Technical Translation

C ha p te r 1
Technical Translation
Technical translation has long been regarded as the ugly duckling of transla-
tion, especially in academic circles. Not particularly exciting or attractive
and definitely lacking in the glamour and cachet of other types translation,
technical translation is often relegated to the bottom division of translation
activity and regarded as little more than an exercise in specialised terminol-
ogy and subject knowledge. Indeed, these factors, particularly subject
knowledge, have in some quarters led to technical translation being feared
and loathed, like a modern-day barbarian of the linguistic world.
That technical translation has traditionally been regarded as the poor
cousin of “real” translation in the literature is clear. This vocational and in-
dustrial type of translation has been largely neglected in the literature on
translation theory. This is supported by an enlightening survey by Franco
Aixelá (2004) who reports that out of 20,495 publications listed in the
BITRA1 multilingual bibliography of translation research only 1,905 or
9.3% addressed technical translation. Literary translation, on the other hand,
is the subject of some 4,314 entries accounting for 21% of the total number
of entries despite its niche status in professional practice.
The work that has been done in this area has largely been restricted to
terminological issues or technical issues (e.g. translation memories or ma-
chine translation, etc.) or needs to be updated to reflect the modem
realities of technical translation (e.g. Pinchuck 1977, Sykes 1971). However,
technical translation is a much more promising an avenue of theoretical investi-
gation than many suspect. Indeed, its inevitable roots in commercial transla-
tion and technical communication have served to make this an even more
rich and complex area than previously believed.
1 BITRA is the Bibliography of Interpreting and Translation which was created by

Javier Franco in the Department of Translation & Interpreting at the University
of Alicante. This useful web-based resource can be found at http://cv1.cpd.ua.
es/tra_int/usu/buscar.asp?idioma=en
1
2 Technical Translation
The aim of this chapter is to challenge some misconceptions about tech-

nical translation and describe the reality of this form of translation. I will
also try to relate technical translation to some of the more common theories
of translation. There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, to show that
technical translation is worthy of theoretical study and secondly to show
that technical translation, like other specialised types of translation, does not
fit neatly into any one theory or approach and that there is, as yet, no ade-
quate explanation of technical translation as an activity.
The Importance of Technical Translation
It has been estimated that technical translation accounts for some 90% of
the world’s total translation output each year (Kingscott 2002:247). This is
unsurprising given the importance attached to the availability of technical
information in a variety of languages, motivated partly by the increasingly
international focus of many companies and partly as a result of legislation
such as Council of the European Union Resolution C411 (1998a), EU Di-
rective 98/37/EC (Council of the European Union 1998b) and Council
Directive 93/42/EEC (1993) and international standards such as EN 292-2:
1991 and EN 62079: 2001 to name just a few. These represent just some of
the various laws, directives and regulations across the world that require the
provision of comprehensive, accurate and effective technical documentation
in a variety of languages. Coupled with increasing international co-
operation in scientific, technological and industrial activity, it is clear to
see why technical translation is one of the most significant employers of
translators.
Yet despite the overwhelming demand for and importance of technical
translation, there are several stubbornly persistent myths about technical
translation’s importance, nature and role both in industry and within aca-
demia.
Some Misconceptions
Before we examine technical translation in greater detail and try to relate it

to various theories of translation, it would be useful to look at what we
mean by “technical translation” and contrast some misconceptions about
technical translation with the realities of what it means to be a technical
translator.
The Importance of Technical Translation 3
Technical translation includes economics, law, business etc. In reality,

“technical” means precisely that, something to do with technology and
technological texts. Just because there is a specialised terminology, doesn’t
make something technical. In discussing technical translation it is useful to
make the distinction between specialised and technical translation. For ex-
ample, religion has a very specific terminology and very definite conven-
tions, styles and document structures but it is never regarded as “technical”.
The tendency among certain theorists to include LSP texts such as legal, fi-
nancial and economic texts within the field of technical translation is less
than helpful not least because each area has its own unique characteristics,
requirements and constraints. Simply because a field or subject area has
unique or specialised terminology does not make it technical. This is not to
say that financial translation, or indeed legal translation, do not deserve to
be studied in detail as areas in their own right, in fact there are a number of
extremely useful books on these areas such as Alcaraz & Hughes (2002), but
rather that they will not be discussed here. Instead, this book will take as its
basis a definition of technical translation that has its roots in the translation
industry and indeed industry as a whole, namely, that technical trans -
lation deals with technological texts. Or more specifically, technical
translation deals with texts on subjects based on applied knowledge from the
natural sciences.
Technical translation is all about terminology. This particular misconcep-
tion is not unique to those uninvolved in technical translation. A surprising
number of people within technical translation share this belief Pinchuck
(1977:19), for example, claims that vocabulary is the most significant lin-
guistic feature of technical texts. This is true insofar as terminology is, per-
haps, the most immediately noticeable aspect of a technical text and indeed
it gives the text the “fuel” it needs to convey the information. Neverthe-
less, Newmark (1988) has claimed that terminology accounts for at most
just 5-10% of the total content of technical texts yet there is a dispropor-
tionate amount of attention devoted to terminology and lexical issues in
technical translation. A simple subject search for “technical translation” on
the BITRA bibliographic database reveals that more than half of the 150
entries found relate to terminological or lexical issues.
What makes this even more surprising is the fact that in many fields of
science and technology, the terminology is remarkably similar to the extent
that separate, specialised dictionaries are frequently unnecessary. Indeed,
Fishbach (1993 and 1998) points to the quasi-conformity of medical termi-
nology thanks to the common origins in Latin and Greek. So, depending
on the particular language pairs, a translator should have less trouble
locating appropriate specialised terms in the target language than with
non- specialised, general terms. Similarly, in computing and IT, the termino -
logy is largely uniform thanks, in part, to a predominance of English in the
creation of new terms and partly to the proliferation of proprietary terms
and the availability of terms from software companies, e.g. the Microsoft
glossaries which are available in every language into which Microsoft’s
products have been localized.
However, perhaps even more important than terminology is actually
knowing how to write the texts. Translators need to produce texts which
are identical to those produced by technical writers working in the target
language (Fishbach 1998:2). Failing to comply with target language text
conventions can undermine the credibility of the text, the author and the
information in the text. O’Neill (1998:72) claims that “there is no substi-
tute for a thorough knowledge of the target language”. In order to do this,
it is necessary to look to technical writing and this is not something many
translators have the opportunity to do, either as part of their training or as
part of their own efforts to improve their skills.
According to Lee-Jahnke (1998:83-84), there are three things that are
essential in order to learn how to deal with scientific and technical texts:
• know the text structure in the different languages
• know the LSP for the area
• know the subject area
Style doesn’t matter in technical translation. This is, perhaps, one of the
more irritating misconceptions for technical translators because it is so com-
pletely unfounded and implies that technical translators do not have the
same linguistic and writing skills as other types of translator. Perhaps the
problem stems from differing opinions of the nature of style and the popu-
lar belief that it relates exclusively to literature. If we look at style from a
literary point of view, then it does not have any place in technical transla-
tion. But if we regard style as the way we write things, the words we
choose and the way we construct sentences, then style is equally, if not
more, important in technical translation than in other areas because it is
there for a reason, not simply for artistic or entertainment reasons. As Korn-
ing Zethsen (1999:72) asserts, literary texts “do not hold a monopoly on
expressivity and creativity”. To illustrate this, consider a leaflet containing
instructions for using a product. The limited space available requires both
the author and translator alike to express information in a way which is suf-
ficiently clear, simple and concise so as to allow readers to understand the
information completely and quickly but which nevertheless conveys all of
the necessary facts. In comparison, consider a poem where an author may

purposely choose stylistic devices, structures and metaphors which will
make the meaning ambiguous and leave it open to several interpretations
so as to add to the readers’ enjoyment of the poem. Both situations will
require the use of stylistic and expressive language in order to achieve the
desired effects although these approaches may be at opposite ends of the
stylistic spectrum.
In many cases, the importance or even existence of style in technical
texts goes completely unacknowledged, due largely to the belief that be-
cause technical language is functional, it must be “plain” and stripped of
any form of style or linguistic identity. In reality, however, technical trans-
lation is a highly complex endeavour and style is one of its most important
facets. For this reason, this book will take as its basis the concept of style
and its application in technical translation. This book will show that style,
which has been regarded at best as a way of ensuring compliance with tar-
get language norms, can actually have much more profound effects on the
quality of technical translations.
Technical translation is not creative; it is simply a reproductive transfer
process. While technical translation “is undoubtedly more restricted in
range than aesthetic translation” it is much too easy to overestimate and ex-
aggerate its apparent simplicity (Pinchuck 1977:20). But in order to convey
information in an appropriate and effective way, technical translators have
to find novel and creative linguistic solutions to ensure successful commu-
nication. That this task is often hampered by a restricted vocabulary and
stylistic constraints merely makes the achievement all the more impressive.
You need to be an expert in a highly specialised field. There is a common
belief that in order to be a good technical translator, you need to be an ex-
pert in a highly specialised field and you can’t specialise in more than one
or two subject areas. But the reality is that, armed with a good and solid
understanding of the basic principles and technologies, many technical
translators can, in the words of Robinson (2003:128) “fake it”. He says that
“translators… make a living pretending to be (or at least to speak or write as
if they were) licensed practitioners of professions that they have typically
never practiced.” They are like actors “getting into character”.
However, lest technical translators be branded a bunch of scurrilous
charlatans who deceive unwitting clients we need to put Robinson’s com-
ments into perspective. The notion of pretending to be an expert means
that the translator should have enough subject knowledge either to know
how to deal with the text or to be able to acquire whatever additional
information is needed. Researching a new subject area for a translation is
always easier when you know at least something about it compared to when
you know nothing at all. It is, therefore, essential that translators have ex-
cellent research skills, make full use of parallel texts and have a very good
understanding of general scientific and technological principles. Technical
translators need to “impersonate” the original author who is generally,
though not always, an expert in a particular field and they need to write
with the same authority as an expert in the target language. So in this case,
the real challenges for the technical translator are to be able to research sub-
jects and to have expert knowledge of the way experts in a particular field
write texts. We can summarise the essential areas of expertise for technical
translators:
• subject knowledge
• writing skills
• research skills
• knowledge of genres and text types
• pedagogical skills
With regard to subject knowledge, O’Neill (1998:69) says that medicine,

nursing, dentistry etc. all share some subject knowledge, e.g. physics, biol-
ogy, pharmacology etc. Consequently, what are normally regarded as quite
separate specialisms frequently share the same basic knowledge. The same
can be said of various other types of technological area: engineering,
mechanics, construction etc. They all share more or less the same core
knowledge.
When it comes to specialised subject knowledge, it is a truism that you
cannot master every area so it’s probably best to get a good foundation in
the more generic, transferable subject areas and rely on this together with
an ability to research new areas to deal with unfamiliar subjects. So for a
technical translator, gaining a good understanding of the basics of science
and technology can provide a good basis for diverse applications within
technical translation.
Technical translation is all about conveying specialised information. This
is not entirely true, of course the main concern for technical translators is to
make sure that information is conveyed accurately but they are also respon-
sible for ensuring that the information is presented in the correct form, that
it is complete and that the information can be used correctly and effec-
tively. The translator’s responsibilities encompass many of those of the
technical author and that may involve quite radical changes. Technical
translation involves detailed knowledge of the source and target cultures,

target language conventions, text type and genre conventions, register,
style, detailed understanding of the audiences; whether translators realise it
or not, an understanding of how people learn and use information. Subse-
quent chapters in this book, particularly Chapter 2, will show that merely
presenting information to readers is not enough. Readers must be able to
assimilate the information with as little effort as possible. The information
presented in technical documents is a means rather than an end and it
should not add to the work of readers.
The Reality of Technical Translation
Having looked at some of the more prevalent and serious misconceptions

of technical translation, it’s time to look at the truth behind technical trans-
lation. Our aim here is not to provide an exhaustive and comprehensive
treatment of the area but to give a good general overview and insight into
the area. This section seeks to describe the reality of technical translation in
a professional context, to describe what it is that technical translators do and
what factors affect their work.
Scientific vs. Technical Translation

One of the greatest fallacies when discussing technical translation is to
somehow lump it together with scientific translation, or worse still, to use
the two terms interchangeably. Throughout the literature on translation, in
the frequently brief references to technical translation we see the expression
scientific and technical translation, where, out of convenience perhaps, au-
thors see no problem in treating these two siblings as conjoined twins or
even as the same person. This fundamental error serves only to confuse the
issue because scientific and technical translation are not the same and as
such, cannot be compared equally.
Despite the obvious connection between the two, i.e. they both deal
with information based, to varying degrees, on the work of scientists, scien-
tific translation is quite distinct from technical translation. Certainly, they
both contain specialised terminology and, on the surface, deal with compli-
cated scientific subject matter (to an extent) but it is all too easy to overes-
timate these apparent similarities at the expense of other, more compelling,
differences.
One of the easiest ways of disambiguating the matter is to look at the
words themselves: scientific and technical. Scientific relates to science
which is defined by the Chambers Dictionary as “knowledge ascertained by

observation and experiment, critically tested, systematised and brought un-
der general principles” (Chambers 1992). Technical relates to technology
which is defined as by the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as “the ap-
plication of scientific knowledge for practical purposes”. Thus we can say
that scientific translation relates to pure science in all of its theoretical, eso-
teric and cerebral glory while technical translation relates to how scientific
knowledge is actually put to practical use, dirty fingernails and all. The dif-
ferentiation between scientific and technical translation is also acknowl-
edged by the information sciences. Pinchuck (1977:13) points out that even
in libraries, pure sciences are classified under 5 while applied sciences, i.e.
technological material, are shelved in their own place under 6.
Scientific and technical translation, therefore, is a generic term which is
used to refer to pure science, applied scientific research and technology. But
it is not just the subject matter that distinguishes scientific from technical
translation. Technical translation (and technical communication, which will
be covered later on) can be characterised at a basic level on the basis of:
1. subject matter
2. type of language
3. purpose
So we can, for example, translate a scientific paper which deals with the
concept of electromotive force and the effects of currents passed through
conductors, complete with formulae, hypotheses, discussions and calcula-
tions or we can translate an installation guide for an electrical motor. Both
texts are based on the fact that if you pass an electrical current through a
piece of wire, a magnetic field is created which exerts a force acting at
right-angles to the wire. The difference is the way in which the knowledge
is used and presented. And this is a fundamental difference between scien-
tific and technical translation and one which also affects the type of lan-
guage used in the texts.
In our scientific paper on electromotive force, the goal is to discuss, ex-
plain, justify, impress, convey, convert and possibly entertain. An author
will use the full extent of the language, within specific conventions and
norms, to present the information in an interesting, serious and impressive
way. In some cases, these texts even border on the literary, using the same
devices and strategies as a short-story writer or novelist. Scientific language
can be quite formal2 (think of journal papers) and will often have consider-
able range, just like a literary text. Such texts will also see the use of various
rhetorical strategies, Greek and Latin terms and expressions as well as vari-
ous affixes and compound terms.
The following examples illustrate the type of literary language use which
can be found in scientific texts and even within a single text. In the intro-
duction to a detailed book on astrophysics, Schatzman and Praderie
(1993:1) paint a rather picturesque scene:
In the splendour of a moonless night, far from the pollution of the sky by
artificial lighting, the first revelation is that of the stars.
The next sentence is taken from a book discussing the scattering of X-

rays in gases, liquids and solids where the author uses rhetorical questions,
among other strategies, to enrich the text.
How is the sudden decrease of µ in Fig. V.5 explained by resonance?

(Hukins 1981:47)
In discussing the origins of the universe and the Big Bang theory, Gold-
smith (1995:68) uses the expression “tough little devils” as a humorous way
of explaining the nature of helium nuclei:
This tiny fraction results from the characteristics of helium nuclei, tough
little devils that cannot easily be made to fuse into larger nuclei, because
no stable nuclei exist with either five or eight nucleons (protons or neu-
trons).
An installation guide, on the other hand, is written to help someone do

something. The aim here is to convey the information an engineer needs in
order to install, connect and commission the motor. Consequently, the lan-
guage used will reflect this: simple, unambiguous, concise, and, for want of
a better word, unremarkable. The aim here is not to entertain the reader.
2 Popular science books and magazines which form a sub-class of scientific texts
tend to have a less formal and possible more journalistic tone but they are still
capable of switching between a jovial, friendly style and a more formal “scien-
tific” tone.
People generally do not settle down with a glass of wine to spend the eve-
ning reading installation guides for fun. Pinchuck refers to technical lan-
guage as “workshop language”3, which is somewhere between scientific
and general language. It is less regulated, less literary and even colloquial on
occasion but always strictly functional.
Scientific texts will be conceptually more difficult and will be more ab-
stract than other types of text. They will, however, have more standardised
terms which are easier to look up and they are likely to be better written
than texts on other levels. Technology-based texts will be more concrete,
will contain less information in more space, they will be more colloquial
and will feature concepts which are easier to understand. In addition to this,
there will be products and processes in the external world which can be re-
ferred to. In other words, technical texts can rely on world or background
knowledge to a greater extent. (Pinchuck 1977:218-219).
The Aim of Technical Translation
This leads us on to examine the aim of technical translation. While the pre-
ceding discussion would lead us, quite justifiably, to say that the aim of
technical translation is to transmit technical information, this would be just
half of the story. Although it is true that technical texts are utilitarian
(Pinchuck 1977:18) and are intended to serve a relatively finite purpose,
namely to clearly present information to the target language readers, there is
more to technical translation than simply transmitting information. Instead,
the challenge for technical communicators is to ensure that all of the rele-
vant information is indeed conveyed but also that it is conveyed in such a
way that the readers can use the information easily, properly and effectively.
Indeed, this aim is precisely the same as that of technical writing, which,
rather unsurprisingly, forms the basis for technical translation in that it sup-
plies the raw materials for translation activities.
3 Pinchuck (1997:163-164) is eager to stress that workshop is not meant in any

derogative sense. Rather, it reflects one of the traditional areas where scientists
work and as such is equally as valid as “scientific”. In any case, he offers an in-
teresting discussion of the differences between scientific and technical language.
A Communicative Service
In previous paragraphs we referred to technical translation as a communica-
tive service. Indeed, this is reflected in the following quote from Sykes
(1971:1):
Practical translating... is a service industry. The value of the service pro-

vided by... the translator, depends here, primarily, not on the effort
which went into its preparation, its literary merit, its quality of presenta-
tion, production and reproduction, etc., but on its gap-bridging capac-
ity, its message and content, its scientific or commercial utility to the
requester.
The purpose of technical translation is, therefore, to present new techni-

cal information to a new audience, not to reproduce the source text, per se,
or reflect its style or language. Technical translation is a communicative ser-
vice provided in response to a very definite demand for technical informa-
tion which is easily accessible (in terms of comprehensibility, clarity and
speed of delivery).
As a communicative service or act, translation inevitably involves people.
At the most basic level, we can say that this communicative act involves the
author, the translator and the reader. This is the standard way of examining
the translation process. However, this is far too simplistic for anything other
than the most basic discussions.
In reality, several parties are involved in the process. This has been ad-
dressed by authors such as Vermeer and Nord but it is necessary here to
emphasise the important roles played by the various stakeholders. Con-
scious of the fact that the majority of non-literary documentation is not
produced as a result of some desire or intention on the part of the author,
Nord (1991:42ff) distinguishes between the sender and text producer (au-
thor). Using software user guides as an example, we can say that the sender
would be the software company who actually develops and sells the soft-
ware. As part of the product development process, the company instructs
one of its employees, a technical writer, to produce a comprehensive user
guide to help users learn to use the software. Thus, the text producer in this
case is the technical writer working for the software company.
An interesting point is made by Nord (1997:21) who claims that unless a
source text was produced specifically to be translated, the source text author
has no immediate involvement in the translation process. This poses some-
thing of a problem because in the current climate with multilingual,
multinational companies and legislation requiring documents in multiple
languages, it is difficult to imagine a case where it does not occur to someone

during the production of documentation that it may be translated at some
stage, even if it is just a distant prospect. Still, it is hard to see why the au-
thor would be involved in this process unless the translator needed to clarify
an ambiguous part of the text. Again, with the growing dependency on
freelance translators, it is unlikely that a translator would have any direct or
indirect communication channel with the author. A peculiar situation in-
deed and, perhaps, worthy of further investigation in the future.
We can see from this however, that the stakeholders in the technical
translation process are not simply the author, translator and reader. If we
examine the practical circumstances surrounding the production of multi-
lingual documentation, we can propose a number of other parties:
• Document Initiator
• Writer/Text Producer
• Translation Initiator
• Translator
• User dif
The Document Initiator is the person or entity responsible for the pro-
duction of the original source language document. In the case of product
documentation, this is invariably the company that manufactures the prod-
uct. The Document Initiator’s aim here is to have documentation that will
help users learn how to use the product effectively, safely and efficiently.
This can be motivated by a genuine desire to help users, to provide a
“complete” product, to improve the company’s competitiveness and repu-
tation, to reduce calls to technical support or simply to comply with legal
requirements.
The Document Initiator then instructs the Writer (who may be in-house
or a freelance contractor) to produce the documentation. The Writer either
receives a detailed brief from the Document Initiator or develops a docu-
ment specification on the basis of interviews with the Document Initiator
and/or the Writer’s own expertise. Working to this specification, the
Writer gathers information from a variety of sources such as white papers,
project outlines, hand-written notes, product specifications and marketing
materials and processes them to produce a text which then goes through a
number of iterations which is tested at each stage for content, clarity and
ideally usability. The completed document is returned to the Document
Initiator and distributed to customers. By referring to the sender and the
text producer (Nord 1991:42ff) also acknowledges the need to differentiate
between the person who actually writes a text and the person or entity who
orders its creation.
The Translation Initiator is the person or entity responsible for starting
the translation process. This is generally the Document Initiator but it can
be argued that the Translation Initiator may be a different department or
manager within the same company. The motivations for the translation
process are similar to those for the document production process, i.e. a de-
sire to enter into new markets where the documents serve not only as a
way of training customers but also as an “ambassador” for the company and
its products. Translations may be motivated by a need to comply with legal
requirements such as the Council of the European Union Resolution C411
which states that “customers are entitled to manuals produced in their own
language” irrespective of where the product was made (Council of the
European Union 1998:3). The Translation Initiator sends the document
and some form of instructions to the Translator.
While strictly speaking the Translator is the next step, in reality this is
not always the case. Frequently, texts will be sent to translation agencies or
localization vendors who will then send the document to a translator. It
goes without saying that this additional link in the chain can present both
problems and benefits for the Translation Initiator and the Translator. Prob-
lems arise from the fact that this is another stage in the communication
process and as such, any instructions or requirements specified by the
Translation Initiator may well be “watered down”, misinterpreted or not
passed on by the agency or vendor. Of course, this depends on the systems
and processes the agency has in place as well as on the personalities and
communication skills of the project managers and administrators involved.
It is not unheard of for a project manager to simply send a text out for
translation by a freelancer without passing on any form of instruction, as-
suming instead that the translator will know what to do with it. On the
other hand, certain agencies have robust processes in place to ensure that
translators are given detailed information such as whether the text is for
publication or for information purposes, whether specialised terminology or
style guides need to be used and so on. However, for the sake of clarity and
simplicity, we will assume that the instructions from the Translation Initia-
tor have been conveyed perfectly to the Translator and that there is no
cause to suspect that ambiguities have been introduced or instructions lost.
Translators can be either staff (working for the Document/Translation
Initiator), in-house (working in-house for an agency or vendor) or free-
lance and they are responsible for producing a foreign language version of
the original document. Unfortunately, practices regarding translation briefs
or instructions for producing the translation are far from consistent and
frequently problematic. In addition to the factors discussed above, the problem

is that many Translation Initiators simply do not have the necessary knowl-
edge or experience to realise that they should give some form of brief when
commissioning translations. Some simply regard this as the translator’s re-
sponsibility. For instance, some might argue that you would not give a me-
chanic a detailed checklist and instructions for servicing your car. Instead
they would expect that, having described the problem in general, the me-
chanic would be able to establish what the problem was and would know
how to fix it. The same thinking applies when some clients think of transla-
tors. At best, many clients will simply specify that the document is for pub-
lication purposes, should use company’s own terminology and should “read
well”. In this regard, in-house and staff translators fare a little better than
their freelance counterparts.
Even in the absence of a translation brief, an in-house translator will have
access to various experts, sometimes even the original author as well as ac-
cess to a variety of existing documentation in the form of previous versions
of the document and parallel texts. Freelancers, unfortunately, do not al-
ways have this luxury although the more conscientious will pester the client
or agency for this material. More often than not, translators have to rely on
previous experience and knowledge of the document conventions for both
languages. So, using a knowledge of the two languages, including the
methods for producing effective texts in the target language, subject knowl-
edge and their perception of the audience’s needs, expectations and re-
quirements while at the same time ensuring that the client’s wishes are met
along with the legal requirements for documentation, the translator pro-
duces the foreign language version of the text. The translation is then made
available to the User, who represents the final stage in the process.
It is the User who, according to Holz-Mänttäri (1984:111), is the deci-
sive factor in the production of a target text. Where technical documents
are translated, there are two sets of users: the source language user and the
target language user. Although both users are on the surface quite different
in terms of their needs, i.e. documents in the respective languages, they
share certain macro-aims, e.g. learn how to use the product. However, this
may need to be achieved in different ways. This is where the technical
writer and the technical translator share a common purpose to determine
what their respective users want and how to achieve this. In order to trans-
late effectively, a translator needs to fully understand and know the users
(Reiss & Vermeer 1984: 101).
The user is the real reason the original document was produced in the
first place and subsequently translated. What the user wants from a transla-
tion has been subject to much debate, argument and hand-wringing among
translation theorists. Some argue that the target language reader may be in-
terested in gaining an insight into the culture of the source text culture or
the source language itself. Others would argue that the target reader wants
to experience the text in the same way as the original audience did. In cer-
tain circumstances this may be true. However, in the case of technical
translation, all readers are concerned about is getting the information they
need and being able to understand and use it effectively in order to do
something else, usually some task relating to their day to day work. This
may sound rather absolutist and dogmatic, but in reality many people treat
translations not as translations but as original target language texts. This is
unless, of course, there is some quality issue within the text which identifies
it as a translation in which case the user will probably lose much, if not all,
trust in the text. In any case, the translation needs to function in precisely
the same way as any other text in the target language. Readers are unlikely
to show mercy to a translation that is obviously a translation just because it
is a translation. This serves only to distract them from their primary con-
cern: finding the information they need in the document and using it.
With this general overview of the key stakeholders involved in technical
translation, we now need to take a closer look at the role of the translator.
After all, it is the translator who facilitates this extension of the communica-
tion process.
The Translator’s Role
Given its central position in the entire translation process, the role of the
translator is, understandably, more complex than the other participants and
as such merits closer investigation.
Much like the source language technical writer, the translator’s primary
job is to communicate information by means of a text. This aim supersedes
any desire or intention to transfer the source text into the target language.
As Robinson (2003:142) maintains, “translators don’t translate words they
translate what people do with words”. In this case, we have the added
complications presented by the fact that we are dealing with two different
languages, a fairly rigidly prescribed framework within which to produce

the target text (i.e. the translation brief and the source text4).
However, like the technical writer, the translator uses information from a
variety of sources, not just the source text, to produce a target text which is
effective and which performs the desired communicative function.
In this sense, the translator becomes the intercultural or cross-cultural
technical writer referred to by Göpferich (1993) and Amman & Vermeer
(1990:27). But this isn’t just an excuse for loose and overzealous translations
by translators who are dissatisfied with their role as mere translators and
yearn for the “power” of an author. Quite the opposite in fact! The sign of
a good technical translator is the ability to do some of the things a technical
writer does to make sure that the person who ultimately reads the text can
do so with relative ease and that whatever tasks the reader needs to per-
form, are easier having read the text.
However, in practical and professional terms, the actual work of a trans-
lator is still somewhat unclear and not fully understood. In the words of
Mossop (1998:40) there are “no systematic observations, or even self- de-
scriptions, of how professional translators proceed when they translate”.
This is indeed true. We may speculate as to what is actually involved in
translating a text and how it is done by a translator but in terms of what a
translator actually does and when, we are still guessing to a large extent.
Mossop describes the process of translation as a process consisting of 5 tasks
performed over 3 phases of translation production:
• Phase 1: Pre-drafting
• Phase 2: Drafting
• Phase 3 Post-drafting
4 I am conscious of the need not to elevate the source text to such heights that it
dominates and determines the translation process. The emphasis here is, and will
remain, firmly on the needs of the target audience and not on the source text or
author. Having said this, there is a limit, as yet intangible, to what a translator
can do and how far a translator can deviate from the source text. A useful way of
thinking about this is Nord’s notion of “function plus loyalty” as part of her ap-
proach to Skopos theory (see page 38) although Vermeer has reservations about
introducing subjective, value judgments into Skopos theory (Vermeer 1996:83).
During the course of these phases, translators perform the following tasks,
although it is not clear, according to Mossop, how the tasks are distributed.
It is possible that the tasks are performed sequentially or in parallel.
• Task 1: Interpret the source text
• Task 2: Compose the translation
• Task 3: Conduct the research needed for tasks 1 and 2
• Task 4: Check the draft translation for errors and correct if necessary
• Task 5: Decide the implications of the commission. In other words, how
do the intended users and uses of the translation affect tasks 1 to 4?
While Mossop presents these phases and tasks as a description of practical

translation as a whole, they are easily applied to technical translation, al-
though it is possible that the distribution of tasks and stages is even more
difficult to pin down. Nevertheless, this description serves to give a useful
overview of the stages involved in producing a technical translation because
it acknowledges the need for translators to conduct research so as to under-
stand not just the text but also the subject while at the same time ensuring,
by means of revisions and corrections, that the text conforms to target lan-
guage norms and target audience expectations.
Technical Translator or Technical Communicator?

That the lines separating the role of technical translator and technical writer
have become somewhat blurred is inevitable. What’s more, this fact is gain-
ing greater recognition in the wider “communication” community. Various
professional societies for technical communication in Europe and in the
United States - such as the Institute for Scientific and Technical Communi-
cators and the Society for Technical Communication - specifically include
translators in their definitions of technical communicators.
Not only do both camps deal in the same currency, i.e. technical infor-
mation in texts, they also share several key tasks and activities. Perhaps first
and foremost, technical writers are, to a certain extent, not unlike transla-
tors in that they need to “translate” what Van Laan and Julian (2002:18) call
“geek-speak” into clear and understandable English. As mentioned previ-
ously, a technical writer gathers information from a variety of sources
including documents that were produced by and for experts such as pro-
grammers and engineers. With this come the inevitable infelicities of style,
excessively technical content or indeed missing information. This information
needs to be rebuilt, reinterpreted, remodelled and restructured so that it

can be understood and used by the reader. Likewise, the translator needs to
transform information from a form which was produced by and for speakers
of the source language into a form which can be understood by the target
audience. This is achieved by editing, rearranging, adding and even remov-
ing information.
Adding and Removing Information

Göpferich (1993:52) says that sometimes it is quite necessary to add addi-
tional information to a text to help ensure that the information and text are
as usable and effective as possible. Similarly, some information needs to be
omitted, condensed or made implicit because it is of less importance for the
target audience, because it may not apply to the target audience’s particular
situation or because it may result in confusion. Put simply, sometimes
information must be sacrificed in order to protect the integrity of the
communication.
Pinchuck (1977:206-207;210-211) maintains that a text should give
readers just enough information for their purposes; no more, no less. Too
much information, like too little information can lead to confusion, stress
and unnecessary effort on the part of readers. The rule of thumb is that if a
user does not need to know something at a given moment, don’t tell them
about it. But this can be abused, either intentionally or unintentionally. In
her discussion of medical translation, O’Neill (1998:76) claims that doctors-
turned-translators (who have much more subject knowledge than tradi-
tional translators) tend to edit, reduce and summarise texts to make them
better. However, the problem here is that unless this is specifically what the
reader wants and needs, the translator is committing quite a serious error.
This type of intervention also manifests itself in the formulation and edit-
ing aspects of the translation process. In the case of poorly formulated
source texts, this requires the technical translator to intervene whenever
necessary in order to reword, edit or present information in the best way
for the reader. According to Sykes (1971:6) the translator should “not feel
compelled to perpetuate the more sinful omissions or commissions of his
[sic] author”. Sykes goes on to advise technical translators to “look out for
unnecessary verbiage (including padding)” as it allows the translator to “re-
phrase rather than paraphrase”. The opposite is true of excessively concise
texts (Sykes 1971:10). In fact, Ramey (1998) discusses how sentences that
have been overly condensed can result in Escher effects, or sentences that
can have multiple meanings that take more than a little detective work on
the part of the reader to decipher.
Similarly, the translator may need to intervene in the flow of information

within a text. This is particularly important in the case of user guides or in-
structions for use where instructions in the text must match the actual se-
quence of actions the reader needs to perform. This is also useful for the
purposes of ensuring the appropriate register in the target text. Gerzymisch-
Arbogast (1993) discusses how the sequencing of information in a text
reflects its register or author-reader contract and how the register for a par-
ticular document type may need to change in translation.
Sometimes, too, changes to the sequencing of sections in a document are
needed because of cultural norms relating to the structure of a particular
type of document. For example, a user guide for an electrical appliance in
German might typically start with an explanation of the parts, then infor-
mation for disposing of the product after use followed by an introduction.
In English, the user guide for a comparable (or even the same) product
might start with an introduction followed by a quick start tutorial.
There is a very definite legal requirement on technical writers and in
turn, on technical translators to ensure that documents contain enough in-
formation to ensure the safe operation of products and devices. European
directives such as Directive 98/37/EC of the European Parliament place
the onus on manufacturers (and the writers and translators working on their
behalf) to predict possible hazards and to document them in instructions
and product documentation. The directive states that:
1.2.2. Principles of safety integration

(c) When designing and constructing machinery, and when drafting
the instructions, the manufacturer must envisage not only the normal
use of the machinery but also uses which could reasonably be expected.
The machinery must be designed to prevent abnormal use if such use
would engender a risk. In other cases the instructions must draw the
user’s attention to ways - which experience has shown might occur - in
which the machinery should not be used. (Council of the European
Union 1998) [emphasis my own]
What this means for the translator is that, if a manual describing the pro-
cedure for repairing a machine vital information is missing or incompre-
hensible and could result in death or injury or damage to the machine, the
translator needs to ensure that the information is either completely refor-
mulated, supplemented and made explicit or at the very least brought to the
attention of the client. I once had to translate a maintenance manual for a
die pressing machine used to manufacture body panels for motor cars. As
such texts go this was fairly unproblematic except for one particular section
which, if I had translated as it stood, would have caused the user to lose lost
an arm as a result of reaching in to the machine without first engaging the
safety mechanisms. The manual was divided into various sections and stages
which described the different maintenance tasks which could be carried
out. In a previous section, the manual described how to disengage the
power supply to the die punch and activate the safety barrier before recon-
necting the power. In the next section, this information was left out al-
though it was still essential. It’s possible that the author assumed that it
wouldn’t be necessary to repeat the information a second time. Perhaps the
writer simply forgot to include it. In any case, there are several compelling
reasons as to why it was essential to include this information again:
• the nature of manuals means that people do not always read manuals
from cover to cover or even in sequence,
• even if users had read the previous section, there is no guarantee that
they would remember this information
• even if users realise that there is potentially something missing from the
instructions, many people trust the instructions they are given and will
assume that the information was left out for a reason, e.g. it does not ap-
ply in this particular instance
Ambiguous information can also necessitate the addition of information in a

text. Pinchuck (1977:66) gives an example of ambiguity in the form of the
following text on a sign:
“Flying planes can be dangerous”
We can disambiguate this by making explicit certain information relating to

the situation in which the utterance is intended to function or be used.
Thus we could say:
“Planes flying overhead can be dangerous”.
While this may seem unacceptable because it is clearly adding text where
there was none, if we take the view that a text is supposed to function in a
particular situation, it therefore depends on that situation in order to have
the correct meaning, relevance and importance. Thus, the text is part of the
situation and so adding material or facts from the situation is perfectly ac-
ceptable because it is not so much adding but reallocating information. In
Theory in Technical Translation 21
fact this is similar to what Kussmaul (1998:123) describes as “enlarging a

scene”. In this case, the scene would be the situation and circumstances in
which the sign is used, e.g. on an airfield. He does urge caution in this re-
spect because of the difficulty in definitively saying “how many and which
kinds of elements can be added to a scene without getting into another
scene that is no longer adequate as a translation”. So there is a limit to how
much information we can make explicit from the scene but unfortunately,
there are no hard and fast rules.
Conversely, it is sometimes essential to remove information from a text.
This can happen for several reasons: sometimes the information is legally
inappropriate for a particular audience; the information does not apply to
the target audience for technical reasons; or the information is meaningless
for the target audience.
Another example comes from a translation I carried out for the manufac-
turer of a satellite television receiver. The document consisted of a series of
frequently asked questions relating to the receiver, its configuration and its
operation. The document stated that users could find details of the frequen-
cies and polarities of various television channels in a range of German
magazines, each of which was mentioned by name. At first glance this was a
fairly innocuous sentence but in reality it was potentially problematic.
Firstly, the magazines are not available outside Germany and even if they
were, they would be in German and would be of no use to the reader. An
alternative to listing the names of the magazines would be to do a little re-
search and replace the names with the names of similar English-language
magazines which also provided the same information. A little above and
beyond the call of duty perhaps, but it is the type of thing some translators
would do as a matter of course for a customer. This, however, is not with-
out its problems either. With English being spoken in several countries,
how do we know that the magazines we select will be available in places
like Canada, the United States, Ireland, England, Australia and so on? The
translation itself may end up in any number of these countries but the like-
lihood of a magazine being available in some or all of them is by no means
assured. In this case, a more sensible solution would be to simply omit the
names of the magazines and refer users to “your satellite listings magazine”.
Theory in Technical Translation
Technical translation, like translation in general, has both benefited and suf-
fered as a result of the work of translation theorists. In the past 40 or so
Technical Translation
Usability Strategies for Translating Technical
Documentation
JODY BYRNE
University of Sheffield, UK
fact this is similar to what Kussmaul (1998:123) describes as “enlarging a

scene”. In this case, the scene would be the situation and circumstances in
which the sign is used, e.g. on an airfield. He does urge caution in this re-
spect because of the difficulty in definitively saying “how many and which
kinds of elements can be added to a scene without getting into another
scene that is no longer adequate as a translation”. So there is a limit to how
much information we can make explicit from the scene but unfortunately,
there are no hard and fast rules.
Conversely, it is sometimes essential to remove information from a text.
This can happen for several reasons: sometimes the information is legally
inappropriate for a particular audience; the information does not apply to
the target audience for technical reasons; or the information is meaningless
for the target audience.
Another example comes from a translation I carried out for the manufac-
turer of a satellite television receiver. The document consisted of a series of
frequently asked questions relating to the receiver, its configuration and its
operation. The document stated that users could find details of the frequen-
cies and polarities of various television channels in a range of German
magazines, each of which was mentioned by name. At first glance this was a
fairly innocuous sentence but in reality it was potentially problematic.
Firstly, the magazines are not available outside Germany and even if they
were, they would be in German and would be of no use to the reader. An
alternative to listing the names of the magazines would be to do a little re-
search and replace the names with the names of similar English-language
magazines which also provided the same information. A little above and
beyond the call of duty perhaps, but it is the type of thing some translators
would do as a matter of course for a customer. This, however, is not with-
out its problems either. With English being spoken in several countries,
how do we know that the magazines we select will be available in places
like Canada, the United States, Ireland, England, Australia and so on? The
translation itself may end up in any number of these countries but the like-
lihood of a magazine being available in some or all of them is by no means
assured. In this case, a more sensible solution would be to simply omit the
names of the magazines and refer users to “your satellite listings magazine”.
Theory in Technical Translation
Technical translation, like translation in general, has both benefited and suf-
fered as a result of the work of translation theorists. In the past 40 or so
years a plethora of theories, models, approaches and ideas have been circu-
lated seeking to explain, rationalise, analyse and describe the translation
process. Technical translation has, however, been largely omitted from
much of this work and is rarely dealt with explicitly. Rather, it is for tech-
nical translators themselves or those academics who feel strongly enough
about this species of translating to try and see how the “mainstream” theo-
ries can be related to the practice of technical translation at the coal-face, as
it were. More often than not, the results are disappointing. Not because
technical translation is inherently unique and challenging (although it is)
but because translation itself is as elusive and mercurial as ever and there
seems to be a real collective mental-block preventing a clear understanding
of what translators actually do. But what are our options? Do we want a
theory of translation that is sufficiently flexible and general that it can be
applied on at least some level to all types of translation but which will not
provide any concrete answers or insights? Or do we want highly specialised,
narrowly focussed theories that are so rigid and unyielding that they either
exclude vast swathes of translation activity or come crashing down around
our ears at the first sign of an anomalous translation situation?
The aim of this book is most certainly not to redress this situation. It
would be a brave soul who would try to tackle the patchwork that is trans-
lation studies in this way. Instead, my aim here is to discuss various theories,
models and approaches and try to relate them in some way to technical
translation. Conscious of the need to avoid reinventing the wheel or worse
still, further muddying the already murky waters of translation theory, there
will be no lengthy or exhaustive discussions of the various theories. This is
not necessary or indeed appropriate here. The aim here is, therefore, to
provide some theoretical background so as to illustrate the nature of techni-
cal translation and to provide a better understanding of the environment
within which it operates.
The Trouble with Translation Theory
Good theory is based on information gained from practice. Good practice

is based on carefully worked-out theory. The two are interdependent.
(Larson 1991:1)
When trying to explain or situate technical translation within a theoreti-

cal framework it is often extremely difficult to know where to begin. This
is made all the more problematic when we consider the shockingly diverse
range of approaches, models, rules and theories. This can be illustrated us-
ing a much quoted example from Savory (1957:49) who compiled the fol-
lowing list of “rules” of translation from a variety of “authoritative” sources
on translation which state that a translation:
• must give the words of the original
• must give the ideas of the original
• should read like an original text
• should read like a translation
• should reflect the style of the original
• should possess the style of the original
• should read as a contemporary of the original
• read like a contemporary of the translation
• may add to or omit from the original
• may never add to or omit from the original
These rules are, without doubt, contradictory and at times paradoxical but
they cannot be dismissed completely since each one will find legitimate ap-
plication in a specific translation context. And this is, perhaps, where we
should begin our attempts to situate technical translation in its own theo-
retical “space”, if such a thing is possible. Looking at the professional con-
text upon which this book has as its background, we can describe technical
translation in very basic terms as a communicative process, or rather, a ser-
vice provided on behalf of someone else for a particular purpose and within
a particular situation and environment. In fact, the constraints and circum-
stances affecting technical translation are really quite similar to those affect-
ing technical writing which will be discussed in the next chapter.
So how does this help us find a theoretical basis for technical translation?
To answer this, we first need to look at the most prevalent theoretical ap-
proaches to translation to see where this communicative, reader-orientated,
service approach fits in. We can broadly categorise the different theories ac-
cording to the emphasis they place on the source text (ST) and/or target
text (TT). It should be noted, however, that such is the situation with
translation theory that there is frequently an overlap between these two
categories; while a theorist may ostensibly be in favour of concentrating
on the target text, there may be varying levels of source text-orientation
within the theories. Far from being a ground for questioning the decision
to divide theories in this way, this fact serves to highlight not only the diffi-
culty in developing a theory of translation but also in placing technical
translation within a particular theoretical framework.
However, a useful starting point, particularly for technical translation, is
the idea presented by Toury (1995:56-7) that translation is essentially af-
fected by two major roles:
1. the translation is a text in a particular target language and culture
2. the translation constitutes a representation in one language of another
text existing in another language and culture
He states that the basic choice which is made by a translator in deciding be-
tween the requirements of the two different roles represents an initial norm.
This choice with regard to preferences for either role determines whether
the translation can be regarded as adequate or acceptable. Thus he says:
…whereas adherence to source norms determines a translation’s ade-

quacy as compared to the source text, subscription to norms originating
in the target culture determines its acceptability. (Toury 1995:57) [em-
phasis in original]
We can see, therefore, that adequacy is typically regarded as a term associ-

ated with source text-orientated attitudes and approaches; acceptability on
the other hand, by its very implication of a target audience focuses on the
target text. Relating this to technical translation, we can say that, in general,
the aim of a technical translation is to achieve a high level of acceptability,
primarily because technical texts, particularly instructional texts, are in-
tended to function first and foremost as a target language text.
Toury goes on to say that adequacy and acceptability can be manifest on
both a macro and a micro-level. Thus, on a macro-level, the text may sub-
scribe to target culture norms but on a micro-level, not all translation
choices and strategies need to comply with the overall macro-level strategy.
In effect, we can see that we can still produce a target-orientated text even
if we have to resort on occasions to source-orientated strategies on a lower
level. This is especially true of technical translation where some sentences
can and need only be translated literally while other sentences or even para-
graphs need much more radical translation strategies.
Larson (1987:69) provides some additional insight when she states that
“the goal of most translators is to produce translations which are acceptable
for the audiences for whom the translations are produced”. This acceptability,
she continues, can only be attained “if the translator has a set of criteria
which will guide him [sic] as he works and by which he can measure his fi-
nal product”. Crucially, she says that these criteria vary from project to pro-
ject - or from translation to translation.
The notion that a technical translation must be acceptable to the client is
echoed by Pinchuck (1977:205) who states that what both the client and
translator want is a satisfactory translation which is achieved with a mini-
mum expenditure of time and effort. It should be pointed out at this point,
however, that Pinchuck does not make a distinction between acceptability
and adequacy like Toury. While Pinchuck refers to the adequacy of transla-
tions, it is used in the same way as Toury uses acceptability - in other
words, the translation is adequate for the needs of the target audience. In-
deed, Pinchuck says an adequate translation is always a compromise be-
tween conflicting demands in that has a tendency to concede fidelity to the
requirements of intelligibility and of speed. The extent of this, Pinchuck
maintains, depends on the circumstances in which the translation is pro-
duced (1977:207).
In general, an inferior translation according to Pinchuck (ibid.) is “a
work that is unreadable, or difficult to read, and possibly also inaccurate”.
Pinchuck goes on to say that in any case, an adequate translation will always
be one that has been produced utilising just enough time and energy to en-
sure that the needs of the consumer are met. The translation should not be
of a higher quality than that required by the client, particularly if this in-
volves a higher cost. Having said that, the quality should not be lower if it
means that the reader will have to spend a lot of time and energy on deci-
phering it. The technical translator, according to Pinchuck, aims to achieve
adequacy and not perfection in translation. Realistically, this should be the
goal for any translator or writer because we can never assume that a com-
municative act will run perfectly smoothly and that nothing will be lost.
Source-Orientated Approaches to Translation
Equivalence
The idea of equivalence forms the basis of many theories of translation and
by implication, definitions of translation quality. But the term “equiva-
lence”, however, is fraught with difficulties. Indeed Newmark (1993:75)
claims that “the cerebration and the brain racking about translation equivalence
goes on forever”. He goes on to say that translation equivalence cannot

be defined and as such, there are only degrees of equivalence (ibid).
While there are numerous definitions and types of equivalence, they all
rely on one thing: a link or bond of some sort between the source text and
the target text. As Catford (1965:49) explains “the TL text must be relatable
to at least some of the situational features to which the SL text is relatable”.
According to Catford, a translation does not necessarily have to consist of
target language elements with the same meaning as the source language ele-
ments but ones which have the greatest possible amount of overlap across
the different levels of equivalence.
This is echoed by Halverson (1997:207) who provides a slightly broader
definition of equivalence and says it is a relationship which exists between
two entities and it is described as one of likeness / sameness / similarity /
equality in terms of any number of potential qualities. Equivalence theories
regard translation as an attempt to reproduce the source text as closely as
possible. But because there are numerous reasons why they can never be
perfectly equivalent on all levels, numerous of types equivalence have been
defined such as formal and dynamic equivalence (Nida 1964), denotative,
connotative, pragmatic, textual and formal aesthetic equivalence (Koller
1979).
Levels of Equivalence
We see that equivalence between the source and target texts is not absolute
and total but it can operate on a number of different levels. There are a
number of systems which have been put forward to examine the levels of
equivalence. One of the most enduring is the scheme proposed by Koller
(1979:188-189). According to Koller, equivalence can occur on the follow-
ing levels:
1. Denotational Meaning, namely the object or concept being referred to.
In texts such as user guides, equivalence on this level is relatively easy to
achieve because we need to keep referring back to the product the
reader is learning to use.
2. Connotational Meaning, which is, according to Koller divided into lan-
guage level, sociolect, dialect, medium, style, frequency, domain, value
and emotional tone. Equivalence on this level can sometimes prove
problematic where, for example, the enthusiastic and informal tone
adopted by the source text may be culturally unacceptable in the target
language.
3. Textual Norms, which are typical language features of texts like patents,
legal documents, business letters etc. Textual norms may include the use
of the second person to address the readers of user guides or the use of
passive constructions to describe experiments in scholarly journals.
4. Pragmatic Meaning, which includes reader expectations
Komissarov (1977) also proposes a series of levels on which translation

equivalence can occur. In the context of what Fawcett (1997:60) refers to
as “sharp and fuzzy equivalence” Komissarov’s levels all build upon each
other with the lowest level of equivalence being retained and built on by
the next higher level of equivalence and so on. These levels are as follows:
1. Equivalence on the level of the general meaning or message. Aside from
the general communicative intention, there is no tangible equivalence on
the basis of situational, grammatical or lexical factors.
2. In addition to the preceding level, this type of equivalence identifies a
particular situation in both texts.
3. Building on the preceding levels, equivalence on this level maintains fac-
tors or elements which describe the situation established in level 2.
4. As well as all of the information presented as a result of the preceding
levels of equivalence, this level establishes semantic and syntactic equiva-
lence in that the majority of the source text words have corresponding
target language lexical items and the syntax is transformationally related.
5. This level of equivalence displays a close parallelism between the source
and target texts on all levels of language.
Types of Equivalence
Perhaps the most well known types of equivalence are formal and dynamic
equivalence posited by Nida (1964). Formal equivalence is concerned with
the message in terms of its form and content. With this type of equivalence
the message in the target language should match the different elements in
the source language as closely as possible, be they lexical, syntactic, stylistic,
phonological or orthographic. According to Catford, a formal correspon-
dent (or equivalent) is any target language category (unit, class, structure,
element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possi-
ble, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of’ the target language as the given
source language category occupies in the source language (Catford
1965:27).
Dynamic equivalence on the other hand is based on the notion that the
target text should have the same effect on its audience as the source text
had on its own audience. With this type of equivalence the emphasis is not
so much on finding a target language match for a source language message
but rather on creating the same relationship between the target audience
and the message as that which existed between the source language audi-
ence and the message (Nida 1964:159). By using this type of equivalence it
is hoped to produce a target text which is natural and idiomatic and which
focuses on the target language culture. According to this definition of
equivalence, a successful translation needs to capture the sense of the source
text and not just the words. As such it can only be regarded as a successful
piece of communication if the message is successfully transmitted to the tar-
get audience. One example, proposed by Nida, of how this can be achieved
in practice would be to change the sequence of sentences where they do
not match the real-time chronology of actions. This particular strategy is
quite useful, especially in the translation of instructions.
On the surface, dynamic equivalence seems useful in that it emphasises
the importance of meaning, and more specifically, of equivalent response. It
could be argued that this is essential in the translation of instructional texts,
training materials, tender documents etc. but the usefulness of this concept
is limited as it is primarily concerned with cultural phenomena which, as a
rule, do not occur in technical texts. I say as a rule because technical texts
can, and do on occasion, contain certain items which Lee-Jahnke (1998:82)
describes as socio-culturally specific. Such items may include time and date
conventions, units of measure, laws, government departments and authori-
ties etc.
While legal terms, such as those that appear in product documentation or
patents, are potentially problematic, from a practical point of view it can be
argued that they are easier to deal with. If for example, the target audience
needs to know precise details of the law, we give the name of the law in
the source language accompanied by the official translation or a paraphrase
in the target language. The reason for including the source language name
here is to ensure that if the reader needs more information on the law or
needs to seek advice from a lawyer in the source language country, they
will be able to refer to the law using its correct name. There is, after all, lit-
tle point in referring to something by a name which nobody recognises. On
the other band, if the precise term is not important, we simply give a de-
scription or generic term. An example of this would be a user guide for a
refrigerator which tells users to dispose of the packaging in accordance with
the German laws on disposal of household waste. It makes little sense for
someone living outside Germany to dispose of waste in accordance with
German laws. In this case, we simply say that the packaging should be dis-
posed of in accordance with the relevant waste disposal laws (unless of
course we are certain of’ the intended target country and want to mention
specific equivalent laws but sometimes it’s best to keep these things vague!).
Nida makes the point, however, that eliciting the same response from
two different groups of people can be difficult, particularly when we con-
sider that no two people from the same language group will understand
words in exactly the same way (1969:4). This sentiment is also expressed by
Steiner (1975:28). What we are left with, therefore, is an approach which is
theoretically quite desirable but often regarded as excessively vague, difficult
to implement and imprecise in practice.
Other types of equivalence include referential equivalence whereby the
equivalence centres on the ST and TT words referring to the same ex-
tratextual entities in the “real world”. Connotative equivalence is used to
describe the relationship between ST and TT words which result in the
same or similar associations or connotations in the minds of the reader.
Text-normative equivalence involves source language and target language
words being used in the same or similar contexts in their respective lan-
guages.
Technical Translation and Equivalence

Source-based approaches, as exemplified by the various types and levels of
equivalence briefly mentioned above, represent a problematic foundation
upon which to base technical translation. While referential equivalence can
ensure that a translation accurately conveys the intended information, con-
notative equivalence can help avoid the introduction of inappropriate regis-
ter or terms and textual equivalence can benefit the flow of information and
cohesion of texts, the fact that source-based approaches do not consider the
full communicative situation in which technical texts are translated and
used poses significant problems for the technical translator. Since technical
translation is a communicative service aimed at providing information to a
new audience, the concentration on the source text and not on those in-
volved in the communication means that a crucial part of the translational
situation is simply not considered. If we do not consider the purpose of the
communication, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to tell whether it was
successful.
Linguistic approaches - of which Nida’s theory is one, its sociological
dimension notwithstanding - presuppose some form of equivalence be-
tween the source text and the target text. This is fine as long as we are
solely interested in the text and we are content that the target text, as a
reflection of the source text, is an end in itself. But if we are interested in the
communicative value of a translation and what people do with texts (see
Robinson 2003:142), equivalence-based theories have difficulty in account-
ing for the changes, alterations, additions and omissions etc. which are
needed in professional translation projects. Koller (1995:196) acknowledges
this when he talks about the “contradictory and scarcely reconcilable lin-
guistic-textual and extra-linguistic factors and conditions”.
Source-based approaches also fail to take into account the fact that trans-
lations, once they have been “released into the wild”, so to speak, become
subject to the norms, standards and requirements of contemporary texts
originally produced in the target language. In other words, the translation is
no longer regarded by the target audience as a translation and instead is
measured against other target language texts. Rather than providing us with
a means of producing independent and autonomous target language texts,
equivalence, because of its need to maintain a close link between source
and target texts, provides us with texts that can only be evaluated on the
basis of a source text which the target audience will usually not know
about. Apart from this, if the target audience was in a position to compare
the translation with the source text, they would be unlikely to need a trans-
lation in the first place.
Problems also arise from the fact that the various typologies of equiva-
lence rarely provide any real guidance as to how we should go about actu-
ally translating texts. While equivalence typologies such as Komissarov’s
above are useful in highlighting the different levels of equivalence which
may be achieved by a translator, when it comes to the actual process of
translating they are difficult to implement because they do not specify
which type of equivalence could or should be used under which circum-
stances. For instance, in the case of a user guide, should the translator strive
for denotational equivalence alone or denotational and textual equivalence?
As Fawcett (1997:62) says “it is only a little more helpful than the old trans-
lation adage ‘as literal as possible, as free as necessary”. Some source-based
approaches, do in fact, provide some form of prescriptive rules to be applied
during the translation process, for example Schveitser (1987). Though in-
teresting and enlightening, they are not particularly useful for practical ap-
plications because they are generally too cumbersome and numerous for
one person to remember and implement. In any case, in schemes such as
Schveitser’s which has some 55 rules, only a small proportion of the rules
will apply in any one translation job. The time spent by a translator trying
to decide which of these rules applies to the various parts of the text would
be better spent actually reading the text or researching parallel texts.
Functionalism
Unfortunately for the professional translator, the categories, levels and clas-
sifications of equivalence described above, while helping us to pick through
a translation to see how it ticks, do not really help with the actual process of
translation.
In an attempt to escape the restrictive and often limited approaches to
translation based on theories of equivalence, translation theorists such as
Reiss (1971) and House (1981) changed the focus from being entirely
source-based to include some aspects of the target text. To be precise, their
attention centred on the function of the target text. Such an approach
moves away from the bottom-up linguistic approaches of equivalence-based
theories and instead involves pragmatic and situational aspects of the transla-
tion process. This is indeed an improvement in that it goes at least some
way towards acknowledging the fact that texts are written and translated for
a reason. However, functionalist based theories do not entirely forsake the
source text. Rather they are a hybrid approach which considers both the
source and the target texts.
Nevertheless, functionalism as a general ideology based on extralinguis-
tic, pragmatic and communicative factors of translation is nothing new.
Even in 1964, Nida’s notion of dynamic equivalence called for the repro-
duction of the effect (or function) of the source text in the target text
through equivalence of extralinguistic communicative effect. This was al-
ready hinting at functionalism as we later came to know it.
In 1971, Reiss included the element of text function in her model of
translation criticism. While Reiss’ work is often regarded as highly conser-
vative and dated, it did mark a turning point in the way scholars looked at
translation, particularly in Germany. Her model, while being overwhelm-
ingly equivalence-based, also includes the functional relationship between
the source and target texts. According to Reiss, the ideal translation is one
where optimum equivalence is achieved as regards the conceptual content,
linguistic form and communicative function. This essentially means that,
taking into account the linguistic and situational context, the linguistic and
stylistic factors as well as the author’s intentions (even though this in itself is
a persistent source of debate), the target text should have the same “value”
as the source text. One of the problems, however, with this approach to
the function of translations is that it cannot deal with instances of translation
where the function of the target text is different to that of the source. To
circumvent this problem, Reiss defines such instances as “Übertragungen”
(1971:105) or transfers. Thus, translations where the function changes are
not, she maintains, ‘real’ translations, but rather adaptations.
House (1981) also adopts a functionalist approach and states that it is

“undeniably true that a translation should produce equivalent responses”
(1981:9) and it is on this basis that she maintains that the ultimate goal of a
translation is to achieve the same function in the target text as that in the
source text. She defines two types of translation: covert and overt. A covert
translation is one where the text function is preserved and the reader is not
aware that the text is a translation. An overt translation, on the other hand,
does not maintain the text function of the original and the readers are
somehow aware that it is a translation and not the original language text. In
order to determine whether functional equivalence has been achieved,
Houses proposes that the source text be analysed first so that the target text
can be compared against it.
Like Reiss, this approach escapes the restrictive, purely linguistic criteria
of traditional equivalence-based models by including certain pragmatic and
extralinguistic factors but they both fail to take into instances where it is ei-
ther not always possible or not desirable to maintain the same function in
both texts (cf. Kade 1977:33; Nord 1997:9) to accommodate audience ex-
pectations for the text genre (cf. Gerzymisch-Arbogast 1993:33-34). A
prime example of this comes in the analysis of a tourist brochure by House
(1981:118ff). House criticises the translator for not preserving the apparent
flattery provided by the German text’s lack of explanation for certain cul-
turally-specific items. She regards this, not so much as an error, but more as
proof that the translation was not really a translation, but rather an adapta-
tion. Gutt (1991:50) asks the question of what happens if flattery is not so-
cially acceptable in the target culture. Can the translation really be criticised
for conforming to the social norms and customs of the target audience? Af-
ter all, preserving individual functions within a translation may ultimately
make the translation as a whole functionally non-equivalent. It could be ar-
gued that purposely changing the function in the target text is actually an
important way of hiding any clues as to the text’s true origins in the source
language, something which is central to the notion of a covert translation.
According to House texts where the function is not maintained are overt
(1977:194) and not real translations because they draw attention to the fact
that they are translations. Reiss claims that a target text where the function
of the source text is not maintained is a transfer and dismisses them as
something other than “real” translations. So for instance, if a German user
guide is intended to instruct while an English user guide is intended to ex-
plain, a translation between these two languages will not be a translation
but rather an adaptation, even though the target text can be regarded as a
translation in every other sense.
What is more - as is the case with traditional equivalence-based ap-

proaches - any attempt at translation based on this approach is constrained
by the need to define the target text in terms of how closely it reflects the
source text on a variety of levels. This is problematic in that the target text
is not regarded as an independent, autonomous text - and this is how trans-
lations are regarded by the target audience, at least in a professional context.
Since Reiss’s model, for example, focuses on the linguistic means the source
language uses to express text function, the wording of the source text be-
comes the yardstick for judging the appropriateness of the linguistic means
employed in the target text (Lauscher 2000:155). But because text function
is expressed using different linguistic means or writing strategies in different
languages, reflecting the source text linguistic features will result in unusual
and possibly unacceptable target texts.
There are other problems with this type of approach, however. Nord
(1991:23) argues that the function of the target text cannot be “arrived at
automatically from an analysis of the source text”. Instead, it needs to be
defined pragmatically by the purpose of the intercultural communication.
Fawcett (1997:107) maintains that there is no need to link text function and
translation strategy. He maintains that just because it is possible to identify
the function of a text, there is no “logical or translation-scientific impera-
tive” on a translator to shape and govern translation decisions on the basis
of the function. Besides, if technical texts are translated with a specific
communicative situation in mind, surely this situation should form an inte-
gral part of the translation process and define the end result. In any case, us-
ing the source text as the sole means for determining the function of the
source text and subsequently the target text is a risky business. This is pri-
marily because such an approach presupposes a uniformity of skill and care
on the part of the original author in the way the text is written (thereby
encoding the text function within it) which is impossible to quantify or
achieve.
Technical translators also encounter the problem that it is not always ap-
parent from the text what type of text it is, let alone what the actual pur-
pose is. This can be for a variety of reasons: the text sent to the translator
may be pre-translated or tagged using a translation memory (TM) tool and
the visual clues indicating text type may be missing making the linguistic
clues more difficult to spot; or web pages may be cut and pasted into a
word processor file. In other cases, the file to be translated may be designed
to serve as the source document for a single-source multi-channel publish-
ing system where the same text is used to provide content for a range of
texts such as manuals, advertising materials, newsletters, technical documen-
tation, web pages, presentations, etc. In such cases, the translator cannot
possibly know what the ultimate function of the translated text will be
unless some form of extratextual information is available.
Target-Orientated Approaches to Translation
Toury (1995:26) in his work Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond

puts forward the notion that the position and function of translations “are
determined first and foremost by considerations originating in the culture
which hosts them”. Toury regards translations as “facts of target cultures”
and in his discussion of traditional methods of examining texts he mentions
the fact that they “were primarily concerned with the source text and with
its inviolable ‘sanctity” whereby target text factors “while never totally ig-
nored, often counted as subsidiary especially those which would not fall
within linguistics of any kind” (Toury 1995:24). Here we see a shift in
emphasis away from the source-orientated treatment of translations and to-
wards the treatment of translations as autonomous, independently function-
ing target language texts. And this is precisely how the translations are
generally viewed by readers.
The following paragraphs deal with approaches to translation which do
not depend on the supremacy of the source text. In other words, theories
which acknowledge the importance of the target text in the translation
process.
Relevance
Gutt (1991:22) stresses that translation should be approached from a com-
municative point of view rather than any other, for instance, a theory of
translation. Basing his relevance theory on work by Sperber and Wilson
(1986), Gutt proceeds from the notion that the key to human communica-
tion is our ability to draw inferences from people’s behaviour, be it verbal
or non-verbal. Thus, what is said (or written) provides, within the context
of relevance theory, the stimulus from which the recipient can infer what
the sender means. This is referred to as the informative intention.
Breaking the communicative process down into steps, Gutt maintains
that utterances are firstly decoded and, on the basis of their linguistic prop-
erties, are assigned to meanings or things they represent. This is similar to
de Saussure’s notion of signifiant and signifié or aliquid statt pro aliquo
[something stands for something else] (Linke et al. 1994:18, 30). Thus,
these representations are referred to as semantic representations and they re-
fer to the mental representations which are essentially the output of the
mind’s “language module5” (1991:24). He continues to say that these se-

mantic representations are assumption schemas which need to be processed
in order to become truth-conditional and to have a propositional form. In
other words, out of all of the possible meanings or representations associ-
ated with an utterance, the brain must select what is in fact feasible, likely
or credible within the particular context of the utterance. Indeed, it is the
very notion of context which helps, according to Gutt, to explain the fact
that while linguistic expressions do, in fact, have a meaning, it is not neces-
sarily the same as that conveyed by the expression at a particular time and
place (1991:25).
Gutt regards context as a psychological concept which, in contrast to
common definitions, does not refer “to some part of the external environ-
ment of the communicative partners, be it the text preceding or following
an utterance, situational circumstances, cultural factors etc., it rather refers
to part of their ‘assumptions about the world’ or cognitive environment”
(1991:25). Cognitive environment does not exclude the various external
factors but rather includes them along with information they provide and its
“mental availability for the interpretation process” (ibid.).
But we find ourselves asking the question of how readers select the cor-
rect assumptions and meanings as intended by the sender, or author. This is
indeed essential for communicative success. Gutt asserts that communica-
tion is governed by a desire to “optimise resources”. In other words, read-
ers want to gain as much information with as little expenditure of resources
as possible. This means that meaning and understanding will always take the
path of least resistance, and readers will start processing information using
those contextual assumptions which are most accessible to them. He goes
on to say that “[a translation] should be expressed in such a manner that it
yields the intended interpretation without putting the audience to unneces-
sary processing effort” (1991:101-102). Relevance theory might well re-
quire us to build in certain contextual clues for a reader to fully and cor-
rectly understand a text. This modification and addition of information
in the text brings us towards the notion of interlingual technical writing
mentioned elsewhere.
5 This notion of a language module is presumably made for the sake of conven-
ience. Although we can associate language skills with certain parts of the
brain - usually in the left hemisphere (Eysenck 2000:79; Kalat 2004:441) - there
is no specific “language module” to speak of in the human cognitive system;
language is regulated by a range of processes and functions throughout the
cognitive system.
Thus, the assumptions and information which allow the reader to under-
stand the communicative intent must be easily accessible to the reader. Of
course, when applied to the text we can deduce that this information can
be composed of both contextual information in the form of knowledge of
the world and also information presented in the text itself. Gutt says that in-
formation obtained through perception is generally given more importance
than information based on inference and so it gives the translator greater
flexibility to ensure that the first interpretation of the utterance which the
reader arrives at is the correct one as intended by the sender. And perhaps
equally as importantly, particularly in the case of communicative texts and
manuals to ensure that the effort involved in obtaining the meaning or con-
textual effects is justified (1991:30-31). So, the responsibility ultimately falls
to the translator to decide how best to achieve this to ensure that the con-
textual effects are “adequate to the occasion in a way the speaker could
have foreseen” (1991:31). Such a notion of target audience expectations is
similar to assertions by Pinchuck (1977) who claims that elements in texts
provide “triggers” for readers to allow them to anticipate what is to follow
next. Indeed, Gutt states this even more explicitly when he says “introduc-
tory words would guide the hearer in searching his memory for the in-
tended referent and hence considerably ease his processing load” (1991:33).
Similarly, Gerzymisch-Arbogast (1993) states that information must be pre-
sented in varying amounts of given and new information - relative to what
the author perceives the audience to already know - in order to achieve the
appropriate register and flow of information.
Hönig (1997), however, levels the criticism at relevance theory that it
fails to take into account precisely what readers regard as a good or bad
translation, only what they regard as relevant. It is indeed a sound point in
that we do need to take into account what readers regard as good and bad.
It would be conceivable to determine what readers regard as good or bad
texts either from empirical studies involving reader reactions or usability
studies or to analyse a broad range of style guides relating to the text type in
question.
Relevance theory does provide compelling support for taking the cogni-
tive abilities of readers into account to improve translation but Gutt’s opin-
ions regarding what does and does not constitute a translation is quite prob-
lematic for technical translation particularly with regard to interpretative
and descriptive translations.
At the heart of relevance theory is Gutt’s distinction between interpre-
tive and descriptive language use and it is this distinction which is most
relevant in terms of technical translation. Interpretive language use, accord-
ing to Gutt, refers to an utterance which is intended to represent what
someone else thinks or says. In the context of translation, an interpretive

translation is one which has some form of link or relationship with the
source text. Descriptive language use, on the other hand, is intended to be
an accurate representation of what the writer or speaker believes to be true.
In the context of translation, a descriptive translation is intended to function
as an independent and autonomous target language text whose readers will
not be aware of the existence of a source text.
According to Gutt, only an interpretive translation is a “real” translation.
A descriptive translation, he claims, cannot be regarded as a true translation
because a translation only achieves relevance by communicating effectively
AND by standing in for the original text. While Gutt maintains that a
translation must share at least some link with the source text, the notion
that a text which can survive on its own and which is undetectable as a
translation cannot be regarded as a true translation is difficult to reconcile
with the reality of translation.
We could argue that a descriptive translation mimics the production of
an original text but it is still a translation albeit one that could have been
achieved using very different means. Gutt’s assertion that only interpretive
translations are true translations seems to contradict the communicative ori-
entation of his theory if translation is a communicative act, then the transla-
tion should do the same as a standard text or communicative act, i.e. con-
vey information in order to affect a change in behaviour, attitude or
knowledge of the receiver (cf. Gommlich 1993:177-178).
He does try to clarify interpretive use by making two sub-categories: di-
rect and indirect translation. Almost as if he realised that the existing cate-
gories of descriptive and interpretive would effectively eliminate translations
whose function was to blend seamlessly into the target language landscape,
he says that indirect translation allows the translator to “elaborate or sum-
marize” (Gutt 1991:122) in order to communicate as clearly as possible
rather than “give the receptor language audience access to the authentic
meaning of the original” (Gutt 1991:177). This certainly bears a remarkable
similarity to the aims, factors and features involved in a descriptive transla-
tion.
Gutt claims that if a translator aims to produce a translation that can stand
alone as a target language text using whatever means necessary, then it is
not a “real” translation but rather an “adaptation”, in principle this might
be true but there is a problem with it insofar as technical translation is con-
cerned. Some texts require more work than others. For example, a techni-
cal specification or description of a process will require less work than a
user guide or technical brochure. So while the technical specification or
brochure are intended to serve as freestanding original texts, they cannot be

regarded as anything but adaptations because there has been no “adapta-
tion” beyond that which is necessary to ensure compliance with target lan-
guage norms, requirements and conventions.
On the other hand, a user guide which needs to be modified in a num-
ber of ways, e.g. register, tenor, cognitive suitability, legal compliance etc.
can only be regarded as an adaptation. Here the ST has been used as the ba-
sis for producing an original target language text. The problem is that most
people would argue that the user guide is still a translation and not an adap-
tation. Perhaps the problem is really one of scales. If there are huge
amounts of adaptation, omission and addition then it becomes an adapta-
tion. What we are then left with is the problem of how much is too much?
Nevertheless, despite the confusing approach to what does and does not
constitute a “real” translation, relevance theory does provide some useful
insights into technical translation:
• a communicative approach which concentrates on the needs and expec-
tations of the target audience
• the minimax principle which, put simply, states that people do not want
to spend more time and effort than is absolutely necessary in order to re-
trieve information from a text; this is especially true for technical texts
such as user guides.
Skopos Theory
Skopos theory is linked with the functionalist approach to translation but

differs fundamentally in that where functionalist approaches such as Reiss’s
(1971) and House’s (1981) maintain that the function of the target must be
the same as the original, Skopos theory recognises that this is not always
practical or desirable. According to Vermeer, the methods and strategies
used to produce a translation are determined by the intended purpose of the
target text (Vermeer 1978:100). Unlike equivalence-based theories where
the source text and its effect on the source language audience or even the
function attributed to it by the author determine the translation, Skopos
theory holds that the prospective function or Skopos of the TT as deter-
mined by the initiator (the person who initiates the translation process, i.e.
the client) and the translator. As such, the Skopos is determined by the
initiator / customer, their view of the target audience along with the situ-
ational and cultural background. Skopos theory states “that one must trans-
late consciously and consistently, in accordance with some principle
respecting the target text. The theory does not state what the principle is:
this must be decided separately in each specific case” (Vermeer 1989:182).
In conjunction with this top-level rule are the supplementary general rules
of coherence and fidelity.
According to Nord (1997), the coherence rule maintains that the target
text should be sufficiently coherent in order for the reader to comprehend
it. Essentially, this rule requires that the TT fulfils the basic requirements for
any text written in that language. The fidelity rule is less perspicuous in that
it requires that there be some sort of relationship between the ST and TT
once the Skopos and coherence rules have been satisfied.
Unlike traditional functionalist theories such as that put forward by
House (1981) which focus on the pragmatic aspects of the translation act
but where the source and target texts have the same function, Skopos the-
ory acknowledges equivalence of function as just one of many possible
Skopoi of a translation. The reason for this is that there are numerous situa-
tions and circumstances where a translation needs to be produced. As such,
the situational environment of the translation process determines the
Skopos as does the text receiver. Thus the Skopos of the source text and
the target text may be different because of the needs of the two audiences
by virtue of the fact that they belong to two different social and linguistic
realities. Cases where the function stays the same are referred to by Reiss &
Vermeer (1991:45) as Funktionskonstanz (unchanged function); cases
where it changes are referred to as Funktionsänderung (changed function).
Kade (1977:33) also makes this distinction, referring to the fact that the
function of the translation does not have to be the same as that of
the source text, he defines equivalent translation as that which retains the
communicative function of the source text and heterovalent translation as
that which involves a reworking of the content and where the target text
takes on a different function to that of the original. Nord (1997:9) also rec-
ognises this fact when she states that we do not arrive at the function of the
target text from an analysis of the source text but rather from a pragmatic
analysis of the purpose of the communicative act. Referring back to Skopos
theory, she maintains that functional equivalence (the source and target
texts having the same function) is not the “normal” Skopos of a translation
but only one of a number of potential Skopoi and one in which a value of
zero is assigned to the “change of functions” factor (1991:23).
First and foremost, however, the Skopos of the translation must be for-
malised and clearly set out before the translator can actually start work. The
process of defining the Skopos of a translation is included in what is called
the translation brief (Vermeer 1989, Kussmaul 1995 and Nord 1997). We
can look at the translation brief as a form of project specification which sets
out the requirements for the service / product to be provided. Ideally, such
a brief would be quite specific about the intended function of the transla-
tion, the target audience, the time, place and medium as well as purpose.
The problem with this concept is that the client who initiates a translation
is rarely a language professional and usually has no specialised linguistic
knowledge. Many clients have no interest whatsoever in the “mechanics”
of the translation process and may even regard such information as the re-
sponsibility of the translator.
Here the translator needs to function much like an architect who dis-
cusses a building project with an ordinary, lay customer. The customer
comes to the architect with an idea for a house and the architect advises
what is and is not possible within the constraints of physics, materials sci-
ence and building regulations. Having established what the customer wants,
the architect then decides how to design and build the house and what ma-
terials will be used. The customer will not specify which structural materials
will be used but may specify cosmetic materials like tiles, glass, doors, balus-
trades etc. This distinction is equivalent to the translator looking after trans-
lation strategies and linguistic matters and the customer specifying such
things as style, terminology or general audience. In both cases, the customer
specifies the objective and the expert (in our case the translator) decides
how best to achieve that. Thus, the Skopos is not a random or accidental
occurrence - it is specific to a particular constellation of factors relating to
situation, purpose, requirements etc.
In defining translation as the production “of a text in a target setting for a
target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances”, Vermeer
(1987a:29) presents the view that the target text is the foremost concern in
translation acts. The source text, through its noticeable absence from the
above definition, is of lesser importance here than in equivalence-based
theories of translation discussed earlier. Indeed, Vermeer refers to the
source text as an offer of information or Informationsangebot which is then
turned, either wholly or partly, into an offer of information for the target
audience (Vermeer 1982). Nord says of this offer of information that
…any receiver (among them, the translator) chooses the items they re-
gard as interesting, useful or adequate to the desired purposes. In transla-
tion, the chosen informational items are then transferred to the target
culture... (1997:25-6)
It can even be argued that the source text merely represents the “raw
materials” (Vermeer 1987b:541) for the translator in the production of a
target language text. Vermeer (1982) discusses the concept of Information-

sangebot so that each of the countless potential receivers can select the rele-
vant or interesting information from the text. As technical translators, our
job is to ensure that this information is as easy to find select and assimilate as
possible. This is quite similar to Gutt’s relevance theory and the notion of
usability engineering in texts which is discussed in Chapter 4. Rather than
leaving the choice of which information to select completely to the reader,
we can foreground information and make it more likely to be selected by
readers.
A similar sentiment was expressed by Pinchuck (1977:215) several years
previously when he said that “a text will normally contain more informa-
tion than is needed”. He goes on to say that not all of the information in a
text is of equal value (1977:220). This is indeed fascinating as it signifies a
break from traditional doctrine that all of the information in a text is essen-
tial. Thus we can, perhaps, on this basis justify the elimination or omission
of information which is “unnecessary”, irrelevant or unhelpful in relation to
the communicative act. Drawing from this notion of redundancy, Pinchuck
formulates more criteria for assessing the effectiveness or adequacy of a
translation, namely the excess, deficiency or appropriateness of redundancy
in a text. Claiming that different languages may adopt more formal styles
than others, Pinchuck states that German, for example, is more given to
adopting a more formal tone than English. As a result, the level of abstrac-
tion may also be higher in German than in English. This will inevitably re-
sult in the need for greater explicitation and redundancy in an English
translation, for example by referring to the product specifically, repeating
information to make the text more cohesive or to reinforce a certain point
etc.
Loyalty to the Source Text

