VIRUS: SUBMICROSCOPIC INFECTIOUS AGENT

VIROLOGY?????????????????

Virology is the scientific discipline focused on the study of viruses,

their structure, classification, replication mechanisms, evolution,
pathogenesis (how viruses cause disease), and interactions with their
hosts, including humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms.

Virologists study various aspects of viruses, from their molecular

EPI” ON OR UPON
biology and genetics to their epidemiology and ecological roles.
DEMOS: PEOPLE
Understanding virology is crucial for preventing, diagnosing, and
LOGOS:THE STUDY OF
treating viral diseases, as well as for developing vaccines, antiviral
drugs, and other therapeutic interventions

Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents, including,

but not limited to, their taxonomy, disease-producing
properties, cultivation, and genetics. Virology is often
considered a part of microbiology or pathology.
Studying virology within microbiology is of paramount importance for
several reasons:

1.Understanding Disease:Viruses are responsible for a wide range of diseases in humans, animals, plants, and even
bacteria. Understanding the biology, pathogenesis, and transmission of viruses is crucial for preventing, diagnosing, and
treating viral diseases.

2. Public Health: Many viral infections pose significant public health threats, such as influenza, HIV/AIDS, COVID-19,
Ebola, and Zika virus. Knowledge of virology is essential for developing strategies to control outbreaks, implement
vaccination programs, and protect public health.
3. Medical Interventions: Understanding the structure and function of viruses is critical for developing antiviral drugs,
vaccines, and other therapeutic interventions. Virology research enables the development of targeted treatments that
can inhibit viral replication or stimulate the immune system to fight infection.

4. Emerging Viral Threats: With the increasing globalization and interconnectedness of the world, new viral pathogens
continue to emerge.Virology research helps identify and characterize these emerging viruses, assess their potential risks,
and develop preparedness and response strategies.

5. Evolutionary Biology: Viruses are fascinating entities that exhibit rapid evolutionary dynamics. Studying virology
provides insights into fundamental biological processes such as genetic variation, mutation, recombination, and
adaptation. Understanding viral evolution is essential for predicting future trends in viral emergence and understanding
host-virus interactions

6. Biotechnological Applications:Viruses have diverse applications in biotechnology and molecular biology, including
gene therapy, vaccine development, gene delivery vectors, and as tools for genetic engineering and protein expression.

7. Environmental Impacts:Viruses play crucial roles in various ecosystems, including marine and freshwater
environments, soil, and the atmosphere. Understanding viral ecology and the interactions between viruses and their
hosts is essential for understanding ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity.

Overall, studying virology within microbiology provides insights into fundamental biological processes, informs
public health policies and interventions, and contributes to advancements in medicine, biotechnology, and
environmental science.
Living Status:
Bacteria are considered living organisms because they fulfill the
criteria for life, such as metabolism, growth, and reproduction.

Viruses are not considered living organisms because they lack

metabolic processes and cannot carry out essential life functions on
their own. They are essentially inert outside of a host cell but become
active and replicate once inside a suitable host.
Cellular Structure:
•Bacteria are single-celled organisms with a simple cellular
structure. They have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
genetic material (DNA or RNA) floating freely in the
cytoplasm.
•Viruses are not considered cells. They are composed of genetic
material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a
capsid. Some viruses also have an outer lipid envelope derived
from the host cell membrane
•Size:
•Bacteria are generally larger than
viruses. They range in size from about 0.2
to 10 micrometers in length.
•Viruses are much smaller than bacteria.
They typically range in size from 20 to 300
nanometers, making them too small to be
seen with an ordinary light microscope.
Reproduction:

Bacteria reproduce through binary fission, a process in which a single

bacterial cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
This process allows bacteria to multiply rapidly under favorable conditions.

Viruses cannot reproduce on their own.

They must infect a host cell and hijack its cellular machinery to replicate.
Once inside the host cell, the virus releases its genetic material, which then
directs the host cell to produce new viral components.
These components assemble to form new viruses, which can then infect
other cells.
Treatment:
•Bacterial infections are often treated with antibiotics, which target specific structures or functions within
bacterial cells. Antibiotics can kill bacteria or inhibit their growth, depending on the type of antibiotic and
the specific bacteria being targeted.

