Physico-Chemical and Mechanical

Characterization of Ferrochrome Slag

Aggregates for Utilization as a Road
Material

Narala Gangadhara Reddy and B. Hanumantha Rao

Abstract Scarcity of quality conventional materials and jeopardized environment

are the prime factors that have been compelling toward the progression of alternate
materials to sustain the ever-increasing infrastructure development. The use of locally
available industrial wastes as a substitute for natural construction materials can alle-
viate the demand for such natural materials consumption. In this paper, efforts are
made to characterize ferrochrome slag aggregates (FeCr) for assessing its suitability
as a replacement to natural aggregates and propose relevant applications linking
with characteristics. Mechanical and geoenvironmental properties are established
using conventional testing methods as well as advanced macro-level characteriza-
tion techniques in order to assess the environmental soundness of ferrochrome aggre-
gates. The results in compliance with the relevant road standards demonstrate that
the ferrochrome aggregates possess superior properties, rendering them as useful
resource materials. Overall, the results highlight that ferrochrome aggregates are
environmentally safe to be used as an alternative to natural aggregates, in particular,
in road applications.

Keywords Ferrochrome aggregates · Waste utilization · Sustainability · Strength

and testing of materials

1 Introduction

Infrastructure projects consume a wide variety of materials. Of late, the use of conven-
tional natural materials became exhaustive, prompting not only increasing the impact
on the environment but also causing depletion of quality resource materials [1–3].
In order to overcome these negative aspects, there is a need to imbibe waste or
by-product or locally available materials as an alternative to conventional materials

N. G. Reddy (B) · B. H. Rao (B)

School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar, Arugul, Jatni, Odisha 752050, India
e-mail: gn11@iitbbs.ac.in
B. H. Rao
e-mail: bhrao@iitbbs.ac.in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 645
E. Tutumluer et al. (eds.), Advances in Transportation Geotechnics IV, Lecture Notes
in Civil Engineering 164, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77230-7_49
646 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

to keep maintaining the face of sustainable infrastructure development. In India, the

vast network of existing industries spread across the length and the breadth and many
more to set up in the near future is certainly going to generate millions of tons of
a variety of wastes and by-products [1]. Consequently, it is inevitable to minimize
their physical presence by appropriately consuming in civil engineering applications
and infrastructure projects [2, 4].
Among many industrial wastes types, ferrochrome slag is one of the wastes. The
ferrochrome is extracted during the smelting process called sub-merged arc furnace
at an elevated temperature of around 1200 °C [5, 6]. After the extraction of FeCr from
the ore, hot molten is air-cooled under ambient condition. Over time, the molten slag
forms different sizes and shape of aggregates. For the generation of ferrochrome of
one metric ton, chromite ore of 2.5–2.6 metric ton is consumed. It is evident that the
production of waste slag is more than that of FeCr. The air-cooled slag transforms
into aggregates of different size and shape depending upon prevailing cooling process
[7, 8].
Across the globe, India is one of the major nations of producing FeCr, just after
South Africa and Kazakhstan. Globally, FeCr by-product generation is estimated to
be around 12 to 16 million tons per year [6, 9]. The majority of FeCr by-product is not
utilized in a systematic way and is currently being stored in impoundments or dumped
indiscriminately or filled in low-lying areas without providing an appropriate liner
system [9]. Storage of FeCr slag without any precautions occupies not only huge land
but also causes environmental problems, such as leaching of hazardous elements like
Cr (VI) that prompts to contamination of soil and groundwater [5, 7, 10, 11].
Limited efforts [5, 6, 10] are devoted to comprehend the use of fine and coarse
FeCr waste as chief source material for making of concrete in combination with other
materials. Yilmaz and Karaşahin [11] used FeCr slag as a road base material after
stabilizing with a cement content of 2–10%. Yilmaz and Karasahin [12] assessed
the suitability of FeCr slag as a granular base material for flexible pavements and
reported better mechanical properties exhibited slag amended material. In similar
lines, Niemela and Kauppi [13] have reported that the FeCr slags having glassy and
crystalline structure are chemically stable. In similarity, Das [14] reported that the
mineralogical composition of FeCr slag is amorphous glassy phase with composition
of spinels, forsterite, and olivine, belonging to the family of Fe, Mg, Cr, Al, silicates,
and mineral metal alloy components [8]. As such, the above studies demonstrate that
the properties of FeCr aggregates are superior to naturally available materials.
Panda et al. [5] reported that FeCr aggregates possess harmful metals like
chromium as CrO2 and are likely get released as hazardous chromium into the
ecosystem and thus restrict its use and pose storage-related hazards. Even though the
material has desirable properties, its use is constrained due to leaching of chromium.
Chromium exists mainly in oxidation state of hexavalent and trivalent form (i.e., Cr
(VI) and Cr (III)). As such, Cr (III) is less leachable and has the least detrimental
effect. However, Cr (VI) has a high mobility and toxic in nature under most of
the environmental circumstances. As per Yilmaz and Karaşahin [11] based on the
leaching tests, it is only the Cr present as a major heavy element in FeCr aggre-
gates, but its concentration is reported well within the limits of USEPA. Niemela and
Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization … 647