Unless the translator is told otherwise, the text type of the translation will
be the same as the source text. To use Vermeer’s example (1989:183), it is
safe to assume that a scientific article on astronomy will be translated as such
in the target language. This might seem to contradict the claim made else-
where that consistency of function is not the normal Skopos of a translation
but it is not the case. The function of a given text type in one language
might be different to a greater or lesser degree in another. So while the
purpose of the text might stay the same (i.e. the astronomy article stays an
astronomy article), the function of the text, e.g. to entertain and educate or
educate and provoke, may need to change depending on the culturally or
text specific conventions in the target language. This is what Nord regards
as a “conventional” assignment (1997:31). But in order to do this, it is
necessary to decide on various strategies, e.g. word-for-word, transposition,

calquing, modulation etc.
Nord refers to the difficulty in speaking of a single, definitive text,
instead claiming that the selectability of information presented in the Infor-
mationsangebot means that there are, in theory, multiple “texts” and multi-
ple meanings and interpretations. Similarly, there are multiple situations in
which the information could be used. Nord sums this up by saying that “a
‘text’ is as many texts as there are receivers” (1997:31). Hatim (2001:76)
describes this as a text’s “plurality of meaning”.
With this potential for different interpretations and situations, translators
need to ensure that the target text will at the very least be meaningful for
the intended receivers and that it will make sense in the particular commu-
nicative situation and culture. Only if the text makes sense in the receiver’s
situation will the translation be regarded as successful. For this reason, Ver-
meer introduces what he calls the coherence rule which states that a transla-
tion must be coherent with the receivers’ situation or that it should be part
of the receivers’ situation (Reiss and Vermeer 1984:113). This is defined as
intratextual coherence and is one of the two basic types of “conceptual
connectivity” central to Skopos theory (Hatim 2001:76).
This rule firmly places the emphasis on the target text and its audience.
However, because a translation is an offer of information based upon a pre-
vious offer of information, there has to be at least some relationship be-
tween the source text and the target text lest there are criticisms that the
translation is not a translation but rather some abstract form of adaptation
(Nord 1997:32). Vermeer calls this intertextual coherence or fidelity. The
form taken by intertextual coherence, however, depends both on the
Skopos and the translator’s interpretation of the source text (Nord
1997:32). Subordinate to the intratextual rule, the fidelity rule can take
form ranging from an extremely faithful rendering of the source text or a
loose rendering.
Nord (1997:125) introduces the notion of “function plus loyalty” to
Skopos theory. This she defines as a bilateral commitment on the part of
the translator to both source and target sides of the translational interaction.
She stresses that it is not the same as fidelity or faithfulness which is associ-
ated with texts. Rather, loyalty is a relationship between people. It is the
translator’s responsibility to provide readers with what they expect of a
translation (i.e., literal, word-for-word, free, readable). It also requires
the translator to convey the author’s intentions as regards the communicative
interaction.
It is important to note that this is an improvement on the notion that the

author’s intentions are evident from what the author has actually written
because this presupposes consistent and uniformly competent authors,
something which is impossible to gauge in the real world. However, Ver-
meer himself expressed concerns in 1996 at the inclusion of the loyalty rule
as it represented a social and subjective criterion which damaged the appli-
cability and reliability of his general theory.
The Applicability of Skopos Theory to Technical Translation

There are claims that Skopos theory produces “mercenary” translators who
are, in effect, only interested in pleasing their paymasters (Pym 1996:338).
This is untrue for a number of reasons. The “dogma” referred to by New-
mark (1990:105) simply does not exist. Also, Nord (1997:118-119) main-
tains that translators are only mercenaries when they do not use their own
judgement as language professionals to argue for doing something a particu-
lar way.
It can also be argued that Skopos promotes or even depends on adapta-
tion and as such cannot really be regarded as translation. This is not, strictly
speaking, true. Granted, in some rather extreme cases there may be several
quite drastic modifications needed in order to ensure that a translation fulfils
its Skopos and meets the needs of the addressees/users, but in the vast ma-
jority of cases (at least in my experience as a professional technical transla-
tor), there is only rarely a need for wholesale modification or rewriting to
the extent that the translation has only the most vague link with the origi-
nal text.
This is precisely why Nord (1997:125) introduces the notion of “func-
tion plus loyalty” to Skopos theory mentioned above. This is intended to
ensure that even though there may be significant differences between the
source and target texts, the needs of the key stakeholders are met.
The fact that Skopos theory states translations must be produced “in ac-
cordance with some principle respecting the target text” (Vermeer 1989:
182) which must be decided separately in the translation brief for each spe-
cific case could be regarded as something of a shortcoming of Skopos the-
ory. The reason being that it introduces an element of subjectivity into the
process and is not always repeatable. However, this is not unique to Skopos
theory and is inherent to many other approaches to translation. Conse-
quently, this has to remain a necessary confound in the equation.
Conclusions
There are numerous translation strategies available to translators such as

modification, transposition, paraphrasing, literal translation, calquing etc. All
of these strategies are essential at various times when dealing with various
different texts. The problem facing us as translators is that depending on
which theory of translation we subscribe to, one or more of these strategies
may be prohibited, or at best, inconsistent with the spirit of the particular
theory. Indeed, these strategies are so different in terms of their effects that
it seems impossible that they could be comfortably incorporated within a
single “theory”. For example, the more formal linguistic approaches might
have difficulties in permitting the use of paraphrasing, primarily because
they do not regard paraphrases as “real” translations. With approaches based
on formal equivalence at its most conservative, anything other than word-
for-word translation would be unacceptable. Similarly, it is conceivable that
if we rigorously pursue the goal of dynamic equivalence as described by
Nida, we would be prevented from using calques or introducing loan-
words. Yet as translators, we use virtually all of these strategies at various
stages, sometimes even within a single project, text or paragraph. And this
seems to be part of the problem with much of the literature on translation,
namely that a translator can have one overall aim for the translation, for ex-
ample a target-orientated translation, but still use approaches and strategies
ranging from literal translation to radical paraphrasing, addition and omis-
sion without compromising the communicative purpose of the translation
process.
The idea that no one theory of translation, e.g. free, literal, formal, dy-
namic etc., can completely explain technical translation is borne out by
Skopos theory. Nord (1997:29) explains that the Skopos of a particular
translation project might require either “a free or a faithful translation, or
anything in between... depending on the purpose of the translation”. In-
deed, within a given text, we may need to switch frequently between literal
and free translation for individual phrases, sentences or paragraphs.
It would seem, then, that the easiest way of maintaining all of the tools
and strategies in the translator’s repertoire is to adopt a communicative ap-
proach to translation like that proposed by Gutt but without the ambiguity
as to constitutes a translation. After all, texts are written to communicate in-
formation and translations are no exception. Thus, Skopos theory would
seem to provide a more flexible framework which ensures that the strategies
and techniques of translation can be used legitimately wherever the transla-
tor deems it to be appropriate. We simply select the appropriate strategies
Conclusions 45
depending on the Skopos for the project and the text. As Nord maintains,
“the translation purpose justifies the translation procedures” (1997:124).
This is not without its problems, however, particularly as translators are
left to make decisions which can be regarded as, at best, reasoned but ad
hoc, or at worst, subjective. But this problem is inherent to all theoretical
approaches to translation and is not unique to Skopos theory. However, it
is my view that Skopos theory is the only approach that truly acknowledges
the professional reality of translating and the demands, expectations and
obligations of translators.
To conclude this chapter, it is worth restating some of the more impor-
tant areas that need to be considered when translating technical texts:
1. we need to concentrate on the needs of the target audience this is who
the translation is produced for and these are the judges of whether a
translation is actually good or not;
2. we need to understand what it is the target audience needs and wants;
3. we need to understand how technical communication works in the tar-
get language if we are to produce independent. autonomous texts that
can “compete” with other texts produced in that language;
4. we need to remember that it is necessary to add, change or remove in-
formation as part of the translation process in order to achieve effective
communication via a technical text.
In the following chapter we will look more closely at the field of techni-
cal communication and in particular at the nature of user guides. Only by
examining and understanding the circumstances under which such docu-
ments are produced and the environment in which they are used can be
begin to understand what it is a technical translator needs to achieve in or-
der to make translations function as originals.
1
TRANSLATION: BASIC CONCEPTS
AND DEFINITIONS
1.1 What is translation?

It is commonplace to begin a translation course with defining basic concepts such as
translation, equivalence, and translation strategies to develop readers’ awareness of
such basic concepts in the translation industry. Translation refers to a “process” of
“rendering” a text into another language (Simpson & Weiner, 1989) where translators
take definite actions to achieve their task. It can also mean “reproducing” a “natu-
ral equivalent” of a source language (SL) message (Nida & Taber, 1969) taking into
consideration the target language (TL) norms that aim for naturalness. Reproducing a
natural equivalent text into a TL, whether English or Arabic, can be a challenging task
for a number of factors, as shown in section 1.2. Additionally, translation is defined as
the “replacement” of a text by an “equivalent text” (Catford, 1965); “interpretation of
verbal signs” into another language (Steiner, 1975), and producing texts that account
for target readers’ circumstances (Vermeer, 1987). The concept of translating is some-
times linked to more complex paratextual elements as the intention of the ST author
(Newmark, 1988) and the sociocultural context (Hatim & Munday, 2004) or what
Toury (1995) calls cultural traditions. In Arabic,1 the word ‫ ﺗﺮﺟﻢ‬means “to explain
speech into another language” (Al Bustani, 1998, p. 69) and “transfer speech into
another language” (Al-Basha, 1992, p. 253). Rida (1958, p. 391) defines ‫ﺗﺮﺟﻢ ﻛﻼﻣﻪ‬
as “explained it.” Naturally, one cannot expect one definition to be an ideal match for
a wide range of contexts, languages, purposes, and readership. Brislin and Freimanis
(2001, p. 39) maintain that “The goal of translation is to achieve linguistic, cultural
and psychological equivalence and judging its quality is a great concern, especially
since there are no specific criteria to guide that process.” Newmark (1991, p. 1) says:
Translation is concerned with moral and with factual truth. This truth can be
effectively rendered only if it is grasped by the reader, and that is the purpose
and the end of translation. Should it be grasped readily, or only after some
effort? That is a problem of means and occasions.
2 Basic concepts and definitions
Translation Process
Render, reproduce, replace TT output
SL input Text norms, audience
Text, message, intent,

form, type TL
Translation Process
Render, reproduce, replace TT output
SL input Text norms, audience
Text, message, intent,

form, type TL
FIGURE 1.1 Translation process
Figure 1.1 summarizes the key concepts of translation definitions, which are central
components in the translation process.
Need for translation

The profound multidimensional significance of translation throughout history lies
in not only providing foundations for global interaction but also enabling different
countries to promote interactive relationships aiming at advancements in technol-
ogy, politics, trade, and peace. Being a traditional means of communication, transla-
tion promotes transmitting knowledge and protects cultural heritage. Toury (1995)
maintains that the value behind translation is based on two elements: (1) being a
text and occupying a position in a certain language and culture and (2) constituting
a representation in that language or culture of another. In her Why Translation Mat-
ters, Grossman (2010, pp. x–ix) says:
Translation not only plays its important traditional role as the means that allows
us to access literature originally written in one of the countless languages we
Basic concepts and definitions 3
cannot read, but it also represents a concrete literary presence with the crucial
capacity to ease and make more meaningful our relationships to those with
whom we may not have had a connection before. Translation always helps us
to know, to see from a different angle, to attribute new value to what once may
have been unfamiliar.
Translation protects literature and promotes the understanding of the other. In the
present fast-paced world, spreading news, academic literature, medical advances,
scientific innovations, and other aspects of knowledge is only possible through
translation. On a country level, translation can promote external affairs and boost
the tourism sector, which can include public or private bodies. As we shall see in
Chapter 2, translation, however, is an ideal tool for self-presentation and denial of
the other through ideologically motivated rewritings of news stories. Additionally,
legal documents between individuals or states are usually translated when the par-
ties to these agreements speak different languages. It should thus be highlighted
that translation serves different purposes, texts, and people. Without such a must-
activity, the world could remain disconnected areas.
1.2 Equivalence: an illusion

There has been no consensus on translation equivalence, which has encouraged a
continuous debate among translation theorists for decades. The concept is linked
to complex factors beyond simply replacing words. Nida (1964) introduced formal
equivalence focusing on SL message form and content and dynamic equivalence
aiming at an “equivalent effect.” Practically, formal equivalence between Arabic
and English does not pose a challenge unlike the dynamic equivalence because the
chances of achieving the latter heavily rely on paralinguistic factors. This is reflected
in Catford’s (1965) argument that TL translation equivalents are a central problem
of translation activity. Newmark (1981) argues that translation equivalence is use-
less and that “perfect translation is illusionary” (1991). Biguenet and Schulte (1989)
and Baker (2018) stress the impossibility of achieving exact equivalence between
any language pair. Baker (2018), Koller (1995), Ivir (1996), House (1997), Snell-
Hornby (1988), Bassnett (2002), Hatim and Munday (2004), and Fawcett (1997)
maintain that linguistic and cultural factors make equivalence relative. Venuti (1995)
believes that translation causes violent effects at home and abroad. He highlights the
massive power of translation in constructing national identities for foreign cultures
and points out that translation potentially figures in ethnic discrimination, geopoliti-
cal confrontations, colonialism, terrorism, and war.
On the intralingual level, finding two words bearing the same meaning in all
contexts is “a luxury a language can do without” (Jackson, 1988, p. 65). Although
a language can express certain meanings using a limited number of words, another
may express the same with a larger number (Biguenet & Schulte, 1989), which
points to non-equivalence at the linguistic level. Broeck (1978) explains that a strict
equivalence relationship does not apply to translation. Lack of equivalence can be

attributed to lexical, syntactic, or pragmatic differences between different languages
that makes it difficult to provide perfect guidelines to deal with various types of non-
equivalence (Baker, 2018). Differences in the components and relations of meaning
between a pair of languages can lead to two consequences for translation as well
as equivalence issues (Fawcett, 1997). Being the basis for any translation practice
that heavily relies on equivalence relations, meaning is usually determined through
situation and context rather than through the dictionary. Meaning can also be gov-
erned by translators’ interference in transferring texts between a pair of languages.
Regardless of the debate on the practicality of translation equivalence, no translation
practice is expected to take place without exploring corresponding TL lexical units.
Differences between an SL text and its extra-textual elements and those of the TL
control the level of equivalence relativity.
Equivalence and translation

Problems of translation equivalence appear at different language levels and in dif-
ferent text domains. A word can have different meanings depending on the context
of its occurrence as in issue, which can mean ‫ﯾُﺼﺪر‬, ‫إﺻﺪار‬, ‫ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ‬, or ‫ورﯾﺚ‬. It can
also mean ‫( ﻗﺮﯾﺐ‬relative). Depression can mean ‫ اﻧﻬﯿﺎر‬or ‫ ﻛﺂﺑﺔ‬in psychology, ‫ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬
in weather forecast, and ‫ ﻛﺴﺎد‬or ‫ رﻛﻮد‬in economics. This highlights the immense
significance of context awareness in determining the specific and intended meaning
of a word.
Another source of difficulty that can affect the selection of appropriate equiva-
lents is attributed to lexical relations. Consider the word ‫ ﯾﺒﺪأ‬which can be translated
into English as start, begin, or commence. These have similar meanings, but each
is used in a different context and each has a different antonym. The difficulty here
arises when translating the word ‫ ﯾﺒﺪأ‬into English. Shall we translate it as start,
which is used to denote physical activity; begin, which does not mainly denote a
physical activity; or commence, which is used in formal contexts like court pro-
ceedings as in commence a lawsuit ‫ﯾﺮﻓﻊ دﻋﻮى‬. Begin is less formal as in he began
talking ‫ﺑﺪأ اﻟﺘﺤﺪث‬.
Lexical gaps pose another challenge that requires careful consideration. These
do not always reflect that an SL word is not understood in the TL, as in the case of
bedsit, which refers to a one-room flat used as a living room, kitchen, and bedroom.
The term exists in Arabic but has no equivalent word. It can be paraphrased into
Arabic as ‫ﺷﻘﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ واﺣﺪة‬. Anorak, a British cultural item referring to a
type of coat with a hood often lined with fur, does not have an equivalent word in
Arabic. However, it can be explained into Arabic, as ‫ﻣﻌﻄﻒ ﺑﻘﻠﻨﺴﻮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﺮو‬. ‫اﻋﺘﻜﺎف‬
is an Arabic cultural example that is completely absent in English. Translating the
word as seclusion does not render the meaning of the SL word for the absence of any
clear religious reference. In addition, the word cannot be translated as seclusion in a
mosque because there could be other people in the mosque as the case in the last ten
days of Ramadan. The term can be translated using transliteration and paraphrase as
Iʿtikāf (staying in mosque for worship).
Certain words in the economic or technical domain have no direct equivalents in
Arabic despite their being familiar. Bottleneck, which refers to anything that delays
progress, especially in business and industry, can only be translated through para-
phrase as ‫ ﻣﻌﯿﻖ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬or ‫ﻣﻌﯿﻖ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‬. Another example is cartel, which refers to a group
of companies agreeing to increase their profits by fixing prices and avoiding com-
peting with each other. Translators are advised to provide a paraphrase that accounts
for the meaning and thus render it as ‫اﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻟﺰﯾﺎدة أرﺑﺎﺣﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬
‫ ووﻗﻒ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﺑﯿﻨﻬﺎ‬when the term is out of context or used for the first time in the text.
It can afterward be generally translated as ‫اﺗﺤﺎد ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬. Brownout is a technical term
that means “a period of time when the amount of electrical power that is supplied
to an area is reduced” Hornby (2010, p. 187). Baalbaki (1970, p. 131) inaccurately
translates the term as ‫( ﺗﻌﺘﯿﻢ ﺟﺰﺋﻲ‬partial blackout). ‫ ﺗﻌﺘﯿﻢ ﺟﺰﺋﻲ‬is simply the antonym
of ‫( ﺗﻌﺘﯿﻢ ﻛﻠﻲ‬complete blackout), which is used in media to refer to confidentiality.
Translators’ attention should be drawn here to the fact that nonspecialized English-
Arabic dictionaries may provide inaccurate translations of domain-specific terms.
When translating brownout into Arabic, reference to the meaning in the technical
domain must be accounted for by translating the term as ‫اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻟﺠﻬﺪ اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬.
An example from Islamic economics is the word ‫ اﺳﺘﺼﻨﺎع‬which does not have an
English equivalent. The term refers to a financing mode used by Islamic banks to
finance different kinds of projects such as housing and construction of buildings. It
is only borrowed into English as istisna. ‫ ﻋﺪة‬is an Islamic term referring to the wait-
ing period that a divorced woman or widow must observe before marrying another
man. Rendering the term simply as waiting period without highlighting the specific
meaning results in a translation loss. A practical procedure for translating the term
includes borrowing and explanation.
Despite its significance, equivalence remains a relative debatable concept,
achieving which is governed by linguistic and cultural factors. English and Ara-
bic are two distinct languages linguistically and culturally and one naturally
expects to encounter difficulties in rendering various levels and types of texts
between this language pair. Although it is sometimes impossible to think of
equivalence when the ST lexical unit is completely absent in the TL, a translator
can employ different methods to render or explain a term or concept to target
readership.
1.3 Translation strategies

The different text types, purpose of translation, and translators’ competence sig-
nificantly influence the whole translation process and make it difficult or even
impossible to adopt one translation strategy to render various text types. Certain
text genres may require communicative translation; others need literal translation,
whereas certain lexical units require paraphrase, borrowing, or couplets. Pym (1992,
p. 174 quoted in Hatim, 2014, p. 99) lists the restrictions on selecting one translation
strategy rather than another:
1 Why do we translate in the first place, and which text should we translate when
we decide to translate?
2 How will a particular type of translation be recognized for what it is once it is
made available to us?
3 If it can be assumed that extratextual factors are involved, and that these are
beyond the translator’s control, whose control are they under?
4 What role does the paratext (notes, interpolations, etc.) play in our choice of
translation strategy?
Let us now examine the translation strategies commonly adopted when translating
between English and Arabic.
Literal translation
Despite its practicality in specific translation activities, literal translation has long
been considered a source-text-biased strategy. Broadly speaking, literal translation
and free translation are the two main skills in translation (Hassan, 2014, p. 12).
The author explains that while literal translation, or what Munday (2016) calls
word-for-word translation, aims to translate the source text while adequately keep-
ing the form and structure unchanged, free translation is an accurate rendering
of the source text where little attention is paid to form and structure. The final
version of a text translated freely is fluent and accurate. Translators should take
into consideration that free translation does not give them the freedom to add or
delete information that can affect the overall meaning of the text. Dickins, Hervey,
and Higgins (2017, p. 14) state that the standard grammar and word order of the
English language must be respected. To them, literal translation involves gram-
matical transposition replacing ST grammatical units by other grammatical units
in the TT. An example of such grammatical transposition is translating ‫اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ ﺷﻤﺲ‬
into It’s sunny. In this example, ‫( اﻟﺪﻧﯿﺎ‬lit. the world) is translated into the empty/
dummy it, and ‫( ﺷﻤﺲ‬sun) is translated into an adjective, sunny. Literal translation
may be useful in rendering words out of context where all possible meanings of
such words are provided. Despite its usefulness, literal translation remains subject
to certain limitations.
Constraints on literal translation

Strict adherence to rendering texts literally can violate TL norms in addition to
distorting the meaning of ST units. Considering that literal translation is generally
equated with word-for-word translation, translators may render one word at a time
in the same order instead of translating phrases or larger units according to the TL
norms. Let us examine the problems of literal translation here:
Problem 1: No respect for TL grammar

1 Sally is a student.
‫ﺳﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﯾﻜﻮن‬ ‫ﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬
Adopting word-for-word translation or literal translation to translate the preced-

ing example reflects that literal translation violates the grammatical rules of Arabic
in terms of sentence word order and gender. The first problem in the translation is
that be is not translated into Arabic when in the present tense and the translation of
such a sentence into Arabic should produce a nominal sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ اﺳﻤﯿﺔ‬. The sec-
ond problem lies in deleting the feminine gender marker from the word ‫ﻃﺎﻟﺐ‬, which
should be inflected to feminine gender following the noun ‫ ﺳﺎﻟﻲ‬to which it refers.
This is based on the assumption that each word is translated alone. The acceptable
Arabic rendering of the preceding is:
.‫ﺳﺎﻟﻲ ﻃﺎﻟﺒﺔ‬ ١
Problem 2: Loss of collocational meanings

2 Deliver a baby.
‫ﯾﺴﻠﻢ‬ ‫ﻃﻔﻞ‬
3 The court made a final judgment.
‫اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ‬ ‫ﺻﻨﻊ‬ ‫ﻧﻬﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‫ﺣﻜﻢ‬.
The collocational2 meanings are lost in (2) and (3). While deliver in deliver a
baby is accurately translated into Arabic as ‫ﺗﻠﺪ اﻟﻤﺮأة‬, made in (3) is translated as
‫أﺻﺪرت‬. The acceptable Arabic renderings of (2) and (3) are: ‫ ﺗﻠﺪ اﻟﻤﺮأة‬and ‫أﺻﺪرت‬
ً‫ﺣﻜﻤﺎ ﻧﻬﺎﺋﯿﺎ‬
ً ‫ اﻟﻤﺤﻜﻤﺔ‬respectively.
Problem 3: Idiomatic expressions

4 on a high horse
‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻲ‬ ‫ﺣﺼﺎن‬
5 break a leg
‫ﯾﻜﺴﺮ‬ ‫ﻗﺪم‬
6 rain cats and dogs
‫ﺗﻤﻄﺮ‬ ‫ﻗﻄﻂ‬ ‫وﻛﻼب‬
As can be noticed, the idiomatic meanings in (4), (5), and (6) are lost due to the
rendering of individual words separately. On a high horse means arrogant, break a
leg means good luck, and to rain cats and dogs means to rain heavily. The accurate
translation of (4), (5), and (6) are ‫ ﻣﺘﻐﻄﺮس‬or ‫ﻣﺘﻜﺒﺮ‬, ً‫ﺣﻈﺎ ﻃﯿﺒﺎ‬
ً ‫ أﺗﻤﻨﻰ ﻟﻚ‬and ‫ﺗﻤﻄﺮ ﺑﻐﺰارة‬.
In order to render accurate translations, students of translation are advised to consult
a monolingual or bilingual dictionary of idioms to familiarize themselves with the
meaning of the SL idiom.
Examples from Arabic

Arabic idiom English literal translation
‫اﯾﺪه ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬ His hand is long
The literal translation of the preceding Arabic idiom reflects a meaning loss in
the English translation. ‫ اﯾﺪه ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬means he is a thief. This example of literal transla-
tion should not indicate that literal translation is always a bad choice. In fact, the
meanings of some SL lexical units can be rendered through literal translation only
as in deliver a letter ‫ﯾﺴﻠﻢ رﺳﺎﻟﺔ‬, black list ‫ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﺳﻮداء‬, an eye for an eye ‫اﻟﻌﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﯿﻦ‬, and
heavy industries ‫ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺎت ﺛﻘﯿﻠﺔ‬.
Semantic and communicative translation

Newmark (1981) argues that communicative translation focuses on the effect of
translation on the target readers whereas semantic translation focuses on rendering
texts according to the syntactic and semantic structures of the TL. Dickins et al.
(2017, p. 14) point out that communicative translation, which resembles free trans-
lation, is used when the ST uses an SL expression in a specific situation and the TT
uses a TL expression in an equivalent target language situation. The authors provide
the following examples of communicative translation (pp. 14–15):
ST TT
Let bygones be bygones ‫إﻟﻠﻲ ﻓﺎت ﻣﺎت‬
‫ﻣﻤﻨﻮع اﻟﺘﺪﺧﯿﻦ‬ No smoking
‫ﻻ ﺷﻜﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ واﺟﺐ‬ Don’t mention it
‫ﺿﺮب ﻋﺼﻔﻮرﯾﻦ ﺑﺤﺠﺮ‬ To kill two birds with one stone
Free translation
When adopting free translation, which is usually TL biased, translators are at liberty
to render STs, maintaining the content of the ST message (Newmark, 1988) and
disregarding its form. An example of free translation is translating the Arabic collo-
quial saying ‫ اﻟﻠﻲ ﻓﺎت ﻣﺎت‬into let bygones be bygones. Another example is rendering
‫ ﯾﻮم ﻟﻚ وﯾﻮم ﻋﻠﯿﻚ‬as you win some, you lose some. In fact, the example of commu-
nicative translation of let bygones be bygones sounds like an idiomatic translation,
which, in essence, is not different from free translation and communicative transla-
tion. The classification here is a label attached to the translation.
Adaptation
Adaptation primarily aims to preserve the spirit of the ST when cultural differences
between the ST and the TT come to the surface. It is a form of translation that is
mainly used with some genres such as drama (Bastin, 2009) and is the “freest” type
of translation used in translating plays (Newmark, 1988). This type of translation
preserves themes, characters, and plots and converts the SL culture to the TL culture.
Translators adopt this translation strategy when the source text contains something
specific to the source language culture to be expressed in a completely different way
that is familiar to the culture of the target language. Adaptation is therefore a shift
in cultural environment.
The following is an example of the translation of Shakespeare’s Othello into Ara-
bic by Khalil Mutran:
RODERIGO
Tush! never tell me; I take it much unkindly
That thou, Iago, who hast had my purse
As if the strings were thine, shouldst know of this.
‫ أﻧﺎ آﺳﻒ ﺟﺪاً ﻷﻧﻚ ﺗﻨﺴﻤﺖ ﺧﺒﺮ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺴﺄﻟﺔ‬.‫ ﻻ ﺗﺨﺎﻃﺒﻨﻲ ﻋﻨﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻵن‬.‫ ﻛﻔﻰ‬.‫ ﻛﻔﻰ‬:‫رﯾﺪرﯾﺠﻮ‬
.‫ وأﻧﺖ أﻧﺖ اﻟﺬي ﺑﺪدت ﻣﺎ ﺷﺌﺘﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ وﺻﺮﻓﺖ ﯾﺪﯾﻚ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻘﻮدي ﻛﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﺣﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ‬.. ‫ﯾﺎ ﺟﻮ‬
Translation by addition
Translation by addition strategy simply refers to adding something, not present in
the ST, to the TT (Dickins et al., 2017). This strategy is commonly used when trans-
lating from Arabic into English as in adding the word days to the English translation
of ‫ ﻣﻨﺬ اﻟﻬﯿﻤﻨﺔ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺔ‬making it “since the days of the Turkish hegemony” (Dickins et
al., 2017, p. 21). Another example is the translation of maternity wear into Arabic
as ‫ ﻣﻼﺑﺲ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﻮاﻣﻞ‬in which the word ‫ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬is added to the Arabic translation.
Drinking water is translated into Arabic as ‫ﻣﯿﺎه ﺻﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮب‬. The word ‫( ﺻﺎﻟﺤﺔ‬safe/
fit) is added to the Arabic translation.
Translation by omission
Contrary to translation by addition, translation by omission refers to deleting ST
lexical units from the TT. Dickins et al. (2017, p. 20) explain that “the most obvious
form of translation loss is when something that occurs in the ST is simply omit-
ted from the TT.” The Arabic phrase ‫ﻫﺬا و‬, used to introduce information related
to a previous textual material, is usually omitted when we translate into English.
Another example of translation by omission is rendering air traffic control systems
into Arabic as ‫ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺮاﻗﺒﺔ اﻟﺠﻮﯾﺔ‬where traffic is omitted from the TT.
Translating using general words

Translation by a more general word is one of the common strategies adopted to deal
with many types of non-equivalence. An example of translation using a general
word is translating mother tongue into ‫ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ‬where tongue is replaced in the
TL by a more general word, ‫ﻟﻐﺔ‬.
Her mother tongue is French.
.‫اﻟﻔﺮﻧﺴﯿﺔ ﻫﻲ ﻟﻐﺘﻬﺎ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ‬
In addition, in the course of the week is translated as ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺤﺮ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬where course is

replaced by a more general word, ‫ﺑﺤﺮ‬. Furthermore, the volume of foreign trade is
translated into ‫ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬where foreign (meaning ‫ )أﺟﻨﺒﻲ‬is translated into
‫ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ‬, a more general word. Consider the following:
• She will come in the course of next week. ‫ﺳﺘﺄﺗﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺤﺮ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟﻘﺎدم‬.
• Recent changes in the volume of foreign trade do not affect national income.
.‫• ﻻ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ‬
Paraphrase
Translators adopt this translation strategy to paraphrase an ST in the TT when the
concept expressed by the source item is lexicalized in the target language in a dif-
ferent format (Baker, 2018, p. 38). An example of this strategy provided by Baker is
the paraphrasing of creamy in:
The rich and creamy Kolestral-Super is easy to apply and has a pleasant
fragrance.
Target text (Arabic):
. . . ‫ﻛﻮﻟﺴﺘﺮال ﺳﻮﺑﺮ ﻏﻨﻲ وﻣﻜﺜﻒ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺒﺘﻪ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻀﺮا ﯾﺸﺒﮫ اﻟﻜﺮﯾﻤﺎت‬
Kolestral-Super is rich and concentrated in its makeup, which gives a product that
resembles cream . . .
Another example of translation through paraphrase is the translation of print
your name or type your name. The phrases are used in different types of applica-
tions. Print here means writing a person’s name by hand while type3 means using
a device to write one’s name. When translating the phrase into Arabic, translators
and students should not confuse the distinct meanings of print and type. A third
example is boldface, which does not have an Arabic equivalent word. The mean-
ing of the word can be accounted for in Arabic through paraphrase as ‫ﺧﻂ ﻏﺎﻣﻖ‬
‫ ﻋﺮﯾﺾ‬or ‫ﺧﻂ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ‬. It should be noted that ‫ ﺧﻂ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ‬can also be confusing because it
can refer to font size.
Couplets and multiple strategies

Newmark (1988, p. 91) defined this strategy as using two procedures to deal with
one problem. Consider the following examples:
1 Proletariat: ‫ ﻃﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﻜﺎدﺣﯿﻦ‬:‫اﻟﺒﺮوﻟﯿﺘﺎرﯾﺎ‬. In this example, borrowing, phonological

modification, and description are used to render the meaning of the ST word.
2 Bourdon gauge: ‫ﻣﻘﯿﺎس ﺑﻮردن ﻟﻘﯿﺎس ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺴﻮاﺋﻞ‬. Translation, borrowing, and
explanation are used to render the ST term.
3 Bourgeoisie: ‫ اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ‬:‫اﻟﺒﻮرﺟﻮازﯾﺔ‬. Here borrowing, phonological modifi-
cation, and explanation are used.
This procedure can also apply to examples from Arabic into English as in:
4 ‫ﻋﺪة‬: iddah (a religiously sanctioned waiting period a Muslim woman must

observe after the death of her husband or divorce during which she may not
marry). This is an example of a semantically complex word the translation of
which requires detailed familiarity with Islamic terms.
1.4 Language variation

Language variation here refers to the regional variation that results in using differ-
ent lexical items to refer to one thing. This type of variation can pose challenges
to translators who are strongly advised to take the target language setting into con-
sideration when rendering words that can have different equivalents in different
countries. An English word can be translated differently in different Arab countries
and, likewise, an Arabic word can have different equivalents in British English and
American English. Consider the translations of district in four different Arab coun-
tries shown in Table 1.1.
When translating district, translators are advised to consider the target lan-
guage readers and their region in order to account for the regional differences and
TABLE 1.1 Language variation in Arabic
English word Arabic word Region

District ‫إﻗﻠﯿﻢ‬ Egypt
‫ﻗﻀﺎء‬ Palestine
‫ﻣﻌﺘﻤﺪﯾﺔ‬ Tunisia
‫ﻟﻮاء‬ Jordan
TABLE 1.2 Language variation in English
British English American English Arabic word/phrase

holiday vacation ‫إﺟﺎزة‬
dustbin trash can ‫ﺳﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻬﻤﻼت‬
lorry truck ‫ﺷﺎﺣﻨﺔ‬
flat apartment ‫ﺷﻘﺔ‬
boot trunk ‫ﺻﻨﺪوق اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة‬
drink-driving drunk driving ‫ﻗﯿﺎدة اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة ﺗﺤﺖ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ اﻟﻜﺤﻮل‬
football soccer ‫ﻛﺮة اﻟﻘﺪم‬
shop store ‫ﻣﺘﺠﺮ‬/‫ﻣﺤﻞ‬
consequently render a natural translation. In addition, translators are also advised to

account for the lexical differences between British English and American English.
Consider the examples of Arabic lexical items and their translations into British
English and American English shown in Table 1.2.
1.5 Translation quality

There are no unanimous criteria to judge the quality of a translation process or
product due to linguistic and paralinguistic differences between the SL and TL,
translators’ familiarity with SL and TL norms, text genres, purpose of translation,
and commission. General guidelines that translators can follow ensure producing
translations that meet the expectations for which translation processes are initiated.
Understanding the source language and target language linguistic and cultural norms
is a decisive factor in the process of translation. The thorough understanding of a
source text linguistic and paralinguistic aspects enables translators to analyze the
components of the text, use suitable translation methods, and consequently produce
accurate translations according to the target language norms. Misunderstanding the
ST can, in certain cases, lead to not only undesired results but also catastrophic
consequences.
Word-for-word, or literal, translation seems to be the first strategy translation
students adopt when rendering texts between English and Arabic, which can distort
the meaning of original texts and produce odd target language texts. This strategy
should not always be avoided because some ST units are only translatable through
literal translation. The literal translation of major gifts officer as ‫ﺿﺎﺑﻂ اﻟﻬﺪاﯾﺎ اﻟﻜﺒﺮى‬
is inaccurate because the Arabic rendering does not relate to the ST phrase, which
refers to a person who coordinates relations with major donors. A possible render-
ing of the phrase can be ‫ﻣﻨﺴﻖ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت ﻣﻊ اﻟﺠﻬﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ اﻟﻜﺒﺮى‬. An example that is
accurately rendered through word-for-word translation or literal translation is heavy
industries ‫اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺜﻘﯿﻠﺔ‬.
An accurate translation takes into consideration the syntactic rules of the target
language, be it English or Arabic, where factors such tense, number, and gender
can significantly influence the translation process and product. The English phrase
a deep well is translated into Arabic as ‫ ﺑﺌﺮ ﻋﻤﯿﻘﺔ‬rather than ‫ ﺑﺌﺮ ﻋﻤﯿﻖ‬because ‫ ﺑﺌﺮ‬is
marked for feminine gender in Arabic. The word is marked for feminine gender in
Quran, 22:45 “. . . ‫ﺮ ﻣﱡﻌَﻄﱠَﻠ ٍﺔ‬
ٍ ْ‫ َو ِﺑﺌ‬. . .” Translation students are advised to consider other
grammatical aspects of immense importance such as the plural nouns in the subject
or object positions. Consider the translation of employees in the following examples:
• The employees left early.

ً
.‫ﻣﺒﻜﺮا‬ ‫ﻏﺎدر اﻟﻤﻮﻇﻔﻮن‬ •
• The manager spoke with the employees.
.‫ﺗﺤﺪث اﻟﻤﺪﯾﺮ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﻮﻇﻔﯿﻦ‬ •
The italics indicates the gender and case of the plural masculine noun in the subject
position and object position respectively.
When out of context, words can have different meanings that are not replace-
able in all contexts. Depression generally means ‫اﻛﺘﺌﺎب‬. It can mean ‫ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺟﻮي‬
in weather forecast and ‫ ﻛﺴﺎد‬as in economic depression. Court of Cassation is
translated as ‫ ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ‬in Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab
Emirates, and Iraq and ‫ ﻣﺤﻜﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﻘﯿﺐ‬in Tunisia. Certain English terms are trans-
lated differently across the Arab world. Serve generally means ‫ﯾﺨﺪم‬, but it can
mean ً‫ ﯾﺴﻠﻢ إﺷﻌﺎرا‬as in serve notice or ‫ ﯾﻤﺮر اﻟﻜﺮة‬in Jack serves to John. When trans-
lating into English, translators should consider the differences between British
English and American English. ‫ ﺷﺎﺣﻨﺔ‬is translated as truck in American English
and lorry in British English.
Translation can be influenced by factors that are beyond translators’ control.
These mainly include the ideological values of translators, institutions, or target
readers. An example of a translation that takes target readers’ ideology into account
is the translation of Palestinian terrorist into ‫ﻣﻘﺎوم ﻓﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﻲ‬, which indicates a signifi-
cant departure from the ST. Cultural references may be deleted from TTs in order to
respect the cultural values of target readers. Consider the following example where
bacon was translated as ‫ﻟﺤﻢ ﻣﻘﺪد‬.
Oscar Mayer wakes you up with bacon alarm (Money CNN)

(‫ﻣﻨﺒﻪ ﺑﺮاﺋﺤﺔ اﻟﻠﺤﻢ ﻣﻠﺤﻖ ﺟﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻵﯾﻔﻮن )أﺧﺒﺎر اﻵن‬
Reference to pig meat was omitted in the TT for cultural reasons. The name of the
company was also omitted to highlight two basic components: alarm and meat.
1.6 Decision making

The essence of translation is nothing but decision making, a stage requiring transla-
tors to select certain alternatives that define the factors governing all aspects of the
translation process. Wilss (1996) points out that the decision-making process is, in
a way, related to problem-solving strategies. The boundaries between both are dif-
ficult to draw. Whereas problem solving can be thought of as an inclusive process,
decision making begins only when the need for it arises within the structure of
problem-solving operations. Quoting Corbin (1980), Wilss (1996) explains that it is
necessary to present a standard procedural notion of decision making. The notion is
based on six stages as follows:
1 Problem identification
2 Problem clarification (description)
3 Research on, and collection of, background information
4 Deliberation of how to proceed (pre-choice behavior)
5 Moment of choice
6 Post-choice behavior (evaluation of translation results)
Wilss argues that the decision-making procedure may be delayed by obstructions,

which can occur at any stage. The author asks:
What if a problem is not (sufficiently) clarified in stage 2? How much infor-

mation collection is required in stage 3, before the translator dares to pro-
ceed further? What determines the length of deliberation in stage 4; when
and why does a translator stop these deliberations? And, what if there is no
choice at stage 5? What if it turns out in stage 6 that a wrong move has been
made?
Hatim and Munday (2004, p. 52) stress that achieving equivalence involves a com-
plex decision-making process and that translation decisions are not straightforward
and “sequential.” They are rather hierarchal, highly complex, and motivated by the
following factors:
1 Aesthetics: The nature of decision making is driven by a number of subjective

factors, such as the translator’s own “aesthetic standards” (Levy, 1967 in Hatim
& Munday, 2004).
2 Cognition and knowledge: The authors assert that the translator’s own socio-
cognitive system (the translator’s culture and system of values, beliefs, etc.) is
less subjective than aesthetics. The system plays a significant role in informing
translation decisions.
3 Commission: Hatim and Munday point out that the task specification agreed
with clients can significantly influence the decision-making process. This high-
lights translation purpose, loyalty, and conflict of interests, among other factors.
Hatim and Munday maintain that the nature of the commission is a central fac-
tor in defining the purpose of the translation.
1.7 Translators tools

Students and trainee translators are advised to utilize reference books and general,
specialized, monolingual, and bilingual dictionaries. Monolingual dictionaries in
English and Arabic are indispensable references for students and translators alike.
These include a unique Arabic monolingual dictionary entitled ‫ ﻣﻌﺠﻢ ﺷﺎﻣﻞ‬:‫اﻟﻤﻜﻨﺰ اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺎﻻت واﻟﻤﺘﺮادﻓﺎت واﻟﻤﺘﻀﺎدات‬. It classifies words into different domains in addition
to words lexical relations such as synonymy and antonymy. Another valuable refer-
ence book is ‫ﻣﻌﺠﻢ اﻷﺧﻄﺎء اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ‬, which highlights common mistakes with examples
of correct usage. English monolingual dictionaries include Oxford Advanced Learn-
er’s Dictionary, Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, and Mer-
riam-Webster’s Advanced Learner’s English Dictionary. Students can also benefit
from free online English dictionaries, which include Oxford Dictionaries: English
Dictionary, Thesaurus, & Grammar Help (https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/) and
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (www.ldoceonline.com/).
Some of the bilingual dictionaries that can be of use include Oxford Essen-
tial Arabic Dictionary: English-Arabic and Arabic English, Oxford Wordpower
English-Arabic Dictionary (2006 and 2010 editions), an essential reference dic-
tionary, and Arabic-English Dictionary (2018) by William Thompson Wortabet.
Almaany dictionary is a practical online English–Arabic and Arabic–English dic-
tionary. It contains over 30 different search domains, such as accounting, agricul-
ture, computer, Islamic, scientific, social, legal, UN, and so on. It can be accessed
on www.almaany.com/en/dict/ar-en/. Almaany dictionary also provides examples of
the use of words in different contexts with their translations.
Specialized dictionaries are a must for students studying advanced translation
courses. These include, but are not limited to, Oxford Collocations Dictionary for
Students of English, Online Collocation Dictionary (www.freecollocation.com/),
Webster’s New Dictionary of Synonyms, ‫ﻣﻌﺠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ واﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪ‬,
‫ﻣﻌﺠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت اﻟﻄﺒﯿﺔ‬, ‫ﻣﻌﺠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ وﺣﻘﻮق اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬, ‫ﻣﻌﺠﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺜﺔ واﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ واﻟﺪﺑﻠﻮﻣﺎﺳﯿﺔ واﻟﻌﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ‬, among others.
The internet has become a quick, valuable, and free source of information for
students and translators (Figure 1.2). Students can find words easily and quickly in
different domains using Google Search and Google Translate. However, attention
should be paid to the linguistic and semantic problems of translation when using
Google Translate to translate sentences between English and Arabic. Google trans-
lates ‫ ﯾﺎ ﻟﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺮﺳﻲ ﻣﺘﻌﺐ‬into What a tired chair!; ‫ ﻣﺘﻌِﺐ‬means uncomfortable rather
than tired. The word, read as ‫ﻣﺘﻌَﺐ‬, means tired. The problem here lies in the fact that
Google Translate does not distinguish the different readings of the word and conse-
quently cannot select the accurate translations associated with these different read-
ings. Translation software or Computer Assisted Translation (CAT) tools, especially
those having translation memory as in TRADOS, can be of great use for students
and translators. However, translations using such software many not be accurate due
to syntactic structures or lexical ambiguities.
Translators’ tools
Monolingual dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries CAT Tools
General English-Arabic TRADOS

English-English
General Arabic-English Word Fast
Arabic-Arabic
Specialized English-Arabic Internet
Specialized Arabic-English
FIGURE 1.2 Translators’ tools
Exercises
Exercise 1: what are the suitable strategies to translate the italicized? Translate
the sentences afterwards
English into Arabic:
1 Air traffic control centers keep aircrafts from colliding.

2 The doctor advised her to buy maternity wear.
3 Heavy industries can promote the national economy.
4 My parents always tell me that prevention is better than cure.
5 The largest areas of savanna are found in Africa.
Annotation: In No. 1, air traffic control centers is translated into Arabic through
omission as ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺔ ﺟﻮﯾﺔ‬, where traffic is deleted in the Arabic translation;
keep . . . from is translated into Arabic as ‫ﺗﻤﻨﻊ‬.
Arabic into English:
.‫ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ أﺣﺪ ﺻﯿﻎ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ‬١
.‫ ﻋﺎد ﺻﺪﯾﻘﻲ ﺑﺨﻔﻲ ﺣﻨﯿﻦ‬٢
.‫ اﻻﻋﺘﻜﺎف ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺠﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﺧﻼل اﻟﻌﺸﺮ اﻷواﺧﺮ ﻣﻦ رﻣﻀﺎن‬٣
.‫ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺎﻣﯿﺮات ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺔ اﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻖ اﻟﺴﺮﯾﻊ‬٤
.‫ وﺻﻠﺖ اﻟﻤﺤﺎدﺛﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻮﻓﺪ اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ واﻟﻮﻓﺪ اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﻣﺴﺪود‬٥
Annotation: ‫ اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ‬is borrowed into English; ‫ ﺑﺨﻔﻲ ﺣﻨﯿﻦ‬requires idiomatic

translation or general translation if students are not able to find the equivalent
expression.
Exercise 2: translate sentence two in the light of the following annotation

‫ وﻻ ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺎً ﻣﺴﺘﻘﯿﻤﺎً إﻻ‬،‫ﺳﺒﯿﻼ ﻟﻠﺘﻘﺮب إﻟﻰ اﷲ وﻃﺎﻋﺘﻪ‬
ً ‫ وﻻ‬،‫ ﻻ ﯾﺘﺮك اﻟﺸﯿﻄﺎن ﺑﺎﺑﺎً ﻣﻦ أﺑﻮاب اﻟﺨﯿﺮ‬۱
.‫وﯾﺤﺎول داﺋﻤًﺎ أن ﯾﺼﺪ اﻟﻤﺆﻣﻦ ﻋﻨﻪ‬
‫ وﺑﻬﺬا‬،‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﻨﻬﯿﺎت ﺳﯿﺎج ﻧﻔﺴﻲ ﯾﻘﻲ أوﻟﻲ اﻹﻋﺎﻗﺎت ﻣﻦ أي ﺗﻌﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﻮل أو ﺣﺘﻰ اﻹﺷﺎرة‬۲
.‫ﯾﻌﯿﺶ اﻟﻤﻌﻮق ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻟﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﺤﯿﻂ‬
Annotation: The translation of 1 and 2 calls for a general translation rather than
literal translation. The translation of 1 can be as follows:
Satan continuously seeks to prevent the believers from strengthening their rela-
tion with Allah by discouraging them from doing good deeds which promote close-
ness to Allah.
Exercise 3: translate the following Arabic paragraph into English

‫اﻟﺼﺮاع اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﻌﯿﻨﺎت اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬
– ‫آﺛﺎرا ﺳﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺼﺮاع اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬
ً ‫ﻧﺨﺺ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺪة اﻟﺰﻣﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﺮ ﻷﻧﻬﺎ ﺷﻬﺪت أﺣﺪاﺛﺎً ﺗﺮﻛﺖ‬
‫ وﻣﺎ ﻧﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺼﺪع ﻛﺎﻣﻞ ﻓﻲ‬1990 ‫ ﻣﻦ أﺑﺮزﻫﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﯿﺎح اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ ﻟﺪوﻟﺔ اﻟﻜﻮﯾﺖ ﻋﺎم‬،‫اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ‬
‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬،‫ وﻫﻮ أﻣﺮ أدى إﻟﻰ ﺷﻠﻞ ﺗﺎم ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺪرات اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻒ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ واﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ – اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬
ً ‫إﻟﻰ إﺿﻌﺎف اﻟﺼﺮاع ﻣﻊ إﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻞ؛ إذ‬
‫ﺑﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ أن ﺗﻮاﺟﻪ اﻟﺪول اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻻﺣﺘﻼل اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ ﻷراﺿﯿﻬﺎ‬
‫ أﺻﺒﺢ أﻣﺎﻣﻬﺎ ﻣﻌﻀﻠﺔ إﻧﻬﺎء اﺣﺘﻼل دوﻟﺔ ﻋﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ﻋﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬،‫وﺗﻮﺣﺪ ﺻﻔﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮاﺟﻬﺔ ﻫﺬا اﻻﺣﺘﻼل‬
‫ وﯾﺘﻔﻖ ﻛﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮاﻗﺒﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ أن اﻟﺘﻄﻮرات اﻟﺘﻲ ﺷﻬﺪﻫﺎ اﻟﺼﺮاع اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ – اﻹﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ‬،‫أﺧﺮى‬
‫ وﻫﻮ اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ اﻟﺬي ﺷﺎرﻛﺖ ﻓﯿﻪ أﻃﺮاف ﻋﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬،1991 ‫ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﻨﺎت ﻣﺜﻞ ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﻣﺪرﯾﺪ ﻟﻠﺴﻼم ﻋﺎم‬
‫ ﺑﯿﻦ إﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻞ وﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﺮ‬1993 ‫وﻓﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ وأﺧﺮى إﺳﺮاﺋﯿﻠﯿﺔ ودوﻟﯿﺔ وﻛﺬﻟﻚ اﺗﻔﺎق أوﺳﻠﻮ ﻋﺎم‬
.‫اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺪاﻋﯿﺎت اﻟﻐﺰو اﻟﻌﺮاﻗﻲ ﻟﻠﻜﻮﯾﺖ‬
(Al-Bursan, 2011, p. 109)
Annotation: Translators’ ideology can play a role here by foregrounding Israeli

in the topic and the first line of the paragraph. The long Arabic paragraph can be
divided into four English paragraphs. The bolded-underlined words mark possible
ends of the Arabic sentences in the paragraph.
Exercise 4: translate the following into Arabic

Another “call for significant social change” came from Saudi Arabia in 2017 with
the ascent to power in 2015 of Prince Salman Bin Abdulaziz (as King) and later
his young son Prince Mohammed Bin Salman (MBS) as Crown Prince who spear-
headed that call. In a country notorious for corruption and Wasta, MBS unleashed a
campaign to fight these two problems in Saudi society in a very unprecedented way.
He arrested and imprisoned many rich Saudi businessmen and royal family members
on allegations of corruption. MBS exacted millions and billions from them for their
release and vowed to clean Saudi society of this “scourge.” But these are early days
to pass judgment. Only time will tell if this campaign has resulted in a significant
social change in Saudi Arabia. This is assuming MBS remains in power – and later
becomes King – to see the outcome of his actions. However, the Saudi political sys-
tem may struggle to overcome problems of insecurity, poverty, and unpredictability.
As a consequence, in the immediate to midterm, Wasta will continue to remain a
“normal” feature of Saudi society (Bunt, Sultan, & Weir, 2019, p. 330).
Annotation: Call for can be rendered as ‫دﻋﻮة ل‬, ascent to power ‫ﺗﻮﻟﻲ ﺣﻜﻢ اﻟﺒﻼد‬,
spearheaded ‫ﻗﺎد‬, and notorious ‫ﻣﺸﻬﻮرة ب‬.
Exercise 5: break has a different meaning in each of the following sentences.

Identify its meaning then translate all sentences into Arabic
1 Sally broke the world record in the Olympic Games.
2 I need to thank the manager for giving me another break.
3 Can you tell me about the most famous prison break?
4 Laws are different in different countries. You may sometimes break the law
without knowing.
5 He spoke to the group and broke the silence.
6 My friend was complaining because his father broke his will.
7 The tough breaks in his life taught him how to be a self-made person.
8 The company manager said to me, “Go break a leg.”
9 The company broke faith with its employees.
10 You must break the habit of smoking before it is too late.
Suggestions for further reading

1 In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (2018) by Mona Baker. The book
features a bottom-up approach to translation beginning from the word and end-
ing in text. It covers different languages including Arabic and English.
2 Between English and Arabic: A Practical Course in Translation (2014) by
Bahaa-Eddin Abulhassan Hassan is another useful resource on translation to
students studying translation between English and Arabic. The main contribu-
tion of the book lies in adopting a contrastive linguistics approach.
3 Thinking Arabic Translation: A Course in Translation Method (Arabic to
English) (2017) by James Dickins, Sándor Hervey, and Ian Higgins. The book
is a valuable reference and guide for linguists and students who want to develop
their Arabic-to-English translation skills. It contains explanations, discussions,
examples, and exercises that develop the skills necessary for addressing many
translation problems.
Notes
1 The translations into English in this paragraph are by the author of this book.
2 Sinclair (1991, p. 10) defines collocation as “the occurrence of two or more words within
a short space of each other in a text.”
3 This mainly applies to English rather than Arabic.
4
TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC
TRANSLATION
4.1 Introduction
The role that technical and scientific translation plays in today’s age of information
is becoming more important than ever before. This type of translation promotes the
most significant technological advances, which remarkably change our lives. Practi-
cally, these technological advances have transformed our experiences of basic life
aspects such as learning environments and entertainment. The advances would not
be possible without translation, the key role of which is sharing technical knowl-
edge. Byrne (2012, p. 1) explains that:
Virtually every aspect of our lives from education and work to entertainment,
shopping and travel has been swept along by a seemingly unstoppable wave of
new inventions and technological advances. What many people do not realize
is that these inventions and advances are accompanied at almost every step of
the way by translation in its capacity as a vehicle for disseminating scientific
and technical knowledge.
Tylor (1998, p. 121) explains that the word technical includes “scientific disciplines
(medicine, physics, astronomy, chemistry, etc.), fields of applied technology (com-
puters, engineering, etc.) and even less obviously ‘scientific’ subjects such as geog-
raphy, economics, architecture and the like.” The author adds that technical writing
is as old as literary writing.
Dickins et al. (2017, p. 230) distinguish between two basic types of technical
texts: culturally common technical texts and culturally non-common technical texts.
Culturally common technical texts address notions shared by the SL culture and the
TL culture. Examples of such texts include natural scientific and mathematical texts.
Culturally non-common technical texts, however, do not share basic notions in the
SL and TL cultures. Dickins et al. (2017, pp. 230–231) explain that the problems
Technical and scientific translation 177
arising from the translation of culturally common technical texts relate to techni-
cal terms and genre. Examples of culturally non-common texts include the Islamic
jurisprudence and Arabic traditional grammar.
4.2 Lexical issues and text features

Words used in technical and scientific texts can be a source of difficulty to transla-
tors who generally do not specialize in a specific type of such texts. The field of
technology and science contains terms that are only understood by professionals.
Dickins et al. (2017, p. 231) explain that technical texts are relatively inaccessible
to non-specialist readers due to lexical and conceptual reasons. The authors add that
the lexical problems of technical translation arise from using three types of ST terms:
1 Technical terms totally unfamiliar to the lay translator because they are used in
technical contexts only
2 Technical terms familiar to the translator because they are used in non-technical
contexts but look as if they are being used in some technically specialized way
in the ST
3 Technical terms familiar to the translator because they are used in non-technical
contexts but do not obviously look as if they are being used in some technically
specialized way in the ST
Dickins et al. (2017, pp. 232–234) provide examples of the three types. The follow-
ing is the first example containing the three types:
‫اﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎرات اﻟﺠﻠﺪﯾﺔ‬
‫{ ﯾﻠﺠﺄ إﻟﻰ ھذه اﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎرات‬1‫وﻫﻲ ﺿﺮورﯾﺔ وﻣﻔﯿﺪة ﻟﺪراﺳﺔ وﻛﺸﻒ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻹﺻﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﺠﻠﺪﯾﺔ }اﻷرﺟﯿﺔ‬
‫{ وﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬2‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻲ اﻟﺤﺎل ﻓﻲ أﻛﺰﯾﻤﺎ }اﻟﺘﻤﺎس‬،‫{ أو اﻟﻀﺎرة‬1‫ﻟﺘﻌﯿﯿﻦ وﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﻮاد }اﻟﻤﺤﺴﺴﺔ‬
{1‫{ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻲ أو اﻟﺪواﺋﻲ وﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻻت }اﻟﺘﺤﺴﺲ‬1‫{ وﻓﻲ }اﻷرج‬1‫{ }اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﺪ‬1‫{ وﻓﻲ }اﻟﺸﺮى‬2‫}اﻟﻤﻬﻨﯿﺔ‬
.‫{ وﻣﻔﺮزاتھا‬2‫{ و}اﻟﺨﻤﯿﺮات‬2‫{ و}اﻟﻔﻄﻮر‬3‫ب }اﻟﺠﺮاﺛﯿﻢ‬
TT skin tests
These tests are necessary for the study and investigation of some {allergic1} skin
reactions. They are conducted in order to specify and diagnose the {allergenic1}
or harmful substances, as for example in the case of {contact2} eczema, especially
{occupational2}, in {chronic2} {urticaria1}, and in food or drug {allergies1}, or in
{sensitivities1} to {bacteria3}, {fungi2}, or {yeasts2} and their products.
Type one lexical items include

‫ اﻷرﺟﯿﺔ‬allergic, ‫ اﻟﻤﺤﺴﺴﺔ‬allergenic, ‫ اﻟﺸﺮى‬urticaria, ‫ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻧﺪ‬chronic, ‫ اﻷرج‬allergies.
178 Technical and scientific translation
Type two lexical items include

‫ اﻟﺘﻤﺎس‬contact, ‫ اﻟﻤﻬﻨﯿﺔ‬occupational, ‫ اﻟﻔﻄﻮر‬fungi, ‫ اﻟﺨﻤﯿﺮات‬enzymes.
Type three examples are problematic because, as Dickins et al. (2017, p. 234)
explain, translators may not recognize them as technical terms and render them
depending on their general meaning. The word ‫ اﻟﺠﺮاﺛﯿﻢ‬is translated in the technical
sense as bacteria. If translators fail to recognize this sense, they would possibly
translate it as germs and thus render an inaccurate translation.
Dickins et al. (2017, p. 235) add that the conceptual problems related to techni-
cal translation arise from translators’ unfamiliarity with the knowledge taken for
granted by experts. This highlights that translators’ familiarity with ST technical
terms is crucial for appropriately accounting for technical terms. The word ‫ﻦ‬ َ ‫ﺿَﻤﱠ‬
used by sharia judges is a technical term that means ordering a party to a litigation
to pay certain fees. Unfamiliarity with such terms may lead to translating the term
as include or ensured. ‫ إﺑﺮة‬is literally translated into English as needle, but the domi-
nant meaning in the medical domain is syringe.
Lexical features of technical English

Every field of knowledge uses certain terms that set it apart from other fields. A
term can exist in two different domains of knowledge but with one meaning and
interpretation for each. Disregarding its meaning in psychology, depression can
be used in economics to mean a long downturn in economic activity. It can also
be used in the weather domain to mean a region of lower atmospheric pressure.
Pinchuk (1977, p. 165) lists the features of technical and scientific language as
follows:
1 Technical language is a specialized language and, as opposed to ordinary lan-

guage, tends to become more specialized.
2 Technical language seeks to be economic in terms of using linguistic means.
3 Technical language avoids ordinary language associations and defines terms
accurately.
Simple and informative language

Dickins et al. (2017, p. 240) and Tylor (1998, p. 121) say that the language used in
English technical texts is informative and characterized by impersonal style.
Use of metaphors
Byrne (2012) explains that metaphors are used in scientific texts to put a concrete
name to an abstract concept. Examples of well-known metaphors used in technical
texts are Black Hole and Greenhouse Effect. Metaphors can be used to explain com-
plex processes depending on the readers’ existing knowledge.
TABLE 4.1 Technical terms
ST TT
Comparative anatomy ‫اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﺢ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرن‬
Detergents ‫اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻔﺎت‬
Rodenticides ‫ﻣﺒﯿﺪات اﻟﻘﻮارض‬
Terminology
A significant feature of scientific and technical texts lies in the terminology used.
Newmark (1988, p. 151) maintains that about 5 to 10% of a given text contains spe-
cialized terms. Examples of some technical terms and their translations into Arabic
are given in Table 4.1.
Exercise 1: translate the following sentences into Arabic

1 Comparative anatomy studies the similarities and differences in the anatomy of
different species.
2 Rodenticides are pesticides which are used to kill rodents.
Facts
A key feature of technical and scientific texts is the presentation of facts. Such texts
are objective in nature. Byrne (2012, p. 53) provides the following example:
The recommended dose is between 50 and 80 mg per liter of water. It can be

translated into Arabic as:
.‫ ﻣﻠﻠﯿﻐﺮام ﻟﻜﻞ ﻟﺘﺮ ﻣﺎء‬80‫ و‬50 ‫اﻟﺠﺮﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺻﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻫﻲ‬
4.3 Syntactic features

Tylor (1998, p. 121) says that the grammar of scientific language is complex to the
layman because it is influenced by the technical nature of the content. Geoffrey,
Greenbaum, Quirk, and Svartvik (1985, p. 1351 as cited in Tylor, 1998, p. 122)
explain that technical language “has a higher proportion of complex noun phrases,
and a few simple noun phrases as clause subject.” The following is an example:
Two or more atoms joined to form a molecule are represented by . . .
Abstract subjects
Dickins et al. (2017, p. 241) explain that the subjects in technical texts tend to be
abstract. Guerra (2000, pp. 93–94) points out that the pronoun I is replaced by we
or passive forms.
Passives
One of the main features of technical English is the extensive use of passive struc-
tures (Dickins et al., 2017). Guerra (2000, p. 93) explains that the passive voice is
normally used to emphasize the importance of the message.
Use of connectors
Guerra (2000, p. 93) points out that the use of connectors and repetition of key
works (mainly nouns) is common in technical texts.
Simple sentences
Byrne (2012, p. 48) explains that simplicity is a key feature of technical texts. The
author points out that simplicity aims at reducing the work readers need to do and
reducing the risk of misunderstanding. Using simple and declarative sentences can
improve the simplicity of technical texts. The following is an example of simple
declarative sentences:
The detector automatically checks the condition of the batteries.