•Viral infections cannot be treated with antibiotics because viruses are not affected by them. Antiviral
medications may be used to treat certain viral infections by targeting viral components or processes, but
their effectiveness varies depending on the virus and the stage of infection

In summary, while both bacteria and viruses can cause infections, they differ in their
cellular structure, size, reproduction mechanisms, response to treatment, and living status.
Understanding these differences is crucial for developing effective strategies for
preventing and treating bacterial and viral infections.
 VIRUSES????

A virus is an infectious microbe consisting of a segment of nucleic acid

(either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat. A virus cannot
replicate alone; instead, it must infect cells and use components of the
host cell to make copies of itself.

Often, a virus ends up killing the host cell in the process, causing damage
to the host organism. Well-known examples of viruses causing human
disease include AIDS, COVID-19, measles and smallpox.
VIRION

A virion is the complete infectious viral particle outside of a

host cell, consisting of the viral genome (either DNA or RNA)
enclosed in a protein coat called the capsid.Virions are the fully
assembled and mature form of viruses that are capable of
infecting host cells and initiating the viral replication cycle
Virion Size
Virions range in size from about 10 to 300 or 400 nm in
diameter

The smallest viruses are a little larger than ribosomes, whereas

the poxviruses, like vaccinia, are about the same size as the
smallest bacteria and can be seen in the light micro-
scope.

Most viruses, however, are too small to be visible in the

light microscope and must be viewed with the scanning and
transmission electron microscopes
Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that are not considered to be alive in the traditional sense because
they lack the cellular machinery necessary for metabolism and reproduction. Instead, viruses consist of genetic
material (either DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid. Some viruses also have an outer
envelope composed of lipids derived from the host cell membrane.

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they require a host cell to replicate and reproduce. They
infect a wide range of organisms, including animals, plants, fungi, bacteria (bacteriophages), and archaea. Once
inside a host cell, viruses hijack the cellular machinery to replicate their genetic material, produce viral proteins,
and assemble new virus particles.

Viruses cause a variety of diseases in their hosts, ranging from mild illnesses like the common cold to severe
conditions such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, influenza, COVID-19, and hepatitis. They can spread through various routes,
including respiratory droplets, bodily fluids, contaminated food or water, and insect vectors.

Despite their small size and simplicity, viruses have significant impacts on human health, agriculture,
ecosystems, and the environment.They play crucial roles in evolution, ecology, and the dynamics of
microbial communities. Additionally, viruses have practical applications in biotechnology, such as gene
therapy, vaccine development, and molecular tools for genetic engineering.
Viruses possess several key characteristics that distinguish them from other forms
of life and contribute to their unique biology and behavior:
1.Genetic Material:Viruses contain genetic material, which can be either DNA or RNA, but not both. This genetic material
carries the instructions necessary for viral replication and is encapsulated within a protective protein coat called a capsid.
2.Lack of Cellular Structure: Unlike cells, viruses lack cellular structures such as organelles, cytoplasm, and cell
membranes. Instead, they consist of genetic material enclosed in a protein coat. Some viruses also possess an outer lipid
envelope derived from the host cell membrane.
3.Obligate Intracellular Parasitism:Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning they cannot replicate or carry
out metabolic processes outside of a host cell. They rely entirely on host cells to reproduce, utilizing the cellular machinery of
the host to replicate their genetic material and produce new virus particles.
3. Host Specificity:Viruses exhibit varying degrees of host specificity, meaning they can
only infect certain types of host cells.This specificity is often determined by interactions
between viral surface proteins and host cell receptors. Some viruses have a broad host range,
while others are highly specific to particular species or cell types.

4. Replication Strategy:Viruses replicate by hijacking the cellular machinery of host cells.

Once inside a host cell, they use enzymes and other components of the host cell to replicate
their genetic material, synthesize viral proteins, and assemble new virus particles.Viral replication
can result in cell lysis (death of the host cell) or persistent infection, depending on the virus and
host interaction.

