Int. J. Oil, Gas and Coal Technology, Vol. 19, No.

2, 2018 135

Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert

emulsion drilling fluid properties in extended reach
horizontal wells

Badr S. Bageri
Department of Petroleum Engineering,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Email: g200804580@kfupm.edu.sa

Salaheldin Elkatatny
Department of Petroleum Engineering,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
and
Petroleum Engineering Department,
Cairo University,
Cairo, 12613, Egypt
Email: elkatatny@kfupm.edu.sa
Email: selktatny92@gmail.com

Mohamed Mahmoud* and Abdulaziz Al-Majed

Department of Petroleum Engineering,
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals,
Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
Email: mmahmoud@kfupm.edu.sa
Email: mohnasreldin80@gmail.com
Email: aamajed@kfupm.edu.sa
*Corresponding author

Abstract: In this paper, we evaluated the effect of sand content on the

properties of the drilling fluid and filter cake during drilling a long horizontal
section in sandstone reservoirs. Sixteen drilling fluid samples were collected
and the initial properties were measured such as density and rheological
parameters. HPHT tests were performed at 500 psi (the back pressure was
200 psi) to build the filter cake. The obtained results showed that the presence
of sand caused significant change in the properties of mud and filter cake. The
thickness of the filter cake increased about 35% to 40% of its original
thickness. The mud yield point and 10 min gel strength increased by 40% due
to the increase in sand content in the mud. Based on the real field data,
empirical correlations were developed to predict the sand content in the filter
cake using the drilling fluid properties measurements during drilling.
[Received: January 15, 2016; Accepted: September 18, 2016]

Copyright © 2018 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

136 B.S. Bageri et al.

Keywords: sand content; filter cake; horizontal drilling; mud rheology; drilling
fluid.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Bageri, B.S., Elkatatny, S.,
Mahmoud, M. and Al-Majed, A. (2018) ‘Impact of sand content on filter cake
and invert emulsion drilling fluid properties in extended reach horizontal
wells’, Int. J. Oil, Gas and Coal Technology, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp.135–148.

Biographical notes: Badr S. Bageri is a PhD student at the King Fahd

University of Petroleum and Minerals. He received his MSc in Petroleum
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, KSA and
BSc in Petroleum Engineering from Hadrmout Technical University, Yemen.
His areas of research are filter cake formation and removal, non-damaging
drilling fluid and formation damage removal. He has published several papers
related to his areas of research and he holds three patents in the area of drilling
engineering.

Salaheldin Elkatatny is an Assistant Professor at King Fahd University

Petroleum Department. He worked as an Assistant Professor at Cairo
University, Petroleum Department for two years. He worked as a Senior
Geomechanical Engineer at Advantek International Company for five years. He
received his PhD in the Petroleum Engineering Department from Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas, USA. He received his BSc and MSc
degrees from the Petroleum Engineering Department at Cairo University,
Egypt. He worked with SUCO Oil Company as a Drilling Engineer for one
year. His areas of research include drilling fluid optimisation, filter cake
removal, formation damage, stimulation, and wellbore stability. He has five
patents, 13 journal papers and presented more than 22 technical papers.

Mohamed Mahmoud is currently working as an Associate Professor at

Department of Petroleum Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, KSA. He is also an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Suez University, Egypt. He received his
BS and MS from Suez Canal University, Egypt, and PhD from Texas A&M
University, College Station, Texas, USA. His areas of research include;
carbonate and sandstone acidising, drilling fluids, and filter cake removal and
characterisation. He has authored or co-authored more than 30 ISI journal
papers.

Abdulaziz Al-Majed is currently working as an Adjunct Associate Professor at

Department of Petroleum Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and
Minerals, Dhahran, KSA. His areas of research include drilling fluids and
drilling cement. He has published several conference and journal papers.

1 Introduction

The drilling fluid is one of the most important parameters in the drilling operations. The
main functions of the drilling fluid are to control the formation pressure, prevent any
possibility of kick or blow out, and to remove the drilled cuttings from the bottom hole to
the surface (Randall and Anderson, 1982; Herzhaft et al., 2004; Bourgoyne et al., 1986;
Hossain and Al-Majed, 2015). Therefore, various weighting agents are added to the
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 137

drilling fluid to keep its hydrostatic pressure greater than the formation pressure.
Polymers are used to increase the viscosity and to carry the formation cuttings to the
surface. In order to fulfil the required functions successfully, the drilling fluid should be
carefully designed and well managed during the drilling operation to enhance the
performance of the drilling operation, control the well stability and increase the
productivity (Al-Mehailani et al., 2009).
To eliminate or to surpass the most complicated problems while drilling and
improve the drilling fluid properties, various drilling fluid additives, technologies,
and models were developed (Tare et al., 1999; Barry et al., 2015; Elkatatny et al., 2012).
Consequently, selecting the optimum composition of the drilling fluid additives is
subjected to many tests of measuring the drilling fluid density, rheological characteristics,
yield strength, filtration measurements, filter cake properties, formation damage, solids
invasion, filter cake removal, and others (Jilani et al., 2002; Yao et al., 2014; Henaut
et al., 2015; Elkatatny et al., 2013; Bageri et al., 2015; Pursley et al., 2004; Guria et al.,
2013).
Many perspectives must be considered to select the proper drilling fluid additives to
drill the candidate section with high efficiency. Some of these perspectives belong to the
formation properties and type such as the fracture and pore pressure and the pore size of
the drilled formation (Medley and Dent, 1979; Abrams, 1977). The borehole conditions
such as pressure and temperature also affect the drilling fluid design (Schembre and
Kovscek, 2005; Bageri et al., 2013a; Hermoso et al., 2014). The dynamic conditions
including the pipe rotation and flow rate have a strong effect on the drilling fluid
parameters such as filtration and filter cake properties during drilling (Peden et al., 1984;
Hartmann et al., 1988).
During the overbalanced drilling technique, the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
fluid is greater than the formation pressure and as a result, filter cake will be formed on
the wall of the formation (Outmans, 1963). Therefore, the drilling fluid should be
designed to form an ideal thin and impermeable filter cake on the face of the formation to
save the integrity of the drilling fluid and prevent formation damage (Yao et al., 2014;
Bageri et al., 2013a). The impermeable layer of the filter cake prevents the invasion of
the suspended drilling fluid solids in the drilled zone. Also, it will minimise the solid
invasion depth by forming low permeability filter cake (Hassen, 1980; Ling et al., 2014).
The properties of the filter cake (porosity, permeability, and thickness) are function of the
drilling fluid type, additives, properties, and the borehole dynamic condition (Bageri
et al., 2013b). Filter cake characterisation was conducted using the microscopic
techniques such as SEM, XRD, and CT scan to gain deep knowledge about the
mineralogy of the filter cake and the texture of the solids in the filter cake as well as the
heterogeneity of the filter cake (Bageri et al., 2013b).
Drilling fluid is used as a transport medium for the drilled cutting to clean the bottom
hole. Hole cleaning is the critical issue during the drilling process and in order to
optimise the hole cleaning, the drilling fluid rheological properties (yield point and
plastic viscosity) should be optimised to maximise hole cleaning and remove rock
fragments from beneath the bit and carry them to the surface (Saasen and Løklingholm,
2002). The carried cutting to the surface with the drilling fluid passed through the control
equipment at the surface to remove rock fragments and cutting from drilling fluid to
maintain its properties. This will reduce the total cost of drilling operation (Randall and
Anderson, 1982).
138 B.S. Bageri et al.