Kauppi [13] performed leaching studies on FeCr slag collected from Finland and
observed that the metal leachates are satisfying limits set by various environmental
protection agencies.
Available literature shows very limited studies on the use of FeCr aggregates as
an alternate material, but limited available data on basic properties suggests that
FeCr aggregates could emerge as an alternative to natural aggregates [15]. In the
present study, attempts are made to assess the FeCr slag aggregates as an alternative
material for natural aggregates and their suitability in roads and other civil engi-
neering applications. The scope of the work is to characterize FeCr aggregates for
physical, engineering, chemical, and leachability properties, the analysis of which
greatly aids in postulating potential application schemes. In addition, efforts have
also been devoted to comparing these properties with that of natural aggregates and
standard code provisions.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials

FeCr slag aggregates used in the present study are collected from Nava Bharat Ferro
Alloy Plant of Dhenkanal, Odisha, India. FeCr aggregates are collected from the
aggregate’s storage area and are produced by the air-cooled process.

2.2 Tests for Physical and Strength Properties

Granular material used for pavements should be strong enough to resist crushing
under heavy loads; therefore, the aggregate crushing test is performed in accordance
with IS: 2386 (Part–4) [16]. Due to the movements of traffic, road stones will be
subjected to wearing; therefore, Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) test is conducted to
test the hardness or resistance to abrasion of the coarse aggregates [16]. When the
aggregates are subjected to repeated impact or pounding action, they break into
smaller pieces, and thus, the aggregate should be strong enough to resist impact.
Aggregate impact test as per IS: 2386 (Part–4) [16] is conducted to measure the
resistance of aggregate to impact. Soundness test as per IS:2386 [17] using crystalline
magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 .7H2 O) is conducted to study the resistance of aggregates
to weathering action (durability) for five cycles. Shape tests carried out as per IS:2386
(Part–1) [18] to check the presence of flaky and elongated aggregates which is one of
the desired values in the properties of aggregate. Specific gravity and water absorption
tests are conducted as per IS 2386 (Part–3) [19] to measure the strength or quality of
aggregates and to study the water absorption of the aggregates, which reveals their
porous nature, respectively. Aggregates should well adhere to the bitumen when they
648 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

are being coated with the bitumen. To verify this, stripping test as per IS: 6241–2003
[20] is conducted in the presence of water for its suitability as a resource material in
the bituminous pavement. California bearing ratio (CBR) value is used as the basis
for the design of sub-base or base layers; hence, the test is carried out as per ASTM
D1883 [21] specifications.

2.3 Chemical, Mineralogical, and Leaching Studies

To understand the micro-properties of FeCr slag aggregates, morphological and

mineralogical analysis are carried out to decipher some of the macro-properties.
The morphological studies are carried out with the help of scanning electron micro-
scope, SEM, (Device: FEI Quanta 250) on the powdered samples. Further, percentage
of elemental compositions of a sample is determined using energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy, EDX, which is fitted to SEM instrument. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
analysis is conducted on a powder sample with the help of Bruker D8 Advance XRD
instrument using a copper target.
pH values of FeCr slag aggregates are measured with the help of a benchtop
Systronic 335 digital pH meter (India make), corresponding to liquid to solid ratio
(L/S) of 2.5, as per the IS 2720 (Part—26) [22]. Besides, electric conductivity is also
measured at the same L/S ratio. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP)
test is carried out as per the USEPA 1311 [23]. For this purpose, the sample is crushed,
and passing sieve opening size of < 2 mm is used. For leaching purpose, extraction
fluid is prepared by mixing 5.7 ml of concentrated glacial acetic acid, and 64.3 ml
of 1 N NaOH to one liter distilled water, and to this, FeCr slag sample is added. The
mixer is agitated for a period of 18 h and then filtered through 0.2 µm filter paper.
Additionally, batch leaching experiments have been carried out as per ASTM D 3987
[24] by adopting to water shake extraction procedure at a liquid to solid (L/S) ratio of
10, 20, and 50. Then, all the leachate (both TCLP and water shake extraction) samples
are analyzed for determining the concentrations of metal elements such as Cu, Cd,
Co, Zn, As, Cr, Hg, Ag, and Pb with the help of an atomic absorption spectroscopy
(AAS) analyzer (iCE 3000 series, Thermo Fisher Scientific, US).

3 Results

3.1 Physical and Strength Properties of FeCr Aggregates

Figure 1 shows the gradation curve of FeCr aggregates, and the value of C u and C c is
calculated from Fig. 1 as 1.64 and 1.02, respectively. The particle size characteristics
show that FeCr aggregates contain little to nil fines. Based on the unified soil classifi-
cation system (USCS), FeCr slag aggregates can be classified as poorly graded gravel
Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization … 649

120

100

80
% passing

60

40

20

0
1 10 100
sieve size (mm)

Fig. 1 Gradation curve of FeCr aggregates used in the study

(GP), and as per ASSHTO soil classification, it falls under the group category of A-1.
Table 1 presents the summary of test results obtained from a series of experimental
investigations, along with the relevant test method followed for testing purpose.

3.2 Chemical, Morphological, and Mineralogical Properties

of FeCr Aggregates

Figure 2 shows the images of FeCr slag aggregates recorded using SEM. It is obvious
from the images that particles are irregular in shape and sizes. EDS analysis conducted
on the same material revealed the presence of Mg, Al, Si, and Fe as major elements
with glass matrix. Other elements found in the aggregates are as follows: Cr, K, and
Ca, apart from a few other minor elements, whereas the chemical analysis shows a
high percentage of SiO2 (41.55) and Al2 O3 (21.82) followed by MgO (10.52), Cr2 O3
(9.12), TiO2 (4.57), CaO (4.14), K2 O (4.04), and a small percentage of Fe2 O3 (1.65).
Figure 3 shows the diffraction pattern of FeCr aggregates obtained by XRD analysis.
From the interpretations of diffractograms, Quartz (SiO4 ), Forsterite (Mg2 SiO4 ),
Spinel (MgAl2 O4 ), and Oviline are identified as dominant mineral components. The
other chemical analysis includes pH and electrical conductivity, which are measured
as 8.24 and 179 µs/cm. From the batch leaching analysis (TCLP and water shake
extraction) tests, total metal concentrations (Cu, Cd, Co, Zn, As, Cr, Hg, Ag, and Pb)
are determined, and the results obtained are summarized in Table 2.
650 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