5.Variability and Evolution: Viruses exhibit high mutation rates and genetic variability
due to error-prone replication and recombination events. This genetic variability enables viruses
to adapt rapidly to changing environments, evade host immune responses, and potentially emerge
as new pathogens.

6.Transmission:Viruses are transmitted between hosts through various routes, including

respiratory droplets, bodily fluids, contaminated food or water, and insect vectors. Transmission
dynamics vary depending on the virus, its host range, and environmental factors.

Understanding these key characteristics of viruses is essential for studying their biology,
epidemiology, pathogenesis, and developing strategies for prevention and control of viral
diseases.
 STRUCTURE OF A VIRUS/VIRON

Viruses do, however, have a few key features in common.

These include:

1. A protective protein shell, or capsid

2. A nucleic acid genome made of DNA or RNA, tucked inside
of the capsid
3. A layer of membrane called the envelope (some but not all
viruses)

NAKED AND
ENVELOPED
Virus capsids
The capsid, or protein shell, of a virus is made up
of many protein molecules (not just one big,
hollow one). The proteins join to make units
called capsomers, which together make up the
capsid. Capsid proteins are always encoded by the
virus genome, meaning that it’s the virus (not the
host cell) that provides instructions for making
them.
Capsids come in many forms, but they often take one of the
following shapes (or a variation of these shapes):
1.Icosahedral – Icosahedral capsids have twenty faces, and are
named after the twenty-sided shape called an icosahedron.
2.Filamentous – Filamentous capsids are named after their
linear, thin, thread-like appearance. They may also be called rod-
shaped or helical.
3.Head-tail –These capsids are kind of a hybrid between the
filamentous and icosahedral shapes. They basically consist of an
icosahedral head attached to a filamentous tail
Protection:

The primary function of the viral capsid is to protect the viral

genetic material from degradation and environmental factors,
such as pH changes, temperature fluctuations, and enzymatic
degradation. Recognition and Attachment:

The capsid acts as a barrier that shields the viral genome from Viral capsids often contain specialized structures, such
the host immune system and other external threats, allowing as receptor-binding proteins or spikes, that facilitate the
the virus to survive and infect host cells. recognition and attachment of the virus to host cells.

These viral surface proteins interact with specific receptor

Viral Entry: molecules on the surface of host cells, initiating the process of
viral entry and infection
After attachment to host cells, viral capsids play a critical
role in delivering the viral genome into the host cell.
Depending on the virus, this may involve direct fusion of
the viral envelope with the host cell membrane or
receptor-mediated endocytosis of the entire virion.

Once inside the host cell, the capsid may disassemble or

undergo structural changes to release the viral genetic
material into the cytoplasm, where it can initiate viral
replication.
Assembly and Maturation:

During the viral replication cycle, newly synthesized viral

components, including capsomeres and viral genomic material,
assemble inside host cells to form mature virions.
The capsid proteins self-assemble around the viral genome to
form intact capsids, which may undergo additional maturation
steps, such as proteolytic cleavage or conformational changes,
to become fully infectious virions
Overall, viral capsids are essential components of
virions that play multiple critical roles in the viral
lifecycle, including protection of the viral genome,
recognition and attachment to host cells, viral entry,
Diversity and Variation: assembly, and maturation. Understanding the
structure and function of viral capsids is crucial for
Viral capsids exhibit remarkable diversity in structure, developing antiviral strategies and vaccines targeting
composition, and assembly mechanisms across different virus various viral infections.
families.
Some viruses may have additional structural components,
such as lipid envelopes or tegument proteins, surrounding the
capsid, which further contribute to viral infectivity and
pathogenesis.
Virus envelopes
In addition to the capsid, some viruses also have an external
lipid membrane known as an envelope, which surrounds the
entire capsid.
Viruses with envelopes do not provide instructions for the
envelope lipids. Instead, they "borrow" a patch from the host
membranes on their way out of the cell. Envelopes do, however,
contain proteins that are specified by the virus, which often
help viral particles bind to host cells

Although envelopes are common, especially among animal

viruses, they are not found in every virus (i.e., are not a
universal virus feature).
exposed on the outer envelope surface, are generally glycoproteins that is, the proteins have carbohydrates
attached to them.

