ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

AND THE

BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

VOL.90 May, 1995 No. 3

A SpecialIssueDevotedto the Geologyof BareMetalDeposits*

Geology
of BareMetalDeposits:
An Introduction
andOverview
PETERJ. POLLARD
NationalKeyCentrein Economic
Geology,
Department
of EarthSciences,
JamesCookUniversity,
Townsville,
Queensland
4811,Australia
ONEofthemajoraimsoftherecently completed IGCPProj- growthin the useof rare metals,togetherwith declining
ect 282--"Rare Metal Granitoids"--was to examine the tec- production fromsometraditional sources, is creating market
tonic,magmatic, andhydrothermal processes whichcontrib- opportunities forsomecommodities andrenewed exploration
uteto theformation ofraremetaldeposits, particularlythose interest.An important example istantalum, wheredeclining
hosted bygranites andgranitic pegmatites. Thepapers in this production fromreproeessing tin slags(Fig. 1) is beingmet
volumepresentsomeof the resultsof thiswork,with an by increased production fromprimarysources, dominantly
emphasis on newor otherwise poorlydocumented regions fromgranitie pegmatites fromdeposits suchasGreenbushes
anddeposits, andon deposits whererecentworkhaspro- andWodginain Australia.
motedsignificant advances in theunderstanding of thegeol-
ogyandmetallogeny of primaryraremetaldeposits. Major Sourcesof Rare Metals
The term "rare metals"(or rare elements)is usedhere to Beryllium
encompass avarietyofelements including tantalum, niobium,
lithium, beryllium,zirconium,and rare earth elements Berylliumproduction is dominatedby the bertranditc
(REE).Raremetals areoftenconcentrated in peralkaline and (Be4Si.207(OH)2) deposits relatedto topazrhyolites at Spot
peraluminous vo]canics, granites, andgranitie pegmatites, as Mountain, Utah (see below). Other production is sourced
well asin alkaline-ultramafic andcarbonatite complexes. In principally fromgranitic pegmatites (beryl):potential sources
manycases thechemical fractionation processes whichcon- include the phenakite (Be.2SiO•) deposits associatedwith per-
tributeto enrichment of raremetalsin granitic magmas also alkaline graniteandsyenite suchastheNorthT zonedeposit
at Thor Lake, Canada (Trueman et al., 1988).
concentrate significanttin. Thisresults in the formation of a
spectrum of deposits thatincludes tin + raremetalsdeposits Lithium
suchasthe granites andpegmatites of the Phuket-Ranong
regionof southwestern Thailand(Suwimonprecha et al., Production oflithiumminerals isderivedmainlyfromgra-
1995),raremetals+ tin deposits suchasthe Ta granites of nitiepegmatites andis dominated bythe Greenbushes (Aus-
southChina(Yinet al.,1995),andgiantraremetalpegmatitestralia)and Tanco(Canada)deposits, whichboth produce
suchasGreenbushes (Partington et al., 1995). spodumene (LiA1SisO•), and by Bikita(Zimbabwe), which
Raremetalsarevitalcomponents of manymanufacturingproduces petalitc(LiA1Si•O•o). Otherpotentialsources in-
andproduction processes (Table1),particularly in theaero- eludeLi-richmicas(particularly lepidolite) thatoccurin many
space, electronics,ceramics, glass,andpetroleum industries.raremetalandtin granites(e.g.,Hawkeseta]., 1987).
Emerging technologies thatareexpected to providesignifi- Lithium,particularly asa feedstock for lithiumchemical
cantfuturegrowthin demandfor raremetalsincludedevel- plants,is alsoobtained frombrinesproduced byevaporation
of lake waters in Chile and Nevada.
opments of permanent magnets, solarcollectors, autocata-
lysts,andhigh-temperature superconductors. Niobium
Someraremetalcommodity marketsaredominated by a
relatively smallnumberof largeproducers andconsumers. Niobiumproduction isdominated byprimaryandsecond-
For example, berylliummining,processing, andfabrication arydeposits associated withalkaline-ultramafic andcarbona-
in the UnitedStatesis dominated by BrushWellmanwho tire complexes, particularly in Brazil.The majorproducing
minesapproximately 50 percentof the world'sproduction deposits includeArax5andCatal5oI in Braziland Niobec
frombertranditc deposits in theSpotMountain areaof Utah. in Canada.Detailedreserveandproduction figuresfor the
Consumption ofmostraremetals isrelatively smallin com- Tomtotdepositare not available, but it reportedly contains
parisonto identifiedreserves andresources andthiscanact more Nb than Arax5and more REE than Mount Weld (Krav-
as a deterrentto exploration. However,anticipated future chenkoandPokrovsky, 1995).The undeveloped MorroDos
SeisLagosdepositin Brazilhasreportedreserves of 2,897
millionmetrictons(Mr) at2.85percentNb.20.• (Tolley,1991).
* Contribution
toInternationalGeologicalCorrelation
Programme Project Identifiedresources of niobiumaresufficient for manