SECTION

The Human Digestive System

10.2
The human digestive system, like other body systems, is made up of a group of organs Key Terms
working together. The digestive tract and the organs associated with it are shown
salivary glands
in Figure 10.6. In this section, you will learn about the structure and function of the
saliva
digestive system, and how each part of this system plays a role in transforming food into
the energy and materials the body needs to survive. esophagus
peristalsis
Accessory Organs The Digestive Tract gastric juice
(structures that (organs that
chyme
aid digestion) contain food)
pepsin
salivary glands
duodenum
mouth
villi
liver jejunum
esophagus
ileum
bile
gall bladder stomach

pancreas small intestine

large intestine

rectum

anus

parotid gland

accessory parotid gland

parotid duct
sublingual gland

submandibular gland

Figure 10.6 The digestive tract and associated organs Figure 10.7 Each parotid gland and submandibular
take up a significant portion of the space in a human body. gland release saliva into the mouth through the parotid
The small intestine is over 6 m long and 2.5 cm in diameter. duct and the submandibular duct. The sublingual glands
The large intestine is about 1.5 m long and 5 cm in diameter. release saliva into the mouth through many smaller ducts.

Parts of the Human Digestive System

The specialized organs in the human digestive tract start with the first point of
salivary glands glands
contact—the mouth. Even before you take your first bite of food, the smell or sight of in the mouth that
food can trigger the salivary glands, shown in Figure 10.7, to secrete a watery fluid produce saliva to begin
called saliva into the mouth. There are three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. the chemical digestion
Chemical digestion begins with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme called amylase of food
that starts to break down the starches in food into simpler sugars. Saliva dissolves saliva a watery
secretion in the mouth
water-soluble food particles. It stimulates the taste buds, making it possible to taste the that begins the digestive
flavours of the food. It also lubricates the food to make it easier to swallow. Mechanical process
digestion also begins in the mouth as your teeth bite, tear, and grind food into smaller
pieces. This mechanical action also exposes more of the surface area of the food to the
saliva, making it more accessible for chemical digestion.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 411


esophagus the
muscular tube through
which food passes
from the mouth to the
stomach
peristalsis a wave-like
series of muscular
contractions in the
esophagus
The Esophagus
As you chew your food, your tongue helps mould and smooth it into a soft mass, called
a bolus, that the tongue then pushes to the back of your mouth. When you swallow, the
bolus enters the top of the esophagus to begin its passage to your stomach. The opening
of the esophagus lies next to the opening of your windpipe, or trachea, which carries
air to and from your lungs. To prevent food from going down the wrong tube and
choking you when you swallow, the opening of the trachea is closed by a valve called
the epiglottis when you swallow.
The esophagus is a hollow muscular tube that transports each bolus of food to
the stomach in a series of wave-like muscular contractions called peristalsis, shown
in Figure 10.8. Glands in the lining of the esophagus produce mucus, which keeps the
passage moist and aids in swallowing. The entrance to the stomach is controlled by
a ring of muscle called the esophageal sphincter. This sphincter is normally closed to
prevent the acidic contents of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus, but it
relaxes to allow each bolus of food to enter the stomach.
A C

to stomach

longitudinal muscle circular muscle Contraction of longitudinal

muscles ahead of food mass
contraction
raa
B D

Contraction of circular muscles Contraction in circular muscle

behind food mass layer forces food mass forward

Figure 10.8 Peristalsis moves food through the esophagus by means of muscular contractions.
When you vomit, or “throw up” your stomach contents, the contractions of the esophagus are
reversed. Similarly, small amounts of acidic liquid can escape from the stomach and move up
the esophagus into your throat. This is experienced as a burning sensation in the throat or chest,
commonly called heartburn or acid reflux.

Activity 10.2 Modelling Peristalsis

In this activity, you will design and construct a working model
to demonstrate how the esophagus uses muscular action
to move food along from the throat to the stomach. Could
someone swallow a mouthful of juice while upside down?
Safety Precautions
3. As a group, discuss the possible ways you might use the
materials to construct your model.
4. Construct your model and use it to demonstrate the
process of peristalsis.
5. When you are finished your demonstration, clean the
materials and leave them out to dry.

• Inform your teacher if you have any allergies to soaps or Questions

detergents. 1. How are the textile fibres in the stocking analogous to
the muscle fibres in the esophagus? Hint: Refer to
Materials Figure 10.8 to help you with your answer.
• knee-high nylon stocking • liquid soap or detergent
• tennis ball • hand lens 2. What was the function of the water and soap in this
• water • scissors model? What two secretions serve the same function in
the esophagus?
Procedure 3. As an optional extension to this activity, create a flipbook
1. Examine the materials provided by your teacher. to illustrate peristalsis so that a younger student could
2. Review the section on the esophagus, and refer to understand this process.
Figure 10.8 to help you with this activity.

412 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

The Stomach
The stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ in which food is temporarily stored while
gastric juice a mixture
further chemical and mechanical digestion takes place. This organ lies on the left side of hydrochloric acid,
of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm [DIH-uh-fram], which is the sheet salts, enzymes, water,
of muscle that separates the heart, lungs, and ribs from the abdominal cavity. The walls and mucus that is
of the stomach are folded like an accordion, allowing the stomach to expand after a produced by glands in
the stomach to help
meal, as shown in Figure 10.9. The stomach is lined with millions of gastric glands that digest food
secrete gastric juice when stimulated by the presence of food. Gastric juice is made up
of hydrochloric acid, salts, enzymes, water, and mucus. The mucus coats the walls of
the stomach, protecting it from attack by the strongly acidic gastric juice. The rest of the
gastric juice continues the chemical digestion of the food.
food stored in this area

esophageal
sphincter

three muscle
layers (churn
and mix food)
pyloric sphincter (controls flow
of chyme into the small intestine)

food mixed and

beginning part of churned in this area
small intestine
folds inside stomach (enable stomach to
stretch and contract)

Figure 10.9 Folds in the stomach wall allow it to expand and contract as it fills with food and
then empties its contents into the small intestine.

The stomach has three layers of muscle fibres that contract and then relax to churn chyme a thick liquid
and mechanically break up pieces of food and mix them with the gastric juice. The produced in the
result of this churning and mixing is a thick liquid called chyme [kihm]. At the lower stomach and made of
end of the stomach is a muscular valve called the pyloric sphincter. When closed, this digested food combined
with gastric juice
valve keeps food in the stomach.
The stomach usually does not digest the proteins that make up its own cells, pepsin an enzyme in
gastric juice that helps
because it has three methods of protection. First, the stomach secretes little gastric juice break down proteins
until food is present. Second, some stomach cells secrete mucus, which prevents gastric into polypeptides
juice from harming the cells of the stomach lining. Third, the stomach produces its
protein-digesting enzyme, pepsin, in a form that remains inactive until hydrochloric
acid is present. Once active, pepsin hydrolyzes proteins to yield polypeptides—a first
step in protein digestion in the digestive tract.
The stomach is surrounded by a network of nerves that help regulate the activities of SuggestedInvestigation
the digestive system. These nerves initiate the stomach contractions that release partially
ThoughtLab Investigation
digested food into the small intestine. When the small intestine is full and still digesting
10-A, An Accident and an
food, the stomach temporarily stores the chyme. When processed food has moved out of Opportunity
the small intestine into the large intestine, the pyloric sphincter opens and the stomach
pushes chyme into the first part of the small intestine—the duodenum.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 413

 Learning Check

7. Describe where the digestion of carbohydrates
begins in the body, the major glands involved, and
the digestive secretions produced.
8. Using Figure 10.8, explain how peristalsis works in
the esophagus and its function in digestion.
9. Analyze whether the epiglottis is closed and
covering the trachea or open in the following
situations, and explain why:
a. when the person is talking
b. when the person is swallowing
c. when the person is coughing
d. when the person is chewing
10. If a person has the mumps, their submandibular
glands are swollen. Analyze Figure 10.7, and decide
which part of the body a doctor would examine to
help diagnose the mumps.
11. A doctor orders a pH test of the esophagus for a
patient who is complaining about having heartburn
and a burning sensation in the chest. What do you
expect the doctor to find and why? Use Figure 10.9
to identify the source of this problem.
12. Using your knowledge of basic chemistry from
previous studies, how do over-the-counter antacids,
such as calcium carbonate, help an individual with a
gastroesophageal discomfort, such as stomach pain?

The Small Intestine

duodenum a short,
wide U-shaped section
of the small intestine
into which food passes
from the stomach
villi finger-like
projections lining the
surface of the small
intestine that increase
the surface area to
improve the absorption
of nutrients
The small intestine is the part of the alimentary canal in which digestion is completed—
that is, the nutrient macromolecules are finally broken down into their component
molecules. The nutrients are then absorbed through the membranes of the cells that
line the small intestine, and they pass from the digestive system into the circulatory
system. The circulatory system carries the nutrients to cells and tissues throughout the
rest of the body.
The Duodenum
The small intestine looks like a long, folded tube divided into three main regions. The
first region after the stomach is the U-shaped duodenum. To speed up the process of
absorption, the walls of the small intestine are lined by folds that greatly increase the
surface area through which nutrients can be absorbed. The folds are covered by tiny,
finger-like projections called villi (singular villus). Each villus, in turn, is covered with
many fine brush-like microvilli, as shown in Figure 10.10. As food passes through the
duodenum, it receives secretions from two organs that support the function of the
digestive system: the pancreas and the gall bladder.

Figure 10.10 The lining of small intestine villi

the duodenum is arranged duodenum
in circular folds. Each fold
is covered in tiny villi and
microvilli, through which
the absorption of nutrients
into the bloodstream
takes place.
microvilli

capillary
villus
network

nucleus

vein (carries
artery (carries nutrient-laden
oxygen-rich blood to the body,
blood to the villi) via the liver)
cell membrane

414 MHR • Unit 4 Animals: Structure and Function

The Jejunum and Ileum
Following the duodenum is a structure called the jejunum, which is about 2.5 m long
jejunum the portion of
and contains more folds than the duodenum. The jejunum breaks down the remaining the small intestine that
proteins and carbohydrates so the end products can be absorbed into the bloodstream. follows immediately
The ileum, which is about 3 m long, contains fewer and smaller villi than either the after the duodenum
duodenum or the jejunum. Its function is also to absorb nutrients, as well as to push ileum the portion of
the remaining undigested material into the large intestine. the small intestine that
follows immediately
after the jejunum
The Accessory Organs
bile a greenish-yellow
The pancreas and gall bladder are not part of the alimentary canal itself, but they fluid secreted by the
are connected to the canal by ducts, as shown in Figure 10.11. Because of this close liver that helps digest fat
association with the alimentary canal, the pancreas and gall bladder are referred to
as accessory organs. (An accessory is something that aids or provides support to
something else.) Fluids produced by the accessory organs are essential to the process
of digestion.

esophagus
liver

gall bladder
stomach
duodenum

small intestine
pancreas

Figure 10.11 The pancreas and gall bladder secrete enzymes necessary for digestion.

In an adult human, the pancreas secretes about 1 L of pancreatic fluid into the
duodenum each day. Pancreatic fluid contains numerous enzymes that chemically
digest carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. The fluid also contains bicarbonate, which is
very important to the function of the enzymes. The bicarbonate alters the pH of chyme
from strongly acidic (pH 1) to weakly basic (pH 8), thereby producing conditions in
which the enzymes in the pancreatic fluid can work most efficiently.
The liver is the largest internal organ of the human body. In an adult, it is the size of
a football, with a mass of about 1.5 kg. The main digestion-related secretion of the liver
is bile, a greenish-yellow fluid mixture that is made up of bile pigments and bile salts.
Bile pigments do not take part in digestion. They are waste products from the liver’s
destruction of old red blood cells, and they are eventually eliminated with the feces.
After bile is produced in the liver, it is sent to the gall bladder, which stores the
bile between meals. Bile contains bile salts that are essential for the digestion of
fats. Because fats are insoluble (that is, they cannot be dissolved) in water, they are
suspended in the chyme as small droplets—like the blobs of fats that float up if you put
a greasy dish in a sink of hot water. Bile salts act like detergent, physically breaking up
the fat droplets into smaller fat droplets, and suspending the smaller fat droplets so
they can disperse throughout the chyme. The many smaller fat droplets create a greater
surface area to be exposed for digestive enzymes to chemically break down the fats in
the small intestine: this makes it easier for the intestinal cells to absorb the fats.

Chapter 10 The Digestive System • MHR 415