It can be rendered into Arabic as:
.‫اوﺗﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﻜﯿﺎ‬
ً ‫ﯾﻔﺤﺺ اﻟﻜﺎﺷﻒ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺒﻄﺎرﯾﺎت‬
Nominalization
One of the distinctive features of technical and scientific texts is the use of nominal-
ization. Dickins et al. (2017, p. 241) provide examples as accompaniment, spread,
provision, and outbreaks. Hervey and Higgins (2002, p. 180) define nominalization
as “the use of a noun which, in the same language or in a TT, could be replaced by an
expression not containing a noun.” Pinchuk (1977, p. 165) says “The nominalization
style is easier to write and its impersonality avoids commitment to tense, unlike the
controversial style.” Tylor (1998, p. 123) believes that nominalization distinguishes
the grammar of technical texts from the grammar of the spoken language. The author
points out that technical texts nominalize process and actions as in The flywheel hous-
ing installation position must be ensured. Tylor explains that the greater nominal con-
tent in technical texts means that the lexical density of such texts is higher than that in
verbal non-technical texts. Lexical density measures the proportion of lexical words
to function words or the proportion of lexical words to the number of clauses in a text.
For the first proportion, Tylor (1998, p. 124) quotes Yates (1988, p. 111) example:
The gaseous products of volcanic activity include water vapour, carbon diox-
ide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and various sulphur compounds. The most prominent
constituent is water vapour.
This extract contains 17 lexical words as opposed to six function words in two
clauses. The following text is cited from Oates (1994, p. 5) in Tylor (1998).
On the school bus going home she whispered in my ear, “That was because of
us, wasn’t it! – what happened to that woman?”
This extract contains seven lexical words and 16 function words in three clauses.
4.4 Stylistic features

Herman (1993, p. 11) points out that technical writing and technical translation
share common stylistic features such as clarity, concision, and correctness.
Clarity
Herman (1993) explains that when the syntactic and lexical features of the source
text and target texts are different, clarity necessitates that TL sentences be restruc-
tured. Translators here do not merely look up words in a dictionary but rather search
for the most appropriate meanings of lexical items and proper structuring of TL
texts. Herman (p. 15) remarks that in addition to rearranging the original sentence
in the target text, “clarity sometimes requires the use of English terminology with a
different degree of specificity than that of the original.”
Concision
Herman (1993) notes that translators render wordy first drafts in order to ensure
accounting for all ideas in the original texts. The author remarks that technical trans-
lators are paid by word; therefore, taking extra steps to deliver concise work is
disadvantageous for them. In addition, technical authors are paid because of their
knowledge not because of their writing styles, which can sometimes be bad. Some
technical texts are not well organized and readers are consequently reminded of
previous information through repetition. This type of work is the task of technical
translators who can improve concision sentence by sentence.
Correctness
Herman (1993) mentions that correctness in technical translation refers to two
things. First, correctness means accurately re-creating the technical terms of
the original in the target language. Such re-creation is generally impossible
if the technical translator does not have some comprehensive knowledge about
the subject matter of the text intended for translation. Obvious typographical
and grammatical errors in the original are suppressed if they do not impede
comprehension.
Second, correctness means producing accurate target language technical documents

despite the mistakes in the original. Common errors in technical papers include “inconsis-
tencies between numbers listed in tables and the conclusions drawn from those numbers”
(p. 18). The second sense of correctness here does not sound practical for most trans-
lators, especially those working on translation between Arabic and English. Although
finding errors related to numbers is an easy task, identifying other types of errors can be
impossible for translators who do not have detailed knowledge of technical texts.
Addressing specific readership

Byrne (2012, p. 27) remarks that all technical documents are written for specific pur-
poses as in helping users perform certain tasks, demonstrating a particular concept, or
providing sufficient information to allow decision making. Thus, technical documents
are considered “task-orientated tools aimed at a particular group or groups of people.”
Technical communication is a tool

Byrne (2012, p. 28) explains that the aims of technical documents include “perform-
ing a task, understanding a concept and making a decision based on clear facts.”
Readers read technical texts because they need to perform certain tasks. Technical
texts are therefore a tool and a means to an end.
Mixed styles
Technical documents are regularly written by several people. On the one hand, we
can find technical texts written by more than one writer, each having a different style
of writing. On the other hand, some texts written by a single writer pass through
review by various people, such as technical experts, marketing teams, lawyers, and
users with changes being made to each version of the document (Byrne, 2012). In
such a situation, it is quite natural to find stylistic variations because different writ-
ers have different ways of writing.
Translators may find that different terms can be used to refer to a concept.
In extreme cases, translators may not be able to translate a certain part of a text
“because the style and clarity of the text suddenly deteriorates in comparison to the
rest of the document” (Byrne, 2012, p. 29). Similarly, a number of translators can
work on a single technical document, particularly those large documents with short
delivery deadlines. This highlights that inconsistencies in style must be addressed
by editors, senior translators, or lone freelancers.

Employing a translation strategy to a text depends mainly on the text type and pur-
pose of translation. The following section lists some translation strategies that can
be adopted to render technical and scientific texts between English and Arabic.
Direct translation
Direct translation here refers to the availability of TL equivalents. Examples of
direct translation of technical terms include those shown in Table 4.2:

1 Acrocyanosis is defined as a condition marked by bluish or purple coloring of
the hands and feet, caused by slow circulation.
2 Amelia is a rare disorder which is characterized by the absence of the four limbs.
3 Biennial bearing means that some fruit trees produce heavily in one year and
produce little or nothing the next.
4 Accounts payable include letters of credit and contributions received in
advance.
5 A microburner is a type of burner that gives a very small flame and is used in
microanalysis.
6 The policeman hit the man with a baton.
Borrowing
Borrowing, as Byrne (2012, p. 120) notes, is “the simplest form of exchange between
languages as it involves transferring an SL lexical item into the TT without any form
of modification except . . . for transliteration to account for different writing systems
and characters.” An example of an Arabic word borrowed into English is alcohol
(also see Table 4.3).
TABLE 4.2 Direct translation method
ST word TT Field
Acrocyanosis (‫زرﻗﺔ اﻟﻨﻬﺎﯾﺎت )اﻟﯿﺪﯾﻦ واﻟﻘﺪﻣﯿﻦ‬ medical
Amelia ‫اﻧﻌﺪام اﻷﻃﺮاف‬ medical
biennial bearing ‫اﻹﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎوب‬ agriculture
accounts payable ‫ﺣﺴﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﺪاﺋﻨﯿﻦ‬ accounting
microburner ‫ﻣﻮﻗﺪ دﻗﯿﻖ‬ chemistry
baton ‫ﻫﺮاوة‬ police
TABLE 4.3 Borrowing of technical terms
ST word TT Field
server ‫ﺳﯿﺮﻓﺮ‬ computer
carbon ‫ﻛﺮﺑﻮن‬ chemistry

1 I could not find the update package on Apple server.
2 Gas contains a certain amount of hydrogen and oxides of carbon.
Direct translation and borrowing

Using this strategy, translators combine two translation methods at a time. This
means that one or more components of the SL unit will be directly translated into
its/their Arabic equivalent/s, and the remaining components will be borrowed. Con-
sider the examples in Table 4.4.

1 A photocathode is a negatively charged electrode in a light detection device.
2 An internet service provider provides users with internet service which enables
them to access or use the internet.
3 Manila paper is a strong and durable paper generally made from Manila
hemp.
Translation and explanation

This translation strategy involves the translation and explanation of ST lexical units.
Let us consider the following example:
ST TT
blast furnace (‫ﻓﺮن ﺻﻬﺮ ﻋﺎل )ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻟﺼﻬﺮ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺪ‬
Explanation
Using this strategy, translators explain the ST lexical item because no direct equiva-
lent exists in the TL. Consider the examples in Table 4.5.
TABLE 4.4 Direct translation and borrowing
ST TT
boric acid ‫ﺣﺎﻣﺾ اﻟﺒﻮرﯾﻚ‬
photocathode ‫ﻛﺎﺛﻮد ﺿﻮﺋﻲ‬
internet service ‫ﺧﺪﻣﺔ اﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬
manila paper ‫ورق اﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﻼ‬
TABLE 4.5 Explanation strategy
ST word TT
PowerPoint ‫ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﻌﺮوض اﻟﺘﻘﺪﯾﻤﯿﺔ‬
cookie ‫ﻣﻠﻒ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻻرﺗﺒﺎط‬
outsourcing (‫إﺳﻨﺎد ﻋﻤﻞ ﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺧﺎرﺟﯿﺔ )ﺗﻌﻬﯿﺪ ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ‬
backbone ‫ﺧﻂ رﺋﯿﺲ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﺗﺼﺎﻻت‬
bottleneck ‫ﻣﻌﯿﻖ ﻟﻺﻧﺘﺎج‬

1 Robert Gaskins and Dennis Austin worked at an American software company
named Forethought and created Microsoft PowerPoint presentation program.
2 A cookie is a type of information that a website puts on your hard disk.
3 Outsourcing refers to the business practice following which a company hires a
party to perform services.
4 A backbone is a part of computer network, the main task of which is intercon-
necting different pieces of network.
5 The term bottleneck is defined in project management and production as a pro-
cess that reduces the capacity of the whole production chain.
6 Under an outsourcing agreement, one company hires another company to per-
form planned or existing activities that could be done internally.
7 Insufficient investment in infrastructure can produce long-lasting bottlenecks
when there is rapid economic growth.
8 The financial sector bottlenecks in Palestine are hindering the utilization of local
banking and non-banking services.
9 College students can use different PowerPoint templates for class presentations.
10 Some websites use different cookies to enable visitors to adapt the appearance
of such websites.
Exercise 6: Look up the meaning of the following terms then

translate the sentences that follow the table
ST TT ST TT
diaphragm .................... card reader ....................
acid .................... adipose tissue ....................
contraction .................... abdominal ....................
anomaly .................... unbound electron ....................
chromic acid .................... boot sector ....................
1 A boot sector is a reserved sector of a disk that contains the necessary data used
to complete the boot process of a computer.
2 An unbound electron can absorb energy.
3 Anomaly is a birth defect caused by a structural abnormality or a marked devia-

tion from the average or norm.
4 Acid is a chemical substance that denotes protons and accepts electrons. It tastes
sour in water solution.
5 The abdominal pain can be caused by inflammation of an organ.
6 Muscle contraction refers to the activation of tension-generating sites within
muscle fibers.
7 In business, a card reader is a data input device that can be wireless or connected
by wire to a computer. This device is used to gather data.
8 The diaphragm is a thin skeletal muscle in humans and other mammals that
extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity.
9 Adipose tissue, which is composed mostly of adipocytes, is a loose connective
tissue.
10 The main role of adipose tissue is to store energy in the form of fat.
11 The term chromic acid is usually used for a mixture made by adding concen-
trated sulfuric acid to a dichromate.
12 You can transfer pictures from a digital camera to a computer by using a direct
cable or a card reader.
13 A boot sector virus is a virus that can infect the boot sector of the Master Boot
Record (MBR) of your computer hard disks.
4.6 Finance and business texts

What is Islamic Banking? (Essvale Corporation, 2010, p. 34)
Islamic banking can be described as banking with a conscience. Individual Islamic
banks each have a dedicated Shari’ah board whose membership includes Shari’ah
scholars as well as financial experts whose main responsibility is the assessment of
activities to determine their compliance with Shari’ah laws.
Islamic banking is based on the following two key principles:
1 Interest-free financing is the method for investing in the private sector.

2 Profit and loss sharing as well as the sharing of risks is the basis for the develop-
ment of financial instruments.
Exercise 2: translate the following into English
‫إن ا ﻗﺘﺼﺎ ر ا ﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ا ﻹﺳﻼ ﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ا ﻟﻄﯿﺒﺎ ت ﯾﻌﻨﻲ أﻧﻪ ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة إ ﻧﺘﺎ ج اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬
‫ أو ا ﻟﻤﺆ ذﯾﺔ ﻟﺒﯿﺌﺘﻪ‬،‫ أ ﻣﺎ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ا ﻟﻀﺎ ر ة ﺑﺎﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬. ‫ ﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﻨﻔﻊ ا ﻟﻨﺎ س ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺎﺷﻬﻢ‬،‫وﺗﻮزﯾﻌﻬﺎ‬
.‫ ﻓﺈن ﻣﻦ ا ﻟﺨﯿﺮ ﻟﻠﺒﺸﺮﯾﺔ ﻛﻠﻬﺎ أن ﯾﻘﻞ أو ﯾﻨﻌﺪم إ ﻧﺘﺎ ﺟﻬﺎ وﺗﺪاوﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ ا ﻟﻨﺎس‬،‫ا ﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ أو اﻟﻤﺎدﯾﺔ‬
(Qahf, 2011, p. 35 )
Glossary: ‫ اﻗﺘﺼﺎر‬confining, ‫ ﻃﯿﺒﺎت‬good things, ‫ ﺗﺪاول‬trading.
‫‪Technical and scientific translation 187‬‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Translate the following into English‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل‬

‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮط ﻹﻧﻔﺎذ ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرﺑﺔ وﺗﻤﻜﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرب ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺼﺮف ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ رأس ﻣﺎل اﻟﻤﻀﺎرﺑﺔ ﻟﻪ ﻛﻠﻪ أو‬
‫ﺑﻌﻀﻪ‪ ،‬أو ﺗﻤﻜﯿﻨﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺼﺮف ﻓﯿﻪ‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﻮ ﺷﺮط رب اﻟﻤﺎل أن ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرب ﻓﺴﺪت اﻟﻤﻀﺎرﺑﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻷن ذﻟﻚ ﯾﺨﻞ ﺑﻜﻤﺎل اﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ‪(Nassar, 2010, p. 46) .‬‬
‫‪ dispose‬ﺗﺼﺮف ‪ Mudarib (an entrepreneur),‬ﻣﻀﺎرب ‪ Mudarabah,‬ﻣﻀﺎرﺑﺔ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ Rab al Mal (investing partner).‬رب اﻟﻤﺎل ‪of,‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: translate the following into English‬‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﻮاﺟﺐ ﺗﻮاﻓﺮﻫﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺮاد ﺗﺰﻛﯿﺘﻪ )‪(Hoho, 2017, pp. 21–24‬‬
‫ﻣﻠﻚ اﻟﻨﺼﺎب‪ :‬ﯾُﻌﺮف اﻟﻨﺼﺎب ﺷﺮﻋًﺎ أﻧﻪ اﻟﻘﺪر اﻟﻤﻌﯿﻦ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﯾﺒﻠﻐﻪ اﻟﻤﺎل ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﻔﺮض ﻋﻠﯿﻪ اﻟﺰﻛﺎة‪.‬‬ ‫‪١‬‬
‫ﻛﺎ ﻟﺼﺎﺣﺒﻪ ﻣﻠﻜﺎً ﺗﺎﻣًﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻠﻚ اﻟﺘﺎم‪ :‬أﺟﻤﻊ اﻟﻔﻘﻬﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺮوط وﺟﻮب اﻟﺰﻛﺎة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎل أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻤﻠﻮ ً‬ ‫‪٢‬‬
‫ﺣﻮﻻن اﻟﺤﻮل‪ :‬ﯾﺸﺘﺮط ﻟﻮﺟﻮب اﻟﺰﻛﺎة أن ﯾﻤﻀﻲ ﻋﻠﯿﻪ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻮزة ﺻﺎﺣﺒﻪ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻛﺘﻤﺎل اﻟﻨﺼﺎب‬ ‫‪٣‬‬
‫ﯾﻮﻣﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﻮل ﻗﻤﺮي أي ﺛﻼﺛﻤﺎﺋﺔ وأرﺑﻊ وﺧﻤﺴﻮن ً‬
‫اﻟﻔﻀﻞ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺤﻮاﺋﺞ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ‪ :‬أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﺼﺎب ﻓﺎﺿﻼً ﻋﻦ اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﺼﺎﺣﺒﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪٤‬‬
‫‪ nisab (a minimum monetary‬اﻟﻨﺼﺎب‪ zakatable wealth,‬اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺮاد ﺗﺰﻛﯿﺘﻪ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ excess after‬اﻟﻔﻀﻞ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺤﻮاﺋﺞ اﻷﺻﻠﯿﺔ ‪ elapse of one lunar year,‬ﺣﻮﻻن اﻟﺤﻮل ‪value),‬‬
‫‪fulfilling basic needs.‬‬
‫)‪Exercise 5: translate the following into English (www.samba.com‬‬
‫‪ ١‬ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ‪ :‬اﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﺑﺮأس اﻟﻤﺎل ورﺑﺢ ﻣﻌﻠﻮم‪(Al-Shemri, 2016, p. 29) .‬‬
‫‪ ٢‬اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ‪ :‬ﻫﻲ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ﺷﯿﻮﻋﺎً ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ‪ ،‬واﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ‬
‫ﺷﺮاء أﺻﻞ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﺑﻨﺎًء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻠﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﺛﻢ ﺑﯿﻌﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﺑﺴﻌﺮ ﯾﺸﻤﻞ ﺛﻤﻨﻪ‬
‫اﻷﺻﻠﻲ وﻧﺴﺒﺔ رﺑﺢ ﻣﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ‪ .‬ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ ﯾﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎً‬
‫ﺟﺬرﯾﺎً‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ أﻧﻪ ﯾﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻷﺻﻮل اﻟﻤﺎدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ اﻷﺧﺬ ﺑﺎﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﺑﺄن اﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﯾﺸﺎرك ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺮ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﺑ ً‬
‫ﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﺑﻨﻔﺴﻪ ﺑﺸﺮاء اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﻃﺮف ﺛﺎﻟﺚ ﺑﻨﺎًء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻠﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ‪ .‬ﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﺑﺒﯿﻊ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ ﺳﻌﺮ‬
‫ﻣﺘﻔﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ دﻓﻊ ﻣﺆﺟﻞ‪ ،‬وﻋﺎدة ﯾﻜﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ أﻗﺴﺎط‪.‬‬
‫‪ funding processes,‬ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ‪ murabaha (cost-plus financing),‬اﻟﻤﺮاﺑﺤﺔ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ traditional financing modes,‬أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ ‪ client order,‬ﻃﻠﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ‪ asset,‬أﺻﻞ‬
‫‪ installments.‬أﻗﺴﺎط ‪ deferred payment,‬دﻓﻊ ﻣﺆﺟﻞ ‪ ownership risks,‬ﻣﺨﺎﻃﺮ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ‬
‫)‪Exercise 6: translate the following into English (source: Arab Islamic Bank‬‬
‫ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﯾﻊ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﻈﺮ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ إﻟﻰ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﯾﻊ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻪ ﻣﻦ أﻫﻢ اﻟﻘﻄﺎﻋﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﻮاﻋﺪة‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻓﻠﺴﻄﯿﻦ وﻟﻪ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ وﻗﺪرة ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﻲ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم‪،‬‬
‫‪188‬‬ ‫‪Technical and scientific translation‬‬
‫وﻣﻦ ﻫﻨﺎ ﻛﺎن ﻟﻮﺟﻮد داﺋﺮة ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﯾﻊ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﺮى‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻘﻮم‬
‫ﺑﺘﻮﻓﯿﺮ ﻓﺮﺻﺔ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻼزم واﻻﺳﺘﺸﺎرات اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻬﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﯾﺤﺔ اﻟﻮاﺳﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬
‫ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻤﺎﺷﻰ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻟﯿﻢ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ وﺗﺘﻤﯿﺰ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺮوﻧﺔ ﻟﺘﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺧﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﺠﺎﻻت ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﯾﻊ‪.‬‬
‫‪ small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs),‬اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﯾﻊ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻄﺔ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ sharia-compliant.‬ﺗﺘﻤﺎﺷﻰ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻟﯿﻢ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ‪ department,‬داﺋﺮة ‪ promising,‬واﻋﺪة‬
‫ﺧﺎﻣﺴﺎ ً‪ :‬ﻋﺪم اﻋﺘﻤﺎد اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﺮق ﺑﯿﻦ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة اﻟﺪاﺋﻨﺔ واﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‪ ،‬ﯾﻌﺪ ﻣﺪﻋﺎة ﻟﺘﻨﺸﯿﻂ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪ ،‬إذ ﻟﯿﺲ أﻣﺎم ﻫﺬه اﻟﺒﻨﻮك وﻫﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺗﺠﻨﯿﺪ ﻛﻞ ﻃﺎﻗﺎﺗﻬﺎ‬
‫وإﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺎﺗﻬﺎ اﻟﻔﻨﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻷﻣﻮال اﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﺪﯾﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺸﺮوﻋﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎدﺳﺎ ً‪:‬‬
‫أﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﯾﻜﻔﻞ اﻟﻨﻬﻮض ﺑﺎﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻷن اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ﺣﯿﻦ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ ﻻ ﺗﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﺆﺷﺮ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻜﻔﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺔ ﻟﺮأس اﻟﻤﺎل‬
‫وﻟﺘﻮﺟﯿﻪ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر داﺋﻤﺎً‪ ،‬وإﻧﻤﺎ ﺳﻮف ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﺆﺷﺮﻫﺎ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻫﻮ اﻟﺮﺑﺢ اﻟﺤﻼل‪ ،‬ﺑﺠﺎﻧﺐ اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎرات‬
‫وﺛﯿﻘﺎ ﺑﻪ وﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ واﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ورﻓﺎﻫﯿﺘﻪ‪.‬‬
‫اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎً ً‬
‫ﺳﺎﺑﻌﺎ ً‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺆدي اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ رﺑﺤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﻤﻜﯿﻨﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻨﺸﺂت أﻛﺒﺮ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ذات رﺑﺤﯿﺔ أﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺮ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ إن اﻟﻌﻤﻼء اﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﻮن ﻟﻦ ﯾﻀﻌﻮه ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺣﺼﺼﺎ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع‪(Ahmed, 2013, p. 149) .‬‬
‫ً‬ ‫ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﻣﻌﺮض ﻟﻠﺨﻄﺮ‪ ،‬ﻷﻧﻬﻢ ﯾﻤﻠﻜﻮن‬
‫‪ musharakah,‬ﻣﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ‪ debtor,‬ﻣﺪﯾﻦ ‪ creditor,‬داﺋﻦ ‪ interest rate,‬ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ marginal efficiency of‬اﻟﻜﻔﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺔ ‪ key indicator,‬اﻟﻤﺆﺷﺮ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ‪ strengthening,‬اﻟﻨﻬﻮض‬
‫‪ put at risk.‬ﯾﻀﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﻣﻌﺮض ﻟﻠﺨﻄﺮ ‪ halal profits,‬اﻟﺮﺑﺢ اﻟﺤﻼل ‪ direct,‬ﺗﻮﺟﯿﻪ ‪capital,‬‬
‫)‪Exercise 8: translate the following into English (source: banksnews.ps‬‬

‫اﻹﺟﺎرة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﮭﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﻠﯿﻚ ”اﻟﺘﺄﺟﯿﺮ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﻲ“‬
‫أﺳﻠﻮب ﻣﻦ أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ وﺑﻪ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺄﺟﯿﺮ أﺻﻞ ﻣﻤﻠﻮك ﻟﻠﻤﺼﺮف ﻟﺸﺨﺺ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻼﻧﺘﻔﺎع ﺑﻪ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ‬
‫إﯾﺠﺎر ﻣﺤﺪد ﯾﺪﻓﻊ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻗﺴﺎط ﻣﺤﺪدة اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻟﻎ وﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﺪﻓﻌﺎت وﻓﻲ ﻫﺬا اﻷﺳﻠﻮب أﯾﻀﺎ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﺼﺮف‬
‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ ﻷﺻﻮل ﻓﯿﻘﻮم ﺑﺸﺮاء أﺻﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺻﻮل ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻠﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺌﺠﺎره ﺧﻼل‬
‫ﻻ ﻋﻦ ﻧﻔﻘﺎت اﻟﺼﯿﺎﻧﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﺘﺮة ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﯾﺘﻤﻠﻜﻬﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﻘﺪ وﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﻣﺴﺌﻮ ً‬
‫‪ financial leasing.‬اﻟﺘﺄﺟﯿﺮ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﻲ ‪ lease to ownership,‬اﻹﺟﺎرة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﻬﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﻠﯿﻚ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫)‪Exercise 9: translate the following into English (source: banksnews.ps‬‬

‫اﻻﺳﺘﺼﻨﺎع‪istisna’a :‬‬
‫ﻫﻮ أﺳﻠﻮب ﻣﻦ أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ ﺑﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ ﺳﻠﻌﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ أو إﻧﺸﺎء‬
‫ﻣﺒﻨﻰ ﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻃﻠﺐ ﻋﻤﯿﻠﻪ‪.‬‬
Exercise 10: translate the following into English (source: banksnews.ps)
mudarabah :‫اﻟﻤﻀﺎرﺑﺔ‬
‫ﻫﻲ اﺗﻔﺎق ﺑﯿﻦ ﻃﺮﻓﯿﻦ ﯾﻘﺪم أﺣﺪﻫﻤﺎ اﻟﻤﺎل وﻫﻮ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف وﯾﻘﺪم اﻵﺧﺮ ﺟﻬﺪه وﺧﺒﺮﺗﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻹﺗﺠﺎر واﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫ وﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل‬،‫ﺑﻬﺬا اﻟﻤﺎل وﻫﻮ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻀﺎرب ﻋﻠﻰ أن ﯾﻜﻮن رﺑﺢ ذﻟﻚ ﺑﯿﻨﻬﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻣﺎ ﯾﺸﺘﺮﻃﺎن‬
‫اﻟﺨﺴﺎرة ﯾﺘﺤﻤﻞ ﺻﺎﺣﺐ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﺨﺴﺎرة وﯾﺨﺴﺮ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻵﺧﺮ ﺟﻬﺪه ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ﻫﻨﺎك ﺗﻘﺼﯿﺮ أو‬
.‫ﺗﻌﺪي أو إﻫﻤﺎل ﻣﻦ اﻷﺧﯿﺮ‬
Exercise 11: translate the following into English (source: Safa Bank website)
‫ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﻲ‬

‫ﯾﺘﯿﺢ ﻟﻜﻢ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﻲ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺼﺮف اﻟﺼﻔﺎ اﻣﺘﻼك اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻮﻋﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﺎﺟﻮﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺴﻬﻮﻟﺔ‬
.‫وﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺻﻮل‬
:‫ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ اﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ‬
.‫• ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ﻣﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ أﺣﻜﺎم اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻌﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬
.‫ ﻣﻮاد اﻟﺒﻨﺎء وﻏﯿﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻷﺧﺮى‬،‫• ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﺎﺟﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﯿﺔ واﻷﺛﺎث‬
.‫ أﻟﻒ دوﻻر‬60 ‫• ﺗﺼﻞ ﻗﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
.‫ﺷﻬﺮا‬
ً 72 ‫• ﻓﺘﺮات ﺳﺪاد ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺗﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
:‫ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬
.‫ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺮاﺗﺐ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف‬
.‫ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﺑﺪراﺳﺔ أي ﺣﺎﻻت اﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﻲ‬commodity financing, ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﺻﻮل‬duly, ‫ﻣﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺸﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬
Sharia-compliant.
Exercise 12: translate the following passage on Islamic finance

As for the ethical/economic justification for the prohibition of riba, it is three-
pronged: riba is unfair, it is exploitative, and it is unproductive. Under a tradi-
tional interest-based relation between borrower and lender, the borrower alone
either incurs the losses or reaps disproportionately high benefits. Conversely, the
lender makes money irrespective of the outcome of the business venture. Islam
prefers that the risk of loss be shared equitably between the two. In other words,
rather than collecting a “fixed, predetermined” compensation in the form of inter-
est, lenders should be entitled to a share from any profits from a venture they
have helped to finance. The broader argument is that any profit should be morally
and economically justified. Hence the injunctions against aleatory contracts and
gharar where gain is the result of chance, or undetermined causes. As in other
religions, riba was also seen as exploitative, since it tended to favor the rich, who
were guaranteed a return, at the expense of the vulnerable who assumed all the
risk (Warde, 2000, p. 63).
Annotation: Translators are advised to render natural Arabic grammatical struc-
tures. Thus the sentence As for the ethical/economic justification for the prohibition
of riba, it is three-pronged . . . can be rendered into Arabic as ‫ﺛﻤﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﺒﺮرات أﺧﻼﻗﯿﺔ‬
‫واﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺮﯾﻢ اﻟﺮﺑﺎ‬.
Glossary: interest-based ‫ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة‬, aleatory contracts ‫ﻋﻘﺪ ﻏﺮر‬.
What are the principles of Islamic banking and finance?

Islamic financial institutions are those that are based, in their objectives and opera-
tions, on Qur’anic principles. They are thus set apart from ‘conventional’ institutions,
which have no such religious preoccupations. Islamic banks provide commercial
services that comply with the religious injunctions of Islam. Crucially, these banks
provide services to their customers free from interest, (the Arabic term for which is
riba), and the giving and taking of interest is prohibited in all transactions. This pro-
hibition makes an Islamic banking system differ fundamentally from a conventional
banking system (Kettell, 2011, p. 17).
Glossary: Islamic banking ‫اﻟﺼﯿﺮﻓﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬, Islamic financial institutions ‫اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬, comply with ‫ﺗﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ‬, religious injunctions of Islam ‫أواﻣﺮ اﻟﺪﯾﻦ‬
‫اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ‬, free from interest ‫ﺑﺪون ﻓﻮاﺋﺪ‬.
Exercise 14: translate the following passage into Arabic

The first key dimension highlights the inherent ability of the Islamic financial system to
deal with the test of such a crisis. As previously stated, Islamic finance is well supported
by 2 essential features, which serve as pillars to Islamic financial transactions. First,
Islamic finance encourages business and trade activities that generate legitimate profits,
subject to an explicit requirement of materiality and validity of the transaction. This
requirement ensures that the funds are channelled into real financial business activities,
reinforcing a close link between financial and productive flows (Venardos, 2010, p. 10).
Glossary: pillars ‫رﻛﺎﺋﺰ‬, Islamic financial transactions ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼت ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ إﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬, legitimate
profits ‫أرﺑﺎح ﻣﺸﺮوﻋﺔ‬.

There are three key legal facts that support the assumption that Islamic banks match
the UK and the EU statutory description of banking business. First, deposit-taking
is classified by the statutory instruments as one of the regulated activities that banks
conduct as a main part of their business. Islamic banks, similarly to all conventional
banks, fulfill the requirement of deposit-taking (Aldohni, 2011, p. 71).
Glossary: statutory description ‫اﻟﻮﺻﻒ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮﻧﻲ‬, banking business ‫اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬,
deposit-taking ‫اﻹﯾﺪاع‬, regulated activities ‫اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﱠﻤﺔ‬.

Housing finance in India has seen rapid growth on account of various factors such
as increased urbanization, favorable demographics, rising disposable incomes for a
large section of the population, government tax incentives, larger supplies of better
quality constructions, lower interest rates and relatively stable property prices.
Another significant change has taken place – in the mind-set of the Indian con-
sumer. Until recently, the typical Indian was debt-averse, with borrowing often viewed
as a social stigma. Borrowing from the formal sector was only used as a last resort.
In India, the monies spent on housing were mostly from own savings, sale of assets,
borrowings from relatives, friends or the ubiquitous moneylender. It has only been
in the recent period that the mind-set has changed, with more individuals open to a
credit culture and consumerism. This has best been seen in the rapid growth in housing
loans, credit cards, auto finance and personal loans (UN-Habitat, 2008, p. 15).
Glossary: Housing finance ‫ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻹﺳﻜﺎن‬, urbanization ‫اﻟﺘﺤﻀﺮ‬, favorable demo-
graphics ‫اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻟﺪﯾﻤﻮﻏﺮاﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻮاﺗﯿﺔ‬, disposable incomes ‫اﻟﺪﺧﻮل اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ‬, tax incentives
‫ﺣﻮاﻓﺰ ﺿﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ‬, property prices ‫أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻌﻘﺎرات‬, debt-averse ‫ﯾﻜﺮﻫﻮن اﻟﺪﯾﻮن‬, ubiquitous
‫ﻣﺘﻮاﺟﺪون ﻓﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻜﺎن‬, credit culture ‫ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎن‬and consumerism ‫اﻟﻨﺰﻋﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻬﻼﻛﯿﺔ‬.

As far as monetary policy is concerned, while central banks in the developed world
responded to the credit crunch in unorthodox ways in Singapore as in other parts of
Asia where the direct fallout from the crisis was less severe, monetary authorities
tended to respond with more traditional policy tools by lowering interest rates or
increasing money aggregates or widening the scope of liquidity offered to banks
short of funds. However, given Singapore’s rather unusual monetary policy, the ‘tra-
ditional’ monetary response was a little more complicated.
The priority in Singapore was to gain access to emergency US dollars reserves
through a swap with the US Federal Reserve, prevent a mass withdrawal of bank
deposits by guaranteeing them until 2010, ease the monetary policy stance and
increase access to liquidity if needed by the local banks (Wilson, 2011, pp. 9–10).
Glossary: monetary policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬, credit crunch ‫أزﻣﺔ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎن‬, unorthodox ‫ﻏﯿﺮ‬
‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺪﯾﺔ‬, fallout ‫ﺗﺪاﻋﯿﺎت‬, money aggregates ‫اﻟﻘﯿﻢ اﻟﻨﻘﺪﯾﺔ اﻹﺟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬, short of funds ‫ﯾﻨﻘﺼﻬﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬, US dollars reserves ‫اﺣﺘﯿﺎﻃﯿﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﺪوﻻر اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﻲ‬, swap ‫ﺗﺒﺎدل‬, US Federal Reserve
‫ﺑﻨﻚ اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﻃﻲ اﻟﻔﯿﺪراﻟﻲ اﻷﻣﯿﺮﻛﻲ‬, bank deposits ‫وداﺋﻊ ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬, liquidity ‫اﻟﺴﯿﻮﻟﺔ‬.

Since 1981, the Gulf Cooperation Council has progressed a great deal towards eco-
nomic integration, despite the gradual process of establishing a free trade area, a cus-
toms union, and a common market. Much of the GCC member states’ achievements,
while driven by hydrocarbon resources, can be attributed to the Council’s success as
‫‪a group because it provides economic and political stability for the region. However,‬‬
‫‪it remains to be seen if country-driven competition will preclude complementarity.‬‬
‫‪The key challenge for the GCC is to remain true to the original premise of integra-‬‬
‫‪tion. For economies of scale and scope to succeed, a complementary production‬‬
‫‪export platform is necessary. In practice, it is hard to coordinate national plans so‬‬
‫‪they balance with GCC-centric pursuits in cooperative competition for efficiency,‬‬
‫‪productivity, and effectiveness (Low & Salazar, 2011, p. 28).‬‬
‫ﺗﻜﺎﻣﻞ ‪, economic integration‬ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺠﻲ ‪Glossary: Gulf Cooperation Council‬‬
‫‪, common market‬اﺗﺤﺎد ﺟﻤﺮﻛﻲ ‪, customs union‬ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺗﺠﺎرة ﺣﺮة ‪, free trade area‬اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬
‫‪,‬مﻧﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﻗُﻄﺮﯾﺔ )ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان( ‪, country-driven competition‬ﺗﻌﺰى إﻟﻰ ‪, attributed to‬ﺳﻮق ﻣﺸﺘﺮك‬
‫‪.‬ﻣﺴﺎﻋﻲ ‪, pursuits‬وﻓﻮرات اﻟﺤﺠﻢ ‪, economies of scale‬اﻟﻮﻓﺎء ب ‪remain true to‬‬
‫ﻃﺮق ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺎرف‪:‬‬

‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ أﺳﺎس ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ أي ﻧﺸﺎط اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪ ،‬وﺗﺒﻌﺎً ﻟﺘﻌﺪد ﻣﺼﺎدر اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻼﺣﻈﺔ‬
‫ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺘﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﻫﻤﺎ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ واﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ﻻ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ وﺳﯿﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ وﻫﻮ اﻻرﺗﺒﺎط اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﺗﺠﻤﯿﻊ اﻻدﺧﺎر وﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺠﺰﺋﻲ واﻟﻜﻠﻲ‪ .‬أﻫﻢ ﺻﻮر اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ ﻫﻮ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت واﻷﻓﺮاد‬
‫واﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‪(Amiri, 2019, p. 122) .‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺬاﺗﻲ ‪ direct finance,‬ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ ‪ bank financing,‬ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺎرف ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ financial intermediary.‬وﺳﯿﻂ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ ‪self-financing,‬‬
‫رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺪﻓﻮع‪:‬‬

‫وﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﯿﻪ اﻷﻣﻮال اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﻣﻦ أﺻﺤﺎب اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع ﻋﻨﺪ ﺑﺪء ﺗﻜﻮﯾﻨﻪ وأﯾﺔ إﺿﺎﻓﺎت‬
‫أو ﺗﺨﻔﯿﻀﺎت ﻗﺪ ﺗﻄﺮأ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺘﺮات ﻻﺣﻘﺔ‪ .‬وﯾﻤﺜﻞ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﺼﺪر ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﺿﺌﯿﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع اﻷﻣﻮال‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺤﺼﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺼﺎدر‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﺼﺪر ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ ﺣﯿﺚ‬
‫ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺧﻠﻖ اﻟﺜﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﻮس اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﺿﺪ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻄﺮأ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮات ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻗﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدات اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف أﻣﻮاﻟﻪ‪(As-Seirafi, 2013, p. 35) .‬‬
‫‪ bank clients.‬اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ‪ paid-up capital,‬رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺪﻓﻮع ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‪(Jejawi & Saknah, 2016, p. 22) :‬‬

‫ﻟﻜﻲ ﺗﻜﺴﺐ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻷرﺑﺎح اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻌﻰ إﻟﯿﻬﺎ وأن ﺗﺒﻘﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﺤﺪد ﻣﻦ ﻫﻢ ﻋﻤﻼؤﻫﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻘﺪم ﻟﻬﻢ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﻬﺎ‪/‬ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ وﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ ﺧﺪﻣﺘﻬﻢ ﺑﺄﻓﻀﻞ ﺻﻮرة‪ ،‬وﻟﻬﺬا ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﺟﻬﻮدﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر واﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻋﻤﻼﺋﻬﺎ ﻷن اﻛﺘﺴﺎب اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻟﻬﻢ ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ ﻗﻮة‬
.‫ وﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﻬﺔ اﻷﻛﺜﺮ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﺪﻋﻢ وﺑﻘﺎء اﻟﻤﺼﺎرف ﻣﺴﺘﻤﺮة ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻬﺎ‬.‫ﻟﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻧﺠﺪ أن اﻟﻘﻮاﺋﻢ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺗﺼﺪرﻫﺎ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدات اﻟﻤﺘﺪاوﻟﺔ وأﺣﺪ أﻫﻢ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدات ﻫﻮ اﻟﺬﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺪﯾﻨﺔ‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬clients, ‫ تﻛﺴﺐ اﻷرﺑﺎح‬earn profits, ‫ ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﺟﻬﻮد‬devote efforts, ‫اﻟﻘﻮاﺋﻢ‬
‫ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬financial statements, ‫ اﻟﻤﻮﺟﻮدات اﻟﻤﺘﺪاوﻟﺔ‬circulating assets, ‫ اﻟﺬﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬financial
disclosure.

Financial Crisis and Aftermath. Those policies were significant contributing fac-
tors to the crisis that began in 2007 and triggered the most severe recession since the
Great Depression. The crisis created considerable political momentum for reform
and provoked widespread debates about the financial system and the need for regu-
lation. Those debates demonstrated political power of the industry also culminated
in wide-ranging reform legislation that will likely govern the relationship between
finance and government for decades to come.
The polities of reform. At the peak of the crisis in late 2008, many observ-
ers expected fundamental changes in the financial sector, particularly in investment
banking. The crisis itself triggered a historic shift in industry structure: of the five
major stand-alone investment banks, one went bankrupt, two were acquired by
major commercial banks, and the last two transformed themselves into bank hold-
ing companies in order to qualify for additional assistance from the Federal Reserve
(Krieger & Murphy, 2013, p. 415).
Glossary: Aftermath ‫آﺛﺎر‬, triggered ‫أدت إﻟﻰ‬, severe recession ‫رﻛﻮد ﺷﺪﯾﺪ‬, Great
Depression ‫اﻟﻜﺴﺎد اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮ‬, political momentum ‫ زﺧﻢ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬, provoked widespread
debates ‫ﻛﺒﯿﺮا‬
ً ‫ﺟﺪﻻ‬
ً ‫أﺛﺎرت‬, reform legislation ‫ﺗﺸﺮﯾﻊ إﺻﻼح‬, peak of the crisis ‫ذروة اﻷزﻣﺔ‬,
observers ‫ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﻮن‬, historic shift ‫ﺗﺤﻮل ﺗﺎرﯾﺨﻲ‬, were acquired ‫اﺳﺘُﺤﻮِذ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ‬, bank hold-
ing companies ‫شرﻛﺎت ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﻗﺎﺑﻀﺔ‬.

‫ وأﺣﺴﺖ ﺑﻘﯿﺔ اﻟﺪول ا ﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪ ﻣﺔ ﺑﺘﻮ ا ﺑﻌﻬﺎ‬،2007 ‫ا ﻧﺘﻘﻠﺖ اﻷزﻣﺔ ا ﻟﻤﺎ ﻟﯿﺔ ا ﻟﻌﺎ ﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ وول ﺳﺘﺮ ﯾﺖ‬
‫ ﺛﻢ‬،‫ ﻓﻜﺎ ن أول ﺑﻨﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺮ ﯾﻄﺎ ﻧﯿﺎ ) ﻧﻮرذن روك ( أول ﻣﻦ أ ﺻﯿﺐ ﺑﺎﻷزﻣﺔ‬،2008 ‫ﻣﻊ ﺑﺪاﯾﺔ ﻋﺎم‬
، ‫ و ﺑﻌﺪ ﻫﺎ ﻣﺼﺮ ف ﻓﻮرﺗﺰ ا ﻟﺒﻠﺠﯿﻜﻲ ا ﻟﻬﻮ ﻟﻨﺪ ي‬، ‫ إس ( ﺑﺮادﻓﻮرد آ ﻧﺪ ﺑﯿﻨﺠﻠﻲ‬. ‫ أو‬. ‫ ﺑﻲ‬. ‫ﺗﺒﻌﻪ ) إ ﺗﺸﻲ‬
‫و ﻋﻨﺪ ﻫﺎ أدرك ﻗﺎدة اﻻﺗﺤﺎد اﻷوروﺑﻲ آﺛﺎر اﻷزﻣﺔ وﺣﺎوﻟﻮا ا ﻟﺘﺤﺮ ك ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻨﺴﻖ ﻟﻬﻢ ﻛﻲ‬
. ‫ﯾﺤﻤﻮ ا ﻧﻈﺎ ﻣﻬﻢ ا ﻟﻤﺎ ﻟﻲ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬه اﻷزﻣﺔ‬
‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺷﺒﻪ إﺟﻤﺎع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ أن اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﺔ ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ أﺿﺨﻢ وأﻋﻘﺪ أزﻣﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫ وﺗﺒﺎدر ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ ﺑﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﺧﻄﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺈﻧﻘﺎذ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬
‫ وﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻓﻲ دول اﻻﺗﺤﺎد‬،‫ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ أوروﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﺮت ﺑﺎﻷزﻣﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة‬
(Alwakil, 2014, p. 233) .2009 ‫ ﻋﺎم‬2% ‫اﻷوروﺑﻲ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺗﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
Annotation: The actual name of the organization is ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي واﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ‬
rather than ‫ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬mentioned by the author above.
Glossary: ‫ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬global financial crisis, ‫ ﻧﻮرذن روك‬Northern Rock, .‫إﺗﺸﻲ‬
‫ إس‬.‫ أو‬.‫ ﺑﻲ‬HBOS, ‫ ﺑﺮادﻓﻮرد آﻧﺪ ﺑﯿﻨﺠﻠﻲ‬Bradford & Bingley, ‫ ﻓﻮرﺗﺰ‬Fortis, ‫ﺷﺒﻪ إﺟﻤﺎع‬
semi-unanimity, ‫ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻷوروﺑﯿﺔ‬Organization for Economic
Co-operation and Development, ‫ ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬economic downturn.

Interest in the long-term comparative economic performance of nations has risen
considerably in recent years, helped by the development of new theories of economic
growth which stress the potential for international linkages to affect the productivity
performance and economic growth of national economies. Two important channels
are international trade, which makes available products that embody foreign knowl-
edge, and foreign direct investment (FDI), which may involve the direct transfer
of technology or new ideas. Increasing attention is now being paid in Europe to
the question of why firms invest abroad. This reflects both the rapid growth in FDI
within Europe as well as recent improvements in the quality and availability of data.
At the heart of the debate is a focus on the costs and benefits of foreign investment,
such as whether inward investment affects employment and economic growth and
whether outward investment is simply ‘job exporting,’ with firms moving to low-
cost, labor-abundant locations (Barrell & Pain, 1999, p. 19).
Glossary: Interest ‫اﻫﺘﻤﺎم‬, economic performance ‫أداء اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬, stress ‫ﺗﺆﻛﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ‬,
international linkages ‫رواﺑﻂ دوﻟﯿﺔ‬, foreign direct investment ‫اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬,
embody foreign knowledge ‫ﺗﺠﺴﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬.
Market efciency and investment valuation

The question of whether markets are efficient, and, if not, where the inefficiencies
lie, is central to investment valuation. If markets are in fact efficient, the market
price provides the best estimate of value, and the process of valuation becomes one
of justifying the market price. If markets are not efficient, the market price may
deviate from the true value, and the process of valuation is directed toward obtain-
ing a reasonable estimate of this value. Those who do valuation well, then, will then
be able to make higher returns than other investors because of their capacity to spot
under- and over-valued firms. To make these higher returns, though, markets have
to correct their mistakes (i.e., become efficient) over time. Whether these correc-
tions occur over six months or over five years can have a profound impact on which
valuation approach an investor chooses to use and the time horizon that is needed
for it to succeed.
There is also much that can be learned from studies of market efficiency, which
highlight segments where the market seems to be inefficient. These inefficiencies
can provide the basis for screening the universe of stocks to come up with a sub-
sample that is more likely to contain undervalued stocks. Given the size of the uni-
verse of stocks, this not only saves time for the analyst, but it increases the Odds
significantly of finding under- and overvalued stocks (Damodaran, 2002, p. 112).
Glossary: Investment Valuation ‫ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻢ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬, efficient ‫ذات ﻛﻔﺎءة‬, inefficiencies ‫أوﺟﻪ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺼﻮر‬, higher returns ‫ﻋﺎﺋﺪات أﻋﻠﻰ‬, over-valued ‫ﻣﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﺑﻬﺎ‬.
Exercise 26: find the Arabic equivalents for the following

English words/phrases
ST TT ST TT
creditors .................... balance sheet ....................
trade mark .................... above par ....................
export .................... assets ....................
budget .................... bankrupt ....................
defer payment .................... capitalism ....................
Exercise 27: use your translation of the preceding words/phrases to

translate the following sentences
1 The amount owed to a creditor is reported on the company’s balance sheet as a
liability.
2 A company budget refers to a financial plan for a specific period of time.
3 A bond is usually traded at above par when the income distributions of that bond
are higher than those of other bonds currently available in the market.
4 A deferred payment is a type of an agreement between a lender and a borrower
under which the borrower can possess goods immediately and pay for the goods
in the future.
5 An asset refers to an item owned by an individual or company. This item has a
value and is used to pay debts or commitments.
Exercise 28: translate the following Arabic passage into English
‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻢ إدراج ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي ﺿﻤﻦ ﻣﺆﺷﺮ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ إﺷﺮاف ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬
‫ ﻻﺳﯿﻤﺎ أن ﻫﺬا‬،‫( وﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺨﻄﻮة اﻋﺘﺮاﻓﺎً ﺑﺄﻫﻤﯿﺔ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ وﻣﻜﺎﻧﺘﻪ‬IFC) ‫اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻮق اﺣﺘﻞ ﻣﺮﻛﺰاً ﺿﻤﻦ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ اﻟﻤﺪرﺟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬
‫ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺆﺷﺮ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ‬،‫ واﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ اﻟﯿﻮﻣﻲ ﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺪاوﻟﺔ‬،‫ﻋﺪة ﻣﺆﺷﺮات أﻫﻤﻬﺎ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺴﻮﻗﺔ‬
(Baghdadi, 2012, p. 29) .(PE/R) ‫اﻟﺴﻌﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺮﺑﺢ اﻟﺴﻨﻮي‬
Glossary: ‫ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي‬Saudi Stock Exchange (Tadawul), ‫اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ‬
emerging markets, ‫ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺴﻮﻗﺔ‬market value, ‫ اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺪاوﻟﺔ‬outstanding stocks.
Exercise 29: translate the following English passage into Arabic
Consumer choice and demand

In a capitalistic system, such as that in the United States, businesses exist to earn profits
for owners; within certain broad constraints an owner is free to set up a new business,
grow that business, sell it, or even shut it down. But consumers also have freedom
of choice. In choosing how to pursue profits, businesses must take into account what
consumers want and/or need. No matter how efficient a business is, it won’t survive if
there is no demand for its goods or services (Ebert & Griffin, 2013, p. 4).
Glossary: businesses ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SECURITIES (Source: Houthakker &
Williamsons, 1996, p. 49)
There are four key dimensions across which securities vary:
1 The dollar value of the anticipated return

2 The timing of these returns, including the time (if any) at which the principal is
expected to be repaid
3 Their risk characteristics
4 Their negotiability
Glossary: securities ‫اﻷوراق اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬, principal ‫أﺻﻞ اﻟﺪﯾﻦ‬, negotiability ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺪاول‬.
‫ﻣﻔﻬﻮم اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬

‫ وﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار‬،‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺮة ﺷﯿﺌﺎ أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻗﺘﺼﺎد ﻣﺎ‬
‫ اﻟﺘﺸﻐﯿﻞ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬،‫ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﻲ‬:‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺠﺰﺋﺘﻪ إﻟﻰ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أﻫﺪاف رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة وﻫﻲ‬
‫ وﯾﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار ﻓﻲ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﺼﺮف واﻟﺘﻮازن اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﻲ إذا أﺧﺬﻧﺎ ﺑﻌﯿﻦ‬،‫واﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬
(Ayeb, 2010, p. 62) .‫اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر درﺟﺔ اﻻﻧﻔﺘﺎح اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬macroeconomic stability, ‫ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﻲ‬growth
of real output, ‫ اﻟﺘﺸﻐﯿﻞ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬full operation, ‫ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﺼﺮف‬exchange rate.
Exercise 32: translate the following, focusing on the italicized words
Global business environment

The global business environment refers to the international forces that affect
a business. Factors affecting the global environment at a general level include
international trade agreements, international economic conditions, political unrest,

and so forth. For example, as political protests spread through much of the Middle
East in 2011 oil prices began to surge and companies with operations in the region
took emergency measures to protect their employees (Ebert & Griffin, 2013, p. 6).

The provision of credit to poor borrowers is not in itself a modern innovation. In
the past it was the domain of moneylenders, pawnbrokers, commodity traders,
shopkeepers, landlords, patrons, friends and family. Generally speaking, how-
ever, these traditional credit providers either had a very limited capacity to lend,
or extracted a (proportionally speaking) very high price for their loans, or both.
While rotating savings and credit associations were institutionally simple means
of pooling the capital of small groups, and offered an alternative source of credit for
certain purposes, they were inflexible in terms of the timing and size of the loan, and
were not always reliable (Goenka & Henley, 2013, p. 1).
Glossary: pawnbrokers ‫ﻣﻘﺮﺿﯿﻦ ﻣﻘﺎﺑﻞ رﻫﻦ‬, commodity traders ‫ﺗﺠﺎر اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ‬,
patrons ‫اﻟﺮﻋﺎة‬, credit providers ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻲ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎن‬, savings ‫ﻣﺪﺧﺮات‬.
Exercise 34: translate the following Arabic text into English
(Ahmed, 1997, p. 68) :‫ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺑﻨﻚ ﻓﯿﺼﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻲ‬

‫ﺗﺘﺴﻢ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺑﻨﻚ ﻓﯿﺼﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﺤﺮﻓﯿﯿﻦ ﺑﺄﻧﻬﺎ ﻗﺪ ﺣﺪدت‬
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ أن ﻫﺬه اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻣﺘﺎزت‬.‫ﻣﻨﺬ اﻟﺒﺪاﯾﺔ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺬي ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻪ وﻃﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎﺗﻪ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ وﻫﺬا ﻣﺎ ﯾﻤﯿﺰﻫﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﺬي ﻟﻢ‬،‫ﺑﻜﻮﻧﻬﺎ وﻓﻖ ﺻﯿﻎ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺑﺪاﯾﺘﻬﺎ‬
‫ واﻵن‬.‫ﯾﺤﺪد ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﻪ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺤﺪد – ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ – اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎﺗﻪ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺮ ﻛﯿﻒ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻢ ﻓﺤﺼﻬﺎ ﺑﺪراﺳﺔ ﻣﯿﺪاﻧﯿﺔ أﺟﺮﯾﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺸﺂت اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
.‫اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة واﻟﺤﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﺑﻮﻻﯾﺔ اﻟﺨﺮﻃﻮم‬
Glossary: ‫ ﺑﻨﻚ ﻓﯿﺼﻞ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ اﻟﺴﻮداﻧﻲ‬Faisal Islamic Bank of Sudan, ‫اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة‬
small industries, ‫ ﺣﺮﻓﯿﯿﻦ‬craftsmen, ‫ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎﺗﻪ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ‬funding needs, ‫ﺻﯿﻎ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬
‫ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬Islamic financing formulas, ‫ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬Industrial Development Bank.
Exercise 35: translate the following passage into English
‫ﻋﻘﺒﺎت اﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺑﯿﻦ أﺳﻮاق اﻷوراق اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬

‫ وﺗﺤﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬،‫ﺗﻌﺎﻧﻲ أﺳﻮاق رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻘﺎط ﺿﻌﻒ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة ﺗﺤﻮل دون ﺗﻄﻮر ﻫﺬه اﻷﺳﻮاق‬
‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻋﺰل ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ﺗﻄﻮر أﺳﻮاق رأس اﻟﻤﺎل‬،‫ﻣﻦ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺎت ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻠﻬﺎ ورﺑﻄﻬﺎ ﺑﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‬
‫ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﻌﺪم ﺗﻮاﻓﺮ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺎت ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻔﻮاﺋﺾ‬،‫ﻋﻦ اﻷوﺿﺎع اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ واﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻌﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﻮﻇﻔﺔ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ وداﺋﻊ ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻷﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺮوض ﻋﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬
(Shahin, 2018, p. 268) .‫اﻷﺟﻞ‬
Glossary: ‫ أﺳﻮاق اﻷوراق اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬stock exchange, ‫ اﻟﻔﻮاﺋﺾ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬fiscal surpluses, ‫وداﺋﻊ‬

‫ ﻣﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬bank deposits.
Macroeconomics versus microeconomics

The discipline of economics is broken into two fields: macroeconomics and eco-
nomics. Macroeconomics involves economic problems encountered by the nation
as a whole. For example, do we spend many of our resources on national defense
and not enough on education of our youth? If households are required to pay fewer
taxes, will national savings be affected? Will prices rise or fall because of a tax cut?
Microeconomics is concerned with the economic problems faced by individual
units within the overall economy (Kacapyr & Musgrave, 2009, p. 12).
Glossary: macroeconomics ‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬, microeconomics ‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺠﺰﺋﻲ‬.

The history of financial crises in America provides an important body of evidence in this
vein, and it gives a sobering view on the practical limits of rule-based legal protections.
Throughout the nation’s history, banks have suffered from runs, in which deposit holders
demand their gold or currency (depending on the era), as is their legal right. Adhering to
the law would have unambiguous consequences: the running depositors (who are exhib-
iting perfectly rational behavior given the circumstances) should be allowed to make
their desired withdrawals, even if this spells the ruin of the bank (Wallach, 2015, p. 27).
Glossary: sobering view ‫وﺟﻬﺔ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺟﺎدة‬, runs ‫ﺳﺤﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻟﻮداﺋﻌﻬﻢ اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬, deposit
holders ‫اﻟﻤﻮدﻋﯿﻦ‬, running depositors ‫اﻟﻤﻮدﻋﯿﻦ اﻟﺮاﻏﺒﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺳﺤﺐ وداﺋﻌﻬﻢ‬.
(Abu Annasr, 2015, p. 184) :‫اﻟﺠﺎﺋﺰة اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬

:‫ وﻫﻲ‬،‫وﺿﻌﺖ اﻟﺠﻬﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﻮز ﺑﺎﻟﺠﺎﺋﺰة‬
.‫ اﻫﺘﻤﺎم اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﺑﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﺒﺸﺮي‬١

.‫ وﺿﻊ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻛﺄﺣﺪ أﻫﻢ اﻷوﻟﻮﯾﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺟﺪول أﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬٢
.‫ اﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎم ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ وﺗﻨﺒﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ ﻧﺤﻮه ﻓﻲ أداء اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ ﻷﻋﻤﺎﻟﻬﺎ‬٣
Compliance with conditionality

Other than credit availability, IMF intervention could affect banking sector sta-
bility thanks to the conditions and policy advice attached to IMF-supported
programs. In particular, conditionalities targeted at financial sector reforms may

affect the likelihood of a future banking crisis, making the financial sector more
resilient to international capital flows and external shocks (Papi, Presbitero, &
Zazzaro, 2015, p. 21).
Glossary: IMF ‫ﺻﻨﺪوق اﻟﻨﻘﺪ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬, IMF-supported programs ‫اﻟﺒﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻮﻟﻬﺎ ﺻﻨﺪوق‬
‫اﻟﻨﻘﺪ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‬, financial sector reforms ‫إﺻﻼﺣﺎت اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻲ‬.