Fine cuttings remained within the drilling fluid and circulated through the circulation
system as a result of using inefficient solid removal at the surface. These solids will affect
the drilling fluid properties and they will be a part of the formed filter cake texture
(Bageri et al., 2013b; Pitoni et al., 1999). The presence of the fine formation cuttings
reduced the efficiency of the filter cake sealing properties and increased the depth of the
solids invasion (Bageri et al., 2015).
During drilling horizontal sandstone reservoirs, it was observed that sand particles
were mixed with the drilling fluid during the circulation process and if the sand particles
were not removed completely at the surface by solid control equipment, they will affect
the mud properties and the filter cake composition which will make the filter cake
heterogeneous along the horizontal section (Bageri and Mahmoud, 2013). Desander and
desilter should never be used with oil-based muds, because of its very wet solids
discharge (Rabia, 2002).
The composition of filter cake can be determined using SEM and XRD. In order to
obtain the solids from the filter cake, HPHT filter press should be used to form the filter
cake then the filter cake should be dried for 3 hours to get the filter cake solids ready for
further testing. Therefore, there is a need to have a simple model that can give an
indication about the change in the filter cake composition using the measured properties
of the drilling fluid during the drilling properties such as drilling fluid density, plastic
viscosity, and yield point.
The objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of drilled sand particles on the
drilling fluid properties and the formed filter cake during drilling long horizontal section
in sandstone reservoir. In addition, we will develop empirical correlations to predict sand
content from the change in drilling fluid properties during drilling long horizontal
sandstone reservoir based on real field case study. This research is very important in the
field applications especially during drilling the reservoir section where the desander and
desilter are not recommended to be used in order to avoid the discharge of the drilling
fluid and the weighting materials (if this happened, formation damage will occur due to
inefficient plugging because of the removal of the weighing materials). In addition, this
research will help in designing the optimum chemical treatment to remove the filter cake
after the drilling operation.

2 Materials

During the drilling of 3,000 ft horizontal section in a sandstone reservoir, a drilling fluid
sample was collected every 200 ft. the total number of collected samples were 16.
Table 1 lists the composition of invert emulsion-based drilling fluid which was used
to drill the horizontal section. The invert emulsion drilling fluid consists of oil as a
continuous phase and water as a dispersed phase. Lime is used as a source of calcium and
alkalinity to increase the pH. Duratone is a filtration control agent. Calcium chloride is
used as a weighting material and shale stabiliser. Calcium carbonate with different
particle sizes (fine and medium) was used as weighting and bridging material.
The invert emulsion-based drilling fluid had a designed properties as 10.5 ppg
density, 44 cP plastic viscosity, 13 lb/100 ft2 yield point, 8–10 lb/100 ft2 10 sec gel
strength, and 13–16 lb/100 ft2 10 min gel strength.
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 139

The reservoir section was drilled horizontally in a sandstone formation with a

porosity of 17%–20% and high permeability of 500–800 mD. To simulate the reservoir
formation in the HPHT filtration test in the laboratory, ceramic disks of 35 micron,
2.5” diameter, 0.25” thickness, and 1.0 Darcy permeability was used.
Table 1 Invert emulsion-based drilling fluid composition.

Material Unit Quantity per bbl

Diesel oil bbl 0.47
Water bbl 0.29
Invermul gal 1.5
Lime Ib 6.0
Duratone Ib 4.0
CaCl2 lb 83.0
CaCO3 fine lb 53.0
CaCO3 medium lb 30.0