Table 1 Physical and strength properties of FeCr slag and natural aggregates
Type FeCr slag Natural aggregates Standard Test method
of test aggregates [5, 6] MoRTH/ASSHTO
specifications
Crushing test 20% 17.66–25.10% < 40% IS:2386 (part
4)-1963
Los Angeles 15.4% 14–25.81% < 40% IS:2386 (part
abrasion test 5)-1963
Aggregate 17.1% 13.87–23.2% < 30% IS:2386 (part
impact test 4)-1963
Soundness test 1.2% 2–10% < 18% IS:2386 (part
(magnesium 5)-1963
sulfate)
Combined 28.5% 10–25% < 30% IS:2386 (part
flakiness and 1)-1963
elongation
California 92% 80–140% > 25–30 for granular ASTM D1883-07
bearing ratio sub-base
(CBR) > 70–80% for
granular base
material
Specific 3.15 2.72 – 2.93 2.5 or greater IS:2386 (part
gravity 3)-1963
Water 0.5% 0.32–1.67 < 2.0% IS:2386 (part
absorption test 3)-1963
Stripping 1.5% 2–10% < 5% IS: 6241–1971
pH 8.24 6–9 > 2 and < 12.5 IS 2720 - (Part -
(RCRA for 26) - 1987
corrosivity)
Electric 179 µs/cm NA NA
conductivity
5 Panda et al. [5]; 9 Acharya and Patro [6]

4 Discussion

4.1 Physical and Strength Properties of FeCr Aggregates

As per the MoRTH and IDOT guidelines for selection of granular materials for a
base course, FeCr aggregates are found not meeting the set criterion because of
their classification under poorly graded gravel (GP) category. However, researchers
worked on other recycled aggregates such as construction and demolition (C&D)
waste believe that crusher openings sizes of FeCr aggregates can be adjusted to get
the desired size so that the modified aggregates meet the criteria set by the above
standards without affecting its strength and performance criteria [25]. It is also worth
Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization … 651

Fig. 2 Photomicrographs of ferrochrome aggregates recorded by SEM at different magnification

factors

mentioning here that as per ASSHTO soil classification (A−1), FeCr aggregates fall
under the category of excellent to good rating as subgrade material.
The crushing strength of FeCr used in the study is found to be 20.06%. Incidentally,
the results of Panda et al. [5], who reported crushing strength in the range from 17.6%
to 25.1%, well corroborate with the present values. It is interesting to note that the
values of crushing strength are quite lesser than permissible limits stipulated for
natural aggregates. The abrasion value is measured as 15.38%, which found to match
extremely well with FeCr slag aggregates belonging to other sources that are 19.2%
and 18.58% by Panda et al. [5] and Sahu et al. [9]. The measured values of abrasion
are well below those normally reported for natural aggregates, confirming that FeCr
slag aggregates are resistant to abrasion or even better than the natural aggregates.
Ferrochrome slag aggregates can be used in granular layers, as these aggregates are
derived from the waste, as these materials are freely available and are economical
as compared to those of natural aggregates [9]. FeCr slag when air-cooled results
652 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

3000
1 - Spinel
1 2 - Quartz
3 - Forsterite
4 - Oviline
2000
1
Intensity

1 3
1 3
1000 4 3 3
2 1 4 3

3
4

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Angle, 2(θ)

Fig. 3 XRD patterns of ferrochrome slag aggregates

Table 2 Results of TCLP and shake extraction with water of FeCr slag aggregates
Analyte Concentration based on TCLP Shake extraction with water (ASTM D3987)
Result of FeCr Limits (ppm) L/S-10 (ppm) L/S-20 (ppm) L/S-50 (ppm)
Aggregates
(ppm)
Chromium 2.3209 5 0.1880 0.2818 0.4690
(Cr)
Arsenic 0.1051 5 0.0033 0.0046 0.0054
(As)
Mercury 0.0106 0.2 0.002 0.0038 0.0052
(Hg)
Copper BDL – BDL BDL BDL
(Cu)
Cobalt (Co) 0.2562 – 0.2576 0.1533 0.2394
Silver (Ag) 0.0207 5 0.0061 0.0083 0.0151
Lead (Pb) 1.4739 5 0.8127 0.9402 2.7644
Cadmium 0.0526 1 0.117 0.1594 0.1456
(Cd)
Zinc (Zn) 0.592 5 0.0289 0.1739 0.6928
BDL = Below detection limit.
Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization … 653