THE EGYPTIAN ECONOMY AND THE PUBLIC SECTOR
The public sector plays a major role in Egypt’s economy; its dominance has his-
torical and geographical dimensions. In the early nineteenth century, the first attempt
to introduce modern industries in Egypt was made by the government. Almost all the
established projects in this period were publicly owned. Even before these attempts,
the maintenance of the agricultural economy in the Nile valley required a central-
ized administration of the irrigation and drainage systems which, in turn, required
a centralized and relatively large public sector. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Egyp-
tian government reemphasized the dominant position of the public sector in almost
all sectors by managing and directing investments toward public sector enterprises
(Elkhafif, 1996, p. 10).
Exercise 41: translate the following text into English
(Assayed, 2014, p. 86) :‫ﺗﻈﻬﺮ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ‬
‫إن أﻏﻠﺐ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت وﺧﺎﺻﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﺖ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﺷﺮاﺋﺢ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ‬ ١
‫ﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ دون ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺰ واﺿﺢ أو اﻫﺘﻤﺎم ﺑﺼﻐﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ واﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻌﺪون ﻣﻦ رﻛﺎﺋﺰ اﻷﺳﻮاق‬
.‫ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺌﺔ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺰﯾﺎدة اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮة ﻓﻲ أﻋﺪاد ﺻﻐﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ دﺧﻠﻮا ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة‬ ٢
‫ﺻﺎ أن أﻏﻠﺒﻬﻢ ﺗﻌﺮض ﻟﺨﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﻓﺎدﺣﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻧﻬﯿﺎر اﻟﺬي ﺣﺪث ﻓﻲ ﺷﻬﺮ ﻓﺒﺮاﯾﺮ‬ ً ‫ وﺧﺼﻮ‬،‫اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ‬
‫ اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي اﺳﺘﺪﻋﻰ اﻻﻫﺘﻤﺎم ﺑﻬﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﯾﺤﺔ وﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺳﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‬،2006
‫ﻟﻬﻢ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪﻫﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺄﺳﻌﺎر اﻷﺳﻬﻢ ﺑﺼﻮرة أدق ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎً وﺗﺮﺷﯿﺪ ﻗﺮاراﺗﻬﻢ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬا‬
. ‫ا ﻟﻤﺠﺎ ل‬
‫ﺗﻨﺎﻣﻲ اﻟﻮﻋﻲ ﻟﺪى ﺻﻐﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ ﺑﺄﻫﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺳﺒﯿﺔ وأﻫﻤﯿﺔ اﻹﻓﺼﺎح ﻋﻨﻬﺎ‬ ٣
.‫ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي‬
،‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺗﺴﻌﯿﺮ اﻷﺳﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ أﻫﻢ اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻌﺎﻧﻲ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي‬ ٤
‫ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻛﻤﺤﺎوﻟﺔ ﻟﻌﻼج ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ واﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬا‬
.‫اﻟﺸﺄن‬
،‫ﺗﺴﻌﻰ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻬﻢ ﺻﻐﺎر اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮق اﻷﺳﻬﻢ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدي‬ ٥
.‫وذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ أﻫﻢ اﻟﻤﺆﺷﺮات اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻻﻋﺘﻤﺎد ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﺴﻮﻗﯿﺔ ﻟﻸﺳﻬﻢ‬
Exercise 42: translate the following into Arabic (from KFH)
Corporate governance at KFH

In June 2012, the Central Bank of Kuwait (CBK) has issued a set of instructions on
corporate governance for local banks in Kuwait. The instructions include updates
and development of previous CBK corporate governance rules taking into account
the lessons learnt from the global financial crisis, new corporate governance guide-
lines issued in this respect and in particular the Basel Committee’s paper titled “Prin-
ciples for enhancing corporate governance” issued in October 2010, the principles
issued by the Financial Stability Board (FSB) on remuneration schemes and the
recommendations of the World Bank report issued in late 2010 concerning assess-
ment of corporate governance principles at Kuwaiti banks, as well as the principles
applied in some countries in the region.
‫وﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻷردﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﺠﺎل ودراﺳﺘﻬﺎ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺼﻌﯿﺪ‬
،‫ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺑﺪأت ﻫﺬه اﻟﺒﻨﻮك ﺑﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﺋﺘﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺷﺪﯾﺪة اﻟﺘﺤﻔﻆ واﻗﺘﺼﺮت ﻋﻠﻰ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬.‫اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﻲ‬
‫ اﻧﺘﻘﻠﺖ ﺗﺪرﯾﺠﯿﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ واﻟﻄﻮﯾﻞ اﻷﺟﻞ وإﻟﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬،‫وﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ وﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ إﻻ أن اﻟﺒﻨﻮك‬،‫وﺻﻮﻻ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺒﻨﻲ ﻓﻜﺮة اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻠﺔ أن اﻟﺮﺑﺢ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻫﺪﻓﻬﺎ اﻟﻮﺣﯿﺪ‬ ً
.‫اﻷردﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻮاﺟﻪ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺎت ﻋﺪة‬
‫ واﻟﺘﺠﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎب اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة واﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﯿﻮد إزاء اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬
‫ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻷﻓﻀﻞ وﻣﺎ ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺒﻪ اﻟﺪور اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺑﯿﺌﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺒﻨﻮك‬
‫ﺑﺤﯿﺚ ﺗﺘﺒﻨﻰ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﺔ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ واﺿﺤﺔ ﺗﺆﻣﻦ ﺑﺄﻫﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ وﻫﺬا ﯾﺘﻄﻠﺐ وﺿﻊ‬
‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ وﻧﻘﺪﯾﺔ ﺗﺆدي إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة ﻋﺮض ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻟﻠﻤﺪﺧﺮات ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ وﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﺳﯿﻊ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﯿﻌﺎﺑﯿﺔ ﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ ﻛﻔﺎﻻت ﺣﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ أﻧﻮاع‬
(Wafa.ps) .‫اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﻛﺒﺪﯾﻞ ﻟﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬

Customs officials were very concerned about the threat that firearms posed to the
security of property rights. However, regulation required economies of scale: small
customs establishments could only monitor commodities that were concentrated in
sufficient numbers. An arms trade could be supervised, but a trickle of weapons
seeping through the customs house was almost impossible to trace and thus was
written off as insignificant. Systems of surveillance and rubrics of classification
were developed to distinguish a threatening trade from a negligible trickle. What
amount of goods constituted a significant trade? What routes of transport were used
by legitimate traders? And what methods of exchange opened the possibility of an
illicit trade? Colonial officials developed strategies to make the arms trade visible,
and mercantile networks developed tactics to subvert these regimes of classification

(Mathew, 2016, p. 93).
:‫ﻋﻼﻗﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻮط ذات ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع‬

‫ ﺗﺤﻮط ﺿﺪ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻠﺘﻐﯿﺮات ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎدﻟﺔ اﻷﺻﻞ أو ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﻣﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﻪ‬:‫ﺗﺤﻮط اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ اﻟﻌﺎدﻟﺔ‬
‫أو ﺟﺰء ﻣﺤﺪد ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬا اﻷﺻﻞ أو اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب اﻟﺬي ﯾﻌﺰى ﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺮة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ واﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺎﻓﻲ‬
.‫اﻟﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﻨﻪ‬
‫( ﯾﻌﺰى ﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺮة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬1) ‫ ﺗﺤﻮط ﺿﺪ اﻟﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻠﺘﻐﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﻨﻘﺪي اﻟﺬي‬:‫ﺗﺤﻮط اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﻨﻘﺪي‬
‫ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺄﺻﻞ أو ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﻣﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﻪ )ﻣﺜﻞ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أو ﺑﻌﺾ دﻓﻌﺎت اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ دﯾﻦ ﺳﻌﺮه‬
‫( ﺳﯿﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺎﻓﻲ اﻟﺮﺑﺢ أو اﻟﺨﺴﺎرة‬2) ‫ﻣﺘﻐﯿﺮ( أو ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﺒﺄ ﺑﻬﺎ )ﻣﺜﻞ ﺷﺮاء أو ﺑﯿﻊ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ( واﻟﺬي‬
‫ وﺗﺘﻢ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻮط ﻻﻟﺘﺰام ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻌﺘﺮف ﺑﻪ ﻟﺸﺮاء أو ﺑﯿﻊ أﺻﻞ ﺑﺴﻌﺮ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ ﻓﻲ‬،‫اﻟﻤﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﻋﻤﻠﺔ ﺗﻘﺎرﯾﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺸﺄة ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻪ ﻣﺤﻮط ﺗﺪﻓﻖ ﻧﻘﺪي ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أﻧﻪ ﯾﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻤﺨﺎﻃﺮة ﻓﻲ ﻗﯿﻤﺘﻪ اﻟﻌﺎدﻟﺔ‬
‫ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻌﺮوف ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﯿﺎر اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﺤﺎدي‬:‫ﺗﺤﻮط ﻟﺼﺎﻓﻲ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﻓﻲ وﺣﺪة أﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ‬
(Al-Kassar, 2016, p. 413).‫واﻟﻌﺸﺮون – ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات ﻓﻲ أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﺼﺮﻓﻲ اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ‬
Digital transformation shaping the future of Islamic banking

and other Islamic financial institutions
https://repository.salaamgateway.com/images/iep/galleries/documents/2018
1125124744259232831.pdf
The Islamic finance industry comprised 1,389 full fledged Islamic financial
institutions and windows. Islamic banking accounted for 71%, or US$ 1.7 trillion,
of the industry’s total assets in 2017 – a CAGR of 5%. There is a continuing trend
of consolidation within the Islamic banking industry, with some large mergers and
acquisitions taking place in the biggest markets such as Malaysia and the GCC.
The digital revolution is beginning to transform the Islamic banking sector, as
seen by the launches of several digital-only Islamic banks. For more traditional
Islamic banks, the addition of digital-only subsidiaries can help them to increase
their footprints in outside regions such as Europe or Africa.
Africa is a particular area of potential growth in Islamic banking, with banks con-
tinuing to open Islamic windows there and a growing number of governments allowing
this to happen. The spread of Islamic banking in Africa follows the successful launches
of several Islamic banking subsidiaries and windows in Morocco in 2017 and 2018.
Elsewhere in the Islamic finance industry, takaful grew by a CAGR of 6% by
2017 but remains miniscule at US$ 46 billion, accounting for just 2% of total assets.
As with Islamic banking, there is a trend of consolidation within the industry, and
there is potential for added growth as Nigeria and the UK join the market.
Exercise 47: translate the following into English (www.tnb.ps)
‫ وواﺻﻞ ﻣﺴﯿﺮة اﻟﺘﻘﺪم واﻟﻨﺠﺎح ﺑﺘﺤﻘﯿﻘﻪ‬2016 ‫اﺳﺘﻤﺮت ﻣﺆﺷﺮات اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻹﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻨﻚ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم‬
‫ وﻫﺬا ﯾﻌﻜﺲ‬،‫ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻤﯿﺰة وﺗﻘﺪﻣﺎً ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺎً ﻓﻲ ﻧﺴﺐ اﻷداء واﻟﻨﻤﻮ وﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﺘﺸﻐﯿﻞ واﻟﺮﺑﺤﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻧﺠﺎح اﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺧﻄﺘﻪ اﻹﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ ﻃﻤﻮﺣﺔ اﻷﻫﺪاف واﻟﺮؤى ﺳﻌﯿﺎً ﻟﻠﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﺘﻘﺪم‬
.‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك ﻓﻲ ﻓﻠﺴﻄﯿﻦ اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي اﺳﺘﻄﺎع اﻟﻤﺼﺮف ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻘﻪ ﻓﻲ ﻓﺘﺮة وﺟﯿﺰة‬
‫ ﻣﻠﯿﻮن دوﻻر ﻣﺤﻘﻘﺔ‬655.9 ‫ اﻟﻨﺼﻒ ﻣﻠﯿﺎر دوﻻر ﻟﺘﺒﻠﻎ‬2016 ‫ﺗﺠﺎوزت وداﺋﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺎم‬
‫ ﻣﻠﯿﻮن دوﻻر ﻟﯿﺤﺘﻞ اﻟﺒﻨﻚ‬538.61 ‫ ﻣﻦ وداﺋﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻋﻦ اﻟﺴﻨﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ واﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ‬22% ‫ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻧﻤﻮ‬
‫ وﯾﻌﺪ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬،‫اﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺒﻨﻮك اﻟﻔﻠﺴﻄﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ ﻧﻤﻮ ﺣﺠﻢ وداﺋﻊ ﻋﻤﻼﺋﻪ‬
‫دﻟﯿﻼ واﺿﺤﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة ﺛﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻨﻚ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺎدة ﻋﻤﻼﺋﻪ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬ ً
‫اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻤﯿﺰة وﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮه ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﺪروﺳﺔ وﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﺗﻘﺴﻢ ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ إﻟﻰ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎت ﺗﺤﺎﻛﻲ‬
.‫اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎج اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﻲ ﻟﻜﻞ ﻗﻄﺎع ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺪه‬
Exercise 48: translate the following part from IMF report into Arabic
Starting with resource-intensive countries, the overall performance

remains weak in the largest economies, especially Nigeria and South Africa
• Growth in Nigeria was 1.9 percent in 2018 and is expected to reach 2.1 percent
in 2019, driven by recovering oil production and a pickup in the non-oil econ-
omy in the aftermath of the election. However, the near-term outlook remains
subdued as a result of lower oil prices, which have large spillover effects,
including to the non-oil economy. Over the medium term, and under current
policies, growth is projected to plateau at about 2¾ percent, implying that per
capita income will remain broadly unchanged. These subdued growth prospects
are likely to weigh on the region’s growth performance both directly and indi-
rectly through spillovers to Nigeria’s trading partners, remittances to recipient
countries, and financial linkages (see IMF, 2018).
• South Africa is expected to grow at 0.8 percent in 2018 and 1.2 percent in
2019. The recovery is predicated on a gradual improvement in business and
consumer confidence as policy uncertainty diminishes. Under current poli-
cies, growth is expected to stabilize at about 1.8 percent over the medium
term, barely above population growth. As a result, positive spillovers to other
countries through import demand and the financial sector are likely to be lim-
ited (see IMF, 2018).
‫ ﻛﺎن ﻣﺎ ﺣﻘﻘﺘﻪ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ أرﺑﺎح ﻓﻲ‬1925 ‫وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ اﻧﺨﻔﻀﺖ أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻘﻄﻦ اﻟﻤﺼﺮي ﻓﻲ دﯾﺴﻤﺒﺮ‬
‫ ﻓﺎﺷﺘﺮت ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﻄﻦ ﻣﺎ ﻗﯿﻤﺘﻪ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻣﻼﯾﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ‬،‫اﻟﺴﻨﻮات اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ دﻓﻌﺎ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎق واﺳﻊ‬
‫ وﻟﻜﻦ اﻟﺤﻆ ﻟﻢ ﯾﺤﺎﻟﻒ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺮة إذ اﺳﺘﻤﺮت اﻷﺳﻌﺎر ﻓﻲ‬،‫اﻟﺠﻨﯿﻬﺎت ﺑﻘﺼﺪ ﺗﺜﺒﯿﺖ أﺳﻌﺎره‬
‫ وﻓﻲ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺮة ﺣﺎوﻟﺖ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ أن ﺗﺤﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺑﻤﻨﺢ اﻟﺴﻠﻒ‬.1927 ،26 ‫اﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻓﻲ أﻋﻮام‬
‫اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ ﺑﻀﻤﺎن اﻟﻤﺤﺼﻮل ﻟﺼﻐﺎر اﻟﺰراع ﺑﺸﺮوط ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻜﻲ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺣﺘﻔﺎظ ﺑﺄﻗﻄﺎﻧﻬﻢ ﺣﺘﻰ‬
.‫ﺗﺘﺤﺴﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬
‫ ﺳﻮاء ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ ﻓﻲ ﺳﻮق اﻟﻘﻄﻦ ﻣﺸﺘﺮﯾﺔ أو ﺑﺘﺴﻠﯿﻒ‬،‫وﻟﻌﻞ ﻫﺬا ﯾﻮﺿﺢ أن اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ اﺗﺒﻌﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‬
‫ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﺧﺎﻃﺌﺔ ﺑﻨﯿﺖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻋﺘﻘﺎد ﺧﺎﻃﺊ ﺑﺄن اﻧﺨﻔﺎض أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻘﻄﻦ راﺟﻊ إﻟﻰ أﻻﻋﯿﺐ‬،‫اﻟﻤﺰارﻋﯿﻦ‬
‫ ﻓﺘﺤﻤﻠﺖ اﻟﺨﺰاﻧﺔ ﺧﺴﺎرة ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ﺟﺮاء ﻋﺪم‬،‫ وﻗﺪ أﻇﻬﺮت اﻷﯾﺎم ﻋﻘﻢ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎر‬
(Shalabi, 2006) .‫اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر وﺗﻮاﻟﻲ ﻫﺒﻮﻃﻬﺎ‬

Loan facilities can be tailored to match the needs of commercial borrowers and may
include many combinations of specific loan terms. Some of the common general
types are described next.
Secured Loans. Collateral (security) to a loan is usually viewed as a character-
istic of any type of loan rather than as a loan category itself. Nevertheless, it is not
uncommon for institutions to analyze their loan portfolios in part by looking at the
proportion of secured credits and the entire balance.
A significant portion of bank lending is not supported by specific security. The
less creditworthy a potential borrower. However, the more likely it becomes that an
institution will require some form of collateral in order to minimize its risk of loss.
Loan security is normally not taken with the intention of liquidating it in order to obtain
repayment. Maintenance and liquidation of collateral is, in fact, often time consuming
and unprofitable for the foreclosing bank. Most loan security takes the form of some kind
of fixed or floating claim over specified assets or a mortgage interest in property.
Lines of Credit. Lines of credit, including facilities that are referred to as revolving
lines of credit, originate with an institution extending credit to a borrower with a speci-
fied maximum amount and a stated maturity. The borrower then draws and repays funds
through the facility in accordance with its requirements. Lines of credit are useful for
short-term financing of working capital or seasonal borrowings. A commitment fee is
usually charged on the unused portion of the facility (Carmichael & Rosenfield, 2003).
4.7 Agriculture texts
Exercise 1: look up the meaning of the following words/phrases
organic crops irrigation pest control

............................. ............................. ................................
sowing sheep breeding dairy product
............................. ............................. ................................
genetically modified foods desertification poultry
............................. ............................. ................................
horticulture ecosystem deep ploughing
............................. ............................. ................................
mosquitoes ............... pasture.................. plantation ...............
Exercise 2: using your translation of the preceding words/phrases,

translate the following sentences into Arabic
1 The demand for commodities such as vegetables and organic crops is rising.
2 Many farmers consider maximizing irrigation efficiency as a challenge.
3 Genetically modified foods caused difficult situations for a number of governments.
4 The government is currently seeking to promote dairy products manufacturing.
5 Horticulture can significantly improve household income.
‫إن اﻟﺘﺼﺤﺮ ﻗﻀﯿﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﻬﺎ آﺛﺎر ﺧﻄﯿﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﻮع اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ واﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ اﻹﯾﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ واﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ‬
(un.org).‫اﻟﻔﻘﺮ واﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ واﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي واﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺼﻌﯿﺪ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‬
‫ ﻣﻦ إﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﺼﯿﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد‬70% ‫ إﻟﻰ‬50% ‫ وﯾﻘﺪم ﻣﻦ‬،‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻘﻤﺢ ﻣﻦ أﻫﻢ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻼدﻧﺎ‬
‫ ﻣﻦ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ‬66% ‫ وﺣﻮاﻟﻲ‬،‫ ﻣﻦ ﻧﺼﯿﺒﻪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬45% ‫ وﻧﺤﻮ‬،‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻌﺮات اﻟﺤﺮارﯾﺔ‬
‫ وﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﻘﺪ أﺻﺒﺢ اﺳﺘﻬﻼك اﻟﻘﻤﺢ وﺗﺰاﯾﺪه ﻣﻦ أﻫﻢ أﺳﺒﺎب ارﺗﻔﺎع‬.‫ﻧﺼﯿﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻲ‬
Hajras, ) .‫ ﺳﻌﺮ ﺣﺮاري‬3700 ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﺼﯿﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻌﺮات اﻟﺤﺮارﯾﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﺪر ﺑﺤﻮاﻟﻲ‬
(1996, p. 221
Annotation: ‫ إﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﺼﯿﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد‬is commonly used to refer to the average income earned
per person in a given area. The term in the preceding paragraph cannot be literally
translated as per capita income because, in this context, it refers to the individual intake.
Glossary: ‫ إﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻧﺼﯿﺐ اﻟﻔﺮد‬individual intake, ‫ اﻟﺴﻌﺮات اﻟﺤﺮارﯾﺔ‬calories, ‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻦ اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‬
total protein, ‫ اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﯿﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﻲ‬vegetable protein.
Efects of sustainable agriculture on pesticide use and yields

Recent integrated pest management (IPM) programmes, particularly in developing
countries, are beginning to show how pesticide use can be reduced and pest manage-
ment practices can be modified without yield penalties (Pretty, 2008, p. 38).
Glossary: sustainable agriculture ‫اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‬, pesticide ‫ﻣﺒﯿﺪ اﻵﻓﺎت‬, yields ‫ﻋﺎﺋﺪات‬,
integrated pest management ‫اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻓﺤﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻶﻓﺎت‬, yield penalties ‫ﺧﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﻧﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺻﯿﻞ‬.
Exercise 6: translate the following paragraph into English
(Al-Saidi, 2010, p. 293) ‫ﺗﺴﻤﯿﺪ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﺤﻘﻠﯿﺔ‬

‫ﺗﺤﺖأي ﻧﻮع ﻣﻦ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺰراﻋﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺮ – ﺳﻮاء أﻛﺎﻧﺖ زراﻋﺎت ﻣﻄﺮﯾﺔ أو زراﻋﺎت ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ رﯾﺎت ﺗﻜﻤﯿﻠﯿﺔ أو زراﻋﺎت ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮي اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ – ﻓﺈن ﻫﺬه اﻟﺰراﻋﺎت ﺟﻤﯿﻌﺎً ﺗﺤﺘﺎج إﻟﻰ ﺗﺴﻤﯿﺪ‬
‫ وذﻟﻚ ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻻﻓﺘﻘﺎر ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷراﺿﻲ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻤﻐﺬﯾﺔ أو ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﻧﻘﺺ ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬه‬،‫ﻻﺳﺘﻨﺰاف اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺰرﻋﺔ ﻟﻜﻤﯿﺎت ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻤﻐﺬﯾﺔ‬
.‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﯾﺠﺐ إﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻷﺳﻤﺪة اﻟﻤﻌﺪﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ أو اﻷﺳﻤﺪة اﻟﻌﻀﻮﯾﺔ‬،‫اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
Glossary: ‫ زراﻋﺎت ﻣﻄﺮﯾﺔ‬rain-fed agriculture, ‫ رﯾﺎت ﺗﻜﻤﯿﻠﯿﺔ‬supplemental irrigation,
‫ ﺗﺴﻤﯿﺪ‬fertilization, ‫ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ ﻏﺬاﺋﯿﺔ‬nutrients, ‫ اﺳﺘﻨﺰاف‬drain, ‫ أﺳﻤﺪة ﻣﻌﺪﻧﯿﺔ‬mineral fertil-
izers, ‫ اﻷﺳﻤﺪة اﻟﻌﻀﻮﯾﺔ‬organic fertilizers.

Microorganisms have been utilized for millennia to improve the keeping quality and
the sensory and nutritional properties of different types of foods. Examples include
fermented milks, cheeses, cured meats, bakery products, pickled vegetables, sauces
and condiments, and even coffee and tea (Goettel, Sundh, & Wilcks, 2012, p. 27).
Glossary: Microorganisms ‫اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ‬, for millennia ‫ﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬, nutritional prop-
erties ‫ﺧﻮاص ﻏﺬاﺋﯿﺔ‬, fermented ‫ﻣﺨﻤﺮ‬, cured meats ‫اﻟﻠﺤﻮم اﻟﻤُﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ‬, pickled vegetables
‫ﺧﻀﺮوات ﻣﺨﻠﻠﺔ‬, condiments ‫ﺗﻮاﺑﻞ‬.
‫اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﻧﻮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﻤﺒﯿﺪات‬

‫ وﻇﻬﻮر اﻵﻓﺎت اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ وﻣﺴﺒﺒﺎت‬،‫اﺧﺘﯿﺎر اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻤﺒﯿﺪات اﻟﺤﺸﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ إﺣﺪاث اﻟﺘﻠﻮث اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ‬
‫ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﻨﺎﻧﻮ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻮاد اﻟﻨﺎﻧﻮ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻟﻬﺎ اﻟﻘﺪرة‬.‫ وﻓﻘﺪان اﻟﺘﻨﻮع اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‬،‫اﻷﻣﺮاض‬
‫ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت‬.‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻘﺎت اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﺤﯿﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ‬
‫اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺪور ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﻧﻮ ﻓﻲ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﻨﺒﺎت واﻟﺘﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺿﺢ أن ﻣﻮاد اﻟﻨﺎﻧﻮ رﺑﻤﺎ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻓﻲ‬
(Hamza & Derbala, 2016, p. 95) .‫اﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻖ ﻋﻦ اﻷﻣﺮاض اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎت‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﺪات‬pesticides, ‫ اﻵﻓﺎت اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ‬agricultural pests, ‫ اﻟﺘﻨﻮع اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‬biodiversity,
‫ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﺤﯿﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ‬agricultural biotechnology, ‫ اﻟﻜﺸﻒ اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻖ‬accurate identification.

Until recently pastoral agriculture was based on the grazing of native or seminatural
grasslands or dwarf-shrub communities, but the twentieth century saw an increasing reli-
ance on more productive, agriculturally improved forage systems. These new artificial
grass-dominated communities are species-poor (Belcher, Lawson, & Warren, 2008, p. 2).
Glossary: pastoral agriculture ‫اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ اﻟﺮﻋﻮﯾﺔ‬, grazing ‫رﻋﻲ‬, grasslands ‫ﻣﺮاﻋﻲ‬,
dwarf-shrub ‫ ﺷﺠﯿﺮة ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬, forage systems ‫أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻋﻼف‬.

The basics of the Dutch greenhouse system are: (Mefferd, 2017, pp. 2–3)
1 Spacing: maximizing the number of plants that can be grown a given area.
2 Climate: managing temperature and humidity not only for fast growth, but also
for the type of growth you want.
3 Plant Husbandry: using specific greenhouse growing practices to care for

plants in a manner that promotes their productivity.
4 Variety: choosing varieties that are adapted to protected conditions.
5 Structures: using the right kind of structure for your area and what you are
growing.
6 Efficiency: operating with as little waste as possible.
‫ ﻣﻦ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺘﻤﻮر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻃﻦ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﯾﺄت ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼث دول ﻫﻲ ﺟﻤﻬﻮرﯾﺔ ﻣﺼﺮ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬59% ‫إن أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ‬
‫ وﺗﺴﺘﺄﺛﺮ‬،‫ أﻟﻒ ﻃﻦ‬1536 ‫واﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ وﺟﻤﻬﻮرﯾﺔ اﻟﻌﺮاق ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺒﻠﻎ إﻧﺘﺎج ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪول ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺔ‬
.‫ ﻣﻠﯿﻮن ﺷﺠﺮة‬39 ‫ أي ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺎدل ﻧﺤﻮ‬،‫ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮع ﻋﺪد اﻟﻨﺨﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻃﻦ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬46% ‫ﻫﺬه اﻟﺪول ﺑﻨﺤﻮ‬
(Barbandi, 2007, p. 84)

The type of soil found in any particular location depends upon the parent material,
the climate, the topography of the site, the various organisms living in and on the soil,
and time. Some parent materials are solid rocks such as granite, sandstone, chalk and
limestone, or slate, whereas others are superficial deposits such as riverine alluvium,
which is material that has been carried by a river and then deposited on its flood plain.
Alluvial soils can be some of the most fertile in the world, whereas soils formed on
sand dunes are often at the opposite end of the fertility spectrum. Loess, like sand
dunes, is formed of material transported by the wind, but in this case involves much
finer material. It covers extensive areas of North America and northern China, in the
latter case being derived from the Gobi Desert. There are also peat soils, formed in
wet conditions, glacial drift soils, formed on materials deposited by melting glaciers,
marine clay soils, such as those in parts of the Netherlands, derived from material orig-
inally laid down under the sea, and volcanic ash soils (Brassley & Soffe, 2016, p. 5).

Indian agriculture is mostly intensive and presently showing concerns of decline in
productivity primarily due to deteriorating soil health (in terms of physical, chemi-
cal and biological), surface/ground waters concerns (quality and quantity), and
newly emerging insects/pests). Climate change and climatic variability are of great
concerns, especially in India. Probabilities of occurrence of extreme/episodic events
have increased over the last three decades. There is need to sustain agricultural
productivity and safeguard the environment under these climatic/episodic events.
Agricultural productivity can be affected by climate change; directly, due to changes
in temperature, precipitation or CO2 levels and indirectly, and through changes in
soil health and infestation by insects/pests. Our country has numerous and com-
plex agro-ecologies and production environments, so there is a need to evaluate the
impact of climate change on regional scale, by incorporating socio-economic and
bio-physical drivers along with the climatic elements (Karla & Kumar, 2019, p. 21).
‫ ﻻ ﺗﻜﻮن داﺋﻤﺎً ﺧﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ‬،‫ ﻓﺈن ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ ﺑﺪون ﺗﺮﺑﺔ أو اﻟﻤﺰارع اﻟﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬،‫وﻋﻠﻰ أﯾﺔ ﺣﺎل‬
‫ ﻫﻨﺎك ﻋﺪة ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﺗﺰﯾﺪ ﺧﻄﻮرة‬.‫ ﺣﯿﺚ إن ﺑﻌﺾ أﻧﻮاع اﻷﻣﺮاض ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮة وﻣﺪﻣﺮة‬،‫اﻷﻣﺮاض‬
:‫ وأﻫﻢ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ‬.‫وﺿﻊ اﻟﻤﺮض ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺰارع ﺑﺪون ﺗﺮﺑﺔ‬
‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ‬،ً‫ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ وراﺛﯿﺎً ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﺰراﻋﺔ ﺑﺪون ﺗﺮﺑﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺼﻮﺑﺎ اﻟﺰﺟﺎﺟﯿﺔ‬١
‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻓﺈن ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ‬،‫ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺘﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﻺﺻﺎﺑﺔ‬
(Abu Arqoub, 2018, p. 144) .‫اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﻤﻤﺮﺿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻟﻤﺼﺎﺑﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﺒﺎﺗﺎت اﻟﺴﻠﻤﯿﺔ‬

There are two fundamental questions faced by animal breeders. The first asks, What
is the “best” animal? Is the best Labrador retriever the one with show-winning con-
formation or the one with exceptional retrieving instinct? Is the best dairy cow the
one that gives the most milk; the one with the best feet, legs, and udder support; or
the one that combines performance in these traits in some optimal way? These are
matters of intense debate among breeders, and, in truth, no one has all the answers.
The question is an important one, however, because the answers that breeders decide
upon determine the direction of genetic change for breeding operations, breeds, and
even species. The second question asks, How do you breed animals so that their
descendants will be better than today’s animals? (Bourdon, 2014, p. 5)
4.8 Medical texts

Many medical terms originate from Greek and Latin, which is clearly reflected in
the medical language. Learning the language of medicine is similar to learning a
new language (Chabner, 2013). In order to understand medical terminology, one
needs to know how words are divided into smaller components and to understand
how medical terms and words are spelled and pronounced. Nelson, Thierer, Ward,
and Young (2008, p. 4) stress that “A misspelled or a misunderstood abbreviation
for a medicine dosage was responsible for the death of several children in a cancer
ward.” Misspelling a name of a drug can lead to legal consequences.
Medical terminology is characterized by the use of prefixes and suffixes as main
parts of word structures. In this regard, Chabner (2013, p. 4) says “All medical
terms have one or more roots.” The author provides the following example for root
and suffix.
HEMATOLOGY HEMAT/O/LOGY
root suffix
combining vowel
TABLE 4.6 Medical prefixes
Prefix Meaning Term Arabic meaning

ad- toward adductor ‫ﻣﻘﺮب‬
ante- before ante cibum َ ‫َﻗْﺒ‬
‫ﻞ اﻟﻄﱠﻌﺎم‬
anti- against antibiotic ‫ﻣﻀﺎد ﺣﯿﻮي‬
TABLE 4.7 Medical suffixes
Suffix Meaning Term Arabic meaning

-asthenia weakness neurasthenia ‫وﻫﻦ ﻋﺼﺒﻲ‬
-clasis breaking osteoclasis ‫اﻟﻌﻈْﻢ‬
َ ‫ﺾ‬ ُ ‫َﻧ ْﻘ‬
-cyte cell thrombocyte ‫ﻟﻮﯾﺤﺔ دﻣﻮﯾﺔ‬
TABLE 4.8 Medical abbreviations
Abbreviation Abbreviated phrase Arabic meaning

ACS Acute Coronary Syndrome ‫اﻟﻤﺘﻼزﻣﺔ اﻹﻛﻠﯿﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎدة‬
AV Atrioventricular ‫أذﯾﻨﻲ‬
CHF Congestive Heart Failure ‫ﻓﺸﻞ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ اﻻﺣﺘﻘﺎﻧﻲ‬
CBC Complete Blood Count ‫ﺗﻌﺪاد ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺪم‬
DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure ‫ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺪم اﻻﻧﺒﺴﺎﻃﻲ‬
In this example, the root hemat means blood and the suffix logy means process of
study. The word contains a combining vowel, -o.
Tables 4.6 and 4.7 show examples of prefixes and suffixes used in medical terms
and their meanings (Chabner, 2013, pp. 110–111):
Another significant feature of medical terminology is the use of abbreviations
(Table 4.8).

1 The normal average of Diastolic Blood Pressure is less than 80.
2 The CBC test is administered to count the cells that make up blood. These cells
are red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
3 Atrioventricular node refers to the electrical relay station located between the
upper chamber and lower chamber of the heart.
4 Shortness of breath, excessive tiredness, and leg swelling are common symp-
toms of CHF.
5 Acute coronary syndrome is a syndrome resulting from decreased blood flow
in the coronary arteries. ACS symptoms include chest pain and shortness of
breath.
TABLE 4.9 List 1 of English medical terms and their Arabic translation
ST TT ST TT
acute inflammation ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎب ﺣﺎد‬ appendicitis ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎب اﻟﺰاﺋﺪة اﻟﺪودﯾﺔ‬
acute heart failure ‫ﻗﺼﻮر اﻟﻘﻠﺐ اﻟﺤﺎد‬ blood clotting ‫ﺗﺠﻠﻂ اﻟﺪم‬
caesarean section ‫اﻟﻮﻻدة اﻟﻘﯿﺼﺮﯾﺔ‬ chemotherapy ‫ﻋﻼج ﻛﯿﻤﺎوي‬
contagious diseases ‫أﻣﺮاض ﻣﻌﺪﯾﺔ‬ dehydration ‫ﺟﻔﺎف‬
hepatitis ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎب اﻟﻜﺒﺪ‬ renal failure ‫اﻟﻔﺸﻞ اﻟﻜﻠﻮي‬
dermatology ‫ﻃﺐ اﻷﻣﺮاض اﻟﺠﻠﺪﯾﺔ‬ ophthalmology ‫ﻃﺐ اﻟﻌﯿﻮن‬
urologist ‫ﻃﺒﯿﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﺒﻮﻟﯿﺔ‬ arthritis ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎب اﻟﻤﻔﺎﺻﻞ‬
autism ‫ﻣﺮض اﻟﺘﻮﺣﺪ‬ botulism ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻤﻢ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻲ‬
cholera ‫اﻟﻜﻮﻟﯿﺮا‬ dizziness ‫اﻟﺪوﺧﺔ‬
electrocardiogram ‫ﺗﺨﻄﯿﻂ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ‬ epilepsy ‫اﻟﺼﺮع‬
psychiatrist ‫ﻃﺒﯿﺐ ﻧﻔﺴﻲ‬ hematologist ‫ﻃﺒﯿﺐ أﻣﺮاض اﻟﺪم‬
6 Untreated high blood pressure can also affect your eyesight and lead to eye
disease.
7 Neurasthenia refers to the condition that is characterized by mental and physical
exhaustion. The main symptoms of neurasthenia are depression and anxiety.
8 People who are severely obese are at a higher risk of coronary artery disease.
9 The man with post-TURP complaints came to the hospital.
10 The treatment includes surgery, radiation therapy, and hormonal chemotherapy.
Table 4.9 lists some English medical terms and their Arabic translations.

1 Acute inflammation is considered an early a response and first line defense to
tissue injury. Pain (Latin dolor), redness (rubor), immobility (functio laesa),
swelling (tumor), and heat (calor) are the five key signs of acute inflammation.
2 Acute heart failure, which occurs suddenly without showing any symptoms,
refers to the inability of the heart to pump enough blood.
3 A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specializes in diagnosing, treating, and
preventing emotional, mental, and behavioral disorders.
4 Blood clotting is process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel to pre-
vent excessive bleeding.
5 Caesarean section (C-section) is the delivery of babies through surgical
procedure.
6 Chemotherapy is the use of drug treatment to kill cancer cells and prevent them
from growing. While surgery is used to remove and kill cancer cells in a specific
area, chemotherapy works throughout the whole body.
7 A contagious disease is a transmissible disease that spreads from one person
to another by physical contact or using the objects of people suffering from a
transmittable disease.
8 Dehydration results from not drinking enough water or fluid or by losing more
fluid than one takes in. Fluid is lost through sweat, tears, vomiting, urine, or
diarrhea.
9 Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver that is usually caused by a viral infec-
tion. The kind of hepatitis is named after the virus causing: hepatitis A, hepatitis
B, or hepatitis C.
10 Kidney failure is a medical condition in which kidneys are no longer able to
sufficiently filter waste from blood.
11 Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with the skin, nails, hair and
their diseases.
12 Ophthalmology is a branch of medicine which studies the medical conditions
relating to the eye.
13 A urologist is a doctor specializing in the treatment of the urinary tract diseases.
When suspecting a medical condition related to the urinary system, a physician
refers patients with such conditions to a urologist.
14 Arthritis refers to the inflammation of one or more joints. The term is used to
describe different types of arthritis.
15 Autism refers to a developmental disorder that results in challenges with social
interaction skills and repetitive behaviors.
16 Botulism is a serious, rare, and possibly fatal illness that is caused by a toxin
produced by the bacterium clostridium botulinum. The initial symptoms of bot-
ulism include weakness, blurred vision, and trouble swallowing and speaking.
17 Cholera is an infection of the small intestine with mild, severe, or no symptoms.
It causes watery diarrhea for a few days and vomiting. These can lead to dehy-
dration or death if untreated.
18 Common causes of dizziness include a migraine, medications, and alcohol. It
can also be caused by a problem in the inner ear.
19 An electrocardiogram is the display of a person’s heartbeat to check how one’s
heart is functioning.
20 Epilepsy is one of the most common neurological disorders. It can affect the
central nervous system of people of all ages. The symptoms of epilepsy include
temporary confusion, loss of consciousness, fear, and anxiety.
What are the problems caused by anorexia?

Girls with anorexia usually stop having menstrual periods. People with anorexia
have dry skin and thinning hair on the head. They may have a growth of fine hair all
over their body. They may feel cold all the time, and they may get sick often. People
with anorexia are often in a bad mood. They have a hard time concentrating and are
always thinking about food. It is not true that anorexics are never hungry. Actually,
they are always hungry. It makes them feel like they are good at something – they
are good at losing weight. People with severe anorexia may be at risk of death from
starvation (Chhajer, 2016).
Glossary: anorexia ‫ﻓﻘﺪان اﻟﺸﻬﯿﺔ‬, people with anorexia ‫ﯾﻌﺎﻧﻲ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﻤﺼﺎﺑﻮن ﺑﻔﻘﺪان‬
‫اﻟﺸﻬﯿﺔ‬, thinning hair ‫ﺷﻌﺮ ﺧﻔﯿﻒ‬.
Exercise 4: translate the following passage
Symptoms of diabetes
The kidneys filter out waste matter while actively retaining all materials useful to
the body, including glucose. They are able to conserve the latter up to a concentra-
tion of 180 mg per cent in the blood. Normally, blood sugar remains much below
this level, and, therefore, no glucose is lost in the urine. In diabetes, the blood sugar
level rises beyond 180 mg per cent, with the result that glucose is released into the
urine. Water is also lost with glucose. The higher the blood glucose level, the more is
the glucose in the urine and, therefore, more is the water lost (Thapar, 2003, p. 12).
Glossary: diabetes ‫ﻣﺮض اﻟﺴﻜﺮي‬, the latter (refers to glucose).

The serious health issues and the economic implications of the rising prevalence of
childhood and adolescent obesity raise ethical and public policy questions regarding
the responsibility for health, food production and consumption, for an obesogenic
environment and patterns of physical activity, the role of the state, and the rights and
duties of parenthood (Ahrens, Moreno, & Pigeot, 2011, p. 2).
Glossary: obesity ‫اﻟﺴﻤﻨﺔ‬, obesogenic environment ‫ﺑﯿﺌﺔ ﺗﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﻤﻨﺔ‬.
‫اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ ﻟﻠﻮﻗﺎﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن‬

‫ وﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ إﻟﻰ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﻤﺎرﺳﺎت اﻷﺧﺮى ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻔﺎدي‬،‫ﻻ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ ﻋﻼﺟﺎ ﻟﻠﺴﺮﻃﺎن‬
. . . ‫ وﺗﻨﺎول اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻈﺎم ﯾﺤﻔﻆ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ‬،‫اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻷورام اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫ وﯾﻌﻤﺪون إﻟﻰ اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﺴﻞ ﻛﻤﺎ‬،‫رﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﺴﻤﻊ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻋﻦ ﻗﻮة اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼج اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن‬
‫ ﻓﯿﺆل اﻟﻤﺂل إﻟﻰ ﻃﻮر‬،‫ دون أن ﯾﻜﻮﻧﻮا ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻼج اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن‬،‫ﻫﻮ اﻟﺸﺄن‬
(Ateyyat, 2012, p. 254) .‫ﺧﻄﯿﺮ‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻘﺮﻓﺔ‬cinnamon, ‫ ﺳﺮﻃﺎن‬cancer, ‫ ﻗﻮة‬effectiveness, ‫ ﯾﺆول اﻟﻤﺂل‬which leads to.
‫ ﺗﺄﺗﻲ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻘﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻓﺠﺄة وﺗﻜﻮن ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻌﺔ وﻋﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﯾﺼﺎب اﻟﻤﺮﯾﺾ ﺑﺎﻟﺨﻮف ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺮض‬:‫اﻟﺨﻮف واﻟﻘﻠﻖ‬
‫ واﻟﻘﻠﻖ‬،‫ واﻟﺨﻮف ﻣﻦ أن ﯾﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﻤﺮﯾﺾ ﻋﺒﺌﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﯿﺮه‬،‫ واﻟﺨﻮف ﻣﻦ ﻓﻘﺪان ﻗﻮة اﻟﻌﻀﻼت‬،‫واﻟﻤﻮت‬
‫ وأﻛﺒﺮ درﺟﺎت اﻟﻘﻠﻖ واﻟﺨﻮف ﺗﻜﻮن ﻓﻲ ﯾﻮم إﺟﺮاء‬.‫ واﻟﻘﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﻌﻼج‬،‫اﻟﺠﻨﺴﻲ واﻷﺳﺮي واﻟﻤﻬﻨﻲ‬
‫ إذا ﺗﻄﻠﺐ اﻷﻣﺮ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺮاﻋﺎة أن ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻋﺮ ﺗﺘﻔﺎوت وﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﺸﺪة ﺣﺴﺐ‬،‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺠﺮاﺣﯿﺔ‬
.‫ﻧﻮع اﻟﻤﺮض وﺳﻦ اﻟﻤﺮﯾﺾ وﻛﻢ اﻟﺮﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻪ وﻣﻘﺪار اﻟﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ واﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ اﻟﻤﻘﺪم ﻣﻦ أﺳﺮﺗﻪ‬
(Abu Annasr, 2005, p. 132)
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻘﻠﻖ‬anxiety, ‫ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻘﻠﺒﯿﺔ‬heart attack, ‫ اﻟﻘﻠﻖ اﻟﺠﻨﺴﻲ‬sexual anxiety, ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ اﻟﺠﺮاﺣﯿﺔ‬surgery.
Fasting
For all prebooked elective surgery, it is essential to fast before a general anaesthetic.
If the patient has not fasted, there is a risk of vomiting and aspirating food and fluids
once the patient is paralyzed. The general rule is to fast from fluids and foods for
6 hours before theatre; children fast for periods relevant to their age. Any drinks or
food must be removed from the patient’s bedside for the fasting period and a fasting
sign placed on the bed to alert others not to provide anything (Shields & Werder,
2002, p. 19).
Glossary: prebooked ‫ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺎ‬
ً ‫ ﻣﺤﺠﻮز‬, general anaesthetic ‫ﺗﺨﺪﯾﺮ ﻋﺎم‬, vomiting ‫ﺗﻘﯿﺆ‬, aspi-
rating food and fluids ‫اﺳﺘﻨﺸﺎق اﻟﻄﻌﺎم واﻟﺴﻮاﺋﻞ‬, theatre .‫ﻏﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺠﺮاﺣﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺗﺴﺠﯿﻞ دﺧﻮل اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ‬

‫ أو إﻟﻰ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻄﺒﯿﺔ اﻷﺧﺮى‬،‫وﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺴﺠﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ دﺧﻮﻟﻬﻢ إﻟﻰ اﻷﻗﺴﺎم اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﻜﻤﺎل‬،‫ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺘﺐ دﺧﻮل اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ‬،‫ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰة أو اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺠﺮاﺣﯿﺔ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺘﺸﻔﻰ‬
‫ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ إﻟﻰ أﻗﺴﺎم اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻄﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﺳﻮاء ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ‬.‫إﺟﺮاءات اﻟﺘﺴﺠﯿﻞ‬
‫ ﺑﺈﺟﺮاء اﺗﺼﺎل ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺘﺐ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل؛ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻌﻼم ﻋﻦ‬،‫اﻟﻌﯿﺎدات اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ أو ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﯾﻖ ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻄﻮارئ‬
(Shuaib, 2014, p. 60).‫ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺪﺧﻮل‬،‫ﻣﺪى ﺗﻮاﻓﺮ أﺳﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺴﻢ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ‬
Glossary: ‫ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺗﺴﺠﯿﻞ دﺧﻮل اﻟﻤﺮﺿﻰ‬inpatient registration, ‫ اﻷﻗﺴﺎم اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬internal
departments, ‫ اﻟﻌﻨﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰة‬intensive care, ‫ اﻟﻌﯿﺎدات اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬outpatient clinics, ‫ﻗﺴﻢ‬
‫ اﻟﻄﻮارئ‬emergency department.
Blood pressure
The cause of most cases of high blood pressure is unknown. It has been shown, how-
ever, that hypertension may have a genetic link: it runs in families. There are also
racial genetic links in hypertension. African Americans and Latinos are more likely
to have hypertension than whites and, as a result, suffer strokes at an earlier age and
with greater severity. Nongenetic, modifiable factors that contribute to hypertension

are obesity, lack of physical activity, cigarette smoking, stress, and eating excessive
amounts of salt (Alters & Schiff, 2005, p. 327).
Glossary: hypertension ‫ارﺗﻔﺎع ﺿﻐﻂ اﻟﺪم‬, genetic link ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺟﯿﻨﯿﺔ‬, modifiable ‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻌﺪﯾﻠﻬﺎ‬.

A group of primary health centers should in turn be based on a secondary health cen-
ter. Here cases of difficulty or cases requiring special treatment would be referred
from primary centers. The equipment of the centers would be more extensive and
the medical personnel more specialized. The distinguishing feature of the primary
center would be that it would be staffed by general practitioners in contradiction to
the secondary centers staffed by specialists (Stephen, 1979, p. 42).
Family medical history (Drake, 2006, p. 7)

Your doctor and other health care professionals can use your family’s medical his-
tory: for a number of things, including:
• diagnosing a medical condition;

• determining whether you may benefit from preventive measures to lower your
risk of a specific disease;
• deciding what medical tests to run;
• identifying other members of your family who are at risk of developing certain
diseases;
• calculating your risk of developing certain diseases, and
• calculating your risk of passing certain conditions to your children.
(Taher, 2017, pp. 42–43) :‫أﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺒﺘﺮ‬
......................................... :‫أﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﺒﺘﺮ ﻟﻸﻃﺮاف اﻟﺴﻔﻠﯿﺔ‬

........................................ (70%) ‫اﻷﻣﺮاض‬
........................................ (22%) ‫اﻹﺻﺎﺑﺎت‬
........................................ (4%) ‫ﻋﯿﻮب ﺧﻠﻘﯿﺔ‬
......................................... (4%) ‫أورام‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻷﻣﺮاض اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﺑﺘﺮ ﻷﺣﺪ اﻷﻃﺮاف اﻟﺴﻔﻠﯿﺔ أو ﺟﺰء ﻣﻨﻬﺎ أﻣﺮاض اﻷوﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺪﻣﻮﯾﺔ‬
‫ ﻓﺄﻣﺮاض اﻷوﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺪﻣﻮﯾﺔ ﺗﻌﻮق اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺪﻣﻮي وﺳﺮﯾﺎن اﻟﺪورة اﻟﺪﻣﻮﯾﺔ ووﺻﻮﻟﻬﺎ‬،‫وﻣﺮض اﻟﺴﻜﺮي‬
.‫ﻟﻸﻃﺮاف‬
:3 ‫اﻷوﻣﯿﻐﺎ‬
‫ ﺗﺰود اﻟﺠﺴﻢ ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺘﻪ ﻣﻦ‬،‫إن ﺗﻨﺎول ﻛﻤﯿﺎت ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ وﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﺴﻤﻚ اﻟﻐﻨﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻫﻮن ﻛﻤﻜﻞ ﻏﺬاﺋﻲ‬
DHA ‫ و‬EPA ‫ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺆﺧﺬ ﻣﻦ زﯾﺖ اﻟﺴﻤﻚ ﻧﻮﻋﯿﻪ‬،3 ‫ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻷوﻣﯿﻐﺎ‬،‫اﻟﻜﻮﻟﯿﺴﺘﺮول اﻟﻤﻔﯿﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺪم‬
‫ ﺗﺰداد ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺘﻬﻤﺎ‬،‫ ﻓﺰﯾﺖ اﻟﺴﻤﻚ اﻟﻐﻨﻲ ﺑﻬﺬﯾﻦ اﻟﻌﻨﺼﺮﯾﻦ ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺨﻔﯿﻒ ﻛﺜﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺪم‬.‫ﺑﺠﺮﻋﺎت ﯾﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬
(Alamah & Riziq, 2016a, p. 19) .E ‫إذا ﻣﺎ اﺗﺤﺪا ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﯿﺘﺎﻣﯿﻦ‬
Annotation: EPA and DHA are two types of omega 3 fatty acids. When translating
into English, ‫ زﯾﺖ اﻟﺴﻤﻚ‬in the preceding text should be translated as fatty acids.
Glossary: 3 ‫ اﻷوﻣﯿﻐﺎ‬omega 3, EPA ‫ﺣﻤﺾ اﯾﻜﻮﺳﺎﺑﻨﺘﺎﻧﻮﯾﻚ‬, DHA ,‫ﺣﻤﺾ اﻟﺪوﻛﻮﺳﺎﻫﻜﺴﺎﯾﻨﻮﯾﻚ‬
‫ اﻟﻜﻮﻟﯿﺴﺘﺮول اﻟﻤﻔﯿﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺪم‬HDL, ‫ ﺟﺮﻋﺎت ﯾﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬daily doses.

The low-protein diets recommended by the nutrition and medical communities are
apparently low in protein only by default. The real villain in the eyes of low-protein
advocates is fat or, more precisely, saturated fat and cholesterol. They consider these lip-
ids to be the major cause of many of the modem nutritional diseases. In order to reduce
the fat component of the diet to what they consider an acceptable level, red meat, one
of the major sources of saturated fat and cholesterol, must be restricted. When the fat
and protein components of the diet are reduced, the deficit in daily caloric requirement
can only be replaced by carbohydrate foods. For many people, the result is a diet that is
inadequate in protein and excessive in carbohydrates (Ottoboni, 2002, p. 102).
Glossary: medical communities ‫اﻷوﺳﺎط اﻟﻄﺒﯿﺔ‬, real villain ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺲ‬, saturated fat
‫اﻟﺪﻫﻮن اﻟﻤﺸﺒﻌﺔ‬, lipids ‫دﻫﻮن‬, nutritional diseases ‫أﻣﺮاض ﻣﺘﺼﻠﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻐﺬﯾﺔ‬, caloric require-
ment ‫اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻌﺮات اﻟﺤﺮارﯾﺔ‬.
‫ ﯾﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻨﻪ إﻋﺎدة‬،‫ إﻧﻤﺎ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻞ ﻏﺬاﺋﻲ‬،‫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺪم‬HDL ‫إن آﻟﯿﺔ ﺟﻠﺐ اﻟﻜﻮﻟﺴﺘﺮول اﻟﻤﻔﯿﺪ‬
،‫ ﻗﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ‬،LDL ‫اﻣﺘﺼﺎص ﺗﺘﻤﺎزج ﻣﻊ اﻟﺪم ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت ﺷﺤﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻮﻟﺴﺘﺮول‬
‫ أﻣﺎ اﻟﻜﻮﻟﺴﺘﺮول اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻔﻊ اﻟﻜﺜﺎﻓﺔ‬.‫ﯾﺴﺘﻘﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺾ ﻣﻨﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺗﺮﺳﺒﺎت ﺗﺘﺠﺎﻧﺲ ﻣﻊ ﺟﺪران اﻟﺸﺮاﯾﯿﻦ‬
‫ وﯾﻤﻨﻊ اﺳﺘﻘﺮاره ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺮاﯾﯿﻦ‬،‫ ﯾﻌﯿﺪ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺾ ﻣﻨﻪ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻜﺒﺪ‬،HDL ‫وﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻟﻜﻮﻟﺴﺘﺮول اﻟﻤﻔﯿﺪ‬
(Alamah & Rizq, 2016a, p. 17) .‫وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﯾﺒﻌﺪ اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت اﻹﺻﺎﺑﺔ ﺑﺘﺼﻠﺐ اﻟﺸﺮاﯾﯿﻦ‬
Glossary: ‫ ﺗﻤﺜﯿﻞ ﻏﺬاﺋﻲ‬metabolism, ‫ ﺑﺮوﺗﯿﻨﺎت ﺷﺤﻤﯿﺔ‬lipoproteins.
‫ ﻻﺳﯿﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺼﺮ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﻬﺪ ﻓﯿﻪ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﻋﺎرﻣﺔ ﻧﺤﻮ اﻷﻏﺬﯾﺔ‬،‫ﻓﺎﻟﻐﺬاء أﺳﺎس ﻛﻞ اﻷﻣﺮاض‬
‫ واﻟﺘﻲ ﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎً ﻣﺎ ﯾﺄﺗﻲ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﻬﺎ‬،‫ واﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺪﻫﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺆذﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻔﻌﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﺐ‬،‫ ذات اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮﺻﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺴﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬
(Alamah & Rizq, 2016b, p. 15) .‫ ﻓﯿﺼﺎب ﺑﺤﺎﻻت اﻟﻘﻠﺐ واﻟﺸﺮاﯾﯿﻦ واﻟﺒﻨﻜﺮﯾﺎس‬،‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎب اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬
Glossary: ‫ ﻣﻮﺟﺔ ﻋﺎرﻣﺔ ﻧﺤﻮ اﻷﻏﺬﯾﺔ اﻟﺴﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬massive wave of consumption of fast food,
‫ ذات اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮﺻﺔ‬lacking nutrients.

1 Esophagitis is any inflammation of the esophagus, the tube that sends food from
your mouth to your stomach. Common causes include side effects of certain
medications and bacterial or infections. (www.healthline.com)
2 A person with a family history of kidney stones may be more likely to develop
stones, urinary tract infections, and kidney disorders such as cystic kidney
diseases.
Exercise 19: consider Table 4.10 to translate the sentences that follow
1 His right leg was replaced with a prosthesis.
2 Syringe is a medical device used to inject or withdraw fluid from the body.
3 A pediatrician is a medical practitioner who specializes in children and their
diseases.
4 You need to use a bandage to protect an injured part of the body.
5 The small intestine is about 20 feet long. It absorbs most of the nutrients from
what we eat and drink.
6 The large intestine is about five feet long and about three inches in diameter.
7 There are 71 human enterovirus serotypes, which are distinguished on the basis
of antibody neutralization tests.
8 Breast cancer is a type of cancer that develops from breast tissue. One of the
signs of breast cancer is a change in breast shape.
9 Common examples of mild adverse effects related to drugs include constipa-
tion, skin rash, diarrhea, drowsiness, dry mouth, and headache.
10 Leukemia is a type of cancer caused by an overproduction of damaged white
blood cells.
TABLE 4.10 List 2 of English medical terms and their Arabic translation
ST TT ST TT
prosthesis ‫ﻋﻀﻮ اﺻﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬ syringe ‫ﺣﻘﻨﺔ‬
pediatrician ‫ﻃﺒﯿﺐ أﻃﻔﺎل‬ bandage ‫ﺿﻤﺎدة‬
small intestine ‫اﻟﻤﻌﻲ اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻖ‬ large intestine (‫اﻟﻤﻌﻲ اﻟﻐﻠﯿﻆ )اﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮن‬
breast cancer ‫ﺳﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺜﺪي‬ enterovirus ‫ﻓﯿﺮوس ﻣﻌﻮي‬
kidney transplant ‫زراﻋﺔ اﻟﻜﻠﻰ‬ leukemia (‫اﻟﻠﻮﻛﯿﻤﯿﺎ )ﺳﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺪم‬
overdose ‫ﺟﺮﻋﺔ زاﺋﺪة‬ thermometer ‫ﻣﯿﺰان اﻟﺤﺮارة‬
mouth wash ‫ﻣﻀﻤﻀﺔ‬ antipyretic ‫ﺧﺎﻓﺾ ﺣﺮارة‬
side effects ‫أﻋﺮاض ﺟﺎﻧﺒﯿﺔ‬ ointment ‫ﻣﺮﻫﻢ‬
skull fracture ‫ﻛﺴﺮ اﻟﺠﻤﺠﻤﺔ‬ cardiogram ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ‬
urine test ‫ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﺑﻮل‬ blood groups ‫ﻓﺼﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺪم‬
‫ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺴﯿﺪات اﻟﻼﺋﻲ ﻋﻮﻟﺠﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺜﺪي أﻛﻤﻠﻦ ﺣﯿﺎﺗﻬﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻃﺒﯿﻌﻲ ﺑﺪون ﺣﺪوث‬
‫ وﻫﻨﺎك ﺳﯿﺪات ﺗﺼﺎب‬.‫ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺜﺪي‬
ً ‫ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﻛﻞ اﻟﺴﯿﺪات ﺗﺸﻔﻲ ﺗﻤﺎ‬،‫ وﻣﻊ اﻷﺳﻒ‬.‫اﻧﺘﻜﺎﺳﺎت‬
‫ ﺑﻌﺪ أن ﻛﻦ ﻗﺪ ﻋﻮﻟﺠﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺜﺪي‬،‫ﺑﺴﺮﻃﺎن ﺛﺪي ﺛﺎﻧﻮي ﻓﻲ أي ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ أﺧﺮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ‬
‫ وﻻ‬.‫ وﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﯾﻈﻬﺮ ﻫﺬا اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮي ﺑﻌﺪ ﻋﺪة أﻋﻮام ﻣﻦ ﻋﻼج اﻟﺴﺮﻃﺎن اﻷوﻟﻲ‬.‫اﻷوﻟﻲ‬
(Thabit, 2017, p. 30 ) .‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﻄﺒﯿﺐ أن ﯾﻀﻤﻦ ﻋﺪم ﺣﺪوث ذﻟﻚ‬

Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from
the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syn-
drome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV).
Common signs of infection include respiratory symptoms, fever, cough, short-
ness of breath and breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, infection can cause
pneumonia, severe acute respiratory syndrome, kidney failure and even death.
Source: www.who.int/health-topics/coronavirus
Glossary: Coronavirus ‫ﻓﯿﺮوس ﻛﻮروﻧﺎ‬, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome ‫اﻟﻤﺘﻼزﻣﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻔﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺮق أوﺳﻄﯿﺔ‬, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ‫اﻟﻤﺘﻼزﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻔﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎدة‬
‫اﻟﻮﺧﯿﻤﺔ‬, common signs of infection ‫أﻋﺮاض اﻟﻌﺪوى اﻟﺸﺎﺋﻌﺔ‬, pneumonia ‫اﻟﺘﻬﺎب رﺋﻮي‬.

The science of virology is relatively young. We can recognize specific viruses as
the causative agents of epidemics that occurred hundreds or thousands of years ago
from written descriptions of disease or from study of mummies with characteristic
abnormalities. Furthermore, immunization against smallpox has been practiced for
more than a millennium. However, it was only approximately 100 years ago that
viruses were shown to be filterable and therefore distinct from bacteria that cause
infectious disease (Strauss & Strauss, 2008, p. 1).

The electrical message generated from light by the rods and cones which passes
through the retina to the ganglion cells then travels along the optic nerve to reach the
brain. In fact the optic nerve is the conduit for long thin threads called nerve fibres
which track from the ganglion cells spread all over the retina to meet up and form bun-
dles in the optic nerve head. A little over one million of these fibres come together at
the nerve head to extend in an orderly manner down the nerve (Grierson, 2000, p. 20).

‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻣﺮض اﻟﺪرن )اﻟﺴﻞ( ﻣﻦ اﻷﻣﺮاض اﻟﻤﺰﻣﻨﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺼﯿﺐ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻷﺣﯿﺎن اﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﺘﻨﻔﺴﻲ‬
‫وﺑﺨﺎﺻﺔ اﻟﺮﺋﺘﯿﻦ إﻻ أﻧﻪ ﻗﺪ ﯾﺼﯿﺐ أﺟﺰاء أﺧﺮى ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﺴﻢ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﻬﻀﻤﻲ واﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﺘﻨﺎﺳﻠﻲ‬
(Khalafallah, 2014, p. 7) .‫واﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﺒﻮﻟﻲ واﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﻌﺼﺒﻲ واﻟﺠﻬﺎز اﻟﻠﯿﻤﻔﺎوي واﻟﻌﻈﺎم‬
:‫اﻟﻔﯿﺮوﺳﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻤﺮض اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬

،‫ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﻫﻨﺎك ﺑﺼﻔﺔ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ أﻧﻮاع رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻔﯿﺮوﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ ﺣﺪوث ﻣﺮض اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا‬
‫ وﻓﯿﺮوس‬،(Influenza B) (‫ وﻓﯿﺮوس اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا )ﺑﻲ‬،(Influenza A) (‫وﻫﻲ ﻓﯿﺮوس اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا )إﯾﻪ‬
‫ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻷﻧﻮاع اﻟﺜﻼﺛﺔ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻓﯿﺮوﺳﺎت اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰان ﻓﺈﻧﻪ‬.(Influenza C) (‫اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا )ﺳﻲ‬
‫ وﻓﯿﺮوس اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا ﺛﻮﺟﻮ‬،(Isa Influenza) ‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ أﯾﻀﺎ ﻧﻮﻋﺎن ﻏﯿﺮ ﺷﺎﺋﻌﯿﻦ ﻫﻤﺎ ﻓﯿﺮوس اﻷﻧﻔﻠﻮﻧﺰا إﯾﺰا‬
(Khalafallah, 2010) .(Thogo Influenza)
4.9 Environment
Integrated water management

Seasonal storage played a role in exploiting the Nile and making its waters avail-
able for irrigation agriculture throughout the year. But it offered no solution to
the recurrent problem of year-to-year variations in river flow, which brought pro-
longed drought or severe flooding. Moreover, the number of local water man-
agement initiatives were creating problems in ensuring that all schemes received
enough water.
Coordinated development of the entire Nile river system, as a single unit, offered
the prospect of optimizing the availability of water resources, reducing the risk and
managing the timing of river flooding, and making use of the river as a source of
hydroelectric power (Park, 2001, p. 61).
Glossary: Seasonal storage ‫اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻤﻮﺳﻤﻲ‬, exploiting ‫اﺳﺘﻐﻼل‬, making . . . available
‫إﺗﺎﺣﺔ‬, offered no solution ‫ﻼ‬
ً ‫ﻟﻢ ﺗﻘﺪم ﺣ‬, recurrent ‫ﻣﺘﻜﺮرة‬, year-to-year variations ‫ﺗﻐﯿﺮات‬
‫ﺳﻨﻮﯾﺔ‬, prolonged drought ‫ﺟﻔﺎف ﻟﻔﺘﺮات ﻃﻮﯾﻠﺔ‬, severe flooding ‫ﻓﯿﻀﺎﻧﺎت ﻋﺎرﻣﺔ‬, coordi-
nated development ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺴﻘﺔ‬, optimizing the availability ‫تﺣﺴﯿﻦ وﻓﺮة‬.

First, secondary forest is lower and consists of trees of smaller average dimensions
than those of primary forest; but since it is comparatively rare that an area of pri-
mary forest is clear-felled or completely destroyed by fire, occasional trees much
larger than average are usually found scattered through secondary forest. Secondly,
very young secondary forest is often remarkably regular and uniform in structure,
though the abundance of small climbers and young saplings gives it a dense and
tangled appearance which is unlike that of primary forest and makes it laborious
to penetrate. Thirdly, secondary forest tends to be much poorer in species than pri-
mary, and is sometimes, though by no means always, dominated by a single species
or a small number of species. Fourthly, the dominant trees of secondary forest are
light-demanding and intolerant of shade, most of the trees possess efficient dispersal
mechanisms (having seeds or fruits well adapted for transport by wind or animals),
and most of them can grow very quickly. Some species are known to grow at rates
of up to 12 m in 3 years, but they tend to be short-lived and to mature and reproduce
early (Goudie, 2013, p. 43).
Glossary: secondary forest ‫اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﯾﺔ‬, smaller dimensions ‫أﺑﻌﺎد أﻗﻞ‬, comparatively
rare ‫ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻧﺎدر‬, clear-felled ً‫ﻗُﻄﻌﺖ ﻛﻠﯿﺎ‬, completely destroyed ‫ﻛﻠﯿﺎ‬
ً ‫دُﻣﺮت‬, occasional
trees ‫أﺷﺠﺎر ﻣﺘﻔﺮﻗﺔ‬, scattered ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺸﺮة‬, regular and uniform in structure ‫ﻣﺘﺤﺪة وﻣﻨﺘﻈﻤﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬, abundance of ‫وﻓﺮة‬, climbers ‫ﻣﺘﺴﻠﻘﺎت‬, saplings ‫ﺷﺘﻼت‬, dense ‫ﻛﺜﯿﻒ‬, tangled ‫ﻣﺘﺸﻌﺐ‬,
laborious to penetrate ‫ﯾﺼﻌﺐ إﺧﺘﺮاﻗﻬﺎ‬, poorer in species ‫ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻋﺪد أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻧﻮاع‬,
light-demanding ً‫ﺗﺤﺘﺎج ﺿﻮءا‬, intolerant of shade ‫لا ﺗﺘﻜﯿﻒ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻈﻞ‬, efficient dispersal
mechanisms ‫آﻟﯿﺎت ﺗﻨﺎﺛﺮ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﺔ‬, well adapted ً‫ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ‬, for transport ‫ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻞ‬, short-lived
‫ﺗﻌﯿﺶ ﻟﻔﺘﺮة ﻗﺼﯿﺮة‬, mature and reproduce ‫ﺗﻨﻀﺞ وﺗﺘﻜﺎﺛﺮ‬.
Natural and unnatural enemies

Jerusalem pine trees have a natural life expectancy of eighty to one hundred years;
if irrigated, they may live to be 150. In fact, only a fraction survived that long. The
pine forests of both the British and the JNF were under a constant state of siege
prior to 1948. Arson and other forms of what mandate officials called “political
sabotage” were a constant problem for the JNF; the Jerusalem pine’s flammable
sap literally added fuel to the flames. During the Arab Revolt of 1936, vandalism
became so violent that JNF planting efforts became unsafe. This led to a strategy
of pairing a young forest with an adjacent kibbutz that could protect it (Tal, 2002,
p. 85).
Glossary: pine trees ‫أﺷﺠﺎر اﻟﺼﻨﻮﺑﺮ‬, life expectancy ‫ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ اﻟﻌﻤﺮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬, if irrigated ‫إذا‬
‫روﯾﺖ‬, fraction ‫ﺟﺰء ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ‬, JNF ‫اﻟﺼﻨﺪوق اﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ اﻟﯿﻬﻮدي‬, arson ‫اﻟﺤﺮاﺋﻖ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻤﺪة‬, mandate
officials ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻧﺘﺪاب‬, political sabotage ‫ﺗﺪﻣﯿﺮ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﻲ‬, flammable sap ‫ﻋﺼﺎرة‬
‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻺﺷﺘﻌﺎل‬, flames ‫اﻟﻨﯿﺮان‬, vandalism ‫ﺗﺨﺮﯾﺐ‬.

Sustainable development cannot be achieved without economic growth. While some
may question how economic growth needs to proceed in developed countries, the
extensive poverty in the developing world cannot be eradicated without economic
improvement. This must be achieved following the principles of sustainable devel-
opment, otherwise the implications for the environments of developing countries
and the rest of the world are bleak. The issue of environmental pollution is a key
element in assessing the impacts of development on the environment, and managing
this problem is a necessary prerequisite for making development more sustainable
(Farmer, 2013, p. 5).
Glossary: Sustainable development ‫اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‬, economic growth ‫اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬,

some may question ‫رﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﺴﺎءل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ‬, developed countries ‫اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ‬, extensive
poverty ‫اﻟﻔﻘﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﻓﻲ‬, developing world ‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻨﺎﻣﻲ‬, be eradicated ‫اﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﯿﻪ‬, impli-
cations ‫ﺗﺒﻌﺎت‬, bleak ‫ﻗﺎﺗﻤﺔ‬, environmental pollution ‫اﻟﺘﻠﻮث اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ‬.

Although the “greenhouse effect” or “global warming” may have been new terms
for many at the time that the scientific literature and the work of the Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change was first making its new findings known in the late
1980s, it cannot be said that the discourse around these terms now has the character
of a new concept discourse. In fact, the point is frequently made in the literature that
global warming and the greenhouse effect are “old” processes. This is not to deny
that the “global warming” debate is about newness, a strange new world (Myerson &
Rydin, 1996, p. 88).
Glossary: greenhouse effect ‫اﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎس اﻟﺤﺮاري‬, global warming ‫اﻻﺣﺘﺮار اﻟﻜﻮﻧﻲ‬, sci-
entific literature ‫اﻟﻤﺆﻟﻔﺎت اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ‬, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ‫اﻟﻔﺮﯾﻖ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺎخ‬, findings ‫ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ‬, cannot be said ‫ﻻ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻘﻮل‬, discourse
‫اﻟﺨﻄﺎب‬, terms ‫اﻟﻤﺼﻄﻠﺤﺎت‬, has the character of ‫ﻟﻪ ﻃﺎﺑﻊ‬, This is not to deny ‫ﻻ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ ذﻟﻚ‬
‫إﻧﻜﺎر‬, debate ‫ﻧﻘﺎش‬.