3 Characterisation

Drilling fluid properties such as; density, plastic viscosity, yield point, apparent viscosity,
and gel strength ten seconds and ten minutes were measured. Filtration test using
high-pressure high temperature (HPHT) filter press was conducted to form the filter cake
in the laboratory using the real field drilling fluid samples. The fluid loss test was
performed under 500 psi applied pressure using 200 psi as a back pressure using a
ceramic disk.
To obtain the filter cake mineralogy, XRD and SEM analysis were performed. After
HPHT filtration test, the filter cake solids were collected and washed using Toluene
(C6H5-CH3) to remove oil from the particles deposited on the filter cake. The filter cake
solids were placed in the oven at 100ºC for 3 hours to dry the solids.
Sand content in the filter cake changes along the horizontal section with the lowest
content at the heel section and the highest content at the toe section (Bageri et al., 2013b).
The sand content in the filter cake increased with the length of the horizontal section
drilled in sandstone formation. SEM-EDS were performed for the filter cake solids to
determine the elemental analysis. Figure 1 shows the SEM-EDX results for sample 9.
Figure 2 shows the filter cake elemental analysis using SEM-EDX for all the collected
samples. It is clear that the average silicon content in the first six filter cake samples was
around 5.8 wt%. The filter cake samples collected in the middle part of the horizontal
section have silicon content around 6.6 wt% (samples 7 to 9). The silicon content
increased more than 10 wt% in the filter cake in the last section of horizontal part
(samples 10 to 16). XRD analysis shows that the sand content increased with the length
of the horizontal section (Figure 3). The quartz concentration in the first sample (200 ft)
was 22% and in sample number 5 (1,000 ft) it increased to 31.1%. Therefore, the
SEM-EDX results confirmed what was observed with the XRD which showed that the
sand content in the filter cake varied in the three horizontal sections (first 1,000 ft, middle
1,000 ft, last 1,000 ft).
140 B.S. Bageri et al.

Figure 1 SEM-EDS elemental analysis of the filter cake for sample 9 (see online version
for colours)

Figure 2 Filter cake elemental analysis results for all samples using SEM-EDX
(see online version for colours)
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 141

Figure 3 XED analysis of the filter cake for (a) Sample 1 and (b) Sample 5
(see online version for colours)

(a)

(b)
142 B.S. Bageri et al.

4 Methodology

Figure 4 shows the properties of the drilling fluid and sand content in the formed filter
cake for the 16 drilling fluid samples, which were collected from the horizontal sandstone
section (Bageri et al., 2013b). These data will be used in this study in order to relate the
change in drilling fluid properties to the change in the sand content in the formed
filter cake for the 16 samples. The objective is to develop empirical correlations to relate
changes of drilling fluid properties and filter cake thickness with the sand content
in the filter cake. These correlations will save time and cost for filter cake analysis tests
and will help the mud engineering determine the optimum time to use sand control
equipment.

Figure 4 Properties of the drilling fluid and filter cake sand content (see online version
for colours)

5 Results and discussions

Figure 5 shows the effect of increasing sand content on the drilling fluid density during
drilling long horizontal sandstone section. The density of the drilling fluid increased from
10.6 to 10.9 ppg (0.3 ppg) as the sand content increased from 10 to 50 wt %. The increase
in mud density by 0.3 ppg at 7,000 ft true vertical depth (TVD) will increase the bottom
hole pressure (BHP) by 110 psi. The increase in BHP will increase the filtration rate and
increase the possibility of formation damage.
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 143

Figure 5 Impact of sand content (wt. %) on the drilling fluid density

The increase in the sand content has a significant effect on drilling fluid properties. As
the sand content increased by 40 wt%, the apparent viscosity increased by 18%, plastic
viscosity increased 16%, yield point increased by 40%, while the 10 sec and
10 min gel strength increased by 33% and 44% respectively, see Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6 Effect of sand content on the drilling fluid rheological properties (apparent viscosity,
plastic viscosity, and yield point)
144 B.S. Bageri et al.

Figure 7 Effect of sand content on the drilling fluid gel strength (10 min and 10 sec gels)

We can conclude that increasing the sand content has a significant impact on the yield
point and the gel strength properties of the drilling fluid. The absolute increment of yield
point was 7 lb/100 ft2 from 15 to 22 lb/100 ft2 due to the increase in the sand content
from 10 to 50 wt%.
Equations (1) to (5) represent the relation between the plastic viscosity, apparent
viscosity, yield point, 10 sec and 10 min gel strength with sand content, respectively.
PV = 0.1769* Sc (1)
AV = 0.2404* Sc + 52.177 (2)
YP = 0.1675* Sc + 13.389 (3)
Gel10sec = 0.1081* Sc + 9.3058 (4)
Gel10 min = 0.1422 * Sc + 15.789 (5)
where
PV plastic viscosity, cP
AV apparent viscosity, cP
YP yield point, lb/100ft2
Sc sand content, percent
Gel10sec 10 sec gel strength, lb/100 ft2
Gel10min 10 min gel strength, lb/100 ft2.
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 145

