Assignment No.

Submitted by: Group 3

Jahanzaib Khan (70127373)
Aman Shahid (70126618)
Rana Ali (70125565)
Syed Bilal (70125240)
Noor Fatima (70129436)
Zainab Javaid (70129591)
Subject: Microbiology
Department: Pharm-D
Semester: 3rd
Submitted to: Mam Maria Malook

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 Species of viruses

Definition:
“A Virus is a microscopic infectious agent that can only replicate and multiply inside
the cells of a living organism. It consists of genetic material, which can be either
DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses may also
have an outer envelope made of lipids. Viruses lack the cellular machinery necessary
for metabolism and reproduction, so they rely on host cells to carry out these
functions.”
The Study of viruses is known as virology. Virologists investigate various aspects
of viruses, including their structure, replication mechanisms, genetic makeup, host
interactions, and the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines.
In Virology, a virus species is defined as a group of viruses that share common
characteristics and occupy a specific ecological niche. The classification of viruses
into species is primarily based on their genetic properties, including nucleotide
sequence, genome organization, and other molecular characteristics. However,
biological and phenotypic properties are also taken into consideration.
Some important species of viruses:
Genetic Relatedness: Viruses within a species exhibit a high degree of genetic
similarity. This is typically assessed by comparing the nucleotide or amino acid
sequences of key viral genes or regions.
Genetic relatedness is an important criterion in classifying and
categorizing virus species. It involves assessing the genetic similarity or difference
between different viruses based on their nucleotide sequences, genome organization,
and other molecular characteristics. This analysis provides insights into the
evolutionary relationships and ancestry of viruses.
To determine genetic relatedness, scientists often compare specific regions of the
viral genome, such as genes that encode essential viral proteins or regions with
conserved sequences. One common approach is to use molecular techniques like
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify and sequence these target regions. The
resulting nucleotide sequences are then compared and analyzed.

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Host Range: Viruses belonging to the same species generally infect similar host
organisms or cell types. However, some viruses can infect a broad range of hosts,
while others are highly specific. The host range of a virus refers to the range of
different host organisms in which a particular virus can infect and replicate. Each
virus has a specific host range, which can vary widely depending on the virus
species. The host range is determined by various factors, including the specific
interactions between viral surface proteins and host cell receptors.
 Some viruses have a narrow host range, meaning they can only infect and
replicate within a limited number of closely related species. For example,
the measles virus primarily infects humans and is highly adapted to the
human respiratory system. Similarly, canine distemper virus infects dogs
and other related animals, while feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV)
primarily infects domestic cats.
 On the other hand, some viruses have a broad host range, allowing them
to infect and replicate in a wide variety of host species. For instance,
influenza viruses have a broad host range and can infect humans, birds,
pigs, and even other animal species. This broad host range is facilitated
by the ability of influenza viruses to recognize and bind to a range of
different receptors present on the surface of host cells.
Serological Cross-Reactivity: Serological assays, such as enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), can be used to determine if viruses within a
proposed species show cross-reactivity in terms of antigenic properties. Serological
cross-reactivity refers to the ability of antibodies produced against one virus or
antigen to react with a related virus or antigen. It occurs when antibodies generated
in response to a specific virus or antigen can also recognize and bind to similar or
closely related viruses or antigens.
Serological cross-reactivity can have implications for diagnostic testing and vaccine
development. In diagnostic testing, cross-reactivity can lead to false-positive or
false-negative results. For example, in serological tests for COVID-19, cross-
reactivity with other coronaviruses can affect the accuracy of the test.
In vaccine development, cross-reactivity can be both advantageous and challenging.
Cross-reactive antibodies generated by a vaccine may provide some degree of
protection against related viruses, offering cross-protection. However, if cross-
reactivity is not appropriately considered, it can complicate vaccine efficacy

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assessments or lead to immune responses that are less effective against the target
virus.
Disease Association: Viruses within a species often cause similar clinical
manifestations or diseases in infected hosts. The disease symptoms, severity, and
pathology can be important factors in determining the species. Disease association
refers to the relationship between a specific virus and the disease it causes in a host
organism. Viruses can cause a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, and plants.
Understanding the disease association is crucial for diagnosis, treatment, prevention,
and control of viral infections.
The association between a virus and a disease is established through epidemiological
studies, laboratory investigations, and clinical observations. Scientists and medical
professionals study the patterns of viral transmission, the symptoms exhibited by
infected individuals, and the effects of the virus on host tissues and organs to
determine the specific disease caused by a particular virus.
The disease association can vary depending on factors such as the specific viral strain
or variant, the route of transmission, the host's immune response, and the target cells
or tissues infected by the virus. Some viruses have a strong disease association,
meaning they consistently cause a specific disease in infected individuals.
Replication Strategies: Viruses in the same species usually share similar replication
strategies, including mechanisms of genome replication, viral gene expression, and
vision assembly. Viruses have diverse replication strategies that allow them to
invade host cells, hijack cellular machinery, and produce new virus particles.
1. Lytic Replication: Lytic viruses follow a lytic replication cycle, which
involves several steps. First, the virus attaches to specific receptors on the
surface of the host cell. Then, it injects its genetic material into the host cell.
The viral genes take control of the host cell's machinery, redirecting it to
produce viral components, such as viral proteins and nucleic acids. These
components are assembled to form new virus particles, which are released
from the host cell, often by lysing or destroying the cell. Examples of lytic
viruses include the influenza virus and the bacteriophage T4.
2. Lysogenic Replication: Lysogenic viruses, also known as temperate viruses,
can enter a dormant state within the host cell's genome. Upon entry into the
host cell, the viral genome integrates into the host DNA, becoming a provirus
or prophage. The provirus is replicated along with the host cell's genome.