‫ ﻣﻦ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﺣﺴﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﻶﺛﺎر اﻟﺒﯿﺌﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬،‫ وﻻ ﯾﺰال‬،‫إن ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺒﺘﺮول ﻛﺎن‬
‫ وإن ﻛﺎن‬،‫ وﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ ﺣﺘﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬،‫ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺮاج إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ‬:‫ﻃﻮل اﻣﺘﺪاد ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ أﻧﺸﻄﺘﻪ‬
‫ أن اﻟﻘﻄﺎع ﻻ ﯾﻮاﺟﻪ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺑﯿﺌﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﺪة ﻣﺎ زاﻟﺖ ﺗﺒﺤﺚ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻼج‬،‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬،‫ﻗﻮﻟﻲ ﻫﺬا ﻻ ﯾﻌﻨﻲ‬
‫ وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺬات ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل‬،‫ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﻘﻮل واﺳﺘﺨﺮاج اﻟﻨﻔﻂ واﻟﻐﺎز وﺗﺼﻨﯿﻌﻬﻤﺎ‬،‫ﻧﺎﺟﻊ‬
.‫ ﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻨﻔﻂ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺒﺤﺎر‬،‫اﻟﺤﻮادث‬
‫وإذا ﻣﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ رؤﯾﺘﻨﺎ ﻟﻶﺛﺎر اﻟﺒﯿﺌﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻄﺎع ﻗﺪ ﺗﺮﻛﺰت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ وإن‬،‫ ﻓﻠﻘﺪ اﻧﺸﻐﻞ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻘﺪﯾﻦ اﻷﺧﯿﺮﯾﻦ ﺑﻨﻮع ﺟﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ‬،‫أو ﺣﺘﻰ اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫ ﻟﻘﺪ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺸﺎﻛﻞ أول‬.‫ ﻓﺈن ﻟﻬﺎ آﺛﺎرا ذات أﺑﻌﺎد ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻛﻮﻛﺐ اﻷرض ﻛﻠﻪ‬،‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ أﺳﺒﺎﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫ أو ﻓﻲ اﻻﻧﻘﺮاض اﻟﻤﺘﺴﺎرع ﻟﻔﺼﺎﺋﻞ ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ‬،‫ﻣﺎ ﻋﺮﻓﻨﺎه ﻓﻲ اﻟﺼﯿﺪ اﻟﺠﺎﺋﺮ ﻟﻠﺜﺮوة اﻟﺴﻤﻜﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺤﺎر‬
(AlKhuli, 2002, pp. 95–96) .‫ ﻧﺒﺎﺗﺎت أو ﺣﯿﻮاﻧﺎت أو ﻛﺎﺋﻨﺎت دﻗﯿﻘﺔ‬:‫اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت‬
Glossary: ‫ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﺒﺘﺮول‬oil industry, ‫ أﻛﺜﺮ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﯿﺔ‬most sensitive, ‫اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬
economic activity, ‫ آﺛﺎر ﺑﯿﺌﯿﺔ‬environmental impact, ‫ اﻻﺳﺘﺨﺮاج‬extraction, ‫ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻊ‬
manufacturing, ‫ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﺑﯿﺌﯿﺔ ﻣﻌﻘﺪة‬complex environmental issue, ‫ اﻟﺤﻮادث‬accidents,
‫ ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻨﻔﻂ‬petroleum transportation, ‫ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ أو اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ‬local or regional envi-
ronment, ‫ اﻟﻌﻘﺪﯾﻦ اﻷﺧﯿﺮﯾﻦ‬last two decades, ‫آﺛﺎرا ذات أﺑﻌﺎد ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻛﻮﻛﺐ اﻷرض ﻛﻠﻪ‬
implications for earth, ‫ اﻟﺼﯿﺪ اﻟﺠﺎﺋﺮ‬overfishing, ‫ اﻻﻧﻘﺮاض‬extinction, ‫ﻛﺎﺋﻨﺎت دﻗﯿﻘﺔ‬
microorganism.
‫ﺗﻌﺪ ﻇﺎﻫﺮة اﻹﺣﺘﺮار اﻟﻜﻮﻧﻲ ﻣﻦ أﻛﺜﺮ اﻟﻈﻮاﻫﺮ إﺛﺎرة ﻟﻠﺠﺪل ﺑﯿﻦ أوﺳﺎط اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء واﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﯿﻦ واﻟﻤﻬﺘﻤﯿﻦ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ وﻋﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﻨﺎس وﺗﻌﺪى ﻫﺬا اﻹﻫﺘﻤﺎم أوﺳﺎﻃﺎً أﺧﺮى ﺣﺘﻰ وﺻﻞ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻬﯿﺌﺎت اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ وﻏﯿﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ وﻛﺬﻟﻚ اﻟﻬﯿﺌﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﯾﻌﻮد اﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﺨﻄﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺪﻣﺮة ﻟﻬﺬه اﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮة‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن وﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻮﺣﻆ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻷﺧﯿﺮة إﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎً ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪاً ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻹﻋﻼم‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮﺋﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﻋﺔ واﻟﻤﻘﺮوءة ﺑﻤﻈﺎﻫﺮ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﺑﺈﻋﺘﺒﺎرﻫﺎ ﻗﻀﯿﺔ ﺗﺸﻐﻞ ﺣﯿﺰاً ﻛﺒﯿﺮاً ﻣﻦ‬
‫إﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎت اﻟﺮأي اﻟﻌﺎم‪ .‬وﻛﺎن ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺳﺘﻮﻛﻬﻮﻟﻢ ﻟﻠﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻋﺎم ‪ 1972‬أول ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ دوﻟﻲ ﻧﺎﻗﺶ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﻮﺿﻮع‬
‫وﺗﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ ﺿﺮورة دراﺳﺔ ﻫﺬه اﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮة وإﯾﺠﺎد اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت واﻟﺤﻠﻮل اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ ﻟﻮﻗﻔﻬﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﺗﻮاﻟﺖ ﺑﻌﺪ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮات واﻟﻨﺪوات اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ رﻛﺰت ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﯿﻦ ﻫﻤﺎ اﻟﺘﻠﻮث‬
‫اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ وﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮاﺗﻪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن واﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ واﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ﺑﺎﻋﺘﺒﺎره ﻧﺎﺗﺞ ﻋﻦ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﻋﺪﯾﺪة ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻇﺎﻫﺮة‬
‫اﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎس اﻟﺤﺮاري وﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮاﺗﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن واﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻜﺮة اﻷرﺿﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أدت ﻧﺸﺎﻃﺎت اﻹﻧﺴﺎن ﺧﻼل اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺷﻬﺪﺗﻬﺎ أوروﺑﺎ وأﻣﺮﯾﻜﺎ ودول أﺧﺮى ﺧﻼل‬
‫اﻟﻘﺮون اﻟﺴﺘﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ إﻃﻼق ﺗﺮاﻛﯿﺰ ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪة ﻣﻦ ﻏﺎزات اﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎس اﻟﺤﺮاري واﻟﻤﻠﻮﺛﺎت )اﻛﺎﺳﯿﺪ‬
‫اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮن واﻟﻨﯿﺘﺮوﺟﯿﻦ وﻏﺎز اﻟﻤﯿﺜﺎن وﻣﺮﻛﺒﺎت اﻟﻜﻠﻮرو ﻓﻮر ﻛﺎرﺑﻮن( ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﺤﺮق اﻟﻮﻗﻮد اﻟﺤﺠﺮي‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Nabhan, 2013, p. 15‬‬
‫‪ most‬أﻛﺜﺮ إﺛﺎرة ﻟﻠﺠﺪل ‪ global warming,‬اﻹﺣﺘﺮار اﻟﻜﻮﻧﻲ ‪ phenomenon,‬ﻇﺎﻫﺮة ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻬﺘﻤﯿﻦ ‪ scientists and researchers communities,‬أوﺳﺎط اﻟﻌﻠﻤﺎء واﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﯿﻦ ‪debatable,‬‬
‫‪ governmen-‬اﻟﻬﯿﺌﺎت اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ وﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ‪ public,‬ﻋﺎﻣﺔ اﻟﻨﺎس ‪those concerned about,‬‬
‫‪ dangerous and destruc-‬اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﺨﻄﯿﺮة واﻟﻤﺪﻣﺮة ‪tal and non-governmental bodies,‬‬
‫ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪا ‪tive effects,‬‬
‫ً‬ ‫ً‬
‫إﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎ‬ ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻹﻋﻼم اﻟﻤﺮﺋﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮﻋﺔ واﻟﻤﻘﺮوءة ‪growing interest,‬‬
‫‪ public‬إﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎت اﻟﺮأي اﻟﻌﺎم ‪ climate change,‬اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺧﻲ ‪audio-visual and print media,‬‬
‫وﺗﻢ ‪ Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment,‬ﻣﺆﺗﻤﺮ ﺳﺘﻮﻛﻬﻮﻟﻢ ﻟﻠﺒﯿﺌﺔ ‪concern,‬‬
‫‪ necessary‬اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت واﻟﺤﻠﻮل اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ ‪ highlighted the need to,‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﻪ اﻹﺷﺎرة إﻟﻰ ﺿﺮورة‬
‫‪ green-‬اﻻﺣﺘﺒﺎس اﻟﺤﺮاري ‪ environmental pollution,‬اﻟﺘﻠﻮث اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ ‪remedies and solutions,‬‬
‫ﺗﺮاﻛﯿﺰ ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪة ‪ scientific and industrial revolution,‬اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﻌﻠﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ ‪house effect,‬‬
‫‪ fossil fuels.‬اﻟﻮﻗﻮد اﻟﺤﺠﺮي ‪ pollutants,‬ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺎت ‪greater concentrations,‬‬
‫ﻛﻤﺎ أﻛﺪ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮر ﻋﻠﻰ أﻫﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺪور اﻟﻤﻨﻮط ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻﺳﯿﻤﺎ اﻟﺠﻤﻌﯿﺎت اﻟﻨﺎﺷﻄﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺤﻘﻞ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ ،‬ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻌﻠﻖ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺴﯿﺲ واﻟﺘﻮﻋﯿﺔ ﺑﻤﺸﻜﻼت اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ واﻟﻤﺴﺎﻫﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﺸﺮ‬
‫ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ودﻓﻊ اﻷﻓﺮاد – ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﺮار ﻣﺎ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻄﻠﻮب ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎت اﻟﺮﺳﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ – ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎرﻛﺔ ﺑﻜﻞ ﻗﻮة وإﯾﺠﺎﺑﯿﺔ وﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻮﺳﻂ اﻟﻄﺒﯿﻌﻲ‪ ،‬وﻫﺬا ﺿﻤﺎﻧﺎ ﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮارﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻀﻊ ﻓﻲ أوﻟﻮﯾﺎﺗﻬﺎ ﻣﺴﺄﻟﺔ اﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ‪ ،‬وﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﺣﺎﺟﺎت اﻷﺟﯿﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ دون‬
‫إﻫﻤﺎل ﺣﺎﺟﺎت اﻷﺟﯿﺎل اﻟﻼﺣﻘﺔ‪(Samir, 2013, p. 27) .‬‬
‫‪ non-governmental organiza-‬ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ‪ role of,‬اﻟﺪور اﻟﻤﻨﻮط ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ environment and‬اﻟﺤﻘﻞ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ‪ organizations active in,‬اﻟﺠﻤﻌﯿﺎت اﻟﻨﺎﺷﻄﺔ ‪tions,‬‬
‫‪ urging‬دﻓﻊ اﻷفراد ‪ sensitization and awareness raising,‬ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺤﺴﯿﺲ واﻟﺘﻮﻋﯿﺔ ‪social field,‬‬
‫‪ vigorously, positively and effectively.‬ﺑﻜﻞ ﻗﻮة وإﯾﺠﺎﺑﯿﺔ وﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ ‪individuals,‬‬
‫‪Technical and scientific translation 221‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮات اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‪ ،‬ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﻣﺪى ﻗﺮون ﺧﻠﺖ أﺳﻬﻢ ﺣﺮق اﻷﺧﺸﺎب ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻧﺰع ﺣﺮاﺟﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﻃﻖ ﻋﺪﯾﺪة‪ ،‬وﺣﺘﻰ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺮاﺣﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﻜﺮة ﻟﻠﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ ﺑﻠﻎ اﻟﺘﻠﻮث اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻬﻮاء واﻟﻤﺎء‬
‫واﻷرض ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪ ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎً ﻫﻮ اﻹﻗﺮار واﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﻮﺷﺎﺋﺞ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼت‬
‫اﻟﺒﯿﺌﯿﺔ اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻨﻮﯾﻪ ﺑﻜﺎﻓﺔ ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻨﺎﺗﻬﺎ‪ .‬ورﻏﻢ أن اﻹﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻨﺔ ﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ﻟﺪﻋﻢ وﺗﺮﺳﯿﺦ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻼ ﻟﻠﺸﻚ أواﻟﺘﺴﺎؤل‪ ،‬ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ إﻧﺘﺎج واﺳﺘﻬﻼك اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺘﺎدة )اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ(‬
‫ً‬ ‫اﻟﺮﻓﺎﻫﺔ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﯿﺴﺖ‬
‫ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎً وﺛﯿﻘﺎً ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮر اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ‪ ،‬وﻫﻮ اﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮر اﻟﺬي ﯾﻬﺪد اﻟﺼﺤﺔ اﻹﻧﺴﺎﻧﯿﺔ وﺟﻮدة اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‪ ،‬وﯾﺆﺛﺮ أﯾﻀﺎً‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻮازن اﻹﯾﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ واﻟﺘﻨﻮع اﻷﺣﯿﺎﺋﻲ‪(Aziz, 2004, p. 23) .‬‬
‫‪ for the last few centuries,‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪى ﻗﺮون ﺧﻠﺖ ‪ energy,‬ﻃﺎﻗﺔ ‪ impacts,‬ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮات ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ ‪ destroying the forestry,‬ﻧﺰع ﺣﺮاﺟﺔ ‪ burning of wood,‬ﺣﺮق اﻷﺧﺸﺎب ‪ lead to,‬أﺳﻬﻢ‬
‫ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎ ‪ industrialization,‬ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻊ ‪ early stages,‬ﻣﺒﻜﺮة‬
‫ً‬ ‫اﻹﻗﺮار واﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ ‪ relatively new,‬ﺟﺪﯾﺪ‬
‫اﻹﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻨﺔ ‪ implications,‬ﺗﻀﻤﯿﻨﺎت ‪ ties,‬وﺷﺎﺋﺞ ‪acknowledging and recognizing,‬‬
‫ﺗﻮزان ‪ environmental degradation,‬اﻟﺘﺪﻫﻮر اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ ‪ affirming,‬ﺗﺮﺳﯿﺦ ‪latent potential,‬‬
‫‪ biodiversity.‬اﻟﺘﻨﻮع اﻷﺣﯿﺎﺋﻲ ‪ ecological balance,‬إﯾﻜﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‬
‫إن ﺗﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺮﯾﺔ ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻏﯿﺮ ﺧﺼﺒﺔ وﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺴﺘﺰرع ﻟﻤﺪة ﻓﺼﻠﯿﻦ أو ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻓﺼﻮل‬
‫ﻓﻘﻂ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ وأن ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﺗﺘﺴﺮب ﺗﺪرﯾﺠﯿﺎً ﺑﻮﺳﺎﻃﺔ ﻣﯿﺎه اﻷﻣﻄﺎر‪ ،‬وﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻔﻘﺪ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﻗﯿﻤﺘﻬﺎ‬
‫اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ ﯾﻠﺠﺄ اﻟﻤﺰارﻋﻮن إﻟﻰ إزاﻟﺔ ﻏﺎﺑﺎت أﺧﺮى‪ .‬وﻛﻨﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن اﻟﺸﻤﺲ ﺳﻮف ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻜﺸﻮﻓﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ‪ ،‬واﻟﻐﯿﻮم ﻟﻢ ﺗﻌﺪ ﺗﺘﺸﻜﻞ ﻓﻮق اﻷرض اﻟﻘﺎﺣﻠﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ وأن ﻧﻤﻂ ﻫﻄﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﺮ ﺳﻮف‬
‫ﯾﺘﻐﯿﺮ‪ .‬وإذا ﻣﺎ ﺗﻢ ﺣﻠﻮل اﻟﺪﻣﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺮﯾﺔ وﺑﺼﻮرة ﻛﻠﯿﺔ ﻓﺈن اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ﺳﯿﺼﯿﺒﻬﺎ اﻧﻌﺪام اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‬
‫وأن إﻋﺎدة اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺮﯾﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ إزاﻟﺘﻬﺎ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻮض اﻷﻣﺎزون ﻟﯿﺴﺖ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻬﻠﺔ واﻟﺴﺒﺐ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ارﺗﻔﺎع درﺟﺎت ﺣﺮارة اﻷرض اﻟﻤﻜﺸﻮﻓﺔ واﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻷﻣﻄﺎر وﻛﻞ ذﻟﻚ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ‬
‫ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﻧﻤﻮ أﺷﺠﺎر اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة‪ ،‬ﻫﺬا ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺣﺪوث ﻧﻘﺺ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺒﺨﯿﺮ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻄﺮ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺰود ﻧﺼﻒ ﻣﯿﺎه ﺣﻮض اﻷﻣﺎزون‪(Al-Ansari, 2009, p. 87) .‬‬
‫‪ soil,‬اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ ‪ cultivated,‬ﺗﺴﺘﺰرع ‪ infertile,‬ﻏﯿﺮ ﺧﺼﺒﺔ ‪ rainforest,‬اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺮﯾﺔ ‪Glossary:‬‬
‫‪ non-cultivated soil,‬اﻟﺘﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻤﻜﺸﻮﻓﺔ ‪ agriculture value,‬ﻗﯿﻤﺘﻬﺎ اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ ‪ deplete,‬ﺗﺘﺴﺮب‬
‫‪ will‬ﺳﯿﺼﯿﺒﻬﺎ اﻧﻌﺪام اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ‪ raining pattern,‬ﻧﻤﻂ ﻫﻄﻮل اﻟﻤﻄﺮ ‪ barren land,‬اﻷرض اﻟﻘﺎﺣﻠﺔ‬
‫اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ‪ Amazon basin,‬ﺣﻮض اﻷﻣﺎزون ‪ deforestation,‬إزاﻟﺔ اﻟﻐﺎﺑﺎت ‪become lifeless,‬‬
‫‪ local fumigation.‬ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺒﺨﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ‪ poor rain,‬اﻷﻣﻄﺎر‬
‫‪4.10‬‬ ‫‪Technology and industry texts‬‬

‫‪The following section of this chapter includes exercises on different technologi-‬‬
‫‪cal and industrial domains. Translation techniques such as direct translation, para-‬‬
‫‪phrase, borrowing, and explanation can be used to render such texts into Arabic. It‬‬
‫‪should be noted that the majority of technological texts are written in English; that‬‬
‫‪is why the majority of the translation texts in this section of the chapter are from‬‬
‫‪English into Arabic.‬‬

Mouse (Chauhan, Gupta, & Saxena, 2006, p. 60)
Mouse is a pointing device, which controls the position of the cursor or pointer
the screen. The mouse is a palm-size device with a ball built into the bottom. It has
one or more buttons and attached to the computer by a cable.
When the user rolls the mouse the flat surface, such as a desk, the ball on its
undersides rotates. This causes the cursor to move in a corresponding direction the
monitor. If the user rolls the mouse to the left, the pointer on the screen also moves
to the left same as in the right side. The cursor can be moved in any of the four direc-
tions. The cursor is positioned on an appropriate object on the screen and the button
on the mouse is clicked to select the object. The mouse interface is also called point
and click interface.

The central processing unit or CPU is a complex piece of equipment. It is divided
into different parts, each part performing a different job. For instance, there is a con-
trol unit which regulates the flow of information in, around and out of the processor
and other parts of the system (Wilson, 1992, p. 10).
Glossary: central processing unit ‫وﺣﺪة اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﯾﺔ‬, regulates ‫ﺗﻨﻈﻢ‬, processor
‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺞ‬.

Organizations find information security and computer security require a lot of atten-
tion. As more and more of our lives and livelihoods become digital and interconnected,
protecting that information naturally becomes more important. With increasing impor-
tance, these fields relate to a wider audience than the technical folks who manufacture,
install, and manage computer resources (Shimeall & Spring, 2013, p. xvii).
Glossary: information security ‫أﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬, technical folks ‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﯿﻦ‬.
‫ واﻟﺘﺸﺨﯿﺺ اﻟﻄﺒﻲ واﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ‬،‫ واﺳﺘﺨﺮاج اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت‬،‫ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺬﻛﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻠﻮﺟﺴﺘﯿﺔ‬

:‫ ﯾﺮﺟﻊ ذﻟﻚ اﻟﻨﺠﺎح إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪة ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﻫﻲ‬.‫اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻت اﻷﺧﺮى ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ أﻧﺤﺎء ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‬
(Afif, 2015, p. 23)
‫اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻜﺒﯿﺮة ﻟﻠﺤﻮاﺳﯿﺐ اﻟﯿﻮم‬ •

.‫زﯾﺎدة اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻞ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻓﺮﻋﯿﺔ ﻣﺤﺪدة‬ •
.‫ﺧﻠﻖ ﻋﻼﻗﺔ ﺟﯿﺪة ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺬﻛﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ وﻏﯿﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﺎﻻت اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬ •
.‫ﺑﺪأ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮن اﻻﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﻤﻨﺎﻫﺞ رﯾﺎﺿﯿﺔ ﻗﻮﯾﺔ وﻣﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻤﯿﺔ ﺻﺎرﻣﺔ‬ •
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﺬﻛﺎء اﻻﺻﻄﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬artificial intelligence, ‫ اﺳﺘﺨﺮاج اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت‬data mining,

‫ اﻟﺘﺸﺨﯿﺺ اﻟﻄﺒﻲ‬medical diagnosis.

Until recently, hospitals led the way in the development of clinical information sys-
tems. This was owing, in part, to several factors: 1) the cost of these systems (includ-
ing personnel) made information technology too expensive for smaller entities, and
2) hospitals had greater needs of meeting regulatory and financial requirements.
Hospital Information Systems (HIS) usually have, as their central component, an
Admission, Discharge, and Transfer (ADT) system that manages census and patient
demographic information. Billing and accounting packages are also frequently
included as core components. In many community hospitals, financial and ADT
systems along with Laboratory Information Systems (LIS) comprised the complete
HIS package until recently. In the last ten years most hospitals, regardless of size,
have created fairly complete Information Systems (IS) solutions via integration of
departmental systems with the core HIS (Carter, 2001, p. 5).
Integrated transport system

Current actions for people and goods movement are aimed to create a system that
will optimally satisfy transport needs and will connect functioning of all transport
sectors into one entity, internally and externally. This concerns inter-sector actions
and whole economy with branches that rely on transport. Those goals are covered
by the term of integrated transport system. Great benefits may be achieved from
cooperation of railway with other means of transport, in particular with air transport
in global transport system (Suchanek, 2017, p. 49).
Control segment (CS) overview

The CS is responsible for maintaining the satellites and their proper functioning.
This includes maintaining the satellites in their proper positions (called stationkeep-
ing) and monitoring satellite subsystem health and status. The CS also monitors the
satellite solar arrays, battery power levels, and propellant levels used for maneuvers.
Furthermore, the CS activates spare satellites (if available) to maintain system avail-
ability (Hegarty & Kaplan, 2005, p. 68).
Glossary: control segment ‫ﺟﺰء اﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ‬, proper functioning ‫ﻋﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﺼﺤﯿﺢ‬, moni-
toring ‫ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺔ‬.
‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻗﯿﺎس اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻲ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺔ‬

‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻت اﻹﺣﺼﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬،‫أدى ﻇﻬﻮر اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ إﻟﻰ إﺣﺪاث ﺛﻮرة ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﻠﻮم ﻛﺎﻓﺔ وﻣﻨﻬﺎ اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺔ‬
‫ ﻣﻤﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﻄﺮق اﻟﺘﻘﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ واﻟﻮﺻﻔﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﻈﻮاﻫﺮ ﺿﻤﻦ‬،‫ﺧﺎﺻﺔ‬
‫ ﻟﺘﻈﻬﺮ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ وﻃﺮق إﺣﺼﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة أﻛﺜﺮ دﻗﺔ وﺗﺤﻘﻖ اﻟﻮﻓﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻬﺪ واﻟﻜﻠﻔﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺤﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻲ‬
.‫ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﺘﺤﻤﻞ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ ﺣﺠﻮﻣًﺎ ﻫﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت وﯾﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت أﻗﺮب إﻟﻰ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ‬
(Al Izzawi, 2018, p. 179)
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻲ‬spatial concentration, ‫ ﻧﻈﻢ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺔ‬geographic
information systems, ‫ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ‬computer, ‫ اﻟﺘﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻜﺎﻧﻲ‬spatial analysis.
Enzymes
The production of cheese started thousands of years ago. Perhaps the first cheese was
obtained by chance. The stomach of an animal was used to transport some milk in sum-
mer. The warm temperature and the digestive enzymes released by the stomach wall
cells clotted the milk. Since then, a lot of milk has been clotted and transformed into
cheese, and an amazing variety of cheeses have appeared. Our diets have been enriched
by these wonderful products (Conte, Conto, Faccia, Nobile & Zambrini, 2018, p. 146).
Glossary: enzymes ‫إﻧﺰﯾﻤﺎت‬, clot ‫ﯾﺨﺜﺮ‬.
‫ﺷﺎﺷﺎت اﻟﺘﻮﻗﻒ أو ﺣﺎﻓﻈﺎت اﻟﺸﺎﺷﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻃﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺷﺎﺷﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﺻﻤﺎم أﺷﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻬﺒﻂ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺎﺷﺎت‬
‫ وﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺷﺮﺣﻬﺎ ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﻪ ﻹﻇﻬﺎر اﻟﺼﻮرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﺎﺷﺔ ﯾﺘﻢ إﺳﻘﺎط‬،”‫أﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﺮﺋﯿﺔ ”اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺎز‬
‫ وﯾﻜﻮن ﻫﺬا اﻟﺴﻄﺢ ﻣﺪﻫﻮﻧﺎً ﺑﻤﺎدة ﻓﺴﻔﻮرﯾﺔ‬،‫ﺳﯿﻞ أو ﺣﺰﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻄﺢ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺎﺷﺔ‬
‫ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺳﻘﻮط اﻷﺷﻌﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺧﻠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬه اﻟﺨﻼﯾﺎ ﺗﻀﺊ وﺗﻠﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدة اﻟﻔﺴﻔﻮرﯾﺔ‬،‫وﻣﻘﺴﻤﺎً إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪة ﺧﻼﯾﺎ‬
(Abu Alazm, 2012, p. 40) .‫ﺑﻠﻮن وﺑﻘﻮة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻷﺷﻌﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﻬﺎ‬
Glossary: ‫ ﺷﺎﺷﺎت اﻟﺘﻮﻗﻒ‬screen savers, ‫ ﺷﺎﺷﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ‬monitors, ‫ﺻﻤﺎم أﺷﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻬﺒﻂ‬
Cathode Ray Tube, ‫ أﺷﻌﺔ‬rays.
Data centers
A data center is a specialized facility that is designed to house and protect a computer
system and its data. Data centers typically include equipment to keep computers
functioning during power outages. A data center must also protect and maintain its
own power grid (Oja & Parsons, 2008, p. 146).
Glossary: data centers ‫ﻣﺮاﻛﺰ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت‬, house ‫اﺣﺘﻮاء‬, power outages ‫اﻧﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺘﯿﺎر اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ‬.
‫ﻏﯿﺮ أن ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﻬﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻟﻸﺟﻬﺰة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ إﻃﺎر اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺒﺮازﯾﻠﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻷﻋﺪاد‬
‫اﻟﻬﺎﺋﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻤﺒﯿﻮﺗﺮات واﻟﻬﻮاﺗﻒ اﻟﻤﺤﻤﻮﻟﺔ وﻏﯿﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺟﻬﺰة اﻷﺧﺮى – ﻗﺪ أﺛﺎر ﺣﻔﯿﻈﺔ اﻟﻤﻬﺘﻤﯿﻦ‬
‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺘﻔﺎﻗﻢ اﻷزﻣﺔ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻗﺼﺮ دورة ﺣﯿﺎة ﺗﻠﻚ‬،‫ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻠﻒ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﻲ واﻟﻨﻔﺎﯾﺎت اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ وﺟﻪ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ‬
‫ ﻓﺎﻟﻬﻮاﺗﻒ اﻟﻤﺤﻤﻮﻟﺔ ﯾﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﺒﺪاﻟﻬﺎ ﺑﻤﻌﺪل ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﯾﺒﻠﻎ ﻋﺎﻣﯿﻦ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ اﻟﻜﻤﺒﯿﺘﻮرات‬،‫اﻷﺟﻬﺰة ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﻐﯿﺮﻫﺎ‬
‫ وأﯾﻀﺎ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر‬،‫ وﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬،‫ﯾﺘﻢ اﺳﺘﺒﺪاﻟﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺑﻤﻌﺪل ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﯾﺒﻠﻎ أرﺑﻌﺔ أﻋﻮام‬
‫ ﺗﻌﺪ اﻟﺒﺮازﯾﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺑﯿﻦ أﻛﺜﺮ‬،‫ ﻓﺤﺴﺐ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻟﻸﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬.‫اﻟﺴﺮﯾﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻷﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﺮﻗﻤﯿﺔ‬
(Abbod, 2013, p. 157) .‫دول اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ إﻧﺘﺎﺟﺎً ﻟﻠﻨﻔﺎﯾﺎت اﻟﺮﻗﻤﯿﺔ‬
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻨﻔﺎﯾﺎت اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬e-waste, ‫ ﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺒﯿﺌﺔ ﻟﻸﻣﻢ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة‬UN Environment
Program.

Wastewater facility is intended for collection and treating of wastes forming at the
units of oil refineries and petrochemical plants. These wastes contain mixture (emul-
sion) of crude oil, petroleum products, fuels, solvents and other organic substances,
aqueous solutions and suspended solids. The wastewater facility consists of API
separators, dissolved gas flotation (DGF), and biotreatment units. At last, separated
organic phase is sent to refinery units for retreatment and producing of useful prod-
ucts. Separated water is reused or disposed (Groysman, 2016, p. 7).
Glossary: Wastewater facility ‫ﻣﺮﻓﻖ اﻟﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻌﺎدﻣﺔ‬, oil refineries ‫ﻣﺼﺎﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻔﻂ‬, petro-
chemical plants ‫اﻟﻤﺼﺎﻧﻊ اﻟﺒﺘﺮوﻛﯿﻤﯿﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬, crude oil ‫اﻟﻨﻔﻂ اﻟﺨﺎم‬, solvents ‫اﻟﻤﺬﯾﺒﺎت‬, aqueous
solutions ‫ﻣﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﻣﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬, suspended solids ‫اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺼﻠﺒﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻘﺔ‬.

Since 1992, all cars must be fitted with catalytic converters. These convert harm-
ful pollutants into non-harmful substances. Research is being undertaken to reduce
exhaust emissions on new cars over the working life of the vehicle. Exhaust emis-
sions are tested when vehicles undergo an MOT test and can also be tested at the
roadside. Pollution cameras have been developed that can automatically trigger
fixed penalty fines to the owners of vehicles that fail an emissions test. Car manu-
facturers are looking at developing diagnostic systems which detect illegal emis-
sions and alert the driver through a warning light on the dashboard. The government
is taking action by reducing taxes on cars with cleaner engines to encourage more
people – and businesses – to buy them. Increasing demand by consumers will then
put pressure on car manufacturers to produce cleaner cars (Carysforth & Neild,
2002, p. 135).
Glossary: MOT ‫وزارة اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬.
Exercise 15: the following text is from an Acer user manual (www.acer.com)
The Quick Guide introduces you to the basic features and functions of your
new computer. For more on how your computer can help you to be more produc-
tive, please refer to the User’s Manual. This guide contains detailed informa-
tion on such subjects as system utilities, data recovery, expansion options and
troubleshooting.
Exercise 16: translate Table 4.11 into Arabic (Levy, 2013, p. 59)
TABLE 4.11 The iron and steel industry
Year German price Belgian price German duty German price

R.M. per ton R.M. per ton R.M. per ton (+) higher
(–) lower
than Belgian price + duty
1924 128.08 122.92 25 −19.84
1925 129.33 113.47 25 9.14
1926 129.80 104.78 25 +0.02
1927 131.00 98.88 25 +7.12
1928 135.46 112.15 25 −1.69
1929 138.00 120.59 25 −7.59
1930 137.00 111.17 25 +1.16
(‫اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﯿﺎه )اﻟﻤﺠﺎري‬

‫ ﻣﺼﻤﻤﺔ‬،‫إن ﻃﺮق اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻮادم أو اﻟﻨﻔﺎﯾﺎت ﻫﻲ )أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﯿﻜﺮوﺑﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻹﻧﺴﺎن‬
‫ﻟﺘﺤﻮﯾﻞ ﻛﻤﯿﺎت ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻧﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻧﻮاﺗﺞ ﻏﯿﺮ ﺿﺎرة ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺑﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ ﻣﯿﻜﺮوﺑﯿﺔ‬
،ً‫ﻣﺴﺎﻟﻤﺔ( وﻫﺬه اﻟﻄﺮق ﺗﺘﺮاوح ﻣﻦ ﺗﺴﻤﯿﺎت ﺑﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت ﻃﺮدﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻮاد ذات اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﻧﺴﺒﯿﺎ‬
‫ وﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﻌﺎدﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻮﯾﺔ‬.‫ﻧﻮﻋﺎ‬
ً ‫إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﻮﯾﻞ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻮاد اﻟﺬاﺋﺒﺔ أو اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ أﺣﺠﺎم ﻣﺎﺋﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ ﯾﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻘﺎدﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻜﯿﻤﯿﺎﺋﯿﺔ وﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ‬
.‫ وﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻜﻤﯿﺔ ﻧﺠﺪ أن ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺨﻔﻔﺔ ﺗﻔﻮق اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت اﻷﺧﺮى‬.‫اﻟﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﯿﺔ‬
(Imbabi, 1998, p. 168)
Glossary: ‫ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﯿﺎه‬biological sewage treatment, ‫ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻣﯿﻜﺮوﺑﯿﺔ‬micro-
bial systems, ‫ ﺑﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺎت ﻃﺮدﯾﺔ‬direct treatment, ‫ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﯿﻘﺔ‬microorganisms.
Exercise 18: translate the following text into English
(Sadiq, 2008, p. 80) :‫اﻟﺘﺠﺴﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬

‫( ﻓﻲ اﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺑﯿﻦ أﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ ﻓﻲ‬Modems) ‫ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺷﺒﻜﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم أﺟﻬﺰة اﻻﺗﺼﺎل‬
‫ ﻓﺈن اﻟﻔﯿﺮوس ﻋﻨﺪ اﻧﺘﻘﺎﻟﻪ إﻟﻰ ﻫﺬا اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ﯾﻘﻮم ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻤﺎح ﻟﻠﻤﺨﺮب اﻟﺬي ﻗﺎم ﺑﺘﺼﻤﯿﻤﻪ‬،‫اﻷﻣﺎﻛﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻮل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم واﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ أي ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﺳﺮﯾﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﺑﻬﺪف ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﻣﻜﺎﺳﺐ ﺷﺨﺼﯿﺔ ﻟﻪ ﺳﻮاء‬
‫ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻔﯿﺮوس ﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ ﻣﺤﺪد ﺑﺎﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺨﺮب ﺗﻠﻔﻮﻧﯿﺎً واﻟﺴﻤﺎح ﻟﻪ‬.‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﺎدﯾﺔ أو ﻣﻌﻨﻮﯾﺔ‬
.‫ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻮل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم‬
:Hardware ‫أﺧﻄﺎر اﻟﻔﯿﺮوس ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎت‬

‫ وﻗﺪ ﺗﺼﻞ اﻟﺨﻄﻮرة إﻟﻰ إﺟﻬﺎد اﻷﺟﺰاء‬.Hardware ‫ﯾﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﻔﯿﺮوس أﺧﻄﺎراً ﺷﺪﯾﺪة ﻟﻤﻜﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ‬
.‫اﻟﻤﯿﻜﺎﻧﯿﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ ﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﺪﻣﯿﺮﻫﺎ‬
The transportation equipment industry

This huge sector includes motorcycles, cars, trucks, tractors, trains, ships, helicopters,
and other aircraft. Japanese manufacturers are highly competitive in most of these sec-
tors and hold substantial world market shares. One subsector, the automobile manufac-
turing industry, is briefly described in the following section. The automobile industry:
Japan is the largest automobile-producing country in the world. In 1992, 12.5 million
vehicles (cars, trucks, and buses) were manufactured (a 6% decline from the previous
year), out of which 9.4 million were cars. Automobile and related industries employ
about 10% of the total work force, and the value of output is over 12% of Japan’s total
manufacturing output. There are 10 automobile manufacturers in Japan. The largest
company is Toyota, followed by Nissan, Honda, Mazda, and Mitsubishi, each with a
production of over 1 million automobiles (Khan & Yoshihara, 1994, p. 53).
Above-ground or unburied installation

It is recommended to use propagation criteria for pipeline diameters under 16 in.
and collapse criterion for pipeline diameters above or equal to 16 in.
The propagation criterion is out of date and should be used where optimization of
the wall thickness is not required or for pipeline installation methods not compatible
with the use of buckle arrestors such as reel and tow methods.
It is generally economical to design propagation pressure for diameters less than
16 in. For greater diameters, the wall thickness penalty is too high. When a pipe-
line is designed based on the collapse criteria buckle arrestors are recommended
(Okyere, 2015, p. 64).
Exercise 21: translate the following into Arabic (from Tesla)

The features and information you need to drive Model 3 are displayed on the touch-
screen. When driving, the touchscreen displays driving-related information such as
driving speed, vehicle range, warnings, etc. The touchscreen is used to control many
features that, in traditional cars, are controlled using physical buttons (for example,
adjusting mirrors). You can also use the touchscreen to customize Model 3 to suit
your preferences.
Warning: Always pay attention to road and traffic conditions when driving. To
minimize driver distraction and ensure the safety of vehicle occupants as well as other
road users, avoid using the touchscreen to adjust settings while the vehicle is in motion.
Note: The image below is provided for demonstration purposes only. Depend-
ing on vehicle options, software version and market region, your touchscreen may
appear slightly different.
1 This area on the top of the touchscreen displays the time and provides shortcut
to lock/ unlock the vehicle, access vehicle information (the Tesla “T”), choose
or set up a driver profile (see Driver Profiles on page 39), control HomeLink
devices (if equipped) (see HomeLink Universal Transceiver on page 116), view
network strength, and connect to Wi-Fi (see Connecting to Wi-Fi on page 118)
and Bluetooth devices (see Pairing a Bluetooth Phone on page 111).
Glossary: vehicle range ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻄﻌﻬﺎ اﻟﺴﯿﺎرة ﺑﺸﺤﻨﺔ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﯿﺔ واﺣﺪة‬, driver profile
‫ﺧﯿﺎرات اﻟﻘﯿﺎدة اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﺎﺋﻖ‬.
2 Car Status. This area dynamically displays the current status of Model 3 as you drive,
park, open doors, turn lights on, etc. Monitor this area when driving as it displays
important information such as driving speed and warning messages (see Car Status
on page 72). When the car is in Park, you can open the trunks or charge port door.
Efciency of electric motors

With an internal combustion engine, only one quarter of a cycle generates power;
the remaining three quarters are wasted. In the intake stroke the piston travels down
and sucks the fuel mixture into the combustion chamber. During the compression
stroke the piston travels upwards and pressurizes the fuel mixture. Half the cycle is
complete but no power is produced as yet. Then boom, the fuel mixture explodes
and sends the piston down; at last we get some power. During the exhaust stroke the
piston travels up again. Meanwhile, two revolutions of the crankshaft have occurred,
losing power due to friction, and producing waste heat.
With an electric motor, each and every millimeter of movement is used to gener-
ate power. An electric motor is as simple as a device can be. It is basically a stator
(a shell) and a rotor that rotates within the stator. Nothing is wasted – a rotor makes
power and torque throughout every part of every revolution. A modern AC motor is
so small and light that you can easily put it inside a small travel suitcase and carry it
away. And electric motors produce almost no waste heat.
With an electric motor, each and every millimeter of movement is used to gen-
erate power. An electric motor basically a stator (a shell) and a rotor that rotates
within the stator. Nothing is wasted – a rotor makes power and torque throughout
every part of every revolution. A modern AC motor is so small and light that you
can easily put it inside a small travel suitcase and carry it away. And electric motors
produce almost no waste heat. This is both good and bad, though. Good because we
don’t like to waste power, and bad because we get cold and grumpy. With an internal
combustion engine you get so much waste heat that you can achieve a comforting
warmth inside the car. When driving an electric car, however, it is a challenge to
keep the interior warm. Check the Pros & Cons chapter for more on this problem
and for a possible solution (Linde, 2010, p. 13).
Robot parts
While there are many different types of robots, most have a body with mov-
able, individual parts. These parts often copy human movements. For example,
a robotic arm has movable joints that work in a similar way to the human elbow
or wrist. Some humanoid robots walk on legs and can pick up objects with their
hands.
Light sensors
A light sensor works by detecting visible or infrared light bounced off objects
around the robot. This function enables robots to navigate toward or away from
other objects.
Sound sensors
A sound sensor detects sound waves bouncing off an object. This provides more
Information about the robot’s environment and allows it to know how far it is from
certain objects. Robots can also be built with a speech recognition device, which
enables then to react to voice instructions.
Pressure sensors
Some robots have pressure sensors, similar to the human sense of touch. These sen-
sors usually have two purposes (Brasch, 2013, p. 8).
Tools for temperature

Grab a broad leaf with a sturdy stem, and you’ll have a simple fan to move air around.
Wrap yourself in fur, blanket, or cloth and you can keep more of your body heat on
you. Find a branch struck by lightning and you can carry that flame around, set the
flammable stuff a light, and put the fire inside spaces, which can contain that heat.
Fireplaces, furnaces, and furnace doors allow some manual control of warm air.
Even architectural features like curtains, doors, and windows act as simple tools that
help control the flow of air, keeping the comfortable air on you and the uncomfort-
able air at bay (Noessel, 2017, p. 5).
General introduction to renewable energy technologies

The sun is the only star of our solar system located at its center. The earth and other
planets orbit the sun. Energy from the sun in the form of solar radiation supports
almost all life on earth via photosynthesis and drives the earth’s climate and weather.
About 74% of the sun’s mass is hydrogen, 25% is helium, and the rest is made up
or trace quantities of heavier elements. The sun has a surface temperature of approxi-
mately 5500K, giving it giving a white color, which, because of atmospheric scatter-
ing, appears yellow. The sun generates its energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei
to helium. Sunlight is the main source of energy to the surface of the earth that can
be harnessed via a variety of natural and synthetic processes (Kalogirou, 2009, p. 1).
(Bakhit & Halabou, 2008, p. 17) ‫ﻗﯿﺎس ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ وﺗﺤﻀﯿﺮھﺎ‬

‫ﺗﺸﻜﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﺳﻮاء ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻣﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﺳﻜﺮﯾﺔ أو ﻣﻠﺤﯿﺔ أو ﺣﺎﻣﻀﯿﺔ أو ﻗﻠﻮﯾﺔ أو ﻛﺤﻮﻟﯿﺔ رﻛﻨﺎً أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺎً ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ وذﻟﻚ ﻟﺘﻌﺪد اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻻﺗﻬﺎ وﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﻠﻲ أﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ اﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎﻻت ﻫﺬه اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ‬
:‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﯿﺔ‬
.‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺸﺮاب واﻟﺠﯿﻠﻲ واﻟﻤﺮﻣﻼد واﻟﻤﺮﺑﻰ واﻟﻤﯿﺎه اﻟﻐﺎزﯾﺔ‬ ١

‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺘﺨﻠﯿﻞ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻠﺤﯿﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰات ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ وﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻟﺘﺠﻬﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﺨﻠﻼت‬ ٢
.‫وأﺣﯿﺎﻧﺎ اﻟﺴﻜﺮﯾﺔ‬
ً ‫وﻓﯿﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻠﺤﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻜﺤﻮل ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺤﻀﺮ ﻣﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﺳﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰات ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺨﻤﺎﺋﺮ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮم‬ ٣
.‫ﺑﺘﺨﻤﯿﺮ اﻟﺴﻜﺮ وﺗﺤﻮﯾﻠﻪ إﻟﻰ ﻛﺤﻮل‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺨﻞ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺤﻀﺮ ﻣﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﻛﺤﻮﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰات ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﺗﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﺮﯾﺎ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻘﻮم‬ ٤
.‫ﺑﺄﻛﺴﺪة اﻟﻜﺤﻮل وﺗﺤﻮﯾﻠﻪ إﻟﻰ ﺣﺎﻣﺾ ﺧﻠﯿﻚ‬
.‫ﻓﻲ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﺐ وﻓﯿﻬﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻟﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﻐﺴﯿﻞ‬ ٥
(Albarzanji & Alhawasi, 2014, p. 355) ‫اﻟﺴﯿﻄﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺠﻮدة واﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب‬
‫ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب ﻓﻲ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺣﺎﺳﻮﺑﯿﺎً ﻟﻤﺮاﻗﺒﺔ ﺟﻮدة اﻷﺟﺰاء اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬
ً
‫ﻓﻀﻼ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ اﻟﺴﻤﺎح ﻓﻲ‬ ،(CAD) ‫ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺮﺑﻂ اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮﺑﻲ ﻣﻊ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﻫﻨﺪﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﺼﻤﯿﻢ‬
‫ أﻣﺎ اﻟﺴﯿﻄﺮة واﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ ﻓﻬﻲ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬،ً‫اﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ أي ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻧﺴﺐ اﻟﻌﯿﻮب اﻟﻤﻘﺒﻮﻟﺔ إﺣﺼﺎﺋﯿﺎ‬
‫ أو ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ ﻣﻜﺎن اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ‬،‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺤﺎﺳﻮب اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﺬﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﺴﯿﻄﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ‬
.‫أو ﻇﺮوف اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ‬
‫ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ‬

‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ ﻧﻮع أو ﺷﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ أﺷﻜﺎل اﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﺮﺋﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻞ ﻓﯿﻬﺎ اﻟﺘﺼﻮرات ﻣﺤﻞ‬
‫ وﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ‬،‫ وﺗﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﻤﻔﺘﺮض‬،(‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ )اﻷﺷﯿﺎء اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ‬
‫ ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻣﺘﺎﺣﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎت‬، (CAD) ‫ إذ ﺣﺎﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻣﺘﻮاﻓﺮة ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ أﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬،(CAD)
‫ وﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎت ﺛﻼﺛﯿﺔ‬،‫أﺧﺮى ﺑﺸﻜﻞ وﺻﻮرة رﻗﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫ ﺑﻐﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺼﻤﯿﻤﺎت ﺟﯿﺪة ﻷﻏﺮاض ﺗﺴﺮﯾﻊ اﻟﺘﻄﻮﯾﺮ وﺧﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ وﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ‬،‫اﻷﺑﻌﺎد‬
.‫ﺟﻮدة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬

This chapter introduces the definition, classification, and fundamentals of e-waste,
which is the fastest growing waste stream in the world and grows three times faster
than the municipal waste. Significance and characteristics of waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE) and e-waste, which contain both valuable inorganic/
organic materials and hazardous substances, are clarified. Harmful effects of toxic
material and possible adverse health effects are covered. History and cornerstones
of e-waste problem and recycling am reviewed. Representative sample preparation,
sampling, and analysis for e-waste are described. Lifecycle of electronics and e-waste
management hierarchy are given. Life cycle assessment and life cycle management
principles, steps, and tools are defined. Objectives of waste printed circuit board
(WPCB) and e-waste recycling opportunities are presented. General driving forces,
concerns, and challenges for e-waste processing are expressed (Kaya, 2019, p. 1).
Problem statement
The souring energy consumption and heavy reliance on coal has taken its toll on
China. In the past three decades, China witnessed a nationwide deterioration in its
air quality. Along with other airborne problems such as smog, what has particularly
worried both the government and the public is the widespread problem of acid rain, a
phenomenon mainly resulting from the high concentration of sulphur dioxide (S02)
and nitrogen oxides (NO). The enormous economic loss and severe environmental
damage associated with acid rain has prompted the central authority to take serious
actions to combat it. A series of policies and measures were promulgated to curb
the emission of SO and NO. It is noteworthy that one prominent feature in China’s
air pollution management is the regulator’s heavy reliance on the command-and-
control (CAC) approaches and a Pollution Levy System (PLS) to induce polluting
plants to cut emissions (Miao, 2013, p. 1).

Effects on Conduct. The increased integration of the UK car industry with its Euro-
pean multinational counterparts had obvious consequences for firm conduct. Prod-
uct strategy and research and innovation were increasingly based on the European
or world view. For example, Ford assembled all Capri and Granada models in Ger-
many and all Fiestas in Spain. Vauxhall and Opel designs became increasingly simi-
lar. Bucking the trend to less assembly in the UK, GM moved the production of its
Cavalier model from Belgium to the UK in 1978. Despite government conditions on
the Chrysler-Peugeot takeover, further integration and model standardisation were
inevitable there too.
Effects on Performance. Following the conclusions of the 1976 CPRS study
on the Chrysler (UK) bail-out, the move to greater integration of the multination-
als was potentially favourable from the efficiency standpoint. Since World War Il
Vauxhall and Chrysler (UK) had been far too small to exploit economies of scale,
so that European integration was beneficial. Furthermore, since the alternative to
such integration for both companies would likely have been a total cessation of UK
operations at some time in the 1980s, the development was favourable from the
point of view of employment and the balance of payments (Dunnett, 2013, p. 1989).
Suggestions for further reading

1 Byrne, J. (2012). Scientific and technical translation explained: A Nuts and
Bolts Guide for the beginners. Manchester and Kinderhook, NY: St. Jerome
Publishing.
2 Herman, M. (1993). Technical translation style: Clarity, concision, correctness.
In L. Wright & S. Wright (Eds.), Scientific and technical translation (pp. 11–20).
Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
3 Pinchuk, I. (1977). Scientific and technical translation. London: Andre Deutsch.
1 Business translation: Basic concepts
1.1 Introduction
Translation is a driving force in modern society which enables and promotes effective com-
munication between different nations around the globe. In addition to the role it plays in
protecting cultural heritage, translation is an invaluable tool for transmitting knowledge
and sharing ideas, expertise, and information. It continues to facilitate scientific and tech-
nical advancement in today’s globalized and fast-paced information era. Furthermore, the
advancement in various fields has dramatically changed the way we experience different
aspects of our lives, including education, culture, science, economy, and business. Transla-
tion in its capacity as a means of disseminating knowledge has always paved the way for
advancement in various academic fields. Byrne (2012, p. 1) highlights the significance of
translation as follows:
Virtually every aspect of our lives from education and work to entertainment, shopping
and travel has been swept along by a seemingly unstoppable wave of new inventions
and technological advances. What many people do not realize is that these inventions
and advances are accompanied at almost every step of the way by translation in its
capacity as a vehicle for disseminating scientific and technical knowledge.
Reflecting its indispensability, translation proves to be an absolutely reliable means devised

to promote business between not only individuals but also public and private business insti-
tutions in countries speaking different languages around the world. Furthermore, translation
connects the legal and economic aspects of international business through the translation of
contracts, company laws, meeting minutes, various types of agreements, business plans, busi-
ness and market reports, financial documents as well as regulatory and insurance documents.
Economy in the Arab world is largely connected to the international economy (El-Zaim,
1991; Al-Shaer, 2015; and Al-Bursan, 2011). In addition, the daily volume of business trans-
actions between Arab businesses and those in non-Arab countries can be beyond measure.
Business documents of diverse types are translated between English and Arabic to promote
business or determine the rights and duties of the parties to business transactions. Adding
to its critical significance to individuals and companies, business translation can be used in
academic disciplines at various levels.
The nature of business texts may considerably differ from other types of translation texts.
The type of equivalence sought in business translation is generally determined by linguistic
factors rather than paralinguistic factors which basically relate to non-lexical elements of
texts. This indicates that functional equivalence can be the dominant type of equivalence
DOI: 10.4324/9781003170846-2
4 Business translation
aimed at when rendering business texts. In addition, translating business texts is subject to
temporal, financial, and reliability parameters which govern the translation of such texts and
the criteria against which they are evaluated.
With regard to the temporal (time) parameter, the translation of business texts is carried
out under time constraints or deadlines which can sometimes entail higher costs on the part
of the clients requesting fast translations. Due to the strictness of time, many translators
would be tempted to resort to machine translation, which can be impractical especially when
dealing with particular languages such as English and Arabic. However, it should be noted
that machine translation – which, in the case of English and Arabic, most notably includes
web-based platforms such as Google Translate, Reverso Context, and Almaany1 – can be
used to render individual words or phrases “accurately.” However, one needs to ensure
editing the translations to reflect the meaning of the source language’s terms. Some online
platforms such as Google Translate do not classify word meanings according to specific
domains such as legal, technical, financial, economic, religious, and so on. It is therefore
difficult for undergraduate students and beginner translators to determine the accuracy of
translating words like depression, which has domain-based meanings when translating into
Arabic. Almaany online dictionary classifies the Arabic equivalents of depression according
to domain: ‫ اﻛﺘﺌﺎب‬،‫( اﻧﮭﯿﺎر‬psychology), ‫ رﻛﻮد‬،‫( ﻛﺴﺎد‬economic), and ‫( ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺟﻮي‬weather fore-
cast). This draws our attention to the fact that such differences in meaning should be taken
into careful consideration when selecting specific word meanings and excluding others.
Reliability of texts and translators is another decisive parameter in business translation.
In the light of temporal constraints, business translation often involves a compromise over
reliability, speed, and cost (Chiper, 2000). Generally, translated business texts can be judged
reliable when they reflect all source text details and information, on the one hand, and pro-
vide an accurate basis for their users’ actions, on the other.
Translators’ reliability is “judged in relation to the text, to clients, and to technology”
(Chiper, 2000, p. 218). While text reliability is achieved by paying attention to details, use of
academic resources, and editing of texts, translators’ reliability is judged against the ability
to work on different text types, meeting deadlines, and negotiating abilities. With reference
to technology, translators’ reliability is judged against the ability to use computer software
and internet to deliver their translations. Other concepts of immense significance to business
translation include the very basic terms such as translation, equivalence, translation strate-
gies, and translator’s tools.
1.2 Translation and equivalence

Although this book is confined to translating business texts, it is necessary to link business
translation to basic translation concepts which are central to most text types. One of these
concepts is the basic definition of translation itself. The key terms in various translation
definitions include, but are not limited to, “process” and “rendering” (Simpson & Weiner,
1989), “reproducing” (Nida & Taber, 1969), and “replacement” and “equivalent text” (Cat-
ford, 1965).
Translation is primarily a process following which translators decode the syntactic and
semantic components of the source text to search for target text equivalents and then render
the source text. In addition, translation involves a reproduction or replacement of the source
text according to the norms of the target language. Let us consider the following example
from English business texts.
ST: A business cycle is a short-term pattern of economic expansions and contractions.
Business translation 5
Syntactic and semantic decoding of the sentence:
A business cycle is a noun phrase meaning ‫دورة اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬/‫دورة اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬, is (verb be) cannot be
translated into Arabic when it is present, and translators therefore should search for a natural
equivalent by turning the whole sentence into verbless sentence ‫ ﺟﻤﻠﺔ اﺳﻤﯿﺔ‬or using a verb
such as ‫ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ‬in case the translator decides to render it into a verbal sentence ‫ﺟﻤﻠﺔ ﻓﻌﻠﯿﺔ‬. Short-
term pattern is an adjective and noun construction meaning ‫ ﻧﻤﻂ ﻗﺼﯿﺮ اﻷﺟﻞ‬and of economic
expansions and contractions is a prepositional phrase meaning ‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ واﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬.
Note that translators can use the plural sense and say ‫ﻓﺘﺮات اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ واﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬. Given
this explanation, the ST sentence can be rendered as:
.‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ أﺣﺪ اﻷﻧﻤﺎط ﻗﺼﯿﺮة اﻷﺟﻞ ﻟﻔﺘﺮات اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ أو اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬
.‫اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ھﻲ أﺣﺪ اﻷﻧﻤﺎط ﻗﺼﯿﺮة اﻷﺟﻞ ﻟﻔﺘﺮات اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ أو اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬
Translators may for example replace ‫ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ‬with ‫ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ‬at the lexical level and ‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺪورة‬
with ‫ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل دورة‬at the phrase level. ‫ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺪورة‬and ‫ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل دورة‬are two accurate trans-
lations of business cycle and can be used interchangeably without semantic differences.
Having more than one target language equivalent is usually discussed under equivalence, a
central concept in translation which is briefly discussed below.
Equivalence
Translation theorists and scholars have not yet agreed on one definition of equivalence, nor
have they agreed on classifying its types and textual levels, which include word level equiva-
lence, phrase and clause level equivalence, sentence equivalence, and text equivalence. It
is, however, commonly agreed that what complicates achieving equivalence are the factors
which do not directly relate to the linguistic components of the text but which do relate
mainly to society, culture, and religion.
Achieving equivalence has always been problematic or impossible (Catford, 1965; New-
mark, 1981; Biguenet & Schulte, 1989; Ivir, 1996; Hatim & Munday, 2004; Baker, 2018).
The difficulty in achieving equivalence relates to extralinguistic factors which are far beyond
the simple selection of words.
One of the translation theorists who focused on linguistic equivalence was Mona Baker
in her In Other Words (2018).2 She divided equivalence into different language levels which
include word level, phrase level, grammatical level, and textual level. In addition, she dis-
cussed the problems of equivalence at each level and proposed some practical solutions.
Problems of equivalence in business texts, being a subcategory of technical texts, can
arise in different domains and at different levels. Word level equivalence is of immense
significance here because students mainly look for equivalents at word level followed by
phrase level. Given the domain and word level factors, depression can mean ‫ اﻛﺘﺌﺎب‬،‫اﻧﮭﯿﺎر‬
(psychology), ‫ رﻛﻮد‬،‫( ﻛﺴﺎد‬economic), and ‫( ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺟﻮي‬weather forecast). This reflects that
students and translators should be aware of the different uses of a word in order to select
the accurate translation. Duties generally means ‫واﺟﺒﺎت‬/‫ﻣﮭﺎم‬. However, in the business texts,
it means ‫رﺳﻮم ﺟﻤﺮﻛﯿﺔ‬.
What makes equivalence more complicated is the availability of more than one equivalent
translation in the same domain. Business means ‫ أﻋﻤﺎل ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬and ‫ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬when used in plural
(businesses). Logistics has different translations into Arabic within the business domain, and
there is no specific criterion to prefer one equivalent to the other/others. The technical Arabic
translation of the term is ‫ﻋﻠﻢ إدارة ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬, which basically relates to managing the flow of
goods, information, and other resources such as products from production areas to consump-
tion areas. The term can also be rendered into Arabic through borrowing as ‫اﻟﻠﻮﺟﺴﺘﯿﺔ‬. One of the
problematic translations of the term is ‫ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻠﻮﺟﺴﺘﯿﺔ‬, which could be used in military fields,
commercial fields, and production fields. Despite the availability of different translations of
logistics into Arabic, ‫ ﻋﻠﻢ إدارة ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬or ‫ اﻟﺴﻮﻗﯿﺎت‬remains a seemingly better translation of the
term in the context of business texts. Bottleneck in business and economic texts does not have one
Arabic translation which can clearly account for the meaning in the business field. One of the avail-
able translations is ‫ اﺧﺘﻨﺎق‬,which provides a very general meaning of the English term referring to
congestion in the production system. Al-Mawrid dictionary, a well-known English-Arabic dic-
tionary, translates bottleneck as ‫ﻣﺨﻨﻖ‬, which does not practically reflect the meaning mentioned
just now. Therefore, paraphrasing the term into Arabic as ‫ اﻛﺘﻈﺎظ ﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‬or ‫اﻛﺘﻈﺎظ ﻧﻈﺎم‬
‫ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‬can better reflect the meaning of the term. Other similar translations can also be used.
Translating financial terms from English into Arabic can also cause difficulties. Financial
statements has different Arabic translations such as ‫ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬and ‫ﻗﻮاﺋﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬. The difference
between the two lies in that ‫ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬is more commonly used.
When translating business, economic, or financial terms between English and Arabic, stu-
dents are advised to adopt commonly used target language equivalents. In addition, students
may further explore the context-based meaning and usage of the source language terms to
ensure that the selected target language equivalents reflect the specific meanings of source
language terms. Furthermore, preference can be given to commonly used terms instead of
accurate terms which may not be known to a larger readership. Student translators should
also familiarize themselves with the contextual usage of certain business terms whose mean-
ings significantly differ from one context to another.
1.3 Business translators

Translators perform an essential and complex role in the translation industry in general and
in business translation specifically. In addition to the different types of technical texts that
include, but are not limited to, business, financial, economic, and medical texts, there are dif-
ferent types of translators who work in different places. Many government and private institu-
tions and companies employ their own translators mainly to reduce costs, to ensure continuous
availability of translators, and to develop translators’ skills to better meet the specific needs of
the employing institutions. Generally, translators working for certain institutions work on and
translate specific types of texts. Another category of translators includes freelance translators
who are self-employed and search for translation work. They work on various text types, and
they frequently edit or revise the work of other translators.
Translators working on business texts can be staff, in-house, or freelance translators.
These translators sharpen their own skills to learn the extensive terminology which char-
acterizes business texts. Business translators may also need to have a university degree,
have considerable computer skills, and work with others on specific translation projects. In
addition, translators working on technical texts, which include business texts, must have a
good command of both the source language and the target language in addition to mastering
research skills needed to carry out the translation of complex business texts.
1.4 Features of business texts

Business texts are a subcategory of technical texts and therefore share common features with
these texts. Tylor (1998) explains that the term technical includes scientific disciplines such
as medicine, physics, and so on, applied technology, and less obviously “scientific” subjects
such as economics. Business texts can be divided into two basic categories: culturally com-
mon business texts (business and market reports, financial statements, business letters, pro-
duction, management, etc.) and culturally uncommon business texts (Islamic banking and
finance). Business texts have a number of key features which set them apart from other texts
having no technical nature. The features are mainly confined to lexical units and syntactic
structures. The following are some of the key defining features of business texts.
1.4.1 Lexical features
Language features
Sharing common features with technical language, business language is different from ordi-
nary language used in general textbooks. Pinchuk (1977) lists the features of technical lan-
guage which, for the purposes of this book, apply to business language. Pinchuk says that
technical language is specialized, that it is economic in terms of linguistic means, and that it
defines terms accurately. The components which affect the readability of business texts are
writer, text, and readers (Kirkman & Turk, 2005).
Informative language
The language used in business texts is an informative language featuring impersonal style
(Dickins, Hervey & Higgins, 2017), Tylor (1998) and Dukāte (2009). This type of informa-
tive language which features the use of declarative sentences can be seen in various types of
business documents.
Use of metaphors
One feature of literary texts which can be noticed in business language is the use of meta-
phors (figure of speech) to explain a certain idea. Examples of business metaphors include
low hanging fruit (easy and quick wins), lots of moving parts (a project or a program with
numerous components), and boil the ocean (a lot of work with a small return).
Terminology
Business texts feature domain-specific terms which set them apart from other technical texts.
In addition, business terms belong to a number of business domains such as management,
finance, and marketing.
In addition to the domain-specific terms, business texts can include words which have
different meanings when used in a general sense. Depression in everyday language refers
to feelings. When used in a business domain, the word refers to a severe recession in an
economy or market.
Facts
The presentation of facts is one of the main features of business texts. Consider the follow-
ing example:
The price of U.S. crude fell as much as 34% to $27.34 a barrel (Disha Experts, 2020).
.ً ‫ دوﻻراً أﻣﺮﯾﻜﯿﺎ‬27.34 ‫ ﺣﯿﺚ أﺻﺒﺢ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﺒﺮﻣﯿﻞ‬34% ‫ھﺒﻂ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﻨﻔﻂ اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﻲ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ‬
Table 1.1 Example of business vocabulary
ST term TT
project life cycle ‫دورة ﺣﯿﺎة اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع‬

Gantt Chart (‫ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﺟﺎﻧﺖ )ﯾﻮﺿﺢ اﻟﺠﺪول اﻟﺰﻣﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺮوع‬
contingency plan ‫ﺧﻄﺔ اﻟﻄﻮارئ‬
cash flow ‫اﻟﺘﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﻨﻘﺪي‬
income statement ‫اﻹﯾﺮادات‬/‫ﺑﯿﺎن اﻟﺪﺧﻞ‬
fixed assets ‫أﺻﻮل ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ‬
balance sheet ‫ﻛﺸﻒ اﻟﻤﯿﺰاﻧﯿﺔ‬/‫ﺑﯿﺎن‬
cost-based pricing ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﺮ اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ‬
E-commerce ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬
inbound marketing (‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ )اﻟﻮارد‬
However, business texts may include predictions about future events. Consider the following
example:
Any management action that would increase the level of expected return would have a
positive effect (Jain & Khan, 2007, 4.11).
.‫ﺛﻤﺔ أﺛﺮ إﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻷي إﺟﺮاء إداري ﻗﺪ ﯾﺴﺎھﻢ ﻓﻲ رﻓﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻌﺎﺋﺪ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬
1.4.2 Syntactic features

Business writing is practically listed under technical writing and both, therefore, share some
significant syntactic structures. Use of simple declarative sentences, nominalization, and
passive structures are major syntactic features in business discourse.
Abstract nouns and gerunds

Dickins et al. (2017, p. 241) say that technical texts feature the use of abstract subjects.
Notice the use of abstract nouns and gerunds in the following texts and the absence of nouns
referring to concrete entities.
Management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and
organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the . . . resources to achieve the policy’s
objectives (Saxena, 2009).
Another example:
A fancy management philosophy called Business Process Re-engineering looks precisely
at this. Its goal is the simplification of all business processes, by getting rid of any unneces-
sary steps (Voortman, 2004).
Passive structures
Business writing features the use of passive structures. Consider the following examples:
• The reports must be presented to the management to be reviewed and updated annually.
• A final report will be sent to the National Food Administration (NCM, 2004).
Simple sentences
Simplicity is a significant feature of technical texts (Byrne, 2012). Its significance lies in reduc-
ing the work readers need to do to understand the text, and therefore the risk of misunder-
standing is reduced. Technical texts which include business texts use simple and declarative
sentences to ensure simplicity. The following is an example of simple declarative sentences:
• Marketing is exciting, important, and profitable (Burrow, 2008).

• There was strong central planning and a good deal of informal support and direction of
industrial development (Stretton, 1999).
Nominalization
Nominalization refers to “the use of a noun in the same language or in a TT” (Hervey &
Higgins, 2002, p. 180). Dickins et al. (2017) point out that nominalization is a common
feature of technical texts. In addition, Pinchuk (1977, p. 165) explains that “nominalization
style is easier to write.” Tylor (1998) says that nominalization distinguishes the grammar of
technical texts from the grammar of the spoken language. Consider the following example:
• The decisions about the extent and method of government intervention are therefore continu-
ally being made and reviewed by governments, and their electorate (Gillespie, 2016, p. 13).
1.5 Translation tools and technology

Carrying out any translation work today primarily depends on using different tools and software
which highlights the strong link between translation and technology and the significant role
technology plays in translating technical, scientific and business texts. Knowledge, translation,
and technology are interrelated in that translation promotes the dissemination of technical and
scientific knowledge while technological applications have significant impact on translation.
Scholars anticipate that technology will have more dominance in the translation industry
in the future. We have seen instant translation software for different uses, as in the case with
the Google Translate application which is used to translate road signs through using the
mobile camera. In the business world, the use of technology changed the way business is
conducted and also helped the globalization of business activities.
Technology has increased the demand for translators, which requires translators’ familiar-
ity with different technological applications as a necessary requirement to meet the new and
changing demand on translation. Almost all translations are now carried out using computer
applications which save time and facilitate easier and faster communication between transla-
tors and clients. In addition, translators need to get used to the advancements in the field of
technology and translation because their job has gone far beyond using Microsoft Word or
email. They are now required to deal with different tools, technologies, and files. We con-
sider now some of the common general and text-processing tools which translators can use.
1.5.1 General translation tools

General translation tools are the tools which translators and others not involved in the transla-
tion industry can use. These tools can be traditional such as paper-based dictionaries or tech-
nological such as computers and electronic dictionaries. A management student may use a
traditional or electronic bilingual dictionary to translate business terms between English and
Arabic. The same applies to students in scientific and nonscientific disciplines. It is impor-
tant to note that preference is given to electronic tools which can be cheaper and less time-
consuming. Google offers a free translation service which many people, including translators,
use to search for the meanings of specific words. Another important and freely available online
tool available for business translators working on English and Arabic texts is Almaany online
dictionary. The most significant feature of this online dictionary lies in providing domain-
based meanings. It also offers translated examples for the contextual use of words. Translators
and student translators need to verify the accuracy of the translations carried out through such
tools, especially Google Translate. Electronic translation tools can sometimes provide all pos-
sible translations of a given term without highlighting the contextual use of each translation.
1.5.2 CAT tools

Technically, translators may be requested to deal with basic software such as Microsoft
Office programs and Adobe products. At a more advanced level, certain translation compa-
nies and agencies may require translators’ knowledge and use of Computer Assisted Transla-
tion (CAT) tools which may seem highly expensive and time-consuming at the initial stages.
CAT tools basically include translation memories, machine translation, terminology man-
agement, and some other significant features.
The most popular paid CAT tools are SDL Trados, memoQ, and Wordfast. Some transla-
tion agencies require having at least one of these as a precondition for assigning translation
projects. SDL Trados is probably the most well-known CAT tool available in the market. In
addition, its features include powerful translation memory, advanced terminology manage-
ment technology, editing, project management, and machine translation. SDL Trados is very
useful when translating texts which contain repeated information in specific types of texts
which normally do not include literary texts.
MemoQ offers similar features to those of SDL Trados, while Wordfast runs within
Microsoft Word, handles different text formats, and has a translation memory and terminol-
ogy management. It is essential that translators and student translators train themselves on
using these translation technologies because the future of translation is gearing toward the
integration of CAT tools in translation.