in densely structured and stable crystalline material, the process of which beneficial
in terms of imparting better mechanical properties alike that of natural aggregates
materials [5]. On the other hand, surface features of aggregates are characterized for
rough and porous nature, which are similar to natural aggregates and advantageous
as these offer good adhesion and abrasion resistance [12, 26]. These characteristics
also bear a practical relevance when selected for the granular layer in pavements.
The Los Angeles abrasion (LAA) value is determined as 15.4% for FeCr, which is
less as compared with C&D waste materials for which it is in the range of 21–36%
[27]. Thus, it can be highlighted that FeCr is superior to C&D waste material. It can
also be noted that LAA value is well below the maximum value specified by FHWA
[28] guidelines, indicating that the FeCr aggregates are durable.
Aggregate impact value (AIV) of aggregates is found to be 17.1%, and it is much
lesser than that of natural aggregates (refer to Table 1). Soundness test (1.2%) shows
that FeCr slag aggregates are durable and are resistant to weathering phenomenon.
Water absorption value of FeCr slag aggregates is lower than that of natural aggregate,
which is due to less porous of FeCr aggregates. The specific gravity is measured
as 3.15, which is slightly higher than the natural aggregates, indicating that the
aggregates will exhibit better strength than the natural aggregates [5, 9, 12]. The
bitumen stripping test conducted on FeCr aggregates shows a value of 1.5%, which
is well below the specified stripping limit of < 5%.
Based on the interpretation of obtained results and discussion made herein, it is
easy to understand that FeCr aggregates meet the physical and strength requirements
specified by different standards, denoting that these aggregates are acceptable to be
used in bituminous road construction effectively.
California Bearing Ratio
CBR value is generally determined to evaluate the potential of FeCr aggregates to
use as a resource material in sub-base and base courses. The observed CBR value of
FeCr is 92%, which is higher than the minimum value prescribed for sub-base and
base material (i.e., 30 and 80%) by all the standard codes such as IRC, AASHTO,
and FHWA [29–31]. IRC 37–2018 [32] suggests a minimum CBR of 20% and 30%
for traffic up to 2 Msa (million standard axles) and exceeding 2 Msa, respectively,
for a granular material to be used as a sub-base material in flexible pavement. IRC:
SP 20–2001 [31] considers a CBR of at least 15% for rural roads (less than 450
commercial vehicles per day). For granular materials, standards proposed a wide
range of grading. However, liquid limit and plasticity index of materials passing
through 425 µm sieve shall not be more than 25 and 6%, respectively, [30–32].
Recently, more emphasis is given to resilient modulus for assessing the seasonal
variation and moisture movement of a material. Despite the inability of CBR for
simulating the traffic load and varying stress state, a simple relation is suggested by
IRC 37–2012 (which is lower than other international standards) as given below:

M R (MPa) = 17.6∗ (CBR)0.64 (1)

654 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

From the above equation, MR value of FeCr aggregate is calculated as 317 MPa,
which is well within the range advocated by AASHTO [30] for spring-thaw or winter-
frozen conditions (i.e., 137−344 MPa). Based on the above observations, it is prudent
to conclude that FeCr aggregates are the ideal material to select in sub-base or
base courses of flexible pavements and rural roads. However, extensive studies are
necessary for the estimation of M R values for proper design with real-time stress
state.