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 During cell division without causing immediate harm. Under certain
conditions, such as exposure to stress or specific signals, the provirus can
switch to the lytic cycle, initiating viral replication, and lysis of the host cell.
Bacteriophage lambda is an example of a lysogenic virus.

3. Retroviral Replication: Retroviruses, such as human immunodeficiency

virus (HIV), have a unique replication strategy. They contain RNA as their
genetic material, which is reverse transcribed into DNA by the viral enzyme
reverse transcriptase. The viral DNA is then integrated into the host cell's
genome, becoming a provirus. The provirus is transcribed and translated by
the host cell's machinery to produce viral proteins and genomic RNA. New
virus particles are assembled and released from the host cell, allowing the
infection to spread. Retroviruses have a high mutation rate due to errors in
reverse transcription, leading to genetic diversity and challenges in antiviral
treatment.

Viral Diseases

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by viruses that invade and multiply within the
cells of a host organism. Viruses can infect a wide range of organisms, including
humans, animals, plants, and even bacteria. They can cause a variety of diseases,
ranging from mild, self-limiting infections to severe, life-threatening conditions.

1. Common Cold: The common cold is a viral infection primarily caused by

rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and adenoviruses. It leads to symptoms such as
runny nose, sore throat, cough, sneezing, and congestion. While generally
mild, colds can cause discomfort and temporary disruption of daily activities.

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2. Influenza (Flu): Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory viral infection
caused by influenza viruses. It typically presents with symptoms such as fever,
cough, sore throat, muscle aches, fatigue, and nasal congestion. In severe
cases, it can lead to complications such as pneumonia, especially in high-risk
populations.

3. Measles: Measles is a highly contagious viral disease caused by the measles

virus. It spreads through respiratory droplets and is characterized by fever,
cough, runny nose, red eyes, and a distinctive rash. Measles can lead to severe
complications, including pneumonia, encephalitis, and even death,
particularly in young children and immunocompromised individuals.

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4. Mumps: Mumps is a viral infection caused by the mumps virus. It primarily
affects the salivary glands, leading to swelling and pain in the jaw and cheeks.
Other symptoms include fever, headache, muscle aches, fatigue, and loss of
appetite. In rare cases, mumps can cause complications such as meningitis,
encephalitis, and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles).

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5. Chickenpox: Chickenpox is a highly contagious viral infection caused by the
varicella-zoster virus. It results in an itchy rash, along with fever, headache,
and general discomfort. While typically a childhood disease, it can also affect
adults. The varicella-zoster virus can reactivate later in life, causing shingles
a painful rash that occurs in the distribution of a specific nerve.

6. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: HIV is a retrovirus that

attacks the immune system, specifically CD4 T cells. It is primarily
transmitted through sexual contact, contaminated blood, or perinatal
transmission. HIV infection leads to a progressive weakening of the immune
system, ultimately resulting in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
AIDS is characterized by a range of opportunistic infections and cancers.

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7. Hepatitis: Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, which can be caused
by several different hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.
Each type has different modes of transmission, and they can cause acute or
chronic infections. Hepatitis can lead to liver damage, cirrhosis, liver failure,
and an increased risk of liver cancer.
Hepatitis A is a viral infection that primarily spreads through the
consumption of contaminated food or water. It affects the liver and can cause
symptoms such as fatigue, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and
jaundice. While most people recover without complications, severe cases can
occur, particularly in older individuals or those with pre-existing liver disease.

8. Norovirus Infection: Norovirus is a highly contagious virus that causes

gastroenteritis, leading to symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, stomach
cramps, and nausea. It is often associated with outbreaks in crowded places
like cruise ships, hospitals, or schools, where it can spread easily through
person-to-person contact, contaminated food, or contaminated surfaces.

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9. West Nile Fever: West Nile fever is a mosquito-borne viral infection caused
by the West Nile virus. Most infected individuals do not develop symptoms,
but some may experience mild flu-like symptoms such as fever, headache,
fatigue, body aches, and occasionally a skin rash. In rare cases, it can lead to
severe neurological conditions such as encephalitis or meningitis.

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10. Dengue Fever: Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne viral infection caused by
the dengue virus. It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions. Symptoms
include high fever, severe headache, joint and muscle pain, rash, and mild
bleeding. In severe cases, dengue can progress to dengue hemorrhagic fever
or dengue shock syndrome, which can be life-threatening.

11. Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that affects the central nervous system and
is primarily transmitted through the bite or scratch of an infected animal,
typically a rabid dog, bat, or other wild mammals. Once symptoms develop,
rabies is almost always fatal. Early symptoms include fever, headache, and
weakness, which progress to anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, and paralysis.

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12. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection: HPV is a common sexually
transmitted infection caused by certain strains of the human papillomavirus.
Most HPV infections do not cause symptoms and clear on their own.
However, some high-risk HPV strains can lead to the development of various
cancers, including cervical, anal, penile, and oropharyngeal cancer.

13. Ebola Virus Disease: Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a severe, often fatal
illness caused by the Ebola virus. It is transmitted to humans through direct
contact with infected animals, such as fruit bats or primates, and then spreads
through human-to-human transmission. EVD is characterized by symptoms
such as fever, severe headache, muscle pain, fatigue, diarrhea, vomiting, and
in some cases, internal and external bleeding.

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14. Zika Virus Infection: Zika virus is primarily transmitted through the bite of
infected Aedes mosquitoes. The infection usually causes mild symptoms,
including fever, rash, joint and muscle pain, and conjunctivitis. However, the
virus is of particular concern for pregnant women, as it can lead to birth
defects such as microcephaly in newborns.

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