Dipankar.2000 Mistaken Modernity- India Between World.Harper Collins Publications

new Delhi.

Haleh, Afshar & Barrientos, S. 1997 Women, Globalisation and Fragementation in the
Developing World.

Mukhopadhyay S. and S. Roy 1998, Poverty, Gender and Reproductive Choice - Analysis
CWDS. New Delhi.
Rajput P, Swarup H. eds 1995, Women and Globalization-Reflections, Options and Strategies..

Rao, S.L. (ed.), 1996. Consumer Market and Demographics in India, National Council of
Applied Economic Research Delhi: Global Press.

Sinha, G. P. and Ranade, S.N. 1975 Women Workers,Delhi; Allied Publishers.

Taylor, Charles, 1979. Hegel and Modern Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
World Bank 1992. India: Health Sector Financing - Coping with Adjustment - Opportunities
for Reform. Washington D.C.: World Bank.
Women's Link. Vol. 3 No. 4 Oct. - Dec. 1997.

Wignaraja, Poona, (ed.) New Social Movements in thesouth, Empowering the People, Vistaar
Publications, Delhi.