A non-glycosylated protein, the M or matrix protein, is found on the inner surface of the envelope and helps
stabilize it.

Although it was originally thought that virions had only structural capsid proteins and lacked enzymes, this has
proven not to be the case.

In some instances, enzymes are associated with the envelope or capsid (e.g., influenza neuraminidase). Most viral
enzymes are probably located within the capsid. Many of these are involved in nucleic acid replication.

For example, the influenza virus uses RNA as its genetic material and carries an RNA-
dependent RNA polymerase that acts both as a replicase and as
an RNA transcriptase that synthesizes mRNA under the direction
of its RNA genome.
The polymerase is associated with ribonucleoprotein.
Although viruses lack true metabo-
lism and cannot reproduce independently of living cells, they may
carry one or more enzymes essential to the completion of their
life cycles.
Viral Envelopes and Enzymes
Many animal viruses, some plant viruses, and at least one bacterial virus are bounded by an outer membranous layer called an
envelope.

Animal virus envelopes usually arise from host cell nuclear or plasma membranes; their lipids and carbohydrates are normal host
constituents. In contrast, envelope proteins are coded for by virus genes and may even project from the envelope surface as
spikes or peplomers.

These spikes may be involved in virus attachment to the host cell surface. Since they differ among viruses, they also can be used
to identify some viruses. Because the envelope is a flexible, membranous structure, enveloped viruses frequently have a
somewhat variable shape and are called pleomorphic. However, the envelopes of viruses like the bullet-shaped rabies virus
are firmly attached to the underlying nucleocapsid and endow the virion with
a constant, characteristic shape

In some viruses, the envelope is disrupted by solvents like ether to such an extent
that lipid-mediated activities are blocked or envelope proteins are
denatured and rendered inactive.The virus is then said to be
“ether sensitive.
The influenza virus is a well-studied example
of an enveloped virus.

Spikes project about 10 nm from the surface

at 7 to 8 nm intervals. Some spikes possess
the enzyme neuraminidase, which may aid
the virus in penetrating mucous layers of the
respiratory epithelium to reach host cells.

Other spikes have hemagglutinin proteins, so

named because they can bind the virions to red
blood cell membranes and cause
hemagglutination.

Hemagglutinins participate in virion

attachment to host cells. Proteins, like the
spike proteins that are
Virus genomes
All viruses have genetic material (a genome) made of nucleic
acid.You, like all other cell-based life, use DNA as your genetic
material.Viruses, on the other hand, may use either RNA or
DNA, both of which are types of nucleic acid.
We often think of DNA as double-stranded and RNA as single-
stranded, since that's typically the case in our own cells.

However, viruses can have all possible combos of strandedness

and nucleic acid type (double-stranded DNA, double-stranded
RNA, single-stranded DNA, or single-stranded RNA). Viral
genomes also come in various shapes, sizes, and varieties,
though they are generally much smaller than the genomes of
cellular organisms. [How small?]

Notably, DNA and RNA viruses always use the same genetic
code as living cells. If they didn't, they would have no way to
reprogram their host cells!
Enzymes:
•Some viruses contain enzymes which play a central role during the infection process.

•Eg. Some bacteriophage contains an enzyme lysozyme, which makes small hole in bacterial cell that allow viral
nucleic acid to get in.

•Some virus contains their nucleic acid polymerase which transcribe the viral genome into mRNA during the
replication process.

• Eg. Retro virus are RNA virus that replicates inside the host cell as DNA intermediate. These virus possess an
RNA dependent DNA polymerase called reverse transcriptase.viruses
In summary, viruses differ from living cells in at least three
ways: (1) their simple, acellular organization; (2) the
presence of either DNA or RNA, but not both, in almost all
virions (human cytomegalovirus has a DNA genome and
four mRNAs); and (3) their inability to reproduce
independent of cells and carry out cell division as
procaryotes and eucaryotes do. Although bacteria such as
chlamydia and rickettsia are obligately intracellular
parasites like viruses, they do not meet the first two
criteria