The selection of a translation strategy depends on the availability of target language equiva-
lent business terms which are usually technical and objective in nature. In addition, the pur-
pose of translation sometimes determines the method of rendering source language texts into
a target language. Is the translation going to be used for general information purposes? Is it
going to be published? Is it going to be used by business institutions to understand the nature
of business in a specific area? Generally speaking, direct translation/literal translation is the
most common translation strategy adopted in rendering technical texts in general and busi-
ness texts specifically. It can be followed by borrowing, explanation, and varied equivalents.
1.6.1 Literal translation

What is meant by literal translation here is the availability of direct target language equiva-
lents, whether on the word level or the phrase level. This type of translation does not pose any
challenge to translators or student translators because they can simply look up the meaning
of English or Arabic words in traditional paper-based dictionaries or electronic dictionaries.
However, they are advised to ensure that the selected meaning suits the context. For example,
depression is translated as ‫ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬،‫ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﺾ ﺟﻮي‬،‫ ﺿﻌﻒ‬،‫( ﺣﺰن‬Baalbaki & Baalbaki,
2008, p. 332). Out of these literal translations of the word, only ‫ أزﻣﺔ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬is used in the
business context. Translators also need to take into consideration that literal or direct transla-
tion does not always mean one-to-one correspondence but can also mean one-to-two, as in
the previous example. Consider the following examples of business terms which are literally
translated between English and Arabic.
Table 1.2 Literal English into Arabic literal translations
ST TT
investment ‫اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬
market economies ‫ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت ﺳﻮﻗﯿﺔ‬/ ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺴﻮق‬
inflation ‫ﺗﻀﺨﻢ‬
goods ‫ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬/‫ﺳﻠﻊ‬
marketing management ‫إدارة اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬
Table 1.3 Literal Arabic into English translations
TT ST
unemployment ‫ﺑﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬
fiscal policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻧﻘﺪﯾﺔ‬
monetary policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﺿﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ‬
financial policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
government spending ‫ ﻧﻔﻘﺎت ﺣﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬/ ‫إﻧﻔﺎق ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻲ‬
strategic planning ‫ﺗﺨﻄﯿﻂ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﻲ‬
information flow ‫ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬
Note that some Arabic phrases such as ‫ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬can have different English equivalent
terms, but each is used in a specific context. Student translators therefore need to explore
the contextual use of each equivalent to ensure that it suits the specific context in which the
source language term was used.
1.6.2 Calque
Calque is primarily a type of borrowing which refers to the literal translation of source text
individual words to create a new term in the target language. It is important to note that some
target language near synonyms are sometimes used. Consider the following examples:
1 Long position: The term long position refers to an investor’s purchase of a security or
derivative with the expectation that its price will rise in the future. In many Arabic busi-
ness texts, it is literally translated as ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ طﻮﯾﻞ‬.
2 Short position: A short position refers to the selling of a security or derivative because
its future price is expected to decrease. It is usually translated in Arabic business texts
as ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ ﻗﺼﯿﺮ‬.
Long position is sometimes translated into a more general meaning as ‫ ءاﺮﺷ‬, while short posi-
tion is rendered as ‫ﻊﯿﺑ‬. Although such translations reflect the general meaning of buying and
selling, they do not make specific reference to an investor’s buying or selling of securities or
derivatives. Therefore, student translators are advised to note such differences in meaning.
1.6.3 Borrowing
Borrowing is commonly used when translating business terms between English and Ara-
bic. For example, cartel can be borrowed into Arabic as ‫اﻟﻜﺎرﺗﻞ‬. The word refers to a group
of companies cooperating together to improve their profits, stop competition among them-
selves, and dominate the market in which they operate. It can also be rendered as ‫اﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬,
but such rendering may not reflect all aspects of the source language term. Gantt Chart is
translated into Arabic as ‫ ﻣﺨﻄﻂ ﺟﺎﻧﺖ‬and is sometimes followed by ‫ اﻟﺠﺪول اﻟﺰﻣﻨﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺮوع‬in
parentheses to highlight its specific meaning.
English borrows a number of Arabic financial terms which are either used on their own or
followed by an explanation. Consider the examples in the following table.
Table 1.4 Islamic finance terms borrowed into English
Functional equivalent TT borrowing ST
joint partnership arrangement Musharakah ‫ﻣﺸﺎرﻛﺔ‬

profit-loss-sharing partnership Mudarabah ‫ﻣﻀﺎرﺑﺔ‬
cost-plus financing Murabahah ‫ﻣﺮاﺑﺤﺔ‬
give something on rent Ijar ‫إﯾﺠﺎر‬
sharia-compliant bonds Sukuk ‫ﺻﻜﻮك‬
interest-free loan Qard Hassan ‫ﻗﺮض ﺣﺴﻦ‬
order to manufacture by specification Istisna’ ‫اﺳﺘﺼﻨﺎع‬
1.6.4 Varied equivalents

Some business and financial terms can have more than one target language equivalent and
student translators therefore need to consider the context in which each of these equivalents
is used. Consider the following examples:
Table 1.5 Varied English target language equivalents
TT ST
monetary policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻧﻘﺪﯾﺔ‬

fiscal policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﺿﺮﯾﺒﯿﺔ‬
financial policy ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
government spending ‫إﻧﻔﺎق ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻲ‬
government expenditure ‫ﻣﺼﺮوﻓﺎت ﺣﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‬
The need to explore the contextual usage of a target language equivalent arises when a
number of target language equivalents exist for one source language term, as in the case of
the Arabic terms above. While monetary policy refers to the actions of the monetary author-
ity or the central bank to control money supply and interest rates in addition to achieving
other policy objectives, fiscal policy refers to the government actions to control and adjust
spending levels and tax rates. Financial policy can refer to the policies which aim to achieve
Table 1.6 Varied Arabic target language equivalents
ST TT
logistics ‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻠﻮﺟﺴﺘﯿﺔ‬

‫ﻋﻠﻢ إدارة ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻮﻗﯿﺎت‬
business cycle ‫دورة اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫دورة اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬
goods ‫ﺳﻠﻊ‬
‫ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬
financial statements ‫ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻗﻮاﺋﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
financial stability and market efficiency and determine the roles and responsibilities within
a financial system of business firms.
One English word or phrase can have different equivalents in Arabic. Students therefore
need to explore the contextual use of such variants and select the appropriate equivalents.
For example, the words ‫ ﺳﻠﻊ‬and ‫ ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬refer to goods in English. However, ‫ ﺳﻠﻊ‬is used in
the context where meeting human needs and consumption are mentioned. ‫ ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬is mainly
mentioned in the context of shipment and tax on imports. Therefore, student translators
should adopt the appropriate translation strategy taking into account the differences in target
language equivalents.
Notes
1 These are the main translation websites used by Arab translators and student translators.
2 Her book had its first edition in (1992) and its second in (2011).
The Routledge Course in Arabic
Business Translation
Arabic-English-Arabic
Mahmoud Altarabin
2 Translating economic texts
2.1 Business cycle
Section 1: English into Arabic
Text 1: The business cycle

The business cycle or trade cycle is a permanent feature of market economies: gross domes-
tic product (GDP) fluctuates as booms and recessions succeed each other. During a boom,
an economy (or at least parts of it) expands to the point where it is working at full capacity,
so that production, employment, prices, profits, investment, and interest rates all tend to rise.
During a recession, the demand for goods and services declines and the economy begins to
work at below its potential. Investment, output, employment, profits, commodity and share
prices, and interest rates generally fall. A serious, long-standing recession is called a depres-
sion or a slump (Zompanti, 2009, p. 18)
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
business cycle ‫أﻋﻤﺎل‬/‫دورة اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬ trade cycle ‫دورة ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬

market economies ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت ﺳﻮق‬ GDP ‫ اﻟﻘﻮﻣﻲ‬/ ‫إﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺞ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬
fluctuates ‫ ﯾﺘﺄرﺟﺢ‬/ ‫ﯾﺘﻘﻠﺐ‬ booms ‫ﻓﺘﺮات اﻻزدھﺎر‬
recessions ‫ اﻟﻜﺴﺎد‬/ ‫ﻓﺘﺮات اﻟﺮﻛﻮد‬ full capacity ‫ﺑﻜﺎﻣﻞ طﺎﻗﺘﮫ‬
investment ‫اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬ interest rates ‫أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة‬
tend to ‫ﺗﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ‬ demand for ‫طﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
goods ‫ﺳﻠﻊ‬/‫ﺑﻀﺎﻋﺔ‬ declines ‫ﺗﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬
below its potential ‫دون ﻣﺴﺘﻮى إﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎﺗﮫ‬ output ‫ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎت‬
depression ‫ﻛﺴﺎد‬ slump ‫ھﺒﻮط‬
Exercise 1: Using the vocabulary list above, translate the passage above up to “all tend to rise.”
Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into Arabic:

• A business cycle is a short-term pattern of economic expansions and contractions.
• A market economy relies on capitalism to create an environment in which producers and
consumers are free to sell and buy what they choose.
• In economics, a recession refers to the contraction of a business cycle which reflects a
significant decline in economic activity.
• The global demand for goods can increase or decrease.
Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations. The first one is done for you.
• A depression is a severe downturn in economic activity.
.‫اﻹزدھﺎر اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ھﻮ اﻟﺘﺮاﺟﻊ اﻟﺒﺴﯿﻂ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ •
.‫ ﯾُﻌﺮف اﻟﻜﺴﺎد ﺑﺄﻧﮫ ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ ﺷﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬or ‫اﻟﻜﺴﺎد ھﻮ ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ ﺷﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ •
DOI: 10.4324/9781003170846-3
Translating economic texts 15
• Petrol prices have fluctuated dramatically in recent years.
.‫ﺷﮭﺪت أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻐﺎز ﺛﺒﺎﺗﺎ ً ﻣﻠﺤﻮظﺎ َ ﺧﻼل اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻷﺧﯿﺮة‬ •
• A company cannot survive if there is no demand on its goods or services.
.‫ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻮاﺻﻠﺔ أﻋﻤﺎﻟﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل وﺟﻮد طﻠﺐ ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻠﻌﮭﺎ وﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬ •
• People in different sectors may lose their jobs during a downturn in the business
cycle.
.‫ﯾﻔﻘﺪ اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﻮن وظﺎﺋﻔﮭﻢ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة ﻋﺪم ﺛﺒﺎت اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬ •
Exercise 4: Match the English words/phrases with their Arabic translations.
ST TT
1 surplus a. ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻧﻘﺪﯾﺔ‬

2 monetary policy b. ‫ﺗﺪﺧﻞ‬
3 fiscal policy c. ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺾ‬
4 intervention d. ‫ﯾﻘﻠﻞ اﻟﻤﺼﺮوﻓﺎت‬
5 decrease spending e. ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
6 trough f. ‫اﻧﺘﻌﺎش‬
7 upturn g. ‫ﺗﻮازن‬
8 consumption h. ‫ﺳﻠﻌﺔ‬
9 equilibrium i. ‫اﻟﻘﺎع‬
10 commodity j. ‫اﺳﺘﮭﻼك‬

• Governments use fiscal policy to adjust spending levels and tax rates.
• Consumer surplus refers to the economic measurement of the benefits a consumer
receives.
• Consumption in economics is the use of goods or services.
• Economic equilibrium is the balance between economic forces such as supply and
demand.
• Budget balance declines when a government increases its spending or decreases
taxes.
Exercise 6: Read the following passage and then (1) translate the italicized text, and (2) find
what matches the Arabic translations following the passage.
Practically every phase of economic life has felt the force of these great general move-
ments. In addition to these longtime movements and general trends there has been a con-
stant ebb and flow of economic life. Industry has been subjected to cycles of prosperity and
depression – great wave movements with three to eleven years from crest to crest and which
vary widely in intensity and depth. The concept of “normality” in regard to economic life is
a situation of flux and reflux. Industry is continually merging from one phase of the business
cycle to another (Thomas, 2015).
.‫ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺪرﺟﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﺤﺪة‬ •

.‫ﺷﻌﺮت ﺑﻘﻮة اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‬ •
.‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬ •
Text 2
A number of economists have criticized ABCT’s use of interest rates in explaining the cycle.
They include the claim that ABCT exaggerates the importance of interest rates in influ-
encing the volume of investment and the claim that ABCT says businesses use changes in
interest rates to predict how the demand for goods will change (specifically, to predict shifts
in demand from consumers’ goods to capital goods during the cycle) but that interest rates
are not good predictors of demand. The claims also include that inflation affects short-term
interest rates more than long-term interest rates, so investment should not be affected much
by changes in interest rates due to inflation because investment depends more on changes in
long-term rates (Simpson, 2014, p. 89).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
economists ‫ﻋﻠﻤﺎء اﻗﺘﺼﺎد‬ ABCT ‫ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ دورة اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﻨﻤﺴﺎوﯾﺔ‬

interest rates ‫أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺪة‬/‫ﻣﻌﺪﻻت‬ claim ‫ ّإدَﻋﺎء‬/‫َزْﻋﻢ‬
exaggerates ‫ﯾﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﻓﻲ‬ influencing ‫اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
volume of investment ‫ﺣﺠﻢ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬ businesses ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬
predict ‫ﯾﺘَﻨَﺒﱠﺄ ﺑِـ‬ demand for goods ‫اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬
shifts in demand ‫ﺗﺤﻮﻻت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬ consumers’ goods ‫ﺳﻠﻊ اﺳﺘﮭﻼﻛﯿﺔ‬
capital goods ‫ رأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬/ ‫ﺳﻠﻊ إﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ‬ predictors ‫ﻣﺆﺷﺮات‬
inflation ‫ﺗﻀﺨﻢ‬ short-term ‫ﻗﺼﯿﺮ اﻷﺟﻞ‬
long-term ‫طﻮﯾﻞ اﻷﺟﻞ‬ depends ‫ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ‬
Exercise 1: Translate the first sentence of the above passage.

• Interest rate means the amount of a loan charged as interest to the borrower. This amount
must be paid to the lender.
• It is predicted that lower cost investments in this field will perform better than invest-
ments of higher costs.
• This list includes the major exporters of capital goods.
• There was a sudden shift in demand for consumers’ goods.
• Inflation refers to the increase in the cost of living caused by the rise of goods and ser-
vices prices.
• Short-term investments or temporary investments can be sold or converted to cash.
• The current situation necessitates protecting the new project against the ups and downs
of any business cycle.
• There are gloomy predictions for a quick economic recovery after the COVID-19
pandemic.
• The new research focuses on the impact of the business cycle on the economy.
Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the Arabic translations:
• Commodity prices in the secondary market depend on interest rates.
.‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺮض واﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬ •
• Exporting capital goods significantly promotes the national economy.
.‫ﯾﻌﺰز اﺳﺘﯿﺮاد اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻻﺳﺘﮭﻼﻛﯿﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻮطﻨﻲ‬ •
• There is steady demand for goods and services.
.‫ﺛﻤﺔ طﻠﺐ ﻣﺘﺬﺑﺬب ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﺮوﺿﺔ‬ •
Exercise 4: Match the English words with their Arabic translations.
ST TT
1 consultant a. ‫ذروة‬
2 contract b. ‫ﯾﺸﺠﻊ‬
3 peak c. ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺾ‬
4 excess d. ‫ﻋﻘﺪ‬
5 stimulate e. ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺸﺎر‬
6 save f. ‫ﯾﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ‬
7 transact g. ‫ﺷﺮاء‬
8 fluctuate h. ‫ازدھﺎر‬
9 purchase i. ‫ﯾﺪﺧﺮ‬
10 boom j. ‫ ﯾﺘﺄرﺟﺢ‬/ ‫ﯾﺘﺬﺑﺬب‬

• The newly appointed consultant can provide expert advice on business in emerging
markets.
• The company designed a strategy to manage possible price fluctuations.
• Contract theory studies how economic actors such as individuals and organizations sign
legally binding agreements.
• An economic boom refers to the significant growth of a company’s sales or a country’s
GDP.
• The peak of a business cycle refers to the highest point of an economic expansion and
the beginning of a contraction phase.
• All companies must follow new purchase procedures.
Exercise 6: Read the following passage and then translate the italicized words.
Observing business cycles at the sectoral level has the great advantage that it sheds light
on economic transmission mechanisms, whereas for stabilization policy purposes its ben-
efits are not so clear. This is based on the notion that the business cycle is mainly driven by
fluctuations in demand that can be smoothed by interventions targeting certain demand com-
ponents. Opposite to this, supply side measures are understood to aim at the trend component
only (Scheiblecker, 2008, p. 3).
‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪Translating economic texts‬‬
‫‪Section 2: Arabic into English‬‬
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫إن ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﻮﯾﺶ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﻲ ﻟﻸھﺪاف واﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮارﯾﺔ ﻗﺪ ﻣﮭﺪت اﻷﻣﺮ ﻟﻈﮭﻮر ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬أطﻠﻖ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ دورة اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻓﺘﺮة اﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎت ﺗﻔﻀﻞ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ‬
‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ وﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ‪ .‬وھﻮ اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﺆدي إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة ﺣﺠﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ‪ ،‬واﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺑﯿﺌﺔ أﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﺸﺠﻌﺔ ﺗﺤﻔﺰ أﻓﺮاد اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻟﻠﺘﺼﻮﯾﺖ ﻟﮭﺬه اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﯿﺪ أن ھﺬا اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﯾﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﺠﻮة ﺗﻀﺨﻤﯿﺔ وارﺗﻔﺎﻋﺎ ً ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‪ .‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ‬
‫إﻋﺎدة اﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﮭﺎ ﺗﺘﺠﮫ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻛﺒﺢ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻀﺨﻢ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ إﺣﺪاث اﻧﻜﻤﺎش ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Al-Afandi, 2020‬‬
‫‪Vocabulary‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪paved the way‬‬ ‫ﻣﮭﺪت اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻖ‬ ‫‪obfuscation‬‬ ‫ﺗﺸﻮﯾﺶ‬

‫‪fiscal policy‬‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪elections‬‬ ‫اﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎت‬
‫‪government spending‬‬ ‫إﻧﻔﺎق ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻲ‬ ‫‪expansionist‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺳﻌﯿﺔ‬
‫‪employment‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ‬ ‫‪tax cuts‬‬ ‫ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ‬
‫‪business environment‬‬ ‫ﺑﯿﺌﺔ أﻋﻤﺎل‬ ‫‪unemployment‬‬ ‫ﺑﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫‪however‬‬ ‫ﺑﯿﺪ أن‬ ‫‪favorable‬‬ ‫ﻣﺸﺠﻌﺔ‬
‫‪inflationary gap‬‬ ‫ﻓﺠﻮة ﺗﻀﺨﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪boom‬‬ ‫اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش‬
‫‪aggregate demand‬‬ ‫طﻠﺐ ﻛﻠﻲ‬ ‫‪control‬‬ ‫ﻛﺒﺢ‬
‫‪deflation‬‬ ‫اﻧﻜﻤﺎش‬ ‫‪to eliminate‬‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪Exercise 1: Translate the first sentence of the passage above.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 2: Translate the following sentences into English:‬‬

‫ﺗﮭﺪف اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻜﻦ ھﻨﺎك أي دور ﻟﻠﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟﻘﺮار‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﮭﺪف ﻣﺘﺨﺬو اﻟﻘﺮارات اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻟﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﻌﺎم‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ ﻣﻦ ھﺬا اﻟﻜﺘﺎب ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ وأﺛﺮھﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ اﻟﻤﻄﺒﻘﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﺌﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮﯾﻦ ﺣﺎﻓﺰاً ﻗﻮﯾﺎ ً ﻟﻼدﺧﺎر واﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﻜﺰ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺒﺪأ ﺿﻤﺎن ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ وظﯿﻔﺔ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻮاطﻨﻲ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺴﺎھﻢ ﺗﻨﻮﯾﻊ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎرات ﻓﻲ ﺧﻠﻖ ﺑﯿﺌﺔ أﻋﻤﺎل ﻗﻮﯾﺔ وﺗﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺘﻜﻮن اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻧﺘﻌﺎش وﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ ﻛﺴﺎد‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺤﺪث اﻟﻔﺠﻮة اﻟﺘﻀﺨﻤﯿﺔ إذا ﻛﺎن اﺟﻤﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻜﻠﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻧﺎﻗﺸﺖ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﻛﺰﯾﺔ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﮭﺪف ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﺤﺼﯿﻞ اﻹﯾﺮادات اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ وﺧﺼﻮﺻﺎ ً‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﺼﺢ ﻣﺴﺘﺸﺎرون ﻣﺨﺘﺼﻮن اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺘﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ أﺛﺮ إﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ اﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﺘﻌﻘﺪ ﺧﻼل ﺷﮭﺮﯾﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺤﺪث اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش ﻋﺎدة ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﻤﺮار اﻧﺨﻔﺎض أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪ ،‬وﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺬﻟﻚ آﺛﺎراً ﺳﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل ﺗﺠﺎوز ھﺬا اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻟﺤﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﻤﻮح ﺑﮫ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺴﯿﻄﺮة ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ اﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل وﺟﻮد ﻓﺠﻮة ﺗﻀﺨﻤﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Translating economic texts 19‬‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the following English translations. The first one‬‬
‫‪is done for you.‬‬
‫ﺗﮭﺪف اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﻨﻘﺪﯾﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﻀﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻀﺨﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The fiscal policy aims to discuss inflation implications.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Correction: The monetary policy aims to eliminate inflation.‬‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﺆدي اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻲ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺠﺰ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Inflation may cause expected financial flows.‬‬
‫ذﻛﺮ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺲ اﻷﻣﺮﯾﻜﻲ أن ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ ﺳﯿﺴﺎﻋﺪ ذوي اﻟﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The current president said that taxes will support the unemployed.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: Match the Arabic words with their English translations.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪spending‬‬ ‫‪a.‬‬ ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺾ‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪economy‬‬ ‫‪b.‬‬ ‫إﻧﻔﺎق‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪increase‬‬ ‫‪c.‬‬ ‫ﺧﺒﯿﺮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪surplus‬‬ ‫‪d.‬‬ ‫ارﺗﻔﺎع‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪upswing‬‬ ‫‪e.‬‬ ‫ذروة‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪sovereign‬‬ ‫‪f.‬‬ ‫اﻧﺘﻌﺎش‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪economist‬‬ ‫‪g.‬‬ ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎد‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪peak‬‬ ‫‪h.‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪growth‬‬ ‫‪i.‬‬ ‫ﺳﯿﺎدي‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪volume‬‬ ‫‪j.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻤﻮ‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻊ ﺣﺪوث ﻓﺎﺋﺾ ﻓﻲ ﻣﮭﻦ ﻣﺤﺪدة وﻋﺠﺰ ﻓﻲ ﻣﮭﻦ أﺧﺮى‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ أﺳﺒﺎب ﻣﻨﻄﻘﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﻌﯿﯿﻦ ﺧﺒﯿﺮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي أﺟﻨﺒﻲ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺼﻨﺪوق اﻟﺴﯿﺎدي أﺣﺪ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻟﻔﻮاﺋﺾ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﻠﻎ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ‪ 6.1‬ﺑﻠﯿﻮن رﯾﺎل‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺟﻨﻮب أﻓﺮﯾﻘﯿﺎ أﻛﺒﺮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎد ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺛﻤﺔ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي أﻗﻮى ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺪى اﻟﻄﻮﯾﻞ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫طﻠﺒﺖ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﺒﯿﺮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي دراﺳﺔ أﺛﺮ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ وﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ ھﺬه‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺑﮭﺪف ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أرﺑﺎح ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻧﺨﻔﻀﺖ ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎم ‪ 2020‬ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ اﻹﻏﻼق اﻟﺬي ﺳﺒﺒﺘﮫ أزﻣﺔ ﻛﻮروﻧﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻠﺪان‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﺣﻮل اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻀﻤﻨﺖ اﻟﺨﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة ﺗﺨﺼﯿﺺ إﻧﻔﺎق ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﺑﻘﯿﻤﺔ ‪ 10‬ﻣﻼﯾﯿﻦ دوﻻر ﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ ﻋﺪة ﻣﺸﺎرﯾﻊ ﺑﻨﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Exercise 6: Translate the following passage into English:‬‬

‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺷﮭﺪت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدات اﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ اﻧﻔﺘﺎﺣﺎ ً ﻛﺒﯿﺮاً ﺧﻼل اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻷﺧﯿﺮة ﻣﻤﺎ أﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ھﺬه اﻟﺪول ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻔﻘﺪ ھﺬه اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﺟﺰءاً ﻣﻦ أﺛﺮھﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدات اﻟﻤﻔﺘﻮﺣﺔ إذا ﻣﺎ ﻗﺎرﻧﺎھﺎ ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﻐﻠﻘﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻌﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺜﺎل ﻓﺈن اﻟﻮاردات ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ﻣﻀﺎﻋﻒ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ‪ ،‬ﻟﺬﻟﻚ وﺟﺐ إﯾﺠﺎد ﻧﻮع ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‪(Ayeb, 2010, p. 192) .‬‬
‫‪Text 2‬‬
‫ﻓﮭﻮ ﯾﺮى أن ﻣﺎﻟﻜﻲ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل‪ ،‬أو اﻟﺮأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﯿﻦ ﯾﺮﻏﺒﻮن داﺋﻤﺎ ً ﻓﻲ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ ﻣﺮاﻛﻤﺔ أرﺑﺎﺣﮭﻢ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ‬
‫ﺛﻢ اﻟﻤﯿﻞ ﻧﺤﻮ ﻣﺰﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر واﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻨﻤﻮ واﻻزدھﺎر اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي )ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ(‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﺪ أن ھﺬا اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ رﯾﻜﺎردو ﻟﯿﺲ ﻗﺎﺑﻼً ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ اﻷﺟﻞ اﻟﻄﻮﯾﻞ‪ ،‬وھﻨﺎ ﯾﺮﻛﺰ‬
‫رﯾﻜﺎردو ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻷرﺑﺎح واﻷﺟﻮر‪ ،‬ﻓﻠﻤﺎ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻷرﺑﺎح ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺑﺼﻮرة رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻷﺟﻮر‬
‫واﻷﺧﯿﺮة ﺗﻤﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺟﻞ اﻟﻄﻮﯾﻞ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺰاﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن ﺗﺰاﯾﺪ اﻷﺟﻮر ﯾﺴﺒﺐ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺮﺑﺢ ﻋﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺰﻣﻦ‪ ،‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﻻ ﯾﻔﻠﺢ ﻋﻨﺪﺋﺬ اﻟﺘﻘﺪم اﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ إﯾﻘﺎف اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻷرﺑﺎح‪ .‬ﺑﻞ إن اﻟﺘﻘﺪم اﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﺗﺠﺎه ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﻟﺪورة‬
‫اﻷرﺑﺎح‪ ،‬ﻷﻧﮫ ﯾﺴﺒﺐ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض أرﺑﺎح اﻟﺮأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﯿﻦ‪(Al-Afandi, 2020, p. 20) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪increase production‬‬ ‫زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‬ ‫‪capitalists‬‬ ‫ﻣﺎﻟﻜﻲ رأس اﻟﻤﺎل‬

‫‪expansion‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺳﻊ‬ ‫‪accumulation‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮاﻛﻤﺔ‬
‫‪Ricardo‬‬ ‫رﯾﻜﺎردو‬ ‫‪boom phase‬‬ ‫ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش‬
‫‪salaries‬‬ ‫أﺟﻮر‬ ‫‪unsustainable‬‬ ‫ﻟﯿﺲ ً‬
‫ﻗﺎﺑﻼ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‬
‫‪latter‬‬ ‫اﻷﺧﯿﺮة‬ ‫‪mainly‬‬ ‫ﺑﺼﻮرة رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ‬
‫‪decline‬‬ ‫اﻧﺨﻔﺎض‬ ‫‪tend to‬‬ ‫ﺗﻤﯿﻞ‬
‫‪technical progress‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻘﺪم اﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ‬ ‫‪profit rate‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺮﺑﺢ‬
‫‪contradicts‬‬ ‫ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﺎﺗﺠﺎه ﻣﻌﺎﻛﺲ‬ ‫‪curb‬‬ ‫إﯾﻘﺎف‬
‫‪causes decline‬‬ ‫ﯾﺴﺒﺐ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض‬ ‫‪profit cycle‬‬ ‫دورة اﻷرﺑﺎح‬
‫‪.‬اﻻزدھﺎر اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪Exercise 1: Translate the first sentence up to .‬‬

‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺮأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﻮن اﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻤﻮاﺟﮭﺔ رأﺳﻤﺎﻟﯿﯿﻦ آﺧﺮﯾﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﮭﺪف ھﺬا اﻹﺟﺮاء إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﺑﺎرﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﺸﻐﯿﻞ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﺑﺰﯾﺎدة ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ ﺛﻘﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻟﺮﻏﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﮭﺪف‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻧﻤﺎط اﻟﻨﻤﻮ ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﻘﻄﺎع ﻏﯿﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻼﺳﺘﻤﺮار‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺆﺛﺮ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض أرﺑﺎح اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ أداء اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ واﻟﺮﺿﺎ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ إﯾﺠﺎد طﺮق ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻐﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻟﻤﻔﺎﺟﺊ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺪل اﻷرﺑﺎح‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﺑﮭﺪف زﯾﺎدة اﻷرﺑﺎح وﺗﻮﺳﯿﻊ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎراﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻛﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻷﺧﺮى اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﺰاﯾﺪ اﻷﺟﻮر اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺮﺑﺢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺪى اﻟﺒﻌﯿﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Identify and correct the errors in the following English translations:‬‬
‫ﯾﺰﯾﺪ ھﺬا اﻹﺟﺮاء اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺐ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻷﺳﻌﺎر وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻷرﺑﺎح‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪These measures promote productive capacity which cause a price increase and thus an‬‬
‫‪increase in profits.‬‬
‫أدى ذﻟﻚ اﻹﺟﺮاء إﻟﻰ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﻐﺾ اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ أو اﻟﺠﻮدة‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪It led to focusing on increasing commodity production.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: Match the Arabic words/phrases with their English translations.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪drop‬‬ ‫‪a.‬‬ ‫رھﻦ ﻋﻘﺎري‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪stimulate‬‬ ‫‪b.‬‬ ‫ﯾﻨﺨﻔﺾ‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪mortgage‬‬ ‫‪c.‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﻐﻨﺎء ﻋﻦ ﻣﻮظﻔﯿﻦ ‪ /‬اﻟﺘﺴﺮﯾﺢ‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪fluctuate‬‬ ‫‪d.‬‬ ‫ﯾﺤﻔﺰ‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪lay off‬‬ ‫‪e.‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﻘﻠﺐ ‪ /‬ﯾﺘﺄرﺟﺢ‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪trend‬‬ ‫‪f.‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮرد‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪flows‬‬ ‫‪g.‬‬ ‫اﺗﺠﺎه‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪start-up‬‬ ‫‪h.‬‬ ‫ﻟﻠﺘﻨﺒﺆ‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪resource‬‬ ‫‪i.‬‬ ‫ﺗﺪﻓﻘﺎت‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪to predict‬‬ ‫‪j.‬‬ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﻧﺎﺷﺌﺔ‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫ﯾُﻌﺮف اﻟﺮھﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد وأﯾﻀﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻧﻮن ﺑﺎﻧﺘﻘﺎل ﺣﻖ ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ ﻋﻘﺎر )‪ (property‬إﻟﻰ اﻟﺠﮭﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻠﻘﺮض ﻟﻀﻤﺎن ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻘﺮض‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﺠﺄ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎت اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺴﺮﯾﺢ اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﺎ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻣﺮورھﺎ ﺑﺄزﻣﺎت ﺛﻢ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ ﻗﺎع )‪ (trough‬اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﻌﻰ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺮاھﻦ إﻟﻰ وﺿﻊ ﺧﻄﻂ ﺗﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﺤﻔﯿﺰ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺎﻓﻲ ﻣﻦ أزﻣﺔ ﻛﻮروﻧﺎ اﻟﺘﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﺛﺮت ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﯿﺰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﻘﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﺑﺎرﺗﻔﺎع اﻷﺳﻌﺎر وزﯾﺎدة اﻟﺪﺧﻞ اﻟﻔﺮدي واﻻﺳﺘﻐﻼل اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻮارد اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺪﻓﻘﺎت اﻟﻨﻘﺪﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ إﯾﺠﺎد ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ ﺟﺪﯾﺪ ﻟﺘﻔﺎدي اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺪث ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻧﻔﺎذ ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ أﺛﻨﺎء ﻓﺘﺮة اﻻﻧﺘﺨﺎﺑﺎت ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ وﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺪأت ﺷﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻧﺎﺷﺌﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﻌﺮوﻓﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ذات ﺟﻮدة ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ وﺑﺄﺳﻌﺎر‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫درﺳﺖ اﻟﻠﺠﺎن آﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻮارد وﺗﺠﻨﺐ اﻟﺨﺴﺎﺋﺮ ﻓﻲ ظﻞ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺒﺒﺖ ﺑﺨﺴﺎﺋﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻓﺎدﺣﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﻨﺒﺆ ﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺪورات اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ وﻣﺪﺗﮭﺎ ﻟﻮﺟﻮد اﺧﺘﻼف ﻓﻲ ﻗﺪرة اﻟﺪول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺨﺮوج ﻣﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش واﻻﻧﺘﻘﺎل إﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺒﺐ اﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻧﺨﻔﺎﺿﺎ ً ﻛﺒﯿﺮاً ﻓﻲ أرﺑﺎح اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﺪم اﻟﺨﻠﻂ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ واﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ؛ ﻓﺎﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪ :‬ھﻲ ﺗﺘﺎﺑﻊ ﺣﺎﻻت اﻟﺮﻛﻮد واﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻜﻞ دورة اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮورة أن ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ﻣﺼﺤﻮﺑﺔ ﺑﺄزﻣﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﻛﻞ أزﻣﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻻ ﺑﺪ أن ﺗﻜﻮن ﺟﺰءاً‬
‫ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬أي دورة اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش‪ ،‬وﺗﺄﺗﻲ اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺠﺰء اﻟﻌﻠﻮي ﻣﻦ ﻗﻤﺔ دورة اﻻﻧﺘﻌﺎش‬
‫واﻟﺮواج اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪ ،‬وﯾﺆدي اﻧﮭﯿﺎر اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ دﻓﻊ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد ﻓﻲ ﻏﯿﺎھﺐ دورة اﻟﺮﻛﻮد واﻻﻧﻜﻤﺎش‪ ،‬أي أن‬
‫اﻷزﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺗﺪﻓﻊ اﻟﺪورة اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺬروة إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﺎع ‪(Bin Omar, 2017, pp. 35–36) (trough).‬‬
2.2 Employment
Text 1
JOB MARKET
A number of measures were attempted in order to combat the crisis in the job market.
Thus, employment measures and unemployment insurance were improved, as well as
measures for those who had lost their jobs. In July 2009, parliament adopted the “law for
employment initiative.” The aim of the law is to mitigate the impact of the financial crisis
on the unemployed, to create means by which job positions can be maintained, and to give
a larger number of people the opportunity to participate in employment activities. The law
should help companies cope better with the difficulties arising from the financial crisis
and help to avoid disproportionate job losses. In addition, companies offering social work
receive a 50% subsidy from the employment office for the salaries payable (Jungmann &
Sagemann, 2011).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
job market ‫ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ measures ‫ ﻗﯿﺎﺳﺎت‬/ ‫ﺗﺪاﺑﯿﺮ‬

were attempted ‫اﺗﺨﺬت‬ combat crisis ‫ﻣﻮاﺟﮭﺔ أزﻣﺔ‬
employment ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ‬ unemployment ‫ﺑﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬
insurance ‫ﺗﺄﻣﯿﻦ‬ lost job ‫ﻓﻘﺪ وظﯿﻔﺔ‬
parliament ‫ﺑﺮﻟﻤﺎن‬ employment initiative ‫ﻣﺒﺎدرة اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ‬
mitigate ‫ﺗﺨﻔﯿﻒ ﻣﻦ‬ impact ‫أﺛﺮ‬
financial crisis ‫أزﻣﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ job positions ‫ﻣﻨﺎﺻﺐ وظﯿﻔﯿﺔ‬
cope better ‫ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﻓﻀﻞ‬/ ‫اﻟﺘﺄﻗﻠﻢ‬ arising from ‫اﻟﻨﺎﺟﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ‬
subsidy ‫دﻋﻢ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬/‫إﻋﺎﻧﺔ‬ payable ‫ﻣﺴﺘﺤﻖ اﻟﺪﻓﻊ‬
Exercise 1: Translate the first two sentences from the above passage.

• These strategies are specifically designed to help you exercise your skills in the job
market.
• The proposed measures effectively combat the financial crisis.
• The new data on private-sector employment reflect the coverage of unemployment
insurance.
• The parliament approved the measures to mitigate the socio-economic impact of job
losses resulting from the financial crisis.
• A new plan was put forward to highlight the importance of a practical monetary policy
to cope with possible future financial crises.
• The new measures aim to mitigate the impact of the financial crisis.
• The unemployed protested against the insufficient subsidies.
.‫اﺣﺘﺞ اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪم ﻛﻔﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺎت اﻟﺸﮭﺮﯾﺔ‬ •
• The committee discussed the delay in paying the employees’ salaries.
.‫ﻗﺮرت اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﻗﺸﺔ ﻋﺪم دﻓﻊ رواﺗﺐ اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬ •
• Financial performance measures help evaluate the progress achieved in the company’s
performance.
.‫ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻹﺟﺮاءات اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻢ ﻋﻮاﺋﻖ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻘﺪم ﻓﻲ أداء اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ •
Exercise 4: Match the English words with their Arabic translations.
ST TT
1 unprofitable a. ‫ﺗﺮﺷﯿﺪ‬
2 rationalization b. ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ‬/‫ﺗﺸﻐﯿﻞ‬/‫ﺗﻌﯿﯿﻦ‬
3 employability c. ‫ ﺗﺤﺮﯾﺮ‬/ ‫إزاﻟﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻮد‬
4 recruitment d. ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﺮﺑﺤﺔ‬
5 downsizing e. ‫اﻟﺼﻼﺣﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﻞ‬
6 deregulation f. ‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺺ ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬
‫ ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ‬/
7 welfare g. ‫إﻋﺎدة ھﯿﻜﻠﺔ‬
8 sack h. ‫ﻣﺪة اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬
9 tenure i. ‫ﯾﻔﺼﻞ ﻣﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬/‫ﯾﺴﺮح‬
10 restructuring j. ‫)اﻟﺮﻓﺎه )اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬

• The market report demonstrates that some unprofitable companies will soon exit the
market.
• Many managers agreed to promote rationalization in order to increase the profitability
of their companies.
• The downsizing dimension focuses on the short-term profits a company aims to achieve.
• The majority of the company board members decided to prevent managers from sacking
employees within three months of their commencing the work.
• The management has put forward a plan to restructure the company at the earliest
opportunity.
• The Ministry of Labor began promoting short-term employment initiatives to reduce the
high unemployment rates.
Exercise 6: Translate the following passage into Arabic:
COSTS OF DOWNSIZING
Downsizing is often very costly to a corporation. More than 50 percent of companies that
downsize fail to reach their financial objectives. More than one million people are perma-
nently laid off each year. For example, Boeing eliminated 60,000 jobs between 1989 and
1997. The company’s orders for jets increased from two hundred to nine hundred within two
years. The company has had a difficult time hiring qualified people. (Alkhafaji, 2001, p. 153)
Text 2
The centrality of labor flexibility, wage costs, and unemployment in debates over Euro-
pean economic development puts employment systems at the heart of any putative Euro-
peanization of national economies. An employment system refers to the interaction of
various formative institutions making up the national and sectoral profile of the labor
force. These institutions comprise the training and educational processes, the legal and
industrial relations regulations, the organizational structure and practices of industry,
and the politics of the workplace. However, we are not using the term employment
system in the sense of a formal model of the use and reproduction of labor (Cressey &
Jones, 1995).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
centrality ‫ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﯾﺔ‬/ ‫أھﻤﯿﺔ‬ labor flexibility ‫ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬

wage ‫أﺟﺮ‬ costs ‫ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ‬
debates ‫ﻧﻘﺎﺷﺎت‬ economic development ‫ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
puts at heart ‫ﯾﻀﻊ ﺿﻤﻦ أوﻟﻮﯾﺎت‬ Europeanization ‫إﺿﻔﺎء طﺎﺑﻊ أوروﺑﻲ‬/‫أورﺑﺔ‬
national economies ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎدات وطﻨﯿﺔ‬ formative institutions ‫ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت ﻧﺎﺷﺌﺔ‬
sectoral profile ‫ﺳﻤﺎت ﻗﻄﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ labor force ‫اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
comprise ‫ ﺗﻀﻢ‬/ ‫ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ‬ legal and industrial ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ وﺻﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
regulations ‫ﻟﻮاﺋﺢ‬/‫أﻧﻈﻤﺔ‬ organizational structure ‫ھﯿﻜﻞ ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻤﻲ‬
Exercise 1: Translate the first two sentences from the above passage.

• Responding to changes in market conditions is what defines labor flexibility in the
labor market.
• Different governments can play different roles to promote the economic development of
their countries.
• Many economists support the globalization of national economies.
• Some companies find it difficult to work internationally because of the conflicting eco-
nomic regulations.
• Companies must devise stable organizational structures to achieve success in competi-
tive global business environments.
• The new regulations pose serious challenges to emerging markets.
• Most manufacturing companies cannot offer high-wage jobs due to the financial losses
they incurred during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The new organizational structure must clearly highlight the roles and responsibilities as
well as the information flow in order to enable all employees to carry out their tasks
more efficiently.
• The Arab Gulf countries discussed a joint plan to enhance economic development in
order to improve the living conditions in poor Muslim countries.
• People in the first group did not actively contribute to national economies.
.‫ﺳﺎھﻢ ﺑﻌﺾ أﻋﻀﺎء اﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ﺑﻨﺠﺎح ﻓﻲ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدات اﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ‬ •
• The new study reviews the positive economic developments associated with economic
growth.
.‫ﯾﺴﺘﻌﺮض ﻣﻠﺨﺺ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﺘﻄﻮرات اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻮﻟﻤﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬ •
• Artificial wage increases enforced by government policies were severely criticized.
.‫اﻧﺘﻘﺪت اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ اﻟﺰﯾﺎدات اﻟﻤﻘﺘﺮﺣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺧﻄﻂ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‬ •
Exercise 4: Translate the following words and phrases into Arabic.
ST TT
1 employment agency ………………………………………..

2 industrialized economies ………………………………………..
3 job insecurity ………………………………………..
4 fire ………………………………………..
5 employers ………………………………………..
6 probationary period ………………………………………..
7 temporary jobs ………………………………………..
8 public sector ………………………………………..
9 competitiveness ………………………………………..
10 local companies ………………………………………..

• Applicants can email their job applications to the employment agency no later than
April 30, 2021.
• Industrialized economies (‫ )اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدات اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬need to consider the effect of their mac-
roeconomic policies on regional and international economic development.
• Companies must clearly explain the conditions of the probationary period before sign-
ing employment contracts.
• Competition among local companies drives constant development of their products tar-
geting different customers.
• Statistics indicate that a high proportion of workers occupy temporary private-sector
jobs.
• The economic and job insecurity forced many employees to search for better opportuni-
ties abroad.
• Disabled people are at higher risk of job insecurity.
EFFECTS OF JOB FLEXIBILITY ON JOB INSECURITY
Because employees are contracted on a permanent basis after the probation period, they do
not experience job insecurity. This is seen as a positive motivational effect, not only by the
employees but also by the organization that wants to deliver a sustained high level of service
to customers (Vuuren & Klandermans, 1999).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻮازي ﻣﻊ ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺺ اﺳﺘﻘﺪام اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻮاﻓﺪة‪ ،‬ﯾﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ وﺣﻜﻮﻣﺎت دول اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺞ أن ﺗﻘﻠﺺ اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ‪ ،‬وﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻮظﺎﺋﻒ ﻛﻮﺳﯿﻠﺔ ﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﺪﺧﻞ؛ إذ ﯾﻔﺘﺮض أن ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﻣﺒﻨﯿﺎ ً‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎج اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‪ .‬وﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻀﺨﻢ اﻟﺤﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ دول اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺞ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﯾﺒﺪو أن‬
‫ھﻨﺎك أي ﺣﺎﺟﺔ إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﯿﻦ‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ رﺑﻤﺎ ﯾﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ اﻷﺟﺪى ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺺ ﻋﺪدھﻢ‪ .‬إن ﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﺳﯿﻘﻠﻞ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺔ ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ اﻟﻤﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص؛ ﻓﺎﻟﻤﻮاطﻦ ﺳﯿﻜﻮن ﺧﯿﺎره اﻷﺳﮭﻞ واﻷﻓﻀﻞ أن ﯾﻌﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ‪ .‬وﺑﻨﺎء ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن اﻷﺟﻮر اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻄﻠﺒﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻮاطﻨﻮن ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص ﯾُﻔﺘﺮض أن ﺗﺴﺎوي‬
‫أﺟﻮرھﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ‪(ACRPS, 2019) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪recruitment‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﻘﺪام‬ ‫‪downsizing‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﺺ‬

‫‪government employment‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﻲ‬ ‫‪foreign workers‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻮاﻓﺪة‬
‫‪income distribution‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﺪﺧﻞ‬ ‫‪stop using‬‬ ‫ﺗﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻦ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬
‫‪institutions‬‬ ‫ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬ ‫‪genuine need‬‬ ‫اﺣﺘﯿﺎج ﺣﻘﯿﻘﻲ‬
‫‪employees‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪increased number‬‬ ‫زﯾﺎدة ﻋﺪد‬
‫‪employ citizens‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ ﻣﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪more effective‬‬ ‫أﺟﺪى‬
‫‪ in the above passage.‬ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ‪Exercise 1: Translate until‬‬

‫واﻓﻘﺖ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺳﺘﻘﺪام ﻣﺴﺘﺸﺎرﯾﻦ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﯿﻦ ﻟﻮﺿﻊ ﺧﻄﻂ ﺗﻨﻤﻮﯾﺔ إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻟﻤﺘﻮاﺿﻊ‪ ،‬ﯾﺒﻘﻰ اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺴﺘﻮاه اﻟﺴﻨﻮي‪ ،‬وھﻮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻷدﻧﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺧﻼل اﻟﻌﻘﺪﯾﻦ اﻷﺧﯿﺮﯾﻦ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﻌﺪد اﻟﺴﻜﺎن‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ دول ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻟﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺨﻠﯿﺠﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻮاﻓﺪة ﺣﯿﺚ ﺑﻠﻐﺖ ﻧﺴﺒﺘﮭﺎ ﺣﻮاﻟﻲ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺗﻌﺪاد‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﻜﺎن ﺑﻌﺾ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺪول‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺘﺆدي زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺧﻠﻖ وظﺎﺋﻒ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ زﯾﺎدة ﻋﺪد اﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻤﺎ ﺳﺒﻖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﯿﻦ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ أن اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﯾﺴﻌﻰ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ اﻟﻤﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ ﻣﮭﻦ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻟﺨﻔﺾ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى‬ ‫•‬
‫ا ﻟﺒﻄﺎ ﻟﺔ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﻘﺪم اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﺎل اﻷﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻟﻠﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﺄﻋﻤﺎل ﻻ ﯾﺮﯾﺪھﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﺎل اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﻮن‪ ،‬أو ﻻ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻌﻮن اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﮭﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Companies recruit foreign workers only when host country workers do not accept car-‬‬
‫‪rying out a certain type of work.‬‬
‫أﺷﺎر اﻟﺘﻘﺮﯾﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻵﺛﺎر اﻟﺴﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻨﺎﺗﺠﺔ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻌﺎدل ﻟﻠﺪﺧﻞ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The report highlighted the impact of income distribution.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺷﺨﺎص اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﻟﺪﯾﮭﻢ ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻣﻊ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت ﺗﻤﻠﻜﮭﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮﻧﻮا ﻣﻮظﻔﯿﻦ ﺣﻜﻮﻣﯿﯿﻦ أو ﻣﻮظﻔﯿﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Individuals having relations with government-owned companies are government‬‬
‫‪employees.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: Translate the following phrases into English.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﻋﻘﺪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ظﺮوف اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫‪3‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﯾﻔﺘﻘﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺨﺒﺮة‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫رب اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ /‬ﺻﺎﺣﺐ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺘﺄﻣﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪6‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫‪7‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮﺷﺢ ﻟﻠﻮظﯿﻔﺔ‬ ‫‪8‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫‪9‬‬
‫‪.................................................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺸﺠﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ‬ ‫‪10‬‬

‫ﻻ ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮظﻔﯿﻦ اﻟﺠﺪد ﻣﺪة ‪ 180‬ﯾﻮﻣﺎ ً‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪﯾﺮ اﻟﻤﺸﺮوع ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ واﻷوﻟﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻄﺎت اﻟﺼﯿﻨﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ وﻛﻔﺎءة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﺑﮭﺪف ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫وﻗﻊ ﻣﺪﯾﺮ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ اﺳﺘﯿﺮاد اﻟﺴﯿﺎرات ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻧﮭﺎﺋﻲ ﻣﻊ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻣﻔﺎوﺿﺎت ﺑﯿﻨﮭﻤﺎ ﺣﻮل‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺣﻘﻮق وواﺟﺒﺎت ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﮭﻤﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺎول اﻟﺪول ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﺘﺸﺠﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻲ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻟﻠﻤﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ ﻟﻤﻨﻊ اﺣﺘﻜﺎرھﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻌﺘﻘﺪ اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أن ظﺮوف اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﻌﺎم أﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ ظﺮوف ﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص وﯾﺮون ﻛﺬﻟﻚ أن‬ ‫•‬
‫درﺟﺔ اﻷﻣﺎن اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ ﺗﻜﻮن أﻛﺒﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﻌﺎم‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﺘﺪرﯾﺐ اﻟﻤﮭﻨﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﺼﺺ ﻹﻋﺪاد ﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﮭﺮة وﻣﮭﻨﯿﯿﻦ دوراً ﻓﻌﺎﻻً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ وﺣﺎﺟﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻤﻨﺢ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ ﻷﺳﺮ اﻟﻄﻼب ﻓﺮﺻﺔ اﻟﺘﻮﻓﯿﻖ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻄﺎﻟﺐ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻷﺳﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت ﺳﻮق اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬
‫أظﮭﺮ اﻟﺘﻘﺮﯾﺮ اﻟﺬي أﻋﺪﺗﮫ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﺆﺧﺮاً أن ﺑﻌﺾ أﻋﻀﺎء ﻣﺠﻠﺲ اﻹدارة ﯾﻔﺘﻘﺮون إﻟﻰ اﻟﺨﺒﺮة ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪة‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺠﺎﻻت إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻞ‪ ،‬وإدارة اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﺒﺸﺮﯾﺔ‪ ،‬واﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﻮن ﺑﻄﻠﺐ وظﯿﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻘﺪ ﻋﻤﻞ داﺋﻢ ﻗﺒﻞ إﻧﮭﺎء ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﺠﺮﺑﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﺣﺪدﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﻮاﻓﻖ اﻟﻤﺮﺷﺢ ﻟﻠﻮظﯿﻔﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻠﯿﮫ ﺑﺤﺜﺖ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺸﺮﺣﯿﻦ آﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﯾﻤﻜﻨﮭﻢ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫طﺒﻘﺎ ً ﻟﺸﺮوط اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ‪(Al-Karkhi, 2014 p. 55) :‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ أﺳﺎس أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﺒﺸﺮﯾﺔ ﻓﮭﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻔﮭﻮﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺒﺴﻂ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮف ﻛﻮﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﻟﺠﻤﻊ وﺗﻮﺛﯿﻖ وﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻌﻠﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب ﻟﻠﻮظﯿﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫إن اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺠﻤﻊ ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻜﺲ ﻓﻲ وﺻﻒ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ واﻟﻮاﺟﺒﺎت اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ‬
‫وﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﺣﻮل اﻟﻤﮭﺎرات واﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺎت واﻟﻨﻤﺎذج اﻟﺬھﻨﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻘﻨﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ‪ ،‬أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﺳﺘﺒﯿﺎﻧﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻘﺎﺑﻼت واﻟﻤﺴﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻮﻛﯿﺔ وﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ‪.‬‬
2.3 Corporate social responsibility
Text 1
PROFITS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
In the 1920s, many large American corporations began, on a wide scale, to establish pension
funds, employee stock ownership, life insurance schemes, limitations on working hours, and
high wages. They built houses, churches, schools and libraries, provided medical and legal
services, and gave money to charities. Since this is fairly surprising behaviour for business
corporations, there must be a good explanation. Neil J. Mitchell argues that the reason for
many of these actions, most of which clearly did not bring immediate cash benefits, was that
large corporations had a legitimacy problem. The existence of large corporations showed
the classical economic theory of perfect competition to be inadequate. Consequently, large
corporations introduced ‘welfare capitalism’ as a way of creating favourable public opinion.
(Zompanti, 2009, pp. 98–99)
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
social responsibility ‫ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ corporations ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬

establish ‫إﻧﺸﺎء‬ stock ownership ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ اﻷﺳﮭﻢ‬/‫ﺣﯿﺎزة‬
insurance schemes ‫ﻣﺨﻄﻄﺎت ﺗﺄﻣﯿﻦ‬/‫ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ‬ limitations ‫ﻗﯿﻮد‬
gave money ‫ﺗﺒﺮع ﺑﺄﻣﻮال‬ charities ‫ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت ﺧﯿﺮﯾﺔ‬
business corporations ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ cash benefits ‫اﺳﺘﺤﻘﺎﻗﺎت ﻧﻘﺪﯾﺔ‬/‫ﻓﻮاﺋﺪ‬
legitimacy problem ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬/‫ﻣﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﺷﺮﻋﯿﺔ‬ perfect competition ‫ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
inadequate ‫ ﻏﯿﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬/ ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ‬ welfare ‫ اﻟﺮﻓﺎھﯿﺔ‬/ ‫اﻟﺮﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
favorable ‫ﻣﻼﺋﻢ‬/‫ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‬ public opinion ‫رأي ﻋﺎم‬

• The study reflects the importance of corporate social responsibility as a significant ele-
ment of corporate image in local and international markets.
• Drivers must show at the point of entry the insurance policy which covers their
vehicles.
• Parents receiving cash benefits should take responsibility for their families.
• The present research paper examines and evaluates the use of corporate social
responsibility in competitive markets.
• Many large American corporations began, on a wide scale, to establish pension funds,
employee stock ownership, life insurance policies, limitations on working hours, and
high wages.
• They built houses, schools, and libraries, and gave money to charities.
• The annual report shows that three business corporations did not implement the strate-
gic plan related to corporate social responsibility.
.‫أظﮭﺮت اﻟﺘﻘﺎرﯾﺮ اﻟﺸﮭﺮﯾﺔ أن ﺛﻼﺛﯿﻦ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ طﺒﻘﺖ اﻟﺨﻄﺔ اﻟﺴﻨﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪات اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ •
• An employee received cash benefits after submitting all necessary financial
documents.
.‫ﺗﻘﺪم ﻣﻮظﻒ ﺑﻄﻠﺐ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪات ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ •
• A perfect competition market provides producers and consumers with full information.
.‫ﯾﻘﺪم اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﺤﺮ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ واﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ •
Exercise 4: Complete the Arabic translations in the following table.
ST TT ST TT
maximize profits .................. ‫ﺗﻌﻈﯿﻢ‬ eliminate discrimination ..... ‫ﯾﻘﻀﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ‬

free enterprise ......... ‫ﻣﻨﺸﺄة‬/‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎد‬ conform to …………………..
durable goods ‫ ﻣﻌﻤﺮة‬.............. directors’ meeting ................ ‫اﺟﺘﻤﺎع‬
economic downturn ‫ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬............ age of retirement ‫ اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻋﺪ‬............
ethical obligation ‫ أﺧﻼﻗﻲ‬............... lay off staff ................. ‫ﺗﺴﺮﯾﺢ‬
expenditures ……………….. fiscal measures ‫ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬.....................
money supply ‫اﻟﻤﻌﺮوض اﻟﻨﻘﺪي‬ excess savings ‫ ﻓﺎﺋﻀﺔ‬...............
go bankrupt ‫ﯾﻔﻠﺲ‬ increase taxation ‫ اﻟﻀﺮاﺋﺐ اﻟﻤﻔﺮوﺿﺔ‬.......

• New managers must focus all efforts on maximizing profits.
• The central government should take necessary measures to respond to the economic
downturn.
• Three recent reports indicate that the interest rate is not a practical tool for managing the
money supply.
• The current economic downturn caused heavy losses for major companies working in
the region.
• Due to the economic crisis, many companies working abroad had to stop their opera-
tions and lay off their staff.
• The existence of large corporations reflects the inadequacy of the classical economic
theory of perfect competition.
The concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been around through good and
bad financial times. CSR is defined as “situations where the firm goes beyond compliance
and engages in actions that appear to further some social good beyond the interests of the
firms and that which is required by law.” More broadly, CSR encompasses the components
of economic, legal, ethical, and philanthropic business decisions (GECRC, 2009).
Text 2
CORPORATE SOCIAL IRRESPONSIBILITY: THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND IDEOLOGY
The focus of this chapter is on the role of government in relation to corporate social respon-
sibility (CSR) and the 2007–2010 financial crises. It argues that the financial crisis was a
result of a failure of government. More specifically, it locates the origins of failure, which
gave rise to the crisis, in the political and economic changes of the 1980s and after. The
UK Thatcher government along with that of the Reagan administration in the United States
delivered a new right, neo-liberal, laissez faire economic agenda that has come to be char-
acterised, rightly or wrongly, as market fundamentalism (Soros, 1998; Stiglitz, 2002). Neo-
liberalism and market fundamentalism can be equated to government irresponsibility and
that the move to free up markets, among other things, ultimately gave rise to the 2007–2010
financial crises. (Jones, 2010).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
ideology ‫ﻋﻘﯿﺪة‬/‫أﯾﺪﯾﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺔ‬ financial crisis ‫أزﻣﺔ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬

argue ‫ﯾﺠﺎدل‬ failure ‫ﻓﺸﻞ‬
locates ‫ﺗﺤﺪد‬ gave rise ‫ أدت إﻟﻰ‬/ ‫ﺳﺒﺐ‬
Thatcher government ‫ﺣﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺗﺎﺗﺸﺮ‬ neoliberal ‫ﻟﯿﺒﺮاﻟﻲ ﺟﺪﯾﺪ‬
laissez-faire ‫ اﻟﺤﺮﯾﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬/ ‫ﻣﺒﺪأ ﻋﺪم اﻟﺘﺪﺧﻞ‬ be characterized ‫ﺗُﻮﺻﻒ‬
market fundamentalism ‫أﺻﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻮق‬ neoliberalism ‫اﻟﻠﯿﺒﺮاﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة‬
can be equated ‫ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﺴﺎواﺗﮫ ب‬... irresponsibility ‫اﻧﻌﺪام اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ‬/‫اﻟﻼﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ‬
the move to ‫اﻟﺘﻮﺟﮫ ﻧﺤﻮ‬/‫اﻟﺘﺤﺮك‬ free up ‫ﺗﺤﺮﯾﺮ‬
Exercise 1: Translate the third sentence of the above passage.

• This paper investigates the status of corporate social responsibility within the globalized
free market.
• Advocates of market fundamentalism strongly believe in the possibility of maximizing
individual freedom through free markets.
• Some claim that neoliberalism threatened job stability and consequently the eco-
nomic security of individuals.
• It is believed that market failure was a major cause for the financial crisis.
• Neoliberalism and market fundamentalism can be equated to government irresponsibil-
ity and that the move to free up markets, among other things, ultimately gave rise to the
2007–2010 financial crisis.
• The focus of this chapter is on the role of government in relation to corporate social
responsibility (CSR) and the 2007–2010 financial crises.
• It argues that the financial crisis was a result of government failure.
• Economic ideologies focus on the structuring of economies, unlike economic theories,
which focus on how economies work.
‫ﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﻔﻜﺮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﻤﺎط اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ •
.‫ﻣﺨﺮﺟﺎت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
• What would the US do to regain its influence in the international economy if neoliberal-
ism fails?
‫ﻣﺎ ھﻲ اﻟﺨﻄﻮات اﻟﺘﻲ اﺗﺒﻌﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ﻟﺘﻌﺰﯾﺰ ﻣﻜﺎﻧﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ اﻟﻨﺎﺷﺊ إذا ﻓﺸﻞ‬ •
‫اﻟﻠﯿﺒﺮاﻟﯿﻮن؟‬
ST TT ST TT
raise capital .......... ‫ﺟﻤﻊ‬/‫ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ‬ make profits .................... ‫ﯾﺤﻘﻖ‬

corporate governance ........... ‫إدارة‬ strategic management ‫ إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ‬.........
corporate ethics ‫ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬............ form a business …………………
corporate contribution .......... ‫ﻣﺴﺎھﻤﺔ‬ stockholders ‫أﺻﺤﺎب ﻣﺼﺎﻟﺢ‬/‫ﻣﺴﺎھﻤﯿﻦ‬
supply chain ‫ إﻣﺪادات‬............ societal goals ‫ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﯿﺔ‬..............
resource management ‫ اﻟﻤﻮارد‬........... comply with ‫ﯾﻤﺘﺜﻞ ل‬
corporate self-regulation … ‫ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻢ ذاﺗﻲ‬ business strategy ‫ ﻋﻤﻞ‬...................
policies and practices ........ ‫ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺎت و‬ strategic initiative .................. ‫ﻣﺒﺎدرة‬

• Companies are permitted to raise capital from borrowing or donations. No deposits
from ordinary individuals are allowed.
• The proposed program is designed to develop human resource management as well as
the company’s strategic planning.
• All employers must adopt policies and practices aiming at the eradication of discrimina-
tion against women in workplaces.
• The present research paper examines the impact of a company’s business strategy on the
performance of its corporate social responsibility.
• The new business strategy which will be adopted by the company clearly outlines the
role it plays to undertake its corporate social responsibility.
• Public and private-sector companies should not mainly focus on making profits.
During the long and distinguished history of the “company” or business/corporate in India
and other parts of the world, business leaders have been trying to make a positive impact on
the society, communities around them and the world, in some way or the other. The problem
with CSR is that nobody is very clear about what exactly it encompasses (Mennakanti &
Miryala, 2016).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫ﯾﻜﺘﺴﺐ اﻟﺪور اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم أھﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪة ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﺨﻠﻲ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ ﻛﺜﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻣﻦ أدوارھﺎ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﯿﺔ‪ ،‬اﻟﺘﻲ ﺻﺤﺒﺘﮭﺎ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻛﺎن ﯾﻨﻈﺮ إﻟﯿﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ أﻧﮭﺎ أﻣﺮ طﺒﯿﻌﻲ وﻣﺘﻮﻗﻊ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ظﻞ اﻧﺘﻔﺎء اﻟﮭﺪف اﻟﺮﺑﺤﻲ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﯾﺮھﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت‪ ،‬وإن ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺣﯿﺎن‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﻖ إﯾﺮادات وأرﺑﺎﺣﺎ ً طﺎﺋﻠﺔ‪ .‬وﻛﺎن ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎ ً ﻣﻊ ﺗﺤﻮل ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ وإﻋﺎدة ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻤﮭﺎ‬
‫وإدارﺗﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ھﺬا اﻷﺳﺎس أن ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ دورھﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ اﻟﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﻲ ﻟﺘﺠﺎرب اﻟﺨﺼﺨﺼﺔ أظﮭﺮ أن‬
‫اﻟﺪور اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ واﻻﻟﺘﺰام اﻷﺧﻼﻗﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ھﻮ أﯾﻀﺎ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﯾﻌﻮد ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ ﺑﺰﯾﺎدة اﻟﺮﺑﺢ وﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻨﺰاﻋﺎت‬
‫واﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ اﻹدارة واﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ واﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻌﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﺰﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻧﺘﻤﺎء اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ واﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﯿﺪﯾﻦ‬
‫إﻟﻰ ھﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪(Elasrag, 2018) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪privatization‬‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺼﺨﺼﺔ‬ ‫‪becomes important‬‬ ‫ﯾﻜﺘﺴﺐ أھﻤﯿﺔ‬

‫‪moral obligation‬‬ ‫اﻻﻟﺘﺰام اﻷﺧﻼﻗﻲ‬ ‫‪giving up‬‬ ‫ﺗﺨﻠﻲ ﻋﻦ‬
‫‪investment‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر‬ ‫‪associated with‬‬ ‫ﺻﺤﺒﺘﮭﺎ‬
‫‪increasing profits‬‬ ‫زﯾﺎدة اﻟﺮﺑﺢ‬ ‫‪absence of‬‬ ‫اﻧﺘﻔﺎء‬
‫‪reduce conflicts‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﻨﺰاﻋﺎت‬ ‫‪state-run‬‬ ‫ﺗﺪﯾﺮھﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت‬
‫‪difference‬‬ ‫اﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت‬ ‫‪generate revenues‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﻖ إﯾﺮادات‬
‫‪affiliation‬‬ ‫اﻧﺘﻤﺎء‬ ‫‪transferring to‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻮل إﻟﻰ ﻗﻄﺎع‬
‫‪beneficiaries‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻔﯿﺪﯾﻦ‬ ‫‪privatization‬‬ ‫ﺧﺎص‬
‫ﺗﺪﯾﺮھﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت ‪Exercise 1: Translate the first sentence until‬‬

‫ﺗﺸﯿﺮ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺗﻌﺰز رﺑﺤﯿﺘﮭﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺘﻤﺜﻞ دور اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬھﺎ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل واﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻈﻢ ﻗﯿﻤﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻔﻖ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮن ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ ﻣﺤﺪد ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت وﺗﻌﺪد أﺷﻜﺎﻟﮭﺎ وﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻀﺢ رؤﯾﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺣﻮل دورھﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﺎﻗﺶ ھﺬه اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻣﻮﺿﻮع اﻟﺨﺼﺨﺼﺔ ﻟﻤﺎ ﻟﮫ ﻣﻦ آﺛﺎر ﺳﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻤﯿﺎدﯾﻦ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ واﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺮى اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﻮن ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد أن اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﻮﺟﻮدھﺎ اﻟﺬي ﺗﺤﻜﻤﮫ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﺟﺒﺎﺗﮭﺎ واﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻀﻤﻦ أداء اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﺪورھﺎ ﺗﺠﺎه ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺘﮭﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﺣﺼﻮﻟﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ دﻋﻢ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أﻓﺮاد اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻷھﺪاﻓﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺧﻄﻄﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﻮﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﺑﮫ؛ وﻋﻠﯿﮫ ﻓﺈن أداء اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻻﻟﺘﺰاﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﯿﺔ ﯾﻌﺰز ﻣﺒﺎدئ‬ ‫•‬
‫وأﺳﺲ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻓﻞ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻜﺘﺴﺐ اﻟﺪور اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم أھﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﺰاﯾﺪة ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﺨﻠﻲ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻛﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ أدوارھﺎ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺎن ﻣﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎ ً ﻣﻊ ﺗﺤﻮل ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ أن ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ دورھﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻌﻜﺲ اﻟﺘﻮظﯿﻒ آﺛﺎر ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻟﺪورھﺎ ﺗﺠﺎه اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Preventing unemployment reflects that corporates implement their social responsibility‬‬
‫‪roles.‬‬
‫أدرﻛﺖ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص أھﻤﯿﺔ ارﺗﺒﺎطﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ وﺿﺮورة زﯾﺎدة أﻧﺸﻄﺘﮭﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Few public institutions realized the importance of their social linkage.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 4: Complete the English translations in the following table.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪……………….‬‬ ‫اﻟﺸﻔﺎﻓﯿﺔ‬ ‫…………‪advanced‬‬ ‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدات اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ‬

‫‪……………….‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﯿﺰة اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‬ ‫………… ‪community‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﯿﺔ‬
‫‪……………….‬‬ ‫رﺿﺎ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ‬ ‫‪……………………..‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿـﻖ ﺗﻮازن‬
‫‪………. impact‬‬ ‫أﺛﺮ إﯾﺠﺎﺑﻲ‬ ‫‪business …………….‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬
‫………‪local com‬‬ ‫ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬ ‫………………………‬ ‫ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت‬
‫‪sustainable………….‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‬ ‫‪basic economic ……..‬‬ ‫دور اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي أﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
‫‪………………….‬‬ ‫ﻣﺒﺎدرات ذاﺗﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪…………… standards‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ دوﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫‪providing ……….‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ ﺧﺪﻣﺎت‬ ‫………………………‬ ‫أداء ﻣﺆﺳﺴﻲ‬

‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺮﺳﯿﺦ ﺗﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﻗﻮاﻋﺪھﺎ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﻠﺘﺰم‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻔﺮوع اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺑﺘﻄﺒﯿﻖ ھﺬه اﻟﺘﻌﻠﯿﻤﺎت واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻹﻋﻼم دوراً ﻓﺎﻋﻼً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻮﻋﻲ ﺑﺄھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗُﺒﺮز‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻗﺼﺺ ﻧﺠﺎح ﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺘﺰﻣﺖ ﺑﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺘﮭﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻮر اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻮازن ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ واﻟﻤﺼﺎﻟﺢ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾُﺒﺮز اﻟﺘﺸﺮﯾﻊ اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ واﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻛﺄﻓﻀﻞ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻘﺪم‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺤﻀﺎري‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﺤﻮر ﻣﻮﺿﻮع ھﺬه اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﺣﻮل ﺑﯿﺎن أﺛﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ واﻟﺮﺿﺎ اﻟﻮظﯿﻔﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ أداء‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ؛ ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺪﻣﺖ اﻟﺪراﺳﺔ ﻋﺪة ﺗﻮﺻﯿﺎت ﻟﺘﺤﺴﯿﻦ أداء اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت وﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺘﮭﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻘﺎ ً ﻟﺪورھﺎ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺗﻨﻔﺬ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‪ ،‬واﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ وﺗﻘﺪم‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺧﺪﻣﺎت ﻟﻠﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪.‬‬
‫ﻗﺮرت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ إﺟﺮاء ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻢ ﻷﻧﺸﻄﺘﮭﺎ وﻣﺸﺎرﯾﻌﮭﺎ واﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﺑﺮاﻣﺠﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺴﺘﻮى أداءھﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﻲ‪.‬‬

‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻓﺮﺿﺖ اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ ﻣﺆﺧﺮاً ﺑﻘﻮة ﻓﻲ ﻣﺤﯿﻂ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﺳﻮاء اﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ أو‬
‫ﺟﺪﻻ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع آﺧﺮ – وﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻨﺎ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‬‫اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﻓﺮﺿﺖ ھﺬه اﻟﻘﻮة اﻟﺘﻲ أﻗﺮﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ً‬
‫اﻟﺬي ﯾﻐﺪو ﺑﻌﯿﺪاً ﻋﻦ ﺣﺪود ﻋﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ – ﺣﻮل ﻣﺎھﯿﺔ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﻤﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻛﻮﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﺒﺎدرة‬
‫أم إﻟﺰام؟ ھﺬا اﻟﺠﺪل اﻟﺬي ﯾﻀﻊ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت )اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص( ﻣﺘﺄرﺟﺤﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺷﻘﯿﻦ‪ :‬ھﻞ ھﻲ إﻟﺰام ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت؟‬
‫أم ھﻲ ﻋﻤﻞ ﺗﺒﺎدر ﺑﮫ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪(Abu Annasr, 2015, p. 15) .‬‬
2.4 International trade
Text 1
In many respects international trade in services is importantly different from trade in goods.
Indeed, the fact that multilateral negotiations on trade in services began in earnest four
decades after the beginning of multilateral negotiations on trade in goods is a testament to
this difference. The basic economic argument for reducing or eliminating impediments to
trade rests on the improvements in efficiency in the allocation of a country’s resources that
result from such actions. In essence, trade allows a country to focus its resources and ener-
gies on what it does relatively better than the rest of the world, importing those things that it
does less well, and paying for its imports by exporting the things that it does especially well
(White, 2001, pp. 5–6).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
international trade ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة دوﻟﯿﺔ‬ multilateral ‫ﻣﺘﻌﺪد اﻷطﺮاف‬

economic argument ‫ﻧﻘﺎش اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ eliminating impediments ‫إزاﻟﺔ اﻟﻌﻮاﺋﻖ‬
rests on ‫ﺗﺴﺘﻨﺪ إﻟﻰ‬ efficiency ‫ﻛﻔﺎءة‬
allocation of resources ‫ﺗﺨﺼﯿﺺ اﻟﻤﻮارد‬ focus resources ‫ﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﻤﻮارد‬
importing ‫اﺳﺘﯿﺮاد‬ does less well ‫ ﯾﺠﯿﺪھﺎ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﻗﻞ‬/ ‫ﻻ ﯾﺠﯿﺪ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‬
Additional vocabulary
trade barriers ‫ﻋﻮاﺋﻖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬ dumping ‫إﻏﺮاق اﻟﺴﻮق ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬
free trade ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة ﺣﺮة‬ tariffs ‫ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻔﺎت ﺟﻤﺮﻛﯿﺔ‬
comparative advantage ‫ﻣﯿﺰة ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‬ subsidize ‫ ﯾﻘﺪم اﻟﻌﻮن‬/ ‫ﯾﺪﻋﻢ‬
balance of payments ‫ﻣﯿﺰان اﻟﻤﺪﻓﻮﻋﺎت‬ protectionism ‫ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬/ ‫اﻟﺤﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬
Exercise 1: Translate the first two sentences of the above passage.