4.2 Chemical, Mineralogical, and Morphological Properties

XRD analysis shows that Forsterite, Spinel, Quartz, and Oviline are chief mineral
components in the slag aggregates. All these mineral phases are mainly constituted
with Si, Mg, and Al elements. Studies of Panda et al. [5], Kumar et al. [8], and
Mahamaya and Das [33] reported similar mineralogical compositions of FeCr slag
aggregates of other sources. However, a few researchers reported hematite as a major
mineral component which might be due to the source and method of processing. Mg
is a major chemical element after Si and Al in the aggregates. Many researchers [34,
35] used MgO or MgCl2 as a sustainable and as an alternative cementitious material
for stabilization of soils. Kilau and Shah [36] have reported the presence of MgO in
the slag prevents the dissolution of chromium under acid medium, and hence, there is
less scope for the release of Cr(VI) into the leachate. Therefore, it can be concluded
that MgO (about 10%) content in FeCr aggregates can be advantageous [34, 35]. The
studies of Petrounias et al. [37] are worth mentioned here that the natural aggregates
that had quartz, as a primary mineral shows better physico-mechanical properties for
construction purpose.
Higher electrical conductivity (179 µs/cm) value shows the occurrence of the
high amount of dissolved oxides such as magnesium, iron, and aluminum oxides.
The measured pH of the FeCr slag is found to be 8.24, which is slightly alkaline.
But, IRC: SP 20 [31] guidelines clearly say that waste material having pH less
than 8.5 can be used as an alternative to that of natural materials for construction
purposes. Moreover, RCRA guidelines [38] also clearly show that FeCr is a non-
corrosive. Thus, it could be concluded that FeCr slag aggregates can be used as
resource material in civil engineering applications.

4.3 Leaching Characteristics of FeCr Slag Aggregates

Batch leaching analysis (TCLP and water shake extraction) for various metals present
in the FeCr aggregates was carried out as per guidelines laid in the USEPA 1311 and
ASTM D3897. Table 2 shows the total metal concentrations measured for FeCr slag.
The selection of elements measured is made based on the literature (Cu, Cd, Co, Zn,
As, Cr, Hg, Ag, and Pb). From Table 2, it is seen that a few metal concentrations are
Physico-Chemical and Mechanical Characterization … 655

minimal and, in fact, below the detection levels. Among others, the concentrations
of Cr and Zn are significantly high. Incidentally, the concentration levels of almost
all the elements are well below the limits of USEPA. Similar results were reported
by Yilmaz and Karasahin [12], however, as a function of pH and after treating the
aggregates with seawater. The lesser concentrations reveal that FeCr aggregates are
chemically very stable [13, 26].
Nevertheless, studies of Panda et al. [5] report that residual chromium in the
ferrochrome slag mostly remained in immobilized form as Cr(III), which is highly
stable and least toxic. The high stability is attributed to spinel mineral phases such
as chromite or magnesium alumino-silicates. Lind et al. [10] investigated the envi-
ronmental implication of FeCr slag in road construction projects subject to extreme
conditions of biological activity and acid rain. The study showed a relatively lesser
extent of chromium (VI) leaching from slag into aqueous nitric acid solution (one of
the acid rain components). As the FeCr is rich with Fe–Mg-Cr-Al-spinels, forsterite,
Mg–Al-Si makes the FeCr aggregates which are chemically very stable. However,
this depends on the source and extraction of ferroalloys [9].

5 Concluding Remarks

In the present study, extensive characterization studies including geotechnical,

geochemical, and geoenvironmental have been conducted on ferrochrome slag aggre-
gates in order to comprehend its behavior. The outcomes of the study are presented
as follows:
1. The various strength results portray a fact that FeCr aggregates have the potential
to be considered as a construction material, especially in road applications, as
they are meeting the technical acceptability proposed for the natural aggregates
to be used for highways.
2. A significantly low stripping value vis-à-vis with the permissible limit as per
FHWA and IRC guidelines demonstrate that FeCr aggregates are suitable in
lower courses such as sub-base in flexible pavements as well as surface dressing
material.
3. It has been noticed from the leaching studies that among many elements, only
chromium concentration is high at 2.32 ppm, which is still within the permis-
sible limit set by RCRA. Thus, proving that FeCr aggregates are environmental
friendly and will not create remarkable ecological contamination.
4. Evidently, the physico-chemico-mechanical behavior of FeCr aggregates is
found to resemble that of natural aggregates, proving that they can be used
as a partial replacement to natural aggregates in making concrete.
656 N. G. Reddy and B. H. Rao

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