The average absolute error of the estimated values of the rheological parameters based on
the developed correlations [equations (1) to (5)] and the actual values of these parameters
were calculated to determine the accuracy of these correlations. The average absolute
error was 1.8%, 2.43%, 4.58%, 3.8%, and 4.84% for the plastic viscosity, apparent
viscosity, yield point, 10 sec and 10 min gel strength, respectively. As the maximum
average absolute error percent was less than 5%, it can be concluded that the developed
correlations are accurate to determine the change in the rheological parameters as a
function of the sand content.
The values of yield point as a function of the sand content [equation (3)] can be
rewritten as follows.
YP = 0.1675 xSc + YPi (6)
where YPi is the initial value of the yield point of drilling fluid (in our case
13.39 lb/100ft2)
ΔYP
Sc =
0.1675
Equation (6) can be rearranged to obtain the sand content as a function of the yield point
during drilling horizontal wells a sandstone reservoir. Equation (7) represents the sand
content as a function of the changes of the yield point
ΔYP
Sc = (7)
0.1675
where ΔYP is the increment of yield point value during the drilling operation. Similarly,
the factors such as gel strength can be used to have an indication about the sand content.
The value of C in equation (8) will be different based on the factor we will use. These
correlations will eliminate the long procedure of using HPHT filter press test, SEM, and
XRD to measure the sand content on the filter cake. Also having a quick estimation of the
sand content will help avoid increasing the sand content in the filter cake which might
degrade the filter cake properties.
Linear regression technique was applied to determine the sand content as a function
of the changes in plastic viscosity, apparent viscosity, 10 sec and 10 min gel strength.
Equation (8) represents the sand content as a function of the change of any
rheological property (ΔX) and the slope (C). Table 2 list the value of C for each
rheological parameter.
ΔX
Sc = (8)
C
Table 2 Value of C for different rheological parameter

Rheological property C
Apparent viscosity 0.2404
Plastic viscosity 0.1796
Yield point 0.1675
10 second gel strength 0.1422
10 minute gel strength 0.1081
146 B.S. Bageri et al.

Figure 8 shows that the filter cake thickness increased directly with the increase in the
sand content. It is clear from Figure 4 that during the drilling operation, solid control
equipment was not efficient working and sand particles was circulated in the well with
drilling mud, as a results it became a part of the filter cake composition.
Knowing the sand content from equation (8) based on the change in fluid properties,
equation (9) can be used to predict the thickness of the filter cake directly from the sand
content. The knowledge of the filter cake thickness is very important to determine the
optimum chemical treatment to remove the filter cake after the drilling operation in order
to maximise the well productivity.
Cake thickness = 0.00093 ( Sc) + 1.0383 (9)

Figure 8 Effect of sand content on the drilling fluid filter cake thickness

6 Conclusions

Laboratory work was conducted to determine the effect of sand content on the drilling
fluid and the filter cake properties. Based on the results obtained, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
• Introducing sand particles to drilling fluid during drilling long horizontal section
caused significant change in the properties of the drilling fluid and the filter cake.
• Minor change in CaCO3 drilling fluid density (0.3 ppg) can cause increase in BHP of
110 psi which will cause more formation damage.
• The drilling fluid plastic viscosity, apparent viscosity, yield point, 10 second gel
strength and 10 minute gel strength increased approximately by 16%, 18%, 40%,
33%, and 41% respectively as the sand content increased by 40 wt%.
 Impact of sand content on filter cake and invert emulsion drilling fluid 147

• Filter cake thickness increased about 35% to 40% of its original thickness in
horizontal section due to the increase in the sand content up to 40 wt%.
• Empirical correlations were developed to predict the sand content in the filter cake
using the drilling fluid properties measurements during drilling. These correlations
will reduce the time required to measure the sand content by conducting HPHT,
SEM and XRD.

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