• The Palestinian government is planning to promote international trade despite the Israeli
measure to oppose the plan.
• Allocation of the available resources can cause conflicts if such allocation does not take
sustainable development into account.
• The planned meeting will discuss different mechanisms and initiatives aiming at elimi-
nating international trade barriers and promoting free trade.
• Aiming to promote domestic products and industries, many governments in the
region are attempting to follow protectionism which aims to restrict international
trade.
• The representatives participating in the meeting called on the developed countries to
discontinue dumping goods into the Middle East markets.
• International trade in services is significantly different from trade in goods.
• You must follow certain procedures and obtain permission to import goods.
.‫ﻻ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻚ اﻟﺘﻘﯿﺪ ﺑﺈﺟﺮاءات ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﺼﺪﯾﺮ ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ ﻟﻠﺨﺎرج‬ •
• Foreign companies need to discontinue dumping subsidized products into our domestic
markets.
.‫ﯾﺘﻌﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻷﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺪل إﻏﺮاق ﺳﻮﻗﻨﺎ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺪﻋﻮﻣﺔ‬ •
• The charity developed a policy to allocate the available resources to support
children.
.‫وﺿﻌﺖ اﻟﺠﻤﻌﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﯿﺮﯾﺔ إﺟﺮاءات ﺻﺎرﻣﺔ ﻟﺘﺨﺼﯿﺺ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﻮارد اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ ﻟﺪﻋﻢ اﻷطﻔﺎل‬ •
ST TT ST TT
balance of trade ‫ﻣﯿﺰان ﺗﺠﺎري‬ infant industry ‫ ﻧﺎﺷﺌﺔ‬..............

merchandise trade ‫ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬/‫ ﺳﻠﻊ‬......... strategic industries ................ ‫ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺎت‬
trade deficit ............... ‫ﻋﺠﺰ‬ economic slowdown ........... ‫ﺗﺮاﺟﻊ‬/‫ﺗﺒﺎطﺆ‬
cost and freight ................ ‫ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ و‬ Barter ………………….
Free-Trade Zone ................ ‫ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ‬ trade surplus ................ ‫ﻓﺎﺋﺾ‬
electronic commerce ........... ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة‬ market economy ‫ اﻟﺴﻮق‬...............
bill of lading ‫ اﻟﺸﺤﻦ‬.............. market disruption ‫اﺿﻄﺮاﺑﺎت اﻟﺴﻮق‬
non-tariff barriers ......................... performance bond ...... ‫ﺳﻨﺪ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬
customs ………………. autarky ‫اﻛﺘﻔﺎء ذاﺗﻲ‬

• Amid the pandemic, the central government is putting forward plans to avoid any pos-
sible downturn in merchandise trade.
• There are proposals to establish a free-trade zone in line with our international commit-
ments to meet the expectations of all partners.
• Due to the weak world economy and the escalating trade war between the United States
and China, there is a dramatic slowdown in global trade.
• The basic economic argument for reducing impediments to trade rests on the improve-
ments in the efficiency of allocating a country’s resources that result from such
actions.
Exercise 6: Translate the following passage into Arabi:
TRADE DEFICITS AND SURPLUSES
When a country’s imports exceed its exports – that is, when it has a negative balance of trade – it
suffers a trade deficit. When exports exceed imports, the nation enjoys a trade surplus. Sev-
eral factors, such as general economic conditions and the effect of trade agreements, influ-
ence trade deficits and surpluses. For example, higher domestic costs, greater international
competition, and continuing economic problems among some of its regional trading partners
have slowed the tremendous growth in exports that Japan once enjoyed (Ebert & Griffin,
2013, p. 94).
Text 2
IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE TO NATIONS
Almost all nations of the world endeavour to develop their export markets, as export has
increasingly become an engine of economic growth, development and national prosperity.
The success of smaller economies like Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea is based on the
fact that these economies are the centre of global manufacturing, trading and services activi-
ties. When the domestic markets are small, foreign markets provide opportunities to achieve
economies of scale, trade expansion and economic growth to the nation. Secondly, countries
tend to export commodities, goods and services, in case the demand for them in the local
markets is limited, such as the export of agricultural products by the EU, the US and Austra-
lia and oil export from the Middle East countries. (Singh, 2009)
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
endeavor ‫ﯾﺴﻌﻰ‬ export markets ‫أﺳﻮاق اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﺮ‬

an engine of ‫ﻣﺤﺮك ﻟـ‬ prosperity ‫ازدھﺎر‬
smaller economies ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎدات ﺻﻐﺮى‬ the center of ‫ﻣﺤﻮر‬/‫ﻣﺮﻛﺰ‬
global manufacturing ‫ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻊ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ‬ trading ‫ﺗﺪاول‬
services activities ‫أﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﺧﺪﻣﯿﺔ‬ domestic markets ‫ داﺧﻠﯿﺔ‬/ ‫أﺳﻮاق ﻣﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬
foreign markets ‫أﺳﻮاق ﺧﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‬ economies of scale ‫ اﻟﻤﻘﯿﺎس اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬/ ‫وﻓﻮرات اﻟﺤﺠﻢ‬
trade expansion ‫ﺗﻮﺳﻊ ﺗﺠﺎري‬ tend to ‫ﺗﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ‬/‫ﯾﻤﯿﻞ‬
commodities ‫ﺳﻠﻊ‬ demand for ‫طﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
agricultural products ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت زراﻋﯿﺔ‬ oil export ‫ﺗﺼﺪﯾﺮ اﻟﻨﻔﻂ‬
Exercise 2: Translate following sentences into Arabic:

• In 2018, China’s global manufacturing accounted for 28% of global manufacturing.
• Some local companies gained considerable experience in foreign markets and can there-
fore succeed in competing with other companies.
• Different countries engage in international trade to expand their goods and services
market. International trade enables consumers to buy cheaper products.
• Export crops are grown for export markets and are usually traded on international
markets.
• The Ministry of Agriculture stressed the need to enhance the capacity to implement
international standards for agricultural products to ensure the competitiveness of those
products in international markets.
• The success of smaller economies like Taiwan, Singapore, and South Korea is based on
the fact that these economies are centers of global manufacturing, trading, and services
activities.
• The central government discussed different ways to enhance the capacity of small com-
panies in domestic markets.
.‫ﻧﺎﻗﺸﺖ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ اﻟﻤﻘﺘﺮﺣﺎت اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻟﺘﻌﺰﯾﺰ ﻗﺪرة اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬ •
• Efficient government export authorities can help local companies to identify possible
opportunities to market their products in export markets.
.‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﻠﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻟﻔﺮص اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ‬ •
ST TT ST TT
economic barriers ‫ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬............. economic differences .....................

branch office ................ ‫ﻣﻜﺘﺐ‬ flow of capital ....................... ‫ﺗﺪﻓﻖ‬
forbid exportation .......... ‫ﯾﺤﻈﺮ‬/‫ﯾﻤﻨﻊ‬ revenue tariffs .............. ‫إﯾﺮادات‬
a domestic business ................ ‫ أﻋﻤﺎل‬/ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺔ‬ embargo .............................
trade gap ................ ‫ﻓﺠﻮة‬ trade fair .................. ‫ﻣﻌﺮض‬
quota ....................... set a limit ............................
encourage trade ....................... imports declined ...........................
international transactions .... ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼت‬ declining industries ‫ ﻣﺘﺪھﻮرة‬...............
import substitution ........ ‫إﺣﻼل‬/‫اﺳﺘﺒﺪال‬ export earnings ................... ‫ﻋﺎﺋﺪات‬

• Social barriers can sometimes lead to economic barriers which can include protection-
ism trade policies.
• Different governments made provisions which forbid the exportation of goods, tech-
nologies, or services if they are intended to promote the economic development of an
enemy country.
• Different countries have recently proposed legislation to eliminate legal and economic
barriers to international transactions.
• Countries relying on commodity exports are at risk of insufficient export earnings due
to the intense competition in international markets.
• When domestic markets are small, foreign markets provide opportunities to achieve
economies of scale, trade expansion, and economic growth in a nation.
• Many countries tend to export goods and services in case the demand for them in the
local markets is limited, as in the exporting of agricultural products by the EU, the US,
and Australia, and in the oil exports from Middle East countries.
BARRIERS TO INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Whether a business is truly multinational or sells to only a few foreign markets, several fac-
tors will affect its international operations. Success in foreign markets will largely depend on
the ways it responds to social, economic, legal, and political barriers to international trade
(Ebert & Griffin, 2013, p. 103).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺤﺪﯾﺜﺔ واﻟﻌﻮﻟﻤﺔ‬
‫ﺷﮭﺪت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﺻﺮة ﻟﻠﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ وﻟﻠﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﺗﻄﻮرات ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮھﺎ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﻋﻘﺪت‬
‫اﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ وﻣﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ )‪ (WTO‬ﻓﻲ ﺳﻨﺔ ‪ ،1995‬وھﻨﺎك‬
‫اﻟﻤﻘﺮات‪/‬اﻟﺒﻮرﺻﺎت ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ واﻟﺴﻠﻊ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺧﻀﻌﺖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬
‫اﻟﻌﻤﻼت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‪ ،‬وﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺪاﻓﻊ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺲ وراء اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ واﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻮرة واﻟﺴﻔﻦ واﻟﻤﻮاﻧﺊ اﻟﻌﻤﻼﻗﺔ‪ ،‬وﻗﺪ ﺑﻠﻐﺖ أﻗﯿﺎم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ أرﻗﺎﻣﺎ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﺟﺪا‪ ،‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺳﻨﺔ ‪ 2000‬ﺑﻠﻐﺖ‬
‫أﻗﯿﺎم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ )‪ (6.5‬ﺗﺮﯾﻠﻮن دوﻻر‪ ،‬أي أﻧﮭﺎ ازدادت )ﻋﺸﺮون ﻣﺮة( ﻣﻨﺬ ﺳﻨﺔ ‪ ،1970‬وﺗﺒﺎﯾﻨﺖ ﻣﺴﺎھﻤﺎت‬
‫اﻟﺪول ﻓﻲ أﻗﯿﺎم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ وﻟﻠﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪ ،‬وﻗﺪ ﺗﻘﺪﻣﺘﮭﺎ ﺳﻨﺔ ‪ 2009‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻮاﻟﻲ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺼﯿﻦ‪ ،‬أﻟﻤﺎﻧﯿﺎ‬
‫اﻟﻮﻻﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ﺛﻢ اﻟﯿﺎﺑﺎن‪(Assamirrai, 2016, p. 201) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪goods and services‬‬ ‫ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ وﺧﺪﻣﺎت‬ ‫‪globalization‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻮﻟﻤﺔ‬

‫‪to regulate‬‬ ‫ﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻢ‬ ‫‪agreements were concluded‬‬ ‫ﻋﻘﺪت اﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت‬
‫‪fix prices‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬ ‫‪exchanges‬‬ ‫ﺑﻮرﺻﺎت‬
‫‪was subjected to‬‬ ‫ﺧﻀﻌﺖ‬ ‫‪goods/commodities‬‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻊ‬
‫‪main drive‬‬ ‫داﻓﻊ رﺋﯿﺴﻲ‬ ‫‪exchange rates‬‬ ‫أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻌﻤﻼت‬
‫‪transportation‬‬ ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻧﻘﻞ‬ ‫‪expansion and development‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺳﻊ وﺗﻄﻮر‬
‫‪valued at‬‬ ‫ﺑﻠﻐﺖ‬ ‫‪values‬‬ ‫أﻗﯿﺎم‬
‫‪topped by‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﺪﻣﺘﮭﺎ‬ ‫‪varied‬‬ ‫ﺗﺒﺎﯾﻨﺖ‬
‫‪Exercise 1: Translate the first sentence until 1995.‬‬

‫ﯾﺮﺗﻜﺰ ﺟﻮھﺮ اﻟﻌﻮﻟﻤﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻈﺮﯾﺔ ﺗﺮى أن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻧﺸﺎط اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻣﺮﺑﺢ ﺣﺘﻰ ﻟﻠﺪول اﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻤﻜﻨﮭﺎ إﻧﺘﺎج ﻛﻞ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ أﻗﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﺪول اﻷﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‪ ،‬واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪ ،‬واﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ ﺑﯿﻦ دول ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻠﻌﺐ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر دوراً ﻣﮭﻤﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﺗﺠﺎھﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗُﺮﺟﻊ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ اﻷﺳﻌﺎر إﻟﻰ اﻟﻌﺮض واﻟﻄﻠﺐ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻮاﻧﺊ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﮭﯿﻞ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﻜﻮﻧﮭﺎ ﻧﻘﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻘﺎء وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻧﻘﻞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ أﻧﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﻔﺬ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻮﺣﯿﺪ ﻟﻠﻤﺒﺎدﻻت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫أدى ﺗﻮﺳﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ وﺟﺬب اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎرات أﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي وﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﻔﻘﺮ وﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أھﺪاف اﻟﻨﻤﻮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﺎت اﻷﺳﻮاق ﻋﻘﺪ اﺗﻔﺎﻗﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرة دوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﻌﺎم واﻟﺨﺎص وﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﮭﺎرات واﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ ﻟﺘﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﺘﺒﺎدل اﻟﺘﺠﺎري اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‪.‬‬
‫أدت اﻟﻘﯿﻮد اﻟﺘﻲ ﻓﺮﺿﺘﮭﺎ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺪول ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﺪھﻮر اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﻤﻌﯿﺸﯿﺔ ﻟﻔﺌﺎت ﻋﺮﯾﻀﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺳﻜﺎن اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﺘﻲ ﺧﻀﻌﺖ ﻟﺘﺪاﺑﯿﺮ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﺻﺎرﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺪاﻓﻊ اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ وراء اﻟﺘﻮﺳﻊ واﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻮرة اﻟﺘﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﺰزت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺘﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ ﺗﺤﻔﯿﺰ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ وأﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻌﻤﻠﺔ واﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The committee discussed barriers to foreign investment, use of currency and interna-‬‬
‫‪tional trade.‬‬
‫أﻛﺪت اﻟﻮزارة أﻧﮭﺎ ﺗﺆﯾﺪ ﻋﻮﻟﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The state institution confirmed its support to the globalization of protectionism.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻣﻔﺎوﺿﺎت ﺑﯿﻦ دول اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺣﻮل اﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﮭﺪف إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت اﻟﻮطﻨﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The two countries must negotiate international trade agreements aiming at strengthen-‬‬
‫‪ing global economies.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪………….... sector‬‬ ‫ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬ ‫‪law of ………..‬‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻧﻮن اﻟﺴﻌﺮ اﻟﻮاﺣﺪ‬

‫‪direct ..…………..‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﮭﻼك ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬ ‫‪flow of ……….‬‬ ‫ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬
‫…………… ‪trading‬‬ ‫ﺗﺪاول اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬ ‫……‪marketing‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪food ……………..‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻏﺬاﺋﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪………….. goods‬‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﻮردة‬
‫‪…………………..‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮارد طﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ‬ ‫……………‪impose‬‬ ‫ﯾﻀﻊ ﻋﺮاﻗﯿﻞ‬
‫‪date of …………..‬‬ ‫ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﺸﺤﻦ‬ ‫‪……………. costs‬‬ ‫ﯾﺰﯾﺪ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ‬
‫‪date of …………..‬‬ ‫ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬ ‫‪meet ……………...‬‬ ‫ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ‪ /‬ﺳﺪ ﺣﺎﺟﺔ اﻟﺴﻮق‬
‫‪…………….. costs‬‬ ‫ﻧﻔﻘﺎت اﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ‬ ‫‪expand…………….‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﺳﯿﻊ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‬
‫……………………‬ ‫ﺳﻮق ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪…………….surplus‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﺪﯾﺮ اﻟﻔﺎﺋﺾ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻜﺎن اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﯿﻦ واﻟﺘﺠﺎر ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺪﻓﻖ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺤﺪود‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫أدى ﺿﻌﻒ اﻟﻤﮭﺎرات اﻹدارﯾﺔ واﻟﻌﺠﺰ ﻋﻦ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺑﻂء ﺗﺪﻓﻘﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ وﻋﺪم اﻟﻘﺪرة‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻔﺎدي اﻟﻌﺠﺰ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان ﺑﮭﺪف‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﻓﺮص ﺑﯿﻌﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺼﺪر اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ﻓﺎﺋﺾ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺑﻠﺪان ﻣﺠﺎورة ﻓﻲ أﻓﺮﯾﻘﯿﺎ أو إﻟﻰ دول اﻻﺗﺤﺎد اﻷوروﺑﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﯿﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻤﺆﺗﻤﺮ اﻟﺬي ﺳﯿﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﺸﮭﺮ اﻟﻘﺎدم ﺳﺒﻞ ﺗﻌﺒﺌﺔ اﻟﻤﻮارد وﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ واﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﮭﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺪاﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻧﺎﻗﺸﺖ اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ ﺳﺒﻞ ﻣﻮاﺟﮭﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻮاﺟﮫ ﻗﻄﺎع اﻟﻨﻘﻞ واﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ اﻟﺪوﻟﺔ ﻋﺎﺋﺪات اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﺸﺮاء ﺳﻠﻊ وﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ دول ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺴﻮق‪.‬‬

‫اﻻﺗﺠﺎه اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ واﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬
‫ﯾﻼﺣﻆ أن ﻣﻌﺪل ﻧﻤﻮ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ زاد ﺑﻤﻌﺪل أﺳﺮع وأﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻌﺪل ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺣﯿﺚ ﻛﺎن ﻣﻌﺪل ﻧﻤﻮ اﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﯾﻤﯿﻞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ إﻟﻰ ﺣﻮاﻟﻲ ‪ 12%‬ﺧﻼل ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﻨﺎت ﺣﯿﺚ وﺻﻞ‬
‫ﻋﺎم ‪ 1998‬إﻟﻰ ‪ 695‬ﻣﻠﯿﺎر دوﻻر ﺛﻢ ﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ زﯾﺎدة وﺻﻠﺖ إﻟﻰ ‪ 45%‬ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ وﺻﻞ ﻋﺎم ‪ 1999‬إﻟﻰ ‪ 1088‬ﻣﻠﯿﺎر‬
‫دوﻻر وﺑﻨﺴﺒﺔ زﯾﺎدة ﺑﻠﻐﺖ ‪.57%‬‬
‫)‪(Awad & Shehata, 2018, p. 32‬‬
‫‪Text 2‬‬
‫ﻓﻔﻲ اﻟﺴﻨﻮات اﻷﺧﯿﺮة ﺗﺤﻮﻟﺖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﺋﻖ ﺑﺪل ﻣﺤﺮك ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ ﻓﻲ‬
‫اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻨﺎﻣﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ھﺬه اﻟﺤﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺰاﯾﺪة ﻣﻌﻨﺎھﺎ ﻣﺰﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ إﺑﻄﺎء اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي وارﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫واﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻟﺬا‪ ،‬ﻓﺈن ﺗﺪﻧﻲ ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ وﺗﻘﯿﯿﺪھﺎ ھﻮ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﺘﺪﻧﻲ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﺘﺒﺎطﺆ اﻟﻮاﺳﻊ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻛﺎن ﻣﺴﺆوﻻً ﺑﺎﻟﺪرﺟﺔ اﻷوﻟﻰ ﻋﻦ ھﺒﻮط ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻟﺴﻨﻮي ﻟﺤﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬
‫اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ‪ 8%‬ﺧﻼل اﻟﺴﺘﯿﻨﺎت إﻟﻰ ‪ 5.7%‬ﺧﻼل اﻟﺴﺒﻌﯿﻨﺎت وإﻟﻰ ‪ 2.7%‬ﺧﻼل اﻟﻨﺼﻒ اﻷول ﻣﻦ اﻟﺜﻤﺎﻧﯿﻨﺎت‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Shaheen, 2018, p. 37‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪turned into‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻮﻟﺖ‬ ‫‪recent years‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻨﻮات اﻷﺧﯿﺮة‬

‫‪barrier‬‬ ‫ﻋﺎﺋﻖ‬ ‫‪protectionism‬‬ ‫ﺣﻤﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬
‫‪slowing down‬‬ ‫إﺑﻄﺎء‬ ‫‪drive‬‬ ‫ﻣﺤﺮك‬
‫‪restricting‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﯿﯿﺪ‬ ‫‪low rates‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺪﻻت‬
‫ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ‬
‫‪growth rates‬‬ ‫ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ‬ ‫‪extended slowdown‬‬ ‫ﺗﺒﺎطﺆ واﺳﻊ‬
‫‪volume of‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ‬ ‫‪drop in average‬‬ ‫ھﺒﻮط ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬
‫‪seventies‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﺒﻌﯿﻨﺎت‬ ‫‪sixties‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﺘﯿﻨﺎت‬
‫‪Exercise 1: Translate the first passage above.‬‬

‫اﻧﻌﻜﺴﺖ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺤﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ اﻧﺘﮭﺠﺘﮭﺎ ھﺬه اﻟﺒﻠﺪان ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻨﻤﻮ واﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻮﻟﺖ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﮭﺠﮭﺎ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻨﻮات‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﺧﯿﺮة إﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﺋﻖ ﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻨﺎﻣﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻮﻟﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺮك اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﻲ ﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ واﻟﺰﯾﺎدة اﻟﻤﻠﺤﻮظﺔ ﻟﺘﺪاول اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺸﻜﻞ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ وارﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﻌﺪﻻت اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻋﺎﺋﻘﺎ ً ﯾﮭﺪد ﺳﻼﻣﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد‪.‬‬
‫أظﮭﺮت اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻘﺎرﯾﺮ أن ﺻﯿﺎﻏﺔ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻼت اﻟﺼﻌﺒﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﻔﻘﺮ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻣﮭﻤﺔ ﺻﻌﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ ظﻞ ﻓﺘﺮة اﻟﺮﻛﻮد اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي اﻟﺤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ھﻨﺎك اﻧﺨﻔﺎض ﻛﺒﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ اﻟﺴﻮق‪ ،‬وﺳﯿﺎﺳﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﯿﺔ وﻋﺪم‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﺳﺘﻘﺮار اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﻲ واﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‪.‬‬
‫أظﮭﺮ اﻟﺘﻘﺮﯾﺮ اﻟﺴﻨﻮي أن زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻌﻤﺎﻟﺔ وزﯾﺎدة دﺧﻞ اﻷﺳﺮ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ طﺒﯿﻌﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻧﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﺧﯿﺮة‪.‬‬
‫رﻓﻌﺖ اﻟﻠﺠﺎن اﻟﻤﻌﻨﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﺻﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻻﺗﺨﺎذ ﺗﺪاﺑﯿﺮ ﻣﺤﺪدة ﻟﻀﻤﺎن ﺗﺠﺎرة دوﻟﯿﺔ ﻋﺎدﻟﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺆدي اﻟﺠﻤﻊ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﻨﻤﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ واﻟﻨﻤﻮ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ ﻓﺮص اﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ أﺳﻮاق ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺗﺤﻔﯿﺰ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻛﻘﻮة ﻣﺤﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻤﻮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔﺘﻘﺮ ﻋﺪة ﺑﻠﺪان إﻟﻰ ﻣﻘﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﻨﻤﻮ طﻮﯾﻞ اﻷﺟﻞ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻋﺮﺑﺖ اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻠﻘﮭﺎ ﺣﯿﺎل ﻧﺘﺎﺋﺞ ھﺒﻮط ﻣﻌﺪﻻت ﺗﺠﺎرة اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي أﺛﺮ ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺎت اﻟﺪول اﻟﻨﺎﻣﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
6 Translating marketing texts
6.1 Products and brands
Text 1
The corporate brand has become increasingly important in today’s markets and society. Not
only do corporate brands provide companies with competitive advantages, they also repre-
sent the way in which companies behave towards society. Products and brands have been
fulfilling consumers’ needs for quite some time, but now, as markets are full of interchange-
able products and brands, consumers increasingly look for distinguishing companies. Com-
panies use a corporate branding strategy – that is, a strategy in which the corporate brand
plays a central role – to radiate reliability, innovativeness, or social responsibility, for exam-
ple. Consumers use such company associations to evaluate the company. This evaluation is
often referred to as the corporate image. Consumers’ evaluations of the company’s products
and services are generally considered to be moderated by this corporate image and vice
versa; the product evaluations influence the image of the corporate brand (Cramer, Neijens
& Smith, 2003, p. 111).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
corporate brand ‫ﻋﻼﻣﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬ increasingly important ‫ﺗﺰداد أھﻤﯿﺘﮫ‬

competitive advantages ‫ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‬ represent ‫ﺗﻤﺜﻞ‬
fulfilling needs ‫ﺗﻠﺒﻲ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت‬ interchangeable ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﺒﺎدل‬
distinguish ‫ﻣﻤﯿﺰة‬ branding strategy ‫إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬
central role ‫ﻣﺤﻮري‬/‫دور ﻣﺮﻛﺰي‬ radiate reliability ‫أﻣﺎﻧﺔ‬/‫ﯾﻌﻜﺲ وﻓﺎء‬
innovativeness ‫اﻻﺑﺘﻜﺎر‬ social responsibility ‫ﻣﺴﺌﻮﻟﯿﺔ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬
corporate image ‫ﺻﻮرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ moderated by ‫ إدارة‬/ ‫ﺗﺤﺖ اﺷﺮاف‬

• The corporate brand has become increasingly important in today’s markets and
society.
• Products and brands have been fulfilling consumers’ needs for quite some time, but
now, as markets are full of interchangeable products and brands, consumers increas-
ingly look for ways to distinguish one company from another..
• Companies use a corporate branding strategy – that is, a strategy in which the corporate
brand plays a central role – to radiate reliability, innovativeness, or social
responsibility.
• Consumers use such company associations to evaluate the company. This evaluation is
often referred to as the corporate image.
• The company is working to promote its corporate brand in different areas.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003170846-7
Translating marketing texts 145
• Consumers’ evaluations of the company’s products and services are generally affected
by this corporate image and vice versa; the product evaluations influence the image of
the corporate brand.
‫ﻗﺪ ﻻ ﺗﺘﺄﺛﺮ ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﻮردﯾﻦ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم إﻟﻰ اﻹدارة ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺻﻮرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ •
.‫واﻟﻌﻜﺲ ﺻﺤﯿﺢ؛ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻤﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻮرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
• Not only do corporate brands provide companies with competitive advantages; they
also represent the way in which companies behave toward society.
‫ﺗﻮﻓﺮ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﯿﺔ وﺗﻌﺰز دورھﺎ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ‬ •
.‫ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺻﻮرﺗﮭﺎ‬
• While companies make products, consumers build corporate brands through their
expectations and experiences with the products.
.‫ﺗﺘﻌﺎون اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﻮن ﻓﻲ ﺑﻨﺎء ﺻﻮرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺘﻮﻗﻌﺎت‬ •
ST TT ST TT
offer to a market …………………. reinforce …………………

satisfy a want …………………... evolving needs …………………
related products ………………….. growing sales …………………
declining profitability ……………... re-evaluate product mix …………….
sale by retailers ………………….. are branded ......................‫ذات‬
competing offerings ………………. customers’ attitudes ………………..
extensive advertising ……………... brand recognition ..............‫اﻻﻋﺘﺮاف ﺑـ‬
product’s logo …………………... to market products …………………
marketing practice ………………… distinguish products ……………….

• Companies offer their products to local or international markets in order to satisfy cus-
tomers’ wants or needs.
• A product logo can help consumers easily identify the name of the manufacturing com-
pany which reflects a product recognition.
• Some poor corporate branding strategies which the company implemented resulted in a
profitability decline.
• Companies can reinforce their brand names by promoting their exclusive packaging and
design.
All brands signify a relationship between consumers and an environment. However,

brands differ on which environment, which aspect of that environment and which consumers
they relate. In online environments consumers cannot physically inspect and evaluate the
products or services offered (Guang & Pennington, 2009, p. 163).
Text 2
Pricing of Products – Price of product refers to the amount of money customers have to pay
to obtain a product. The demand for a product or service is related to its price. Generally
lower the price, higher would be the demand for the product and vice versa. The marketers
have to properly analyze the factors determining the price of a product and take several cru-
cial decisions in this respect, including setting the pricing objectives, determining the pricing
strategies, determining the price and changing the prices.
Physical Distribution – Managing physical distribution is another very important function
in the marketing of goods and services. The two major decision areas under this function
include (i) decision regarding channels of distribution or the marketing intermediaries and
(ii) physical movement of the product from place of production to place of consumption
(Tulsian, 2007, p. 12).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
pricing ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﺮ‬ amount of money ‫ﻣﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺎﻟﻲ‬

customers ‫اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ‬/‫اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬ to obtain ‫ﻟﯿﺤﺼﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
demand for ‫اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ related to ‫ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻂ ب‬/‫ﻣﺘﻌﻠﻖ ب‬
marketers ‫اﻟﻤﺴﻮﻗﯿﻦ‬ factors determining ‫ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﻣﺤﺪدة‬
crucial decisions ‫ﻗﺮارات ﺣﺎﺳﻤﺔ‬ setting ‫ ﺿﺒﻂ‬/ ‫ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ‬
pricing objectives ‫أھﺪاف اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﺮ‬ pricing strategies ‫اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺴﻌﯿﺮ‬
physical distribution ‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ ﻋﯿﻨﻲ‬ channels of distribution ‫ﻗﻨﻮات اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ‬
marketing intermediaries ‫وﺳﻄﺎء ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬ consumption ‫اﺳﺘﮭﻼك‬

• Pricing of Product: Price of product refers to the amount of money customers have to
pay to obtain a product.
• The demand for a product or service is related to its price.
• Generally lower the price, higher would be the demand for the product and vice versa.
• The marketers have to properly analyze the factors determining the price of a product
and take several crucial decisions in this respect.
• The decision relates to setting the pricing objectives, determining the pricing strategies,
determining the price and changing the prices.
• Physical Distribution: Managing physical distribution is another very important func-
tion in the marketing of goods and services.
• The two major decision areas under this function include (i) decision regarding channels
of distribution or the marketing intermediaries and (ii) physical movement of the prod-
uct from place of production to place of consumption.
• The physical distribution is based on the efficiency of the logistics company which
operates in different countries.
• Different companies can use varied pricing strategies when marketing and selling their
products.
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﻛﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻧﻔﺲ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﺗﺴﻌﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻋﻨﺪ ﻋﺮض ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬ •
.‫وﺑﯿﻌﮭﺎ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬
• Some NGOs provide assistance to farmers which includes small agricultural loans and
marketing of their products.
‫ ﯾﺸﻤﻞ ﻗﺮوض طﻮﯾﻠﺔ اﻷﺟﻞ وﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﻢ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق‬،‫ﺗﻘﺪم ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ دﻋﻤﺎ ً ﻟﻠﻤﺰارﻋﯿﻦ‬ •
.‫اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬
• In developing countries, consumers prefer imported products to products made locally
because of the high quality of imported products.
‫ﯾﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪول اﻟﻨﺎﻣﯿﺔ ﺷﺮاء ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺠﻮدة ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮردة اﻟﺘﻲ‬ •
.‫ﺗﻔﺘﻘﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺠﻮدة‬
Exercise 3: Translate the English phrases in the following table.
ST TT ST TT
production processes ……………... habit of consuming …………………

marketing skills …………………... product innovation …………………
product specifications ……………. brand management …………………
protect products ………………… unscrupulous competitors ………….
category of products ……………… consumer perceptions ………………
utilitarian benefits ………………… prominence in markets ……………..
company reputation ……………… launch new products ………………...
usage experience ………………….. create awareness …………………
strong brands ………………….. brand elements …………………

• Environmentalist have stressed the importance of developing and introducing produc-
tion processes which do not harm the environment.
• Companies generally use their brands to protect their products and services from unscru-
pulous competitors.
• International companies which promote product innovation can achieve prominence in
international markets.
• Different companies adopt different marketing skills and strategies to develop the habit
of consuming among their clients.
The main function of product policy is to guide the activities of the firm toward common
goals. In that the success of the company is measured not only by its current profits but also
by its long-term growth, the company must strike a delicate balance between optimizing its
current operations and making adequate provision for the future (Baker & McTavish, 1976,
p. 19).
‫‪148‬‬ ‫‪Translating marketing texts‬‬
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺻﻔﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﯿﺰھﺎ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮاء ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﻨﻮع أو اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ‬
‫أو اﻟﻀﻤﺎن أو طﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻀﯿﺮ‪ ،‬وﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻮع ﻣﺠﻤﻮع ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺘﺎز ﺑﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ‬
‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ أﺧﺮى ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ أو ﻣﺸﺎﺑﮭﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ‪ ،‬أﻣﺎ اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﻓﯿﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﮭﺎ درﺟﺔ اﻟﺠﻮدة واﻹﺗﻘﺎن‬
‫ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﻋﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮد ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻤﺎن ھﻮ ﺗﻌﮭﺪ اﻟﺼﺎﻧﻊ أو اﻟﺘﺎﺟﺮ ﺑﺼﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﻋﺔ أو ﺑﯿﺎن‬
‫اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺒﮭﺎ‪ ،‬واﻟﺬي ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ أن ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻟﺜﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت واﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ وﺗﻔﻀﯿﻠﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﯿﺮھﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ إﺣﺪى وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﺟﺮ أو اﻟﺼﺎﻧﻊ أو ﻣﻘﺪم اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻺﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮫ أو ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻌﮫ أو‬
‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ اﻹﻋﻼن واﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻌﻼﻣﺘﮫ أن ﯾﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ أذھﺎن اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬
‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪(Alghwairi, 2008) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪status‬‬ ‫ﺻﻔﺔ‬ ‫‪trademark‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬

‫‪guarantee‬‬ ‫اﻟﻀﻤﺎن‬ ‫‪rank‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ‬
‫‪same‬‬ ‫ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬ ‫‪feature‬‬ ‫ﺗﻤﺘﺎز‬
‫‪quality level‬‬ ‫درﺟﺔ اﻟﺠﻮدة‬ ‫‪similar‬‬ ‫ﻣﺸﺎﺑﮭﺔ‬
‫‪manufacturer undertaking‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﮭﺪ اﻟﺼﺎﻧﻊ‬ ‫‪perfection‬‬ ‫اﻹﺗﻘﺎن‬
‫‪publicity‬‬ ‫اﻹﻋﻼن واﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ‬ ‫‪product viability‬‬ ‫ﺻﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬

‫ﺗﻌﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻋﻦ ﺻﻔﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﯿﺰھﺎ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮاء ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﻨﻮع أو‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ أو اﻟﻀﻤﺎن أو طﺮﯾﻘﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻀﯿﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻮع ﻣﺠﻤﻮع ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺘﺎز ﺑﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﺧﺮى ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ أو ﻣﺸﺎﺑﮭﺔ ﻟﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﮭﺎ درﺟﺔ اﻟﺠﻮدة واﻹﺗﻘﺎن ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﻋﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﻤﻘﺼﻮد ﺑﺎﻟﻀﻤﺎن ھﻮ ﺗﻌﮭﺪ اﻟﺼﺎﻧﻊ أو‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺎﺟﺮ ﺑﺼﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أو اﻟﺒﻀﺎﻋﺔ أو ﺑﯿﺎن اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺒﮭﺎ‪ ،‬واﻟﺬي ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ أن ﯾﺆدي‬
‫إﻟﻰ اﻟﺜﻘﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت واﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ وﺗﻔﻀﯿﻠﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻏﯿﺮھﺎ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻊ أو ﻣﻘﺪم اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻺﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮫ أو ﺑﻀﺎﺋﻌﮫ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ إﺣﺪى وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﺟﺮ أو ُ‬ ‫•‬
‫أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ‪ ،‬إذ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ اﻹﻋﻼن واﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻌﻼﻣﺘﮫ أن ﯾﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ أذھﺎن اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬
‫ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺜﻤﺮ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﻣﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة وﺗﺴﺨﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﺑﮭﺪف ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ ﺣﻤﻼت اﻹﻋﻼن واﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﺮوﯾﺞ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ أﺳﻮاق ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﺼﻤﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻤﯿﺰ اﻟﺬي ﻗﺪ ﯾﺸﻤﻞ ﺷﻌﺎرات أو رﺳﻮﻣﺎت أو رﻣﻮز أو ﻛﻠﻤﺎت ﺗﺤﺪد‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ؛ وﺗﻤﻨﺢ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﺣﻘﻮق ﻗﺎﻧﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﻌﻰ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ درﺟﺔ ﺟﻮدة ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﺗﺤﺴﯿﻨﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﺑﮭﺪف‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻼﻣﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ وﺳﻤﻌﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺻﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت أﺣﺪ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻷﺳﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻟﻜﺴﺐ ﺛﻘﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﺎ‪ ،‬وھﻮ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﻣﺮ اﻟﺬي ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﺻﻮرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﺻﻮرة ﻋﻼﻣﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺘﻠﺰم ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﻨﺠﺎح ﻓﻲ ھﺬا اﻟﺴﻮق ﺿﻤﺎن ﺟﻮدة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت واﻧﺘﻈﺎم ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫‪Translating marketing texts 149‬‬
‫‪Exercise 2: Identify and correct the errors in the English translations:‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﻼﻣﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺠﯿﺪة ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻟﻠﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻤﻮﯾﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻻﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎراﺗﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺎطﻖ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Some local private-sector companies depend on their consumers’ experience reputation‬‬
‫‪in order to fund their investments locally and internationally.‬‬
‫ﺧﻠﺼﺖ اﻟﻠﺠﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻘﺮﯾﺮھﺎ أن ﺳﻤﻌﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﺮت ﺳﻠﺒﺎ ً ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت أﺧﺮى دﺧﻠﺖ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺴﻮق ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة‪ .‬وﻋﻠﯿﮫ‪ ،‬ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺔ وﺿﻊ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﺗﻀﻤﻦ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ‬
‫وﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﺳﻤﻌﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ اﻟﺠﻮدة وﻋﺮض أﺳﻌﺎر ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The external committee said that the company brand was badly affected by other com-‬‬
‫‪peting companies. Therefore, it must develop strategies to ensure competing in other‬‬
‫‪markets in order to improve its reputation.‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﯿﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺪراﺳﺎت واﻷﺑﺤﺎث اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل أن ﺳﻤﻌﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﺛﺮوة إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻨﺒﻐﻲ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Some new research papers indicate that business strategies can help improve a company‬‬
‫‪reputation by protecting its strategic wealth.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Translate the Arabic phrases in the following table.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺷﻌﺎرات‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﻮدة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬

‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أداء ﻣﺎﻟﻲ أﻓﻀﻞ‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺳﻤﻌﺔ ﺟﯿﺪة‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼت ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺟﮭﺎت ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
‫‪........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺸﻮﯾﮫ ﺳﻤﻌﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ ‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻋﺎﺋﺪات ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫‪.......................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬
‫‪.......................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮازن اﻟﻘﺪرات اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫إﺑﺮاز ﻣﻜﺎﻧﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
‫‪.......................‬‬ ‫أﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﻣﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﯿﻒ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬
‫‪.......................‬‬ ‫اھﺘﻤﺎم اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺑﻨﺎء ﺳﻤﻌﺔ‬
‫‪.......................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺘﻤﺘﻊ ﺑﻤﺰاﯾﺎ‬ ‫‪........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ وﻻء اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ‬

‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ ﻗﯿﺎم اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺪورھﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﻤﺴﺆوﻟﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ أﺣﺪ ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﻧﺠﺎﺣﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫أﻛﺒﺮ ﻋﺪد ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء وﺑﻨﺎء ﺳﻤﻌﺔ ﺟﯿﺪة ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻮراً ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻌﺎﺟﻠﺔ ﺗﺮدي ﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪ ،‬ﻟﺘﻔﺎدي إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﺸﻮﯾﮫ ﺳﻤﻌﺘﮭﺎ وﻋﺪم اﻟﻘﺪرة‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ ﻋﺎﺋﺪات ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻠﯿﺔ ﻧﺘﯿﺠﺔ ﻟﺬﻟﻚ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻨﻤﯿﺔ وﻻء اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﯿﻦ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﺗﻮازن اﻟﻘﺪرات اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﻤﻮﺿﻊ‪:‬‬
‫إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﻤﻮﺿﻊ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ طﺮح ﻋﻼﻣﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻓﻲ أﻣﺎﻛﻦ طﻠﺐ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﻓﻲ أﺳﻮق ﺟﺪﯾﺪة وﻟﻜﻦ ﺑﻨﻔﺲ اﻷﺻﻨﺎف‬
‫واﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ واﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻨﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ واﻟﻘﻄﺎع‪ ،‬واﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة ﺗﺤﺮض ﻗﺮار ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‪ ،‬إن إﻋﺎدة‬
‫اﻟﺘﻤﻮﺿﻊ ﻗﺮار اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻻﺗﺠﺎه اﻟﻌﺎم ﻟﺘﺤﺮك ورواج اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Meraj, 2013, p. 70‬‬
6.2 Marketing
Text 1
Most people in business have an understanding of what marketing is all about – getting and
keeping the right customers. Although you will find many definitions on marketing when
you search for it, I like this definition best for its simplicity and usability. Marketing can be
direct marketing, viral marketing, branding, customer relationship management, promotion
and advertising, public relations, and so on. Product marketing is marketing that is focused
on the product (or service) the company is bringing to market.
Product managers can be found in all kinds of companies, from pharmaceutical makers to
furniture manufacturers and from fast-food chains to computer vendors. Regardless of the
industry, product managers have one thing in common; they are responsible for the market-
ing of their product (Butje, 2012, p. 2).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
people in business ‫أﺻﺤﺎب أﻋﻤﺎل ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ what marketing is ‫ﻣﺎھﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬

getting and keeping ‫ﺟﺬب واﻟﺤﻔﺎظ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ usability ‫ﻗﺎﺑﻠﯿﺔ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬
direct marketing ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ‬ viral marketing ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻓﯿﺮوﺳﻲ‬
branding ‫ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺗﺠﺎري‬/‫ﺗﻮﺳﯿﻢ‬ promotion ‫ﺗﺮوﯾﺞ‬
advertising ‫إﻋﻼن‬ public relations ‫ﻋﻼﻗﺎت ﻋﺎﻣﺔ‬
is bringing to ‫ﺗﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ ل‬ product managers ‫ﻣﺪراء اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬
fast-food chains ‫ﺳﻼﺳﻞ وﺟﺒﺎت ﺳﺮﯾﻌﺔ‬ computer vendors ‫ﻣﻮردي أﺟﮭﺰة ﺣﺎﺳﻮب‬

• Most people in business have an understanding of what marketing is all about – getting
and keeping the right customers.
• Although you will find many definitions on marketing when you search for it, this defi-
nition is the best because of its simplicity and usability.
• Marketing can be direct marketing, viral marketing, branding, customer relationship
management, promotion and advertising, public relations, and so on.
• Product marketing is marketing that is focused on the product (or service) the company
is bringing to market.
• Product managers can be found in all kinds of companies, from pharmaceutical makers
to furniture manufacturers and from fast-food chains to computer vendors.
• Regardless of the industry, product managers have one thing in common; they are
responsible for the marketing of their product.
• The use of modern technology can develop new direct marketing channels and promote
competitiveness.
• The new product manager was tasked with preparing a new plan to effectively and effi-
ciently market the company products.
‫طُﻠﺐ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺪﯾﺮ ﻗﺴﻢ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﺳﺒﺔ إﻋﺪاد ﺧﻄﺔ إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ ﺑﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ‬ •
.‫وﻛﻔﺎءة‬
• The start-up company developed a plan to promote itself by disseminating information
about its products and brand.
،‫أﻋﺪت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق ﻟﻔﺘﺮة طﻮﯾﻠﺔ ﺧﻄﺔ ﺗﺮوﯾﺠﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻧﺸﺮ ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﻋﻦ ﺳﻤﻌﺘﮭﺎ‬ •
.‫ وﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬،‫وﺗﺎرﯾﺦ ﻋﻤﻠﮭﺎ‬
• In order to improve its services, the company management reviewed its customer rela-
tionship management which it used to analyze its customers’ interactions and feedback
on the services provided to them.
‫ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ إدارة اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء واﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻢ ﻣﻦ‬ •
.‫ﺧﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ ﺗﻔﺎﻋﻞ ﻋﻤﻼء اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺣﻮل اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت واﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﮭﻢ‬
ST TT ST TT
product life cycle ………………. product success …………………

decline phase ………………. getting right customers ………………
optimize sales results ……………. strategizing …………………
product definition ……………… technical design …………………
regular improvements …………….. extend product life …………………
design phase ………………. continuous adjustments …………….
product marketer ……………… target market …………………
time and budget ……………… user experience …………………
competitors’ products ……………. profit performance …………………

• The company has limited opportunities to directly influence the final phase of the prod-
uct life cycle and may therefore experience a decline phase.
• The main indicator of the success of the product marketers lies in their ability to opti-
mize sales.
• The committee representing public- and private-sector companies encouraged the
efforts aimed at reducing environmental impacts during the product life cycle.
When examining external opportunities and threats, marketing managers must analyze
aspects of the marketing environment. This process is called environmental scanning – the
collection and interpretation of information about forces, events, and relationships in the
external environment that may affect the future of the organization or the implementation of
the marketing plan (Hair, Lamb & McDaniel, 2012, p. 33).
Text 2
Firms interested in targeting the older consumer are faced with a number of decisions regard-
ing the development and marketing of products and services. These range from new product
development to minor modifications in product features to better satisfy the needs of older
consumers. In the area of product management, product decisions do not necessarily involve
new product development and change. Marketers may simply promote the same products
differently or position them in a way that would be of greater appeal to the older person.
Thus, decisions concerning the development and marketing of products and services range
widely in scope. Regardless of the nature of the decision, managers need to understand older
persons’ needs, attitudes, and perceptions of existing products. Understanding such needs
would enable marketers to design products and services to satisfy older consumer needs,
modify existing products or services, or even position them differently to better serve the
needs of the marketer (Moschis, 1994, p. 89).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
firms ‫ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬/ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬ targeting ‫ﺗﺴﺘﮭﺪف‬

range from … to ‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ‬ minor modifications ‫ﺗﻌﺪﯾﻼت طﻔﯿﻔﺔ‬
product features ‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬ satisfy the needs ‫ﯾﻠﺒﻲ اﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت‬
older consumers ‫ﻣﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻛﺒﺎر اﻟﺴﻦ‬ marketers ‫ﻣﺴﻮﻗﻮن‬
promote ‫ﯾﺮوج‬ greater appeal ‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﺟﺎذﺑﯿﺔ‬
perceptions of ‫ﺗﺼﻮرات ﻋﻦ‬ design products ‫ﯾﺼﻤﻢ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
existing products ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﻮﻓﺮة‬ position ‫ﯾﻌﺮض‬

• Firms interested in targeting the older consumer are faced with a number of decisions
regarding the development and marketing of products and services.
• These range from new product development to minor modifications in product features
to better satisfy the needs of older consumers.
• In the area of product management, product decisions do not necessarily involve new
product development and change.
• Marketers may simply promote the same products differently or position them in a way
that would be of greater appeal to the older person.
• Decisions concerning the development and marketing of products and services range
widely in scope.
• Regardless of the nature of the decision, managers need to understand older persons’
needs, attitudes, and perceptions of existing products.
• Understanding such needs would enable marketers to design products and services to
satisfy older consumer needs, modify existing products or services, or even position
them differently to better serve the needs of the marketer.
• Companies take older consumers into consideration when marketing products.
• E-marketing enables different producers to market their products in different places.
‫ﯾﻜﺴﺐ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪي اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﯿﻦ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﻢ ﺑﺘﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻓﻲ أﻣﺎﻛﻦ‬ •
.‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬
• Direct marketing depends on direct communication with carefully selected customers.
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮة ﻣﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﯾﺘﻢ اﺧﺘﯿﺎرھﻢ‬ •
.‫ﺑﻌﻨﺎﯾﺔ‬
• The two main types of marketing are domestic marketing and international marketing.
.‫ واﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻗﻠﯿﻤﻲ‬،‫ھﻨﺎك ﻧﻮﻋﺎن ﻣﻦ أﻧﻮاع اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ وھﻤﺎ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ‬ •
ST TT ST TT
marketing task ……………… marketing strategy ………………

marketing plan ……………… cost-effective marketing ……………
marketing campaign ……………… trading of goods ……………….
marketing principles ……………… promotion and distribution ………….
satisfy varied needs ……………… target potential customers …………..
marketing objective ……………… marketing activities ……………….
favorable market ……………… marketing management ……………..
market conditions ……………… huge market share ……………….
domestic markets ……………... supply of goods ………………

• The marketing department discussed different topics which include marketing tasks,
cost-effective marketing, and marketing campaigns.
• Effective marketing management enables companies to practically apply market tech-
niques and methods.
• Given the favorable market conditions, many manufacturers and exporters focused on
producing and exporting highly profitable goods.
• The marketing plan clearly outlines the activities which the company should undertake
to achieve the marketing objectives.
• The marketing strategy which the company adopted was effective.
Products contain features. A person buys the product to receive the benefits of its features.
The benefits are the advantages the features bring to the user. No one cares if you can make
your product light in weight. That’s a product feature. (Dobkin, 1996, p. 63).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺟﺰءاً ھﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻣﻦ أﺟﺰاء اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ‪ ،‬وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت وﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ واﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ وﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ طﻤﻮﺣﺎﺗﮫ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﺠﺎﻻً ﻟﻠﺘﻮظﯿﻒ وﺧﻠﻖ‬
‫اﻟﻮظﺎﺋﻒ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﺛﻠﺜﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺗﻘﺮﯾﺒﺎ ً ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‪ .‬وﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ً ﻣﺎ ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻛﻠﻔﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ‪ 50%‬ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ أو اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ‪ .‬واﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ أن ﯾﺪﻋﻢ أﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‬
‫وﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻟﺮﻓﺎھﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺘﺤﺪ ﻛﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻞ‪ ،‬وﯾﻄﻮر ﻧﻤﻂ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﺮ‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﺠﻨﺲ‪ ،‬وﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ أن ﻟﻠﻌﺮض واﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﯿﺎة اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت‪ ،‬ﻓﻜﻠﻤﺎ ﻛﺎن اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‬
‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﻗﺪرة وﻛﻔﺎءة‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻤﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺎت‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ أﻧﮫ ﯾﺴﻌﻰ إﻟﻰ إظﮭﺎر ﺣﺎﺟﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ورﻏﺒﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬
‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺘﮭﺎ وإﻣﺪاد اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ ﺑﮭﺎ‪ .‬ﺑﺪون اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻟﻦ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ واﻻﺧﺘﺮاﻋﺎت اﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎر واﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ‬
‫ﻛﻞ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻛﻲ ﯾﻘﻮﻣﻮا ﺑﺸﺮاﺋﮭﺎ واﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﻧﺸﺮ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ وﻣﺤﻠﻲ‪ .‬وﺑﻔﻀﻞ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺗﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻜﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻊ ﺿﺮورﯾﺔ‪(Abbas & Alkamim, 2011, pp. 28–29) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪organizational‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﻈﯿﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪marketing‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬

‫‪necessary services‬‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ‬ ‫‪produce products‬‬ ‫إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪employment‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮظﯿﻒ‬ ‫‪achieve aspirations‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ طﻤﻮﺣﺎﺗﮫ‬
‫‪exceeds‬‬ ‫ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز‬ ‫‪create jobs‬‬ ‫ﺧﻠﻖ وظﺎﺋﻒ‬
‫‪life pattern‬‬ ‫ﻧﻤﻂ ﺣﯿﺎة‬ ‫‪life style‬‬ ‫أﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺤﯿﺎة‬
‫‪inventions‬‬ ‫اﺧﺘﺮاﻋﺎت‬ ‫‪goods and services‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬
‫‪luxury goods‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻜﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪globally and locally‬‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ وﻣﺤﻠﻲ‬

‫ﯾﻌﺪ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺟﺰءاً ھﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻣﻦ أﺟﺰاء اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ‪ ،‬وﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ واﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ وﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ طﻤﻮﺣﺎﺗﮫ‪.‬‬
‫ﻣﺠﺎﻻ ﻟﻠﺘﻮظﯿﻒ وﺧﻠﻖ اﻟﻮظﺎﺋﻒ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻌﻤﻞ ﺛﻠﺜﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ ﺗﻘﺮﯾﺒﺎ ً ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‪ .‬وﻏﺎﻟﺒﺎ ً ﻣﺎ‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻛﻠﻔﺔ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﺑﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻻﺳﺘﻔﺎدة ﻣﻨﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﺘﺠﺎوز ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ‪ 50%‬ﻣﻦ ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ‬
‫أو اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ أن ﯾﺪﻋﻢ أﺳﻠﻮب اﻟﺤﯿﺎة وﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻟﺮﻓﺎھﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺘﺤﺪ ﻛﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﺑﺎﻟﺪﺧﻞ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫وﯾﻄﻮر ﻧﻤﻂ اﻟﺤﯿﺎة ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﺮ‪ ،‬واﻟﺠﻨﺲ‪ ،‬وﻣﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺜﻘﺎﻓﺔ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ أن ﻟﻠﻌﺮض واﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﯿﺎة اﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﻛﻠﻤﺎ ﻛﺎن اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻗﺪرة وﻛﻔﺎءة‪ ،‬ﻛﻠﻤﺎ أدى إﻟﻰ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﺟﻤﯿﻊ اﻟﺤﺎﺟﺎت‪ ،‬ﺑﻞ أﻧﮫ ﯾﺴﻌﻰ إﻟﻰ إظﮭﺎر‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺣﺎﺟﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ورﻏﺒﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺘﮭﺎ وإﻣﺪاد اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ ﺑﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺪون اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻟﻦ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ واﻻﺧﺘﺮاﻋﺎت اﻻﻧﺘﺸﺎر واﻟﻮﺻﻮل إﻟﻰ ﻛﻞ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻛﻲ ﯾﻘﻮﻣﻮا ﺑﺸﺮاﺋﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﮭﺎ‪ ،‬ﻓﺎﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﻧﺸﺮ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻲ وﻣﺤﻠﻲ‪ .‬وﺑﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺗﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻜﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫أو اﻟﺘﺮﻓﯿﮭﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺳﻠﻊ ﺿﺮورﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻼً ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﯾﺮادات اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﺮﺿﺖ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺿﺮاﺋﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﻜﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ و اﻟﺘﺮﻓﯿﮭﯿﺔ وﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻮاردات‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﻟﮭﺎ ﺑﺪﯾﻞ ﻣﺤﻠﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﺤﺚ أﻋﻀﺎء ﻣﺠﻠﺲ إدارة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﺒﻌﮭﺎ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺪى ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺘﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﺘﻄﻮرات ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 2: Correct the errors in the following English translations:‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻄﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ ﻓﺮص ﻋﻤﻞ ﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺸﺒﺎب‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The importance of direct marketing lies in reducing employment by providing job‬‬
‫‪opportunities to the youth.‬‬
‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ واﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻣﺼﻨﻌﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت وﻣﻘﺪﻣﻲ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻛﺘﺸﺎف رﻏﺒﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ وﺗﻠﺒﯿﺘﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Local marketing refers to the processes which help producers identify consumers tastes‬‬
‫‪and meet them.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺪأ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻗﺒﻞ طﺮح اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق ﺑﻔﺘﺮة طﻮﯾﻠﺔ؛ وﺗﺸﻤﻞ ھﺬه اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ واﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Advertisement begins much earlier than selling the products in markets and includes‬‬
‫‪offering new products, developing products, evaluation and distribution of the‬‬
‫‪products.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫…………………‬ ‫ﺗﻘﺴﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﻮق‬ ‫‪…………………..‬‬ ‫ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬

‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‬ ‫……………………‬ ‫ﺣﺎﺟﺎت ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮاﺻﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻋﻤﻼء ﺣﺎﻟﯿﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪................................‬‬ ‫ﻋﺎدات اﻟﺸﺮاء‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﻛﻔﺎءات ﻣﻤﯿﺰة‬ ‫‪...............................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﺮص اﻟﺴﻮق‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫أﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ‬ ‫‪...............................‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺮض اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﻗﺮار اﻟﺸﺮاء‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫دواﻓﻊ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺮﺑﺤﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ‬ ‫‪...............................‬‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺸﺎط اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‬
‫‪……… skimming‬‬ ‫ﻛﺸﻂ اﻟﺴﻮق‬ ‫‪...............................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫اﺧﺘﺮاق ﺳﻮق‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﺮ‬

‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﻔﺮص اﻟﺴﻮق اﺣﺘﻤﺎﻻت ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻘﻢ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺑﺘﻠﺒﯿﺘﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎت ﺗﻤﻜﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت وﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أرﺑﺎح‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﯾﻦ واﻷﻓﺮاد ﻣﻤﻦ ﯾﻘﻮﻣﻮن ﺑﺸﺮاء ﺳﻠﻊ وﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻼﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ‪.‬‬
‫ﺣﺪدت إدارة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﺮص اﻟﺴﻮق وﻗﺎﻣﺖ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ ﺧﻄﺔ ﺗﮭﺪف ﺑﺸﻜﻞ رﺋﯿﺴﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ اﻟﺮﺑﺤﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺆﺳﺴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐ ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﺴﻠﻊ دوراً أﺳﺎﺳﯿﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﺗﺆدي ﻣﺮوﻧﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﺮ إﻟﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ أداة اﺗﺼﺎﻻت ﺗﺮوﯾﺠﯿﺔ رﺋﯿﺴﺔ وأﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل ﻣﻨﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫اﻻﺳﺘﮭﻼﻛﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﺴﺒﺐ طﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ وﺗﻌﻘﯿﺪه وﻣﺤﺪودﯾﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﯿﮫ‪ .‬ﻓﻔﻲ ﺣﯿﻦ ﯾﺮﻛﺰ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻻﺳﺘﮭﻼﻛﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن وﺗﻨﺸﯿﻂ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‪ ،‬ﯾﺮﻛﺰ ﺳﻮق اﻷﻋﻤﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ اﻟﺸﺨﺼﻲ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Alabbadi & Sweedan, 2011, p. 343‬‬
‫‪Text 2‬‬
‫ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﺻﻔﺤﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‪ ،‬أدﻟﺔ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ وﻓﮭﺎرﺳﮭﺎ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ وﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬
‫اﻟﻔﯿﺪﯾﻮھﺎت واﻟﻤﺪوﻧﺎت واﻟﺼﺤﻒ واﻟﻤﺠﻼت‪ ،‬وﺗﺘﻠﺨﺺ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ وﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﺴﻌﺮ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب‪ ،‬واﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‪ ،‬وﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ واﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻻﺗﺼﺎل واﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ‪ ،‬أﻣﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻷدوات ﻟﺘﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ذا ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺔ‪ ،‬وھﺬه اﻷدوات ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺤﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ واﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ ،‬وﻣﻮﻗﻊ اﻟﯿﻮﺗﯿﻮب اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﺮح‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﯿﻞ وﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺮاء واﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ ،‬وﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻌﺮض ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ‪،‬‬
‫واﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻮظﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ واﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ‬
‫ﻣﻠﻔﺘﮫ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﯿﻞ‪(Azzubi & Annasr, 2019, p. 8) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬

‫‪free ads‬‬ ‫اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪e-marketing‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬
‫‪web directory‬‬ ‫أدﻟﺔ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ إﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ ‫‪specialized forums‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺪﯾﺎت ﻣﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‬
‫‪social media websites‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪indexes‬‬ ‫ﻓﮭﺎرس‬
‫‪targeted community‬‬ ‫ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻣﺴﺘﮭﺪف‬ ‫‪email campaigns‬‬ ‫ﺣﻤﻼت ﺑﺮﯾﺪ إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬
‫‪delivery‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ‬ ‫‪distribution/promotion‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ‪/‬ﺗﺮوﯾﺞ‬
‫‪search engines‬‬ ‫ﻣﺤﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺒﺤﺚ‬ ‫‪effective‬‬ ‫ذا ﻓﻌﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫‪marketing officer‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮظﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬ ‫‪in details‬‬ ‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﯿﻞ‬

‫ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ‪ ،‬ﺻﻔﺤﺎت اﻟﻤﻮﻗﻊ‪ ،‬أدﻟﺔ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ وﻓﮭﺎرﺳﮭﺎ‪ ،‬اﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬
‫وﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﻔﯿﺪﯾﻮھﺎت واﻟﻤﺪوﻧﺎت واﻟﺼﺤﻒ واﻟﻤﺠﻼت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻠﺨﺺ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ وﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه‪ ،‬واﻟﺴﻌﺮ اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮب‪ ،‬واﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‪ ،‬وﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ واﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻻﺗﺼﺎل واﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺘﺎج ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻷدوات ﻟﺘﺠﻌﻞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ذا ﻓﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﻧﺎﺟﺤﺔ‪ ،‬وھﺬه اﻷدوات‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺤﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺒﺤﺚ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ واﻟﻤﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ ،‬وﻣﻮﻗﻊ‬
‫اﻟﯿﻮﺗﯿﻮب اﻟﺬي ﯾﺸﺮح اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﺼﯿﻞ وﻛﯿﻔﯿﺔ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﺮاء واﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ ،‬وﺑﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺬي ﯾﻌﺮض‬
‫ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻛﺎﻣﻠﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻮظﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ واﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ‪ ،‬وﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻟﻌﺮض اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺑﻄﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻣﻠﻔﺘﮫ ﻟﻠﻌﻤﯿﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ إﻟﻰ إدارة ﺟﯿﺪة وﺧﻄﻂ واﺿﺤﺔ‪ ،‬وذﻟﻚ ﻟﻠﺘﻜﯿﻒ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺿﻤﺎن اﻟﺘﺰام ﻣﻮظﻒ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺑﺎﻵداب اﻟﻤﮭﻨﯿﺔ وﻣﮭﺎرات اﻟﺘﻮاﺻﻞ‪ ،‬ﻷﻧﮫ ﯾﺘﻮاﺻﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻋﺪة أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ وﺗﻘﻨﯿﺎت ﻟﺠﺬب اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ وإﻗﻨﺎﻋﮭﻢ ﺑﺸﺮاء اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪ ،‬ﺣﯿﺚ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ھﺬه‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺪﯾﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ وﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺣﻤﻼت اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‪.‬‬
‫اﻛﺘﺴﺐ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ أھﻤﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻟﺪى ﻛﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﺪة وﺳﺎﺋﻞ‪ ،‬ﻣﻨﮭﺎ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺟﻌﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺷﻲء ﻣﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ ﺑﺎﺋﻌﻮن ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﻮن ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل إﺑﺮاز‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﺧﺘﻼﻓﺎت‪ ،‬أو اﻹﻋﻼن أو ﺣﺘﻰ اﻟﺘﻐﻠﯿﻒ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Product differentiation refers to making a product compete with other products in the‬‬
‫‪market by promoting advertisement or packaging.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻓﺮص اﻟﺴﻮق ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﺘﻘﺴﯿﻢ اﻟﺴﻮق‪ ،‬ةﯾﺘﻢ ذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل إﯾﺠﺎد اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‬ ‫•‬
‫وإﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Companies should identify marketing by doing market segmentation which includes‬‬
‫‪finding a competitive market and producing competitive products.‬‬
‫ﻗﺪ ﺗﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺗﻐﯿﯿﺮ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ ،‬وﻣﻜﺎن ﺑﯿﻌﮫ وآﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺞ ﻟﮫ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﮭﺪف زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Companies may need to review products price, quality, sales, and advertisement to‬‬
‫‪improve product sales.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻌﯿﺮ وﺗﻌﺒﺌﺔ‬ ‫‪.............................‬‬ ‫إﺷﺒﺎع ﺣﺎﺟﺎت أﻓﺮاد‬

‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺔ ﺑﯿﻌﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻗﻨﻮات‬
‫‪…..…………mix‬‬ ‫ﻣﺰﯾﺞ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫ﺑﯿﻊ أﻛﺒﺮ ﻛﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫أدوات ‪ /‬أﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﺪﯾﺮ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫إﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫اﻟﻔﺮص اﻟﻤﺘﺎﺣﺔ‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺪراء اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ‬ ‫‪inbound ………...‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ داﺧﻠﻲ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪………………….‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ رﻗﻤﻲ‬

‫ﯾُﻌﺮف اﻟﻤﺰﯾﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ ﺑﺎﻷدوات اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﮭﺎ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﺎ ﻟﺘﺤﻘﯿﻖ أھﺪاﻓﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﻄﻠﺐ ﻗﺪرة ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ اﻟﻮﻋﻲ اﻟﺠﯿﺪ ﺑﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‪ ،‬وﺣﺠﻤﮫ وﻧﻮﻋﮫ‬ ‫•‬
‫وأﺳﺎﻟﯿﺐ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻜﻤﻦ أھﻤﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﻠﯿﻞ اﻟﺴﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﯾﻦ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات اﻟﺘﻲ ﻗﺪ ﺗﻄﺮأ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت‪ ،‬واﻟﺴﻮق‪ ،‬واﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻻﺳﺘﺠﺎﺑﺔ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺘﻐﯿﺮات‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺘﺒﻊ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﺳﺘﺮاﺗﯿﺠﯿﺎت ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﺣﺪﯾﺜﺔ ﻟﺠﺬب اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺴﻌﻰ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺑﯿﻊ أﻛﺒﺮ ﻛﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫إن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﯿﻮم ﻟﯿﺲ ﻣﺠﺮد وظﯿﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ وظﺎﺋﻒ ﻣﻨﺸﺂت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‪ .‬إﻧﮫ ﻓﻠﺴﻔﺔ وأﺳﻠﻮب ﺗﻔﻜﯿﺮي‪ ،‬ﻋﻼوة ﻋﻠﻰ أن‬
‫اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ھﻮ طﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻟﺘﻨﻈﯿﻢ وھﯿﻜﻠﺔ ﻣﻨﺸﺄة اﻷﻋﻤﺎل وأﻓﻜﺎر اﻟﻘﺎﺋﻤﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﯿﮭﺎ‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ أن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻟﯿﺲ ﺣﻤﻠﺔ إﻋﻼﻧﻲ‬
‫ة ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‪ .‬إن اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ھﻮ ﺟﺰء ﻻ ﯾﺘﺠﺰأ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻞ وﻣﮭﺎم ﻛﻞ ﻓﺮد ﻣﻦ أﻓﺮاد ﻣﻨﺸﺂت اﻷﻋﻤﺎل ‪business‬‬
‫‪.institutions‬‬
‫)‪(Attaii, 2008, p. 241‬‬
6.3 Advertising
Text 1
The sellers are also trying to get customers’ attention on the product through nonpersonal
communication by advertising through suitable media. In the last ten years, new media have
emerged and with computer-aided design facilities, advertising has become more forceful
and its usage has spread widely. Advertising provides customers the right to choose a prod-
uct which best fulfills their needs. It is also used to combat severe competition.
Advertising and Brands: Brand names give advertising efforts their full thrust, as it is the
brand that the company wants to promote through advertising. Advertising efforts therefore
revolve around brands. Sellers take full advantage of brand equity by using the same brand
for related products by having brand extensions. However, if the new product does not come
up to the level of the original product, it could dilute the brand equity of the main product;
companies have to keep a vigil on brand equity (Mathur, 2010, p. 252).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
advertising ‫إﻋﻼن‬ to get ‫ﯾﺠﺬب‬

customers’ attention ‫اﻧﺘﺒﺎه اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ‬ nonpersonal ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﺷﺨﺼﻲ‬
suitable media ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ إﻋﻼم ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‬ new media ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ إﻋﻼم أﺣﺪث‬
design facilities ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﺗﺼﻤﯿﻢ‬ more forceful ‫أﻛﺜﺮ ﻓﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ‬/‫أﻗﻮى‬
spread widely ‫ﺗﻨﺘﺸﺮ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻛﺒﯿﺮ‬ provides the right ‫ﯾﻤﻨﺢ ﺣﻖ‬
combat ‫ﯾﺤﺎرب‬ severe competition ‫ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺷﺮﺳﺔ‬
brands ‫ﻋﻼﻣﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ full thrust ‫ﻗﻮة اﻟﺪﻓﻊ اﻟﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬
revolve around ‫ﺗﺪور ﺣﻮل‬ full advantage ‫أﻗﺼﻰ اﺳﺘﻔﺎدة‬
brand equity ‫ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ brand extensions ‫ﺗﻮﺳﯿﻊ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬

• The sellers are also trying to get customers’ attention on the product through nonper-
sonal communication by advertising through suitable media.
• In the last ten years, new media have emerged and with computer-aided design facili-
ties, advertising has become more forceful and its usage has spread widely.
• Advertising provides customers with the right to choose a product which best fulfills
their needs. It is also used to combat severe competition.
• Brand names give advertising efforts their full thrust, as it is the brand that the company
wants to promote through advertising.
• Advertising efforts therefore revolve around brands. Sellers take full advantage of brand
equity by using the same brand for related products.
• If the new product does not come up to the level of the original product, it could dilute
the brand equity of the main product.
‫ ﻻ ﺗﻀﻌﻒ ﻣﻠﻜﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬،‫ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎل ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺟﻮدة اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺴﺎوﯾﺔ ﻟﺠﻮدة اﻷﺻﻠﻲ‬ •
.‫اﻷﺻﻠﻲ‬
• Advertisement in commodities and agricultural products markets is more beneficial to
the whole industry than advertisement in other markets.
‫ وذﻟﻚ ﺣﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻋﻼن‬،‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت واﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺰراﻋﯿﺔ اﻷﻧﻮاع اﻷﻛﺜﺮ أھﻤﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ •
.‫اﻟﻤﻔﯿﺪ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬
• The competitive advertising model divides a company’s advertising spending into one
part which affects the market demand and another part which affects the market share.
،‫ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ ﺟﺰء ﯾﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ طﻠﺐ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬،‫ﯾﻘﺴﻢ ﻧﻤﻮذج اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ إﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪة أﻗﺴﺎم‬ •
.‫وآﺧﺮ ﯾﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ أرﺑﺎح اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
ST TT ST TT
merchandising efforts …………….. total market demand …………….

product displays ………………. gain market share …………….
attractive purchase ………………. offer incentives to buyers ………….
promotional offers ………………. dealers ……………..
audio advertising ………………. brand advertising …………….
marketing goals ………………. advertising expenditures …………..
product launch ……………… advertising campaign ……………..
local advertising ………………. high advertising costs …………….
advertising budget ………………. point of purchase …………….

• Sellers and suppliers generally offer incentives to buyers to persuade them to buy larger
quantities of the product.
• One of the main reasons for the company’s failure to achieve higher profits lies in its
inability to organize huge advertising campaigns at higher advertising expenditures.
• Some consumers continue to buy the products of a specific brand despite the promo-
tional offers from other competitors.
Advertising is bringing a product (or service) to the attention of potential and current
customers. Advertising is focused on one particular product or service. Thus, an advertising
plan for one product might be very different than that for another product. Advertising is
typically done with signs, brochures, commercials, direct mailings or email messages, per-
sonal contact, and so on. (Gupta, 2009, p. 261).
Text 2
Advertising plays a strong role in the economy. It provides useful information to consumers
that tells them about product and service choices as well as comparing features, benefits, and
prices. With more complete information, consumers and businesses often choose to purchase
additional products and services.
Advertising also plays a significant role in the business cycle. As the broader economy
shifts between periods of growth and recession, advertising shifts its focus. During down-
turns, like the one we’re in now, ads may focus on the price of a product or service. If one
company curtails advertising in order to cut costs during a downturn, another company
might boost ad spending to grab customers and grow its market share. Advertising helps
stimulate economic growth. In a country in which consumer spending determines the future
of the economy, advertising motivates people to spend more. By encouraging more buying,
advertising promotes both job growth and productivity growth both to help meet increased
demand and to enable each consumer to have more to spend (Solomon, 2009, p. 49).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
plays a role ً‫ﯾﺆدي دورا‬ tells about ‫ﯾﺨﺒﺮ ﻋﻦ‬

choices ‫ﺧﯿﺎرات‬ comparing features ‫ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬
benefits ‫ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ‬/‫ﻓﻮاﺋﺪ‬ businesses ‫ أﻋﻤﺎل‬/ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬
purchase ‫ﯾﺸﺘﺮي‬ business cycle ‫دورة اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
broader economy ‫اﻗﺘﺼﺎد أوﺳﻊ ﻧﻄﺎق‬ growth/recession ‫رﻛﻮد‬/‫ﻧﻤﻮ‬
shifts focus ‫ﯾﺤﻮل اﻟﺘﺮﻛﯿﺰ‬ downturns ‫ﻓﺘﺮات رﻛﻮد‬
ads ‫إﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ curtails ‫ ﯾﻘﻠﺺ‬/ ‫ﯾﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ‬
cut costs ‫ﯾﺨﻔﺾ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ‬ boost ad spending ‫ﯾﺰﯾﺪ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق ﻋﻠﻰ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت‬
grab customers ‫ﯾﺠﺬب اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ‬ market share ‫ﺣﺼﺔ ﺳﻮق‬
stimulate growth ‫ﯾﺤﻔﺰ ﻧﻤﻮ‬ productivity growth ‫ﻧﻤﻮ اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ‬

• Advertising plays a strong role in the economy. It provides useful information to con-
sumers that tells them about product and service choices.
• With more complete information, consumers and businesses often choose to purchase
additional products and services.
• Advertising plays a significant role in the business cycle.
• As the broader economy shifts between periods of growth and recession, advertising
shifts its focus.
• If one company curtails advertising in order to cut costs during a downturn, another
company might boost ad spending to grab customers and grow its market share. Adver-
tising helps stimulate economic growth.
• In a country in which consumer spending determines the future of the economy, adver-
tising motivates people to spend more.
‫ﻗﺪ ﻻ ﺗﺸﺠﻊ اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﻨﺎس ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﯾﺤﺪد ﻓﯿﮭﺎ إﻧﻔﺎق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬ •
.‫ﻟﻠﺒﻼد‬
• By encouraging more buying, advertising promotes both job growth and productivity
growth both to help meet increased demand and to enable each consumer to have more
to spend.
‫ ﻻﺗﺆﺛﺮ اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺤﺴﯿﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺎھﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ‬،‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﻻ ﯾﺘﻢ ﺗﺸﺠﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻤﺰﯾﺪ‬ •
.‫ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬
• Underdeveloped countries are far behind developing countries in terms of productivity
growth.
.‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻨﺎﻣﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ ﻣﺴﺘﻮﯾﺎت اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ‬ •
ST TT ST TT
regional advertising ……………. advertising effect ……………..

product sales …………… product publicity ……………..
best-quality product …………… price reasonableness …………….
retain market …………… product substitution …………….
generate employment …………… generate sales …………….
uses and benefits ………….... varieties of products …………….
sales promotion …………… existing products …………….
build brand loyalty …………… additional sales …………….
target customers …………… advertising revenues …………….

• Most companies allocate marketing budgets because they help them increase and pro-
mote the sales of their existing products.
• Competition in the current rapidly changing marketplace requires developing effective
strategies to reach target customers.
• Customers sometimes prefer product substitutions which meet the same needs to high-
cost products which they cannot afford.
• Farmers, manufacturers, and exporters are currently focusing on varieties of products
which have higher profitability.
International advertising can, therefore, be viewed as a communication process that takes

place in multiple cultures that differ in terms of values, communication styles, and consump-
tion patterns. International advertising is also a business activity involving advertisers and
the advertising agencies that create ads and buy media in different countries (Poonia, 2010,
p. 171).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫أﺛﺮ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‪:‬‬
‫ﻋﺎﻣﻼ ﻣﺆﺛﺮاً ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ ﺷﺄن اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻷﺧﺮى ﻟﻠﻤﺰﯾﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‪ .‬وﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ درﺟﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻹﻋﻼن‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت وﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼف اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ وﻟﯿﺲ ھﻨﺎك ﻣﺎ ﯾﺆﻛﺪ أن ﺣﺠﻢ إﻧﻔﺎق إﻋﻼﻧﻲ‬
‫ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﺳﻮف ﯾﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﮭﺬا اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪ .‬وﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬
‫ﻋﺎم ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﻘﻮل أن‪:‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت وﻟﻜﻦ إﻟﻰ أي ﻣﺪى ﯾﻨﺠﺢ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫أ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ذﻟﻚ ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ‪ .‬وﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻮاﺗﯿﺔ ﻟﺰﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬
‫ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻹﻋﻼن‪:‬‬
‫إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻏﯿﺮھﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻛﺎﻟﺜﻼﺟﺔ ﯾﻜﻮن أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮاً ﻣﻦ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﯾﺼﻌﺐ ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺴﻜﺮ‪.‬‬
‫إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ دواﻓﻊ اﻟﺸﺮاء اﻟﻌﺎطﻔﯿﺔ ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ وذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل إﺛﺎرة دواﻓﻊ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﺰ واﻟﺘﻔﻮق ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﻟﺤﺜﮭﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪(Alallaq, 2019, p. 27) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪advertising‬‬ ‫اﻹﻋﻼن‬ ‫‪impact‬‬ ‫أﺛﺮ‬

‫‪crucial factor‬‬ ‫ﻋﺎﻣﻼ ﻣﺆﺛﺮاً‬
‫ً‬ ‫‪on demand‬‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬
‫‪volume‬‬ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ‬ ‫‪marketing mix‬‬ ‫ﻣﺰﯾﺞ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‬
‫‪leads to‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ‬ ‫‪ads spending‬‬ ‫إﻧﻔﺎق إﻋﻼﻧﻲ‬
‫‪demand increase‬‬ ‫زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬ ‫‪specific increase‬‬ ‫زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬
‫‪conditions‬‬ ‫اﻟﻈﺮوف‬ ‫‪depends on‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪differentiate products‬‬ ‫ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪favorable‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮاﺗﯿﺔ‬
‫‪emotional drives‬‬ ‫دواﻓﻊ ﻋﺎطﻔﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪alternative products‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‬
‫‪encourage‬‬ ‫ﺣﺚ‬ ‫‪generate motivation‬‬ ‫إﺛﺎرة دواﻓﻊ‬

‫ﻋﺎﻣﻼ ﻣﺆﺛﺮاً ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺷﺄﻧﮫ ﺷﺄن اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻷﺧﺮى ﻟﻠﻤﺰﯾﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ﯾﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻹﻋﻼن‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ درﺟﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت وﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼف اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻧﻔﺴﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وﻟﯿﺲ ھﻨﺎك ﻣﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺆﻛﺪ أن ﺣﺠﻢ إﻧﻔﺎق إﻋﻼﻧﻲ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ ﺳﻮف ﯾﺘﺮﺗﺐ ﻋﻠﯿﮫ زﯾﺎدة ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﻌﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وﻣﻦ ﺛﻢ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﻟﮭﺬا اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ إﻟﻰ أي ﻣﺪى ﯾﻨﺠﺢ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ‬ ‫•‬
‫ذﻟﻚ؟‪ ،‬اﻷﻣﺮ ﯾﺘﻮﻗﻒ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﺒﺮ اﻟﻈﺮوف اﻟﺘﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻣﻮاﺗﯿﺔ ﻟﺰﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ اﻹﻋﻼن‪:‬‬ ‫•‬
‫إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ ﻋﻦ ﻏﯿﺮھﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺒﺪﯾﻠﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه ﻛﺎﻟﺜﻼﺟﺔ ﯾﻜﻮن أﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮاً ﻣﻦ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﯾﺼﻌﺐ ﺗﻤﯿﯿﺰه ﻣﺜﻞ اﻟﺴﻜﺮ‪.‬‬
‫إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ دواﻓﻊ اﻟﺸﺮاء اﻟﻌﺎطﻔﯿﺔ ﻟﺪى اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وذﻟﻚ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل إﺛﺎرة دواﻓﻊ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﺰ واﻟﺘﻔﻮق‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻵﺧﺮﯾﻦ ﻟﺤﺜﮭﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﺮاء اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺑﺪﯾﻠﺔ آﻣﻨﺔ ﻟﺘﺨﻔﯿﻒ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ‪ ،‬وﺿﻤﺎن ﺗﻠﺒﯿﺔ أﻛﺒﺮ ﻗﺪر ﻣﻦ اﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎﺟﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ أﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Alternatives must be provided in order to reduce costs of importing goods on the one‬‬
‫‪hand and ensure meeting basics needs on the other.‬‬
‫ذﻛﺮت إﺣﺪى اﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺎت اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ أن دوﻟﺔ اﻹﻣﺎرات اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ﺗﺄﺗﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ دول اﻟﺸﺮق اﻷوﺳﻂ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻹﻧﻔﺎق اﻹﻋﻼﻧﻲ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪A regional NGO stated that USSR comes first among Arab countries in terms of the‬‬
‫‪volume of spending.‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺒﺮ اﻟﻤﺰﯾﺞ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻘﻲ ﻋﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﻦ أدوات وأﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﮭﺪف ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﺳﺎﺳﻲ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻮﻓﯿﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷوﻗﺎت واﻷﻣﺎﻛﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ وﺑﺎﻷﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Marketing includes marketing strategies which primarily aim at providing products at‬‬
‫‪suitable costs.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫وﺟﻮد وﻓﻮاﺋﺪ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼن إﺑﺪاﻋﻲ ‪ /‬ﻣﺒﺘﻜﺮ‬

‫‪........................‬‬ ‫رﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺴﺘﮭﺪف اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫ﯾﻘﻨﻊ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫إطﻼق ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺧﻄﺔ إﻋﻼﻣﯿﺔ‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫ﻋﯿﻨﺎت ﻣﺠﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺨﻔﯿﻀﺎت اﻷﺳﻌﺎر‬
‫…………‪word-of-mouth‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼن ﺷﻔﮭﻲ‬ ‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻠﺼﻘﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺮﯾﻖ‬
‫‪……...commercials‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ إذاﻋﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪......................‬‬ ‫ﻋﯿﻮب اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻘﻠﯿﺪي‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼن ذﻛﻲ‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫اﻟﺠﻤﮭﻮر اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﺪف‬
‫‪............................‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻣﻄﺒﻮﻋﺔ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫ﻧﺸﺎط ﺗﺮوﯾﺠﻲ‬

‫ﺗﮭﺪف اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎم إﻟﻰ ﺗﻌﺮﯾﻒ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﺑﻮﺟﻮد وﻓﻮاﺋﺪ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة؛ ﺑﯿﻨﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﻤﺜﻞ ھﺪﻓﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻷﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺬب اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻟﺸﺮاء ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺠﺪﯾﺪة واﻟﻤﺒﺘﻜﺮة ﺟﺬاﺑﺔ وھﺬه ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ ﺗﻌﺰز ھﺪف اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ إﻗﻨﺎع اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﺑﺸﺮاء ھﺬه‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﺠﺄ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت إﻟﻰ ﺗﺴﺨﯿﺮ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أﻧﻮاع اﻹﻋﻼن ﻟﻠﺘﺮوﯾﺞ ﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﯿﺔ واﻹذاﻋﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﺒﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﻠﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺼﻐﯿﺮة ﻋﻦ ﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل وﺿﻊ ﻣﻠﺼﻘﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺮق‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺮﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫راﺟﻌﺖ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أﻧﺸﻄﺘﮭﺎ اﻟﺘﺮوﯾﺠﯿﺔ ﻟﺘﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﺪى ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺘﮭﺎ ﻟﻤﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺬﻛﯿﺔ ‪ -‬ﺑﺘﺼﻤﯿﻤﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﻤﺘﺎز‪ -‬ﺳﺘﺠﻠﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻀﺮورة‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ أﻧﮭﻢ ﺳﯿﺴﺘﻤﺘﻌﻮن‬
‫وھﻢ ﯾﺘﻠﻘﻮن اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺔ‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﺗﺨﺎذ ﻗﺮارات ﺷﺮاﺋﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺤﻮ أﻓﻀﻞ‪ .‬ﻓﺒﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﮭﻼك اﻟﻔﻘﺮات‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼﻧﯿﺔ ﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻋﻦ اﻟﺸﯿﺒﺴﻲ أو اﻟﻌﻠﻜﺔ‪ ،‬ﺳﯿﺨﺘﺎر اﻟﻨﺎس أن ﯾﺸﺎھﺪوا اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻠﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﺸﯿﺮ‬
‫ﻟﺸﺮاء ﻣﻨﺘﺞ أو ﺧﺪﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Abdulhameed, 2018, pp. 65–66‬‬
‫‪Text 2‬‬
‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ‪ ،‬أﺻﺒﺢ ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻋﻦ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ واﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أﺷﻜﺎل اﻹﻋﻼم واﻹﻋﻼن‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﺟﻌﻞ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻠﻘﺪ أﺻﺒﺢ‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن ﯾﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺮح ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ وﻋﺮﺿﮫ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﻛﺜﺮ إﺑﮭﺎراً‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺳﮭﻞ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﺋﻤﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﺪع اﻟﺒﺼﺮﯾﺔ واﻟﻤﺰج ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ واﻟﺨﯿﺎل ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺐ اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ‬
‫اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﺨﯿﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻮﻋﺔ إﻣﺎ ﻣﺮﺳﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام أﺣﺪ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد أو ﻣﺒﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬
‫أﺣﺪ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﺠﺴﯿﻢ اﻟﺜﻼﺛﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ أﺑﻌﺎداً أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺼﺪاﻗﯿﺔ وﺻﺮاﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ أھﻤﯿﺔ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة ﻓﻲ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ ﻣﻊ اﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻌﺮﺿﮭﺎ‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﻊ ﻣﺎدﯾﺔ أو ﺧﺪﻣﺎت أو أﻓﻜﺎر ﯾﺒﻠﻮرھﺎ وﯾﺠﻌﻠﮭﺎ أﻛﺜﺮ وﺿﻮﺣﺎ ً ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎھﺪ‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻌﺮض اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ اﻷﺷﻜﺎل‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﺪﺛﺔ ﻟﻺﻋﻼن اﻟﺬي ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة ﻣﺜﻞ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻋﻼن‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Sedhom, 2020, p. 7‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪computer‬‬ ‫اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ‬ ‫‪technology advancement‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‬

‫‪multimedia‬‬ ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻂ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة‬ ‫‪indispensable‬‬ ‫ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻋﻦ‬
‫‪TV advertisement‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼن ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ‬ ‫‪media and advertisement‬‬ ‫اﻹﻋﻼم واﻹﻋﻼن‬
‫‪accurate‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﺴﻢ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻗﺔ‬ ‫‪decades‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻘﻮد‬
‫‪more impressive‬‬ ‫أﻛﺜﺮ اﺑﮭﺎراً‬ ‫‪product details‬‬ ‫ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬
‫‪advertising industry‬‬ ‫ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت‬ ‫‪those in charge of‬‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻘﺎﺋﻤﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫‪reality and fantasy‬‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ واﻟﺨﯿﺎل‬ ‫‪optical illusion‬‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺪع اﻟﺒﺼﺮﯾﺔ‬
‫‪design‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﺠﺴﯿﻢ‬ ‫‪two-dimensional‬‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد‬
‫‪credibility and rigor‬‬ ‫ﻣﺼﺪاﻗﯿﺔ وﺻﺮاﻣﺔ‬ ‫)‪three-dimensional (3D‬‬ ‫اﻟﺜﻼﺛﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد‬
‫‪clearer‬‬ ‫أﻛﺜﺮ وﺿﻮﺣﺎ ً‬ ‫‪material goods‬‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻊ ﻣﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫‪virtual reality‬‬ ‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ‬ ‫‪new types‬‬ ‫اﻷﺷﻜﺎل اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﺪﺛﺔ‬

‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ‪ ،‬أﺻﺒﺢ ﻻ ﻏﻨﻰ ﻋﻦ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﺤﺎﺳﺐ اﻵﻟﻲ واﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة ﻓﻲ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ أﺷﻜﺎل اﻹﻋﻼم واﻹﻋﻼن‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﺟﻌﻞ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺗﻤﺎﻣﺎ ً ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻘﻮد اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻘﺔ‪.‬‬
‫اﻛﺘﺴﺐ اﻹﻋﻼن دﻗﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺷﺮح ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ وﻋﺮﺿﮫ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ أﻛﺜﺮ إﺑﮭﺎراً‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺳﮭﻞ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻟﻠﻘﺎﺋﻤﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻋﻤﻞ اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﺪع اﻟﺒﺼﺮﯾﺔ واﻟﻤﺰج ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ واﻟﺨﯿﺎل‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﺮﻛﯿﺐ اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﺨﯿﺎﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺘﻢ ﻣﺰج اﻟﺼﻮر اﻟﺤﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ ﻣﻊ اﻟﺼﻮرة اﻟﺨﯿﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام أﺣﺪ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة اﻟﺜﻨﺎﺋﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد أو‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺒﻨﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام أﺣﺪ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ اﻟﺘﺠﺴﯿﻢ اﻟﺜﻼﺛﯿﺔ اﻷﺑﻌﺎد اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻌﻄﻲ أﺑﻌﺎداً أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﺼﺪاﻗﯿﺔ وﺻﺮاﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ أھﻤﯿﺔ إدﺧﺎل اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة ﻓﻲ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ اﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻌﺮﺿﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻹﻋﻼن ﻣﻦ ﺳﻠﻊ ﻣﺎدﯾﺔ أو ﺧﺪﻣﺎت أو أﻓﻜﺎر ﯾﺒﻠﻮرھﺎ وﯾﺠﻌﻠﮭﺎ أﻛﺜﺮ وﺿﻮﺣﺎ ً ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺎھﺪ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺮض اﻟﻜﺎﺗﺐ اﻷﺷﻜﺎل اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺤﺪﺛﺔ ﻟﻺﻋﻼن اﻟﺬي ﯾﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮ اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻂ اﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪدة ﻣﺜﻞ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻮاﻗﻊ اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻹﻋﻼن‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ اﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻹﻋﻼن واﻹﻧﺘﺎج‪ ،‬ﯾﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮه ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻗﺪرة اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﺮﯾﺔ ﺑﻌﺪة ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ طﺒﯿﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻦ ﻋﻨﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻟﻈﺮوف اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺴﺎﻋﺪ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﺑﻜﺎﻓﺔ أﺷﻜﺎﻟﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻢ اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻨﮭﺎ‪ ،‬وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ زﯾﺎدة‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Ads lead to increase in demand and profits.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻣﻨﻊ اﻧﺨﻔﺎض اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻨﮭﺎ ﺗﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻟﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺮﻋﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﻧﺨﻔﺎض‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Advertising can partially prevent the speed in demand decline.‬‬
‫ﯾﺠﺐ أن ﺗﺤﻘﻖ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ أو اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﻨﻔﻌﺔ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ ﺣﺘﻰ ﯾﺴﺘﻄﯿﻊ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﺄﺛﯿﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻟﻄﻠﺐ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The ability of an ad to influence customers lies in the ability of goods and services to‬‬
‫‪attract them.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪.............................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫وﻛﺎﻻت اﻹﻋﻼن‬

‫‪............................‬‬ ‫رﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻓﻮرﯾﺔ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﮭﺎﺗﻒ اﻟﻨﻘﺎل‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﯾﺠﺬب اﻻﻧﺘﺒﺎه‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺮوﯾﺞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﻋﺮض ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬ ‫‪........................‬‬ ‫ﺟﮭﻮد ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺷﺮاء آﻧﻲ‬ ‫‪........................‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك اﻟﺸﺮاﺋﻲ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫اﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬ ‫‪........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪........................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﺒﺎﻋﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺧﻔﺾ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ‬ ‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺧﻔﺾ أﺳﻌﺎر اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ اﻹﻋﻼن‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺨﻔﯿﺾ ﺳﻌﺮ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ‬

‫ﺗُﺼﻤﻢ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﺎت ﻛﻲ ﺗﺤﺪث ﺗﺄﺛﯿﺮاً ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮﯾﻦ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل إﻗﻨﺎﻋﮭﻢ ﺑﺸﺮاء اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺠﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﮭﺪف أدوات وآﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ إﻟﻰ ﻋﺮض ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ واﺳﺘﺨﺪاﻣﺎﺗﮫ وﻣﻨﺎﻓﻌﮫ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ واﺿﺢ ﻟﺠﻤﮭﻮر‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ ﻋﯿﻮب اﻟﺘﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﮭﺎﺗﻒ اﻟﻨﻘﺎل إرﺳﺎل رﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻼءم ﻣﻊ ﺣﺎﺟﺎت ورﻏﺒﺎت ﻣﺴﺘﻠﻢ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺮﺳﺎﺋﻞ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﻓﻲ أوﻗﺎت ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺒﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ارﺗﺒﺎط وﺛﯿﻖ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ وﺗﻔﻀﯿﻞ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‪ ،‬أي أن زﯾﺎدة اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻠﻌﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺗﻌﻜﺲ ﺗﻔﻀﯿﻞ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﻻ ﺗﻨﻈﻢ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺣﻤﻼت إﻋﻼﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ارﺗﻔﺎع ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ وﺗﻠﺠﺄ ﺑﺪﻻً‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ إﻟﻰ إﻋﻼﻧﺎت اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻹﻋﻼن ﻋﻦ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻓﯿﺴﺒﻮك‪.‬‬ ‫•‬

‫ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻨﯿﻦ ﯾﻘﻮﻣﻮن ﺑﻨﺸﺎطﮭﻢ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﻲ ﺑﺄﻧﻔﺴﮭﻢ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة دون اﻟﻠﺠﻮء ﻷﺟﮭﺰة ﺧﺎرﺟﯿﺔ ﻛﺎﻟﻮﻛﺎﻻت اﻹﻋﻼﻧﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫وﯾﻠﺰم أن ﯾﻜﻮن ﻟﺪﯾﮫ ﺟﮭﺎز ﯾﺘﻮﻟﻲ اﻟﻘﯿﺎم ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺸﺎط ﻣﻦ ﺣﯿﺚ اﻟﺘﺨﻄﯿﻂ واﻹﺷﺮاف واﻟﺘﻨﻔﯿﺬ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ اﻟﺪول اﻟﻤﺘﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﯾﻌﮭﺪ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻨﻮن ﺑﻨﺸﺎطﮭﻢ اﻹﻋﻼﻧﻲ إﻟﻰ وﻛﺎﻻت اﻹﻋﻼن اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Alhasan, 2010, p. 71‬‬
6.4 E-commerce
Text 1
Advantages of Electronic Commerce: Firms are interested in electronic commerce because,
quite simply, it can help increase profits. All the advantages of electronic commerce for busi-
nesses can be summarized in one statement: electronic commerce can increase sales and
decrease costs. Advertising done well on the web can get even a small firm’s promotional
message out to potential customers in every country in the world. A firm can use electronic
commerce to reach small groups of customers that are geographically scattered. The web is
particularly useful in creating virtual communities that become ideal target markets for spe-
cific types of products or services. A virtual community is a gathering of people who share a
common interest, but instead of this gathering occurring in the physical world, it takes place
on the internet (Schneider, 2011).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
advantages ‫ﻣﺰاﯾﺎ‬ electronic commerce ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬

firms ‫ ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت‬/ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬ increase profits ‫ﯾﺰﯾﺪ اﻷرﺑﺎح‬
for businesses ‫ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬ be summarized ‫ﺗﻠﺨﯿﺼﮭﺎ‬
statement ‫ ﺑﯿﺎن‬/ (‫ﻣﻘﻮﻟﺔ )ﺟﻤﻠﺔ‬ increase sales ‫ﯾﺰﯾﺪ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‬
decrease costs ‫ﯾﻘﻠﻞ اﻟﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ‬ web ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬
promotional message ‫رﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺮوﯾﺠﯿﺔ‬ potential customers ‫ﻋﻤﻼء ﻣﺤﺘﻤﻠﯿﻦ‬
virtual communities ‫ﻣﺠﺘﻤﻌﺎت اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﯿﺔ‬ ideal ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻟﻲ‬
target markets ‫أﺳﻮاق ﻣﺴﺘﮭﺪﻓﺔ‬ specific types ‫أﻧﻮاع ﻣﺤﺪدة‬
gathering of people ‫ﺗﺠﻤﻊ أﺷﺨﺎص‬ common interest ‫اھﺘﻤﺎم ﻣﺸﺘﺮك‬

• Advantages of Electronic Commerce: Firms are interested in electronic commerce
because, quite simply, it can help increase profits.
• All the advantages of electronic commerce for businesses can be summarized in one
statement: electronic commerce can increase sales and decrease costs.
• Advertising done well on the web can get even a small firm’s promotional message out
to potential customers in every country in the world.
• A firm can use electronic commerce to reach small groups of customers that are geo-
graphically scattered.
• The web is particularly useful in creating virtual communities that become ideal target
markets for specific types of products or services. A virtual community is a gathering of
people who share a common interest, but instead of this gathering occurring in the
physical world, it takes place on the internet.
• The company’s prior experience in e-commerce made it achieve success in conducting
online transactions.
‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﺒﺮﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺮﯾﻘﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬،‫ﻟﻢ ﺗﺘﻤﻜﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أرﺑﺎح ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﮭﺎ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬ •
.‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬
• Sellers believe in achieving higher profits when shifting to e-commerce because of the
low advertisement costs and increase in sales.
‫ ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻠﺘﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ‬،‫ﯾﺮى اﻟﺒﺎﻋﺔ إﻣﻜﺎﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أرﺑﺎح أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل دراﺳﺔ ﻣﻘﺘﺮح اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬ •
.‫اﻟﻤﻌﻘﻮﻟﺔ واﻷرﺑﺎح اﻟﻤﺮﺗﻔﻌﺔ‬
• One of the advantages of e-commerce for seller and buyers lies in increasing sales and
purchase opportunities.
.‫ وﻟﻜﻨﮭﺎ ﻻ ﺗﻤﻨﺢ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻔﺮص ﻟﻠﻤﺸﺘﺮﯾﻦ‬،‫ﺗﻤﻨﺢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﺮﺻﺎ ً ﻛﺜﯿﺮة ﻟﻠﺒﺎﺋﻌﯿﻦ ﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﻢ‬ •
ST TT ST TT
attract new customers ………… make customers satisfied …………...

traditional commerce …………… variety of sellers ………………
digital products …………… electronic payments ………………
speed and accuracy …………… negotiate price ………………
e-market ………….. competitive bid information ..…………
geographically scattered …………. handle sales inquiries ………………
virtual community ……………. identify new suppliers ………………
social commerce ……………. online buying ………………
email marketing ……………. product availability ………………

• Sellers can rely on promotional messages to introduce their new products to their poten-
tial customers.
• E-commerce is characterized by speed and accuracy which helps those engaged in it
achieve higher profits.
• Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are major social networking websites which can sig-
nificantly promote social commerce.
• E-commerce offers buyers better opportunities to search for more products and identify
new suppliers.
• Electronic payments are mainly used in e-commerce to save time.
Middle Eastern experience with e-business and e-commerce is even less extensive than
government involvement online. In mid-1999 it was estimated that consumers in all Arab
countries combined had spent only $95 million on online purchases in the previous fourteen
months, with just 18% of those purchases made from vendors in the Middle East (Franda,
2002, p. 73).
Text 2
B2C e-commerce can involve electronic transactions in marketing, ordering, and paying,
after-sales service, and in the case of intangible or virtual goods and services, even deliv-
ery. B2C e-commerce is used by customers for the convenience of purchasing products or
services over the web. Businesses use B2C e-commerce to attract new customers, to reach
new markets, and promote products and services. B2C e-commerce is also called con-
sumer-oriented e-commerce. In consumer-oriented e-commerce, companies deploy virtual
storefronts to sell their goods and services directly to the customer. B2B e-commerce and
B2C e-commerce share at least two major goals. One of these major goals is to complete
the transaction on time. For example, in the case of B2C e-commerce, the seller has to
minimize the time between the time of purchase and the time the buyer gets his goods.
Another of the major goals is to complete the transaction without taking into account dis-
tance and time to provide even more satisfaction for customers (Finnie & Sun, 2013,
p. 59).
Vocabulary
ST TT ST TT
B2C ‫ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﻨﺸﺂت ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ وﻣﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ involve ‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ‬

electronic transactions ‫ﻣﻌﺎﻣﻼت إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬ after-sales service ‫ﺧﺪﻣﺔ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ‬
intangible ‫ﻏﯿﺮ ﻣﻠﻤﻮس‬ virtual goods ‫ﺳﻠﻊ اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﯿﺔ‬
delivery ‫ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ‬ convenience of ‫ﻣﻼﺋﻤﺔ‬
businesses ‫ أﻋﻤﺎل‬/ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت‬ attract ‫ﯾﺠﺬب‬
new customers ‫ﻋﻤﻼء ﺟﺪد‬ to reach ‫ﯾﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ‬
promote ‫ﯾﺮوج ل‬ consumer-oriented ‫ﺗﺴﺘﮭﺪف اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ‬
deploy ‫ ﺗﻨﺸﺮ‬/ ‫ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم‬ virtual storefronts ‫واﺟﮭﺎت اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﯿﺔ‬
B2B ‫ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‬ minimize ‫ﯾﻘﻠﻞ ﻣﻦ‬

• B2C e-commerce can involve electronic transactions in marketing, ordering, and pay-
ing, after-sales service, and in the case of intangible or virtual goods and services, even
delivery.
• B2C e-commerce is used by customers for the convenience of purchasing products or
services over the web.
• Businesses use B2C e-commerce to attract new customers, to reach new markets, and
promote products and services.
• B2C e-commerce is also called consumer-oriented e-commerce.
• In consumer-oriented e-commerce, companies deploy virtual storefronts to sell their
goods and services directly to the customer. B2B e-commerce and B2C e-commerce
share at least two major goals.
• One of these major goals is to complete the transaction on time. For example, in the case
of B2C e-commerce, the seller has to minimize the time between the time of purchase
and the time the buyer gets his goods.
Exercise 2: Correct the errors in the following Arabic translations:
• The second goal is to complete the transaction without taking into account distance and
time to provide even more satisfaction for customers.
‫ﯾﺘﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﮭﺪف اﻷﺧﯿﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮاﺟﻌﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻘﺮﯾﺐ اﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ واﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻟﺰﯾﺎدة‬ •
.‫ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻗﺒﻮل اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼت‬
• After-sales service refers to the maintenance services which manufacturers or sellers
offer during the warranty period.
.‫ ﺧﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺼﯿﺎﻧﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻘﺪﻣﮭﺎ اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻌﻮن أو اﻟﺒﺎﻋﺔ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة ﺻﻼﺣﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬،‫ﯾﻘﺼﺪ ﺑﺨﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ‬ •
• Many sellers and buyers conduct electronic translations to sell or buy goods and
services.
.‫ﯾﻘﻮم ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺒﺎﻋﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ ﺑﺈﺟﺮاء ﺗﻌﺎﻣﻼﺗﮭﻢ ﻟﺒﯿﻊ أو ﺷﺮاء اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬ •
ST TT ST TT
deal directly …………………… retail website ………………..

dealing with …………………… volume of e-commerce ................ ‫ﺣﺠﻢ‬
consumer protection ……………... consumer acceptance ……………….
e-commerce security ………………. support services …………………
network environment ……………... e-transactions …………………
trust a merchant …………………… e-commerce initiatives ………………
requested services ……………….. e-commerce market …………………
order information ………………… authentication method …………….
information integrity ……………... fraud and deception …………………

• In consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce, consumers use different websites to
directly interact with each other.
• In business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce, companies can directly offer their prod-
ucts on a retail website which buyers can visit to purchase goods directly.
• In e-commerce environment, customers browse the websites of different companies
which may not be operating or existing in their country.
• The volume of e-commerce exceeded USD 1 billion in 2008, with UAE and KSA com-
ing at the top of list of the countries engaging in this type of commerce.
• E-commerce in some Arab countries requires consumer acceptance and confidence.
Today e-commerce plays a major role in the world’s economy, and small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) are increasingly realizing the potential benefits of e-commerce technolo-
gies as they continue to adopt e-commerce to create and sustain competitive advantages.
SME definitions vary from country to country (Al-Somali, Clegg & Gholami, 2013, p. 127).
‫‪Text 1‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ أﺣﺪ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﮭﺪھﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﯿﻮم‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ واﺣﺪاً ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻲ‬
‫ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ وﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬
‫واﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﻼ ﺷﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻤﺜﻠﻜﮫ ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺬھﻨﯿﺔ‬
‫واﻟﻘﺪرات اﻟﻔﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺼﺮ اﻟﺒﺸﺮي‪ .‬وﻗﺪ ﺗﻌﺪدت وﺟﮭﺎت ﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﻮا ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪،‬‬
‫ﻓﻤﻨﮭﻢ ﻣﻦ ﯾﺮى أﻧﮭﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺑﯿﻊ وﺷﺮاء ﻣﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ واﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ أو ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت‪ .‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﺮى اﻟﺒﻌﺾ أﻧﮭﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺠﺎري واﻟﺘﻲ‬
‫ﺗﺘﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ أن ﯾﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﻘﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻊ واﻟﺸﺮاء ﺑﺄﺳﻠﻮب ﺳﺮﯾﻊ وﺳﮭﻞ‪ .‬وﺗﻌﺮﻓﮭﺎ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺎت وﺗﺄﺳﯿﺲ اﻟﺮواﺑﻂ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ وﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ وﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫ﻋﺒﺮ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪(Abdullah, 2017, p. 16) .‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪information revolution‬‬ ‫ﺛﻮرة ﻣﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪is considered‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺪ‬

‫‪digital economy‬‬ ‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ‬ ‫‪witnesses‬‬ ‫ﯾﺸﮭﺪھﺎ‬
‫‪undoubtedly affects‬‬ ‫ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﻼ ﺷﻚ‬ ‫‪information technology‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‬
‫‪mental energy‬‬ ‫طﺎﻗﺎت ذھﻨﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪economic activities‬‬ ‫أﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‬
‫‪humans‬‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺼﺮ ﺑﺸﺮي‬ ‫‪intellectual abilities‬‬ ‫ﻗﺪرات ﻓﻜﺮﯾﺔ‬
‫‪business area‬‬ ‫ﻣﺠﺎل ﺗﺠﺎري‬ ‫‪web‬‬ ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫‪transactions‬‬ ‫ﺻﻔﻘﺎت‬ ‫‪enables‬‬ ‫ﺗﺘﯿﺢ ل‬
‫‪WTO‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪quickly‬‬ ‫أﺳﻠﻮب ﺳﺮﯾﻊ‬
‫‪commercial ties‬‬ ‫رواﺑﻂ ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ ‫‪a complete range‬‬ ‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ‬

‫ﺗﻌﺪ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ أﺣﺪ ﺛﻤﺎر اﻟﺜﻮرة اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺸﮭﺪھﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﯿﻮم‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ واﺣﺪاً ﻣﻦ ﻣﻮﺿﻮﻋﻲ ﻣﺎ ﯾﻌﺮف ﺑﺎﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺘﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ وﺗﻘﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ‪،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺑﺎﺗﺖ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﺑﻼ ﺷﻚ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ‬
‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻤﺎ ﺗﻤﺜﻠﻜﮫ ﻣﻦ اﺳﺘﺜﻤﺎر ﻓﻲ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺎت اﻟﺬھﻨﯿﺔ واﻟﻘﺪرات اﻟﻔﻜﺮﯾﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻨﺼﺮ اﻟﺒﺸﺮي‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺪدت وﺟﮭﺎت ﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﯿﻦ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﺗﻨﺎوﻟﻮا ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ﻓﻤﻨﮭﻢ ﻣﻦ ﯾﺮى أﻧﮭﺎ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺑﯿﻊ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺷﺮاء ﻣﺎ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ واﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ أو ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺮى اﻟﺒﺎﺣﺜﻮن أن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺎرة ﻋﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺠﺎري‬ ‫•‬
‫‪،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﯿﺢ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ أن ﯾﻌﻘﺪ اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﻘﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻊ واﻟﺸﺮاء ﺑﺄﺳﻠﻮب ﺳﺮﯾﻊ وﺳﮭﻞ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻌﺮف ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺄﻧﮭﺎ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻣﺘﻜﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﻋﻘﺪ اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺗﺄﺳﯿﺲ اﻟﺮواﺑﻂ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ وﺗﻮزﯾﻊ وﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ وﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻋﺒﺮ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪.‬‬
‫ھﻨﺎك ﻋﺪة ﻣﮭﺎم ﻟﻤﻨﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻨﮭﺎ اﻹﺷﺮاف ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻨﻔﯿﺬ اﻻﺗﻔﺎﻗﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪ ،‬وﻓﺾ اﻟﻤﻨﺎزﻋﺎت‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻌﺎﻣﻼت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪ ،‬وﻣﺘﺎﺑﻌﺔ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺸﻤﻞ اﻟﻠﺠﺎن اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﯾﺮھﺎ ﻏﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ ﻟﺠﻨﺔ اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎد اﻟﺮﻗﻤﻲ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ ﺑﻮﺿﻊ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎون واﻟﺘﻨﺴﯿﻖ ﻣﻊ ﻣﻨﻈﻤﺎت دوﻟﯿﺔ أﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﺎھﻤﺖ ﺛﻮرة ﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﯿﺎ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت واﻻﺗﺼﺎﻻت ﻓﻲ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ وﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ آﻟﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻧﺠﺎح اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺪرة اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻖ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ وﺳﻠﻌﮭﺎ وﺧﺪﻣﺎﺗﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺧﻄﻂ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺗﺴﻮﯾﻘﯿﺔ ﺗﻤﻜﻨﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ أھﺪاﻓﮭﺎ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The development of email commerce depends on the company ability to market its‬‬
‫‪products by implementing a strategic marketing plan.‬‬
‫ﺗﺆدي ﻋﺪم اﻟﻤﻌﺮﻓﺔ اﻟﻜﺎﻓﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﺗﻘﯿﯿﺪ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻟﺘﻄﻮﯾﺮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻠﺪان اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Lack of familiarity with e-commerce restricts developing such type of commerce in‬‬
‫‪many non-Arab countries.‬‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻐﺮ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن ھﻨﺎك ﻣﺤﺎوﻻت ﻓﺮدﯾﺔ ﻹﻧﺠﺎز‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺻﻔﻘﺎت إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Because the volume of e-commerce is small, many individuals refrained from conduct-‬‬
‫‪ing online transactions.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺪول اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻄﻮﯾﺮ اﻟﺒﻨﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺘﯿﺔ وإﯾﺠﺎد اﻟﻮﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻼزﻣﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﺘﺴﮭﯿﻞ ھﺬا اﻟﻨﻮع ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪Arab countries should study the effectiveness and role of e-commerce in developing the‬‬
‫‪infrastructure under coordinated laws.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﯾﺘﯿﺢ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺳﻮق إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬

‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺧﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫دﻋﻢ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺳﺮﻋﺔ اﻻﺗﺼﺎل ﺑﺎﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺧﺪﻣﺎت اﻓﺘﺮاﺿﯿﺔ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺑﯿﻊ إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫إﻋﻼن إﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ‬ ‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺷﺒﻜﺔ أﻋﻤﺎل‬

‫اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ھﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻛﻤﻜﺎن ﻟﻠﺴﻮق ﯾﺠﺘﻤﻊ ﻓﯿﮫ اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻌﻮن‬ ‫•‬
‫واﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮون‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﺒﯿﻊ اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻲ ھﻮ ﺑﯿﻊ اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻋﻠﻰ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺣﯿﺚ ﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﺒﺎﺋﻊ ﺑﻌﺮض اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ وﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎﺗﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺛﻤﻨﮭﺎ وﯾﻘﻮم اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮي ﺑﻤﺮاﺟﻌﺔ ﺑﯿﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ واﻟﺸﺮاء‪.‬‬

‫ﻻ ﺗﻘﺘﺼﺮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺑﯿﻊ وﺷﺮاء اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻋﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬إذ إن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ داﺋﻤﺎ ً ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ ﺣﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺒﯿﻊ واﻟﺸﺮاء وإرﺳﺎل اﻟﺘﺤﻮﯾﻼت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬وﻟﻜﻦ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻘﯿﻘﺔ اﻷﻣﺮ ﺗﻨﻄﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺎ ھﻮ أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ ﺑﻜﺜﯿﺮ‪ ،‬ﻓﻘﺪ ﺗﻮﺳﻌﺖ ﺣﺘﻰ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺑﯿﻊ وﺷﺮاء اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‪(Kafi, 2010, p. 60) .‬‬

‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ھﻲ ﻧﻈﺎم ﯾﺘﯿﺢ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﺣﺮﻛﺎت ﺑﯿﻊ وﺷﺮاء اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت واﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت‪ ،‬ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﺘﯿﺢ‬
‫أﯾﻀﺎ اﻟﺤﺮﻛﺎت اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺪﻋﻢ ﺗﻮﻟﯿﺪ اﻟﻌﻮاﺋﺪ ﻣﺜﻞ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت ﺗﻌﺰﯾﺰ اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬
‫واﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎت ﺣﯿﺚ أن اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺗﺘﯿﺢ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت دﻋﻢ اﻟﻤﺒﯿﻌﺎت وﺧﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Kafi, 2010, p. 60‬‬
‫‪Text 2‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺪﺛﺖ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ )‪ (ITB‬اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺸﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﻲ ﻋﻦ واﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬
‫اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻷﻓﺮاد‪ ،‬وأﺷﺎرت إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻖ اﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻻ ﯾﺰال ﻣﺘﻤﺜﻼً ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪم ﺛﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ‬
‫ﺑﺄﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬وﺗﺨﻮف اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻗﺔ واﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎل اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل‬
‫اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ؛ ﻣﻤﺎ ﯾﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﺮدد اﻟﻌﻤﻼء إزاء طﺮح ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ ﺣﻮل ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺎﺗﮭﻢ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪ ،‬ورﻏﻢ اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت‬
‫اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن أﺳﻮاق اﻟﺘﺠﺰﺋﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺰال ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪاﯾﺔ‬
‫ظﮭﻮرھﺎ ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﻨﻈﯿﺮﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ وﺑﻤﺴﺘﻮى‬
‫اﻟﺘﻄﻮر اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي واﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ واﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ أﺧﺮى‪ .‬وﺗﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﻌﻮاﻣﻞ اﻷﺧﯿﺮة اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮭﺬا‬
‫اﻟﺒﻠﺪ دوراً ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻗﻀﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﺠﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﺎﻟﺒﻨﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﯾﺔ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺮأة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬھﺎب ﺑﻤﻔﺮدھﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺮاﻛﺰ اﻟﺘﺴﻮق‪ ،‬ﯾﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﮭﺎ أن ﺗﻠﻌﺐ دوراً إﯾﺠﺎﺑﯿﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Masri, 2012, p. 220‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪e-publishing‬‬ ‫اﻟﻨﺸﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﻲ‬ ‫‪specialized‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‬

‫‪firms and individuals‬‬ ‫ﺷﺮﻛﺎت وأﻓﺮاد‬ ‫‪reality‬‬ ‫واﻗﻊ‬
‫‪internet security‬‬ ‫أﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‬ ‫‪greatest obstacle‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻖ اﻷﻛﺒﺮ‬
‫‪giving details‬‬ ‫طﺮح ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ‬ ‫‪theft and fraud‬‬ ‫اﻟﺴﺮﻗﺔ واﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎل‬
‫‪banking services‬‬ ‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪their credit cards‬‬ ‫ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺎﺗﮭﻢ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‬
‫‪retail market‬‬ ‫أﺳﻮاق اﻟﺘﺠﺰﺋﺔ‬ ‫‪financial institutions‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ‬
‫‪social traditions‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ‬ ‫‪economic development‬‬ ‫ﺗﻄﻮر اﻗﺘﺼﺎدي‬

‫ﺗﺤﺪﺛﺖ ﺷﺮﻛﺔ )‪ (ITB‬اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﺸﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺗﻲ ﻋﻦ واﻗﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت واﻷﻓﺮاد‪.‬‬
‫أﺷﺎرت اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ إﻟﻰ أن اﻟﻌﺎﺋﻖ اﻷﻛﺒﺮ ﻻ ﯾﺰال ﻣﺘﻤﺜﻼً ﻓﻲ ﻋﺪم ﺛﻘﺔ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ ﺑﺄﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ‪ ،‬وﺗﺨﻮف‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﻼء ﻣﻦ ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻗﺔ واﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎل اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺤﺼﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺆدي ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺴﺮﻗﺔ واﻻﺣﺘﯿﺎل إﻟﻰ ﺗﺮدد اﻟﻌﻤﻼء إزاء طﺮح ﺗﻔﺎﺻﯿﻞ ﺣﻮل ﺑﻄﺎﻗﺎﺗﮭﻢ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫رﻏﻢ اﻧﺘﺸﺎر اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ اﻟﻤﺆﺳﺴﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ‪ ،‬إﻻ أن أﺳﻮاق‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺰﺋﺔ ﻻ ﺗﺰال ﻓﻲ ﺑﺪاﯾﺔ ظﮭﻮرھﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﻌﻮدﯾﺔ ﺑﻨﻈﯿﺮﺗﮭﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ وﺑﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺘﻄﻮر‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي واﻟﺘﻘﻨﻲ واﻟﺘﻘﺎﻟﯿﺪ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﺴﺎﺋﺪة ﻣﻦ ﺟﮭﺔ أﺧﺮى‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐ ﻋﺪة ﻋﻮاﻣﻞ ﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮭﺬا اﻟﺒﻠﺪ دوراً ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻗﻀﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﺗﺸﺠﯿﻊ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻠﻌﺐ اﻟﺒﻨﯿﺔ اﻻﺟﺘﻤﺎﻋﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻤﺤﺎﻓﻈﺔ‪ ،‬واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺮﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﺮأة ﻓﻲ اﻟﺬھﺎب ﺑﻤﻔﺮدھﺎ إﻟﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺮاﻛﺰ اﻟﺘﺴﻮق‪ ،‬دوراً إﯾﺠﺎﺑﯿﺎ ً ﻓﻲ ﻧﻤﻮ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻮاﺟﮫ ﺻﺎﻧﻌﻮ اﻟﺴﯿﺎﺳﯿﺎت اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدﯾﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ ﺻﻌﻮﺑﺎت ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻓﻲ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﺣﺠﻢ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻠﺪول اﻹﺳﻼﻣﯿﺔ ﺗﺤﺪﯾﺪ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﻗﻄﺎﻋﺎت اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻤﺼﺮﻓﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻤﻮﯾﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﻤﻜﻦ اﺳﺘﻐﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫راﺟﻌﺖ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺎل اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﺳﯿﺎﺳﺎت أﻣﻦ اﻹﻧﺘﺮﻧﺖ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﮭﺎ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻟﻠﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻮاﻓﻘﮭﺎ ﻣﻊ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﯾﯿﺮ اﻟﺪوﻟﯿﺔ اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ واﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﮭﺪف إﻟﻰ ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت‪.‬‬
‫‪Exercise 2: Translate the following passages into English:‬‬
‫ﻋﻤﻠﯿﺎت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻷردن ﺗﻨﻄﻮي ﺑﺼﻮرة رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻔﻘﺎت ﺗﺘﻢ ﺑﯿﻦ ﺷﺮﻛﺎت أردﻧﯿﺔ ﻗﻠﯿﻠﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺷﺮﻛﺎﺋﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻏﯿﺮ اﻷردﻧﯿﯿﻦ‪ ،‬وﺗﺘﺮاﻓﻖ ھﺬه اﻟﺼﻔﻘﺎت ﻣﻊ طﺮق ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ ﺗﻤﺮ ﻋﺒﺮ ﻣﺼﺎرف أﺟﻨﺒﯿﺔ ﺗﻮﻓﺮ‬
‫ﺑﻮاﺑﺎت ﺗﺴﺪﯾﺪ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻋﺎدة ﺧﺎرج اﻷردن‪ ،‬وﺗﻤﯿﻞ أﻧﺸﻄﺔ ھﺬه اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت ﻧﺤﻮ اﻻﺳﺘﯿﺮاد وﻟﯿﺲ اﻟﺘﺼﺪﯾﺮ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Ashweirif, 2013, p. 197‬‬
‫ﺗﺤﺘﻞ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ أھﻤﯿﺔ ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪ ،‬ﻷن اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ أﺻﺒﺢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﯿﺴﻮر ﻟﻠﻐﺎﯾﺔ أن ﺗﺘﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪ .‬ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﯿﺴﺮت اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة ﻋﺒﺮ‬
‫اﻟﺪول ﺑﺼﻮرة ﻛﺒﯿﺮة‪ ،‬وذﻟﻚ ﺑﻔﻀﻞ ﺗﻮاﻓﺮ وﺳﺎﺋﻞ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة أﻣﺎم اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Masri, 2012, p. 49‬‬
‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫•‬
‫اﺑﺘﺪاء ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ اﻟﺘﻤﯿﯿﺰ ﺑﯿﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ واﻷﻋﻤﺎل اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ ‪ E-business‬ﻓﺎﻷﺧﯿﺮة ھﻲ أوﺳﻊ‬
‫ﻧﻄﺎﻗﺎ ً وأﺷﻤﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرة اﻹﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﯿﺔ وﺗﻘﻮم ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻜﺮة أﺗﻤﺘﺔ اﻷداء وﺗﺤﻮل أﻧﻤﺎط اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫اﻷﻧﺸﻄﺔ اﻹدارﯾﺔ واﻹﻧﺘﺎﺟﯿﺔ واﻟﻤﺎﻟﯿﺔ واﻟﺨﺪﻣﯿﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻨﺸﺄة‪.‬‬
‫)‪(Abdullah, 2017, p. 20‬‬
‫‪Exercise 3: Using the translations in the table below, translate the sentences which‬‬
‫‪follow:‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪company warehouse‬‬ ‫ﻣﺨﺎزن اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬ ‫‪products distribution‬‬ ‫ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬

‫‪add value‬‬ ‫ﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ‬ ‫‪wholesale outlets‬‬ ‫ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺬ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ‬
‫‪activity cost‬‬ ‫ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﻧﺸﺎط‬ ‫‪products properties‬‬ ‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪best way‬‬ ‫اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻠﺔ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ‬ ‫‪physical distribution‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدي‬
‫‪clients‬‬ ‫ﻋﻤﻼء‬ ‫‪product delivery‬‬ ‫ﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪transportation‬‬ ‫وﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬ ‫‪final products‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻨﮭﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬
‫‪wholesalers‬‬ ‫ﺗﺠﺎر اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ‬ ‫‪external clients‬‬ ‫اﻟﻌﻤﻼء اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﯿﻦ‬
‫‪at larger quantities‬‬ ‫ﺑﻜﻤﯿﺎت أﻛﺒﺮ‬ ‫‪demand fluctuations‬‬ ‫ﺗﻘﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‬
‫ﯾﻌﺪ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻣﺨﺎزن اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺬ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﺑﺎﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ ﺧﻄﻮة ﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن‬ ‫•‬
‫ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻻ ﺗﺘﻐﯿﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻀﯿﻒ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻗﯿﻤﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺮ اﻟﺰﺑﻮن ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺘﺠﺮ‪ ،‬وإﺿﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﻘﯿﻤﺔ ﺗﺘﻤﺜﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﺗﻜﻠﻔﺔ ﻧﺸﺎط‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ أو اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﺎدي‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﻌﺮف اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ ﺑﺄﻧﮫ اﻟﻌﻤﻠﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾﺘﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻟﮭﺎ ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻣﻜﺎن إﻧﺘﺎﺟﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻜﺎن اﺳﺘﮭﻼﻛﮭﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﺤﺪد اﻟﺘﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻠﺔ اﻷﻓﻀﻞ ﻟﺘﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻟﻠﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ‪ ،‬أو اﻟﻤﻜﺎن اﻷﻓﻀﻞ ﻟﺘﺨﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻨﮭﺎﺋﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫ووﺳﺎﺋﻞ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻟﺨﺪﻣﺔ اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﯿﻦ‪.‬‬
‫ﯾﺄﺧﺬ اﻟﻤﻮزﻋﻮن ﻛﻤﯿﺎت ﻛﺒﯿﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺰون ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ وﺗﻘﺪم ھﺬه اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت إﻟﻰ اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ‪ ،‬وﻗﺪ ﯾُﻌﺮف‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻮزﻋﻮن أﯾﻀﺎ ﺑﺘﺠﺎر اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺎع اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت أﺧﺮى ﺑﻜﻤﯿﺎت أﻛﺒﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻌﻤﯿﻞ اﻟﻔﺮدي‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻤﺜﻞ اﻟﻤﻮزﻋﻮن ﺣﺎﺟﺰ ﻟﻠﻤﻨﺘﺠﯿﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺗﻘﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻄﻠﺐ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻋﻦ طﺮﯾﻖ ﺗﺨﺰﯾﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺰون‪.‬‬ ‫•‬
‫ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ ﻟﻜﺎﻓﺔ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺎت اﻟﺮاﻏﺒﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﺪﯾﻢ اﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ اﻻﻟﺘﺰام ﺑﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪدھﺎ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ‪.‬‬
‫وﻓﯿﻤﺎ ﯾﺨﺺ ﺗﺴﻠﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪ ،‬ﺣﺪدت اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ رﺋﯿﺴﯿﺔ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ أﺳﻤﺎء اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﺘﻲ ﯾُﺴﻤﺢ ﺑﺘﻮزﯾﻌﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻮاطﻨﯿﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻓﺘﺮة اﻷزﻣﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﻜﻤﻦ اﻟﻘﺪرة اﻟﺘﻨﺎﻓﺴﯿﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻗﺪرﺗﮭﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻘﻠﺒﺎت اﻟﻄﻠﺐ‪ ،‬ﺳﻮاء ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﻤﺤﻠﯿﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫أو اﻷﺳﻮاق اﻟﺨﺎرﺟﯿﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The strength of the company lies in discussing the consumers’ demand variations in‬‬
‫‪regional markets.‬‬
‫ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺑﺒﯿﻊ ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎﺗﮭﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺰﺑﺎﺋﻦ اﻟﻔﺮدﯾﺔ وﺗﺠﺎر اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﺬﯾﻦ ﯾﻘﻮﻣﻮن ﺑﺘﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻓﻲ أﺳﻮاق‬ ‫•‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The manufacturing company sells its products to groups of people and wholesalers who‬‬
‫‪distribute them in domestic markets.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ ﻗﺮب ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ ﻣﺨﺎزن اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﻣﻦ أﻣﺎﻛﻦ ﺗﻮزﯾﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺪرة ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻘﻠﯿﻞ ﺗﻜﺎﻟﯿﻒ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ‪،‬‬ ‫•‬
‫وﺿﻤﺎن وﺻﻮل اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻨﮭﺎﺋﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻛﺎﻓﺔ ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺬ اﻟﺒﯿﻊ ﻓﻲ وﻗﺖ ﻗﺼﯿﺮ‪.‬‬
‫•‬ ‫‪The significance of a company location closeness to distribution sites lies in avoiding‬‬
‫‪unnecessary costs for transporting final products.‬‬
‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬ ‫‪TT‬‬ ‫‪ST‬‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﯾﻔﻀﻞ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺮف ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ‬

‫‪...........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺆدي وظﺎﺋﻒ‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫ﺳﻠﻌﺔ ﻣﻤﺎﺛﻠﺔ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫ﺻﻨﺎﻋﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫ﻣﺼﺪر اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫اﻟﻤﺼﻨﻊ‬‫ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ ُ‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺠﺎرة اﻟﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ‬
‫‪..........................‬‬ ‫إﺗﻘﺎن ﺻﻨﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪..............................‬‬ ‫إﻗﻨﺎع اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺣﻤﺎﯾﺔ ﺣﻘﻮق اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ‬ ‫‪.............................‬‬ ‫َدور اﻟﺪﻋﺎﯾﺔ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ ﺳﺎﺑﻘﺔ ﻟﺴﻠﻌﺔ ﻣﻌﯿﻨﺔ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫أﻛﺜﺮ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺟﻮدة‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫طﺮح أﻓﻀﻞ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‬ ‫‪.............................‬‬ ‫ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬
‫‪.........................‬‬ ‫ھﻮﯾﺔ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ‬ ‫‪............................‬‬ ‫أذواق اﻟﻌﻤﻼء‬

‫ﯾﻔﻀﻞ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﻮن ﺷﺮاء ﻣﻨﺘﺠﺎت ﺗﺤﻤﻞ ﻋﻼﻣﺔ ﺗﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻣﺸﮭﻮرة ﻧﻈﺮاً ﻟﻠﻤﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻤﯿﺰ ﺑﮭﺎ‬ ‫•‬
‫ھﺬه اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت‪.‬‬
‫ﺗﺒﺮز أھﻤﯿﺔ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﮭﯿﻞ ﺗﻌﺮف اﻟﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻜﯿﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺴﻠﻊ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻨﺘﺠﮭﺎ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ ﺻﺎﺣﺒﺔ اﻟﻌﻼﻣﺔ‬ ‫•‬
‫اﻟﺘﺠﺎرﯾﺔ‪.‬‬

‫ﻗﺪ ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺎت اﻟﻤﺘﺪاوﻟﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻮق – وﻓﻲ ھﺬه اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﯾﺨﻀﻊ ﺗﻘﯿﯿﻢ اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﮭﻠﻚ اﻟﻨﮭﺎﺋﻲ أو‬
‫ﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﻮﺳﯿﻂ )اﻟﻤﻨﺘﺞ ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﺼﻨﯿﻊ(‪ .‬وﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﻄﻮر ﻣﻔﮭﻮم اﻟﺠﻮدة – ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﺮد ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم ﻣﺮاﻗﺒﺔ‬
‫‪ control‬اﻟﺠﻮدة ﻛﺄﺣﺪ ﻣﺮاﺣﻞ اﻹﻧﺘﺎج أو اﻟﺘﺼﻨﯿﻊ إﻟﻰ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم إدارة اﻟﺠﻮدة ﻟﻮﺣﺪة اﻹﻧﺘﺎج – ﺣﺘﻰ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ ﻣﻔﮭﻮم‬
‫ﺗﺄﻛﯿﺪ ‪ assurance‬اﻟﺠﻮدة‪(Hasan, 2002, p. 15) .‬‬

Technical Translation

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Technical Translation

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C ha p te r 1

1 BITRA is the Bibliography of Interpreting and Translation which was created by

The aim of this chapter is to challenge some misconceptions about tech-

The Importance of Technical Translation

Before we examine technical translation in greater detail and try to relate it

Technical translation includes economics, law, business etc. In reality,

the necessary facts. In comparison, consider a poem where an author may

With regard to subject knowledge, O’Neill (1998:69) says that medicine,

translation involves detailed knowledge of the source and target cultures,

The Reality of Technical Translation

Having looked at some of the more prevalent and serious misconceptions

Scientific vs. Technical Translation

which is defined by the Chambers Dictionary as “knowledge ascertained by

The next sentence is taken from a book discussing the scattering of X-

How is the sudden decrease of µ in Fig. V.5 explained by resonance?

An installation guide, on the other hand, is written to help someone do

The Aim of Technical Translation

3 Pinchuck (1997:163-164) is eager to stress that workshop is not meant in any

Practical translating... is a service industry. The value of the service pro-

The purpose of technical translation is, therefore, to present new techni-

languages, it is difficult to imagine a case where it does not occur to someone

frequently problematic. In addition to the factors discussed above, the problem

The Translator’s Role

languages, a fairly rigidly prescribed framework within which to produce

While Mossop presents these phases and tasks as a description of practical

Technical Translator or Technical Communicator?

needs to be rebuilt, reinterpreted, remodelled and restructured so that it

Adding and Removing Information

Similarly, the translator may need to intervene in the flow of information

1.2.2. Principles of safety integration

Ambiguous information can also necessitate the addition of information in a

“Flying planes can be dangerous”

We can disambiguate this by making explicit certain information relating to

“Planes flying overhead can be dangerous”.

fact this is similar to what Kussmaul (1998:123) describes as “enlarging a

Theory in Technical Translation

fact this is similar to what Kussmaul (1998:123) describes as “enlarging a

Theory in Technical Translation

The Trouble with Translation Theory

Good theory is based on information gained from practice. Good practice

When trying to explain or situate technical translation within a theoreti-

…whereas adherence to source norms determines a translation’s ade-

We can see, therefore, that adequacy is typically regarded as a term associ-

Source-Orientated Approaches to Translation

goes on forever”. He goes on to say that translation equivalence cannot

Komissarov (1977) also proposes a series of levels on which translation

Technical Translation and Equivalence

House (1981) also adopts a functionalist approach and states that it is

What is more - as is the case with traditional equivalence-based ap-

Target-Orientated Approaches to Translation

Toury (1995:26) in his work Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond

mind’s “language module5” (1991:24). He continues to say that these se-

someone else thinks or says. In the context of translation, an interpretive

brochure are intended to serve as freestanding original texts, they cannot be

Skopos theory is linked with the functionalist approach to translation but

target language text. Vermeer (1982) discusses the concept of Information-

Loyalty to the Source Text

necessary to decide on various strategies, e.g. word-for-word, transposition,

It is important to note that this is an improvement on the notion that the

The Applicability of Skopos Theory to Technical Translation

There are numerous translation strategies available to translators such as

1.1 What is translation?

Render, reproduce, replace TT output

SL input Text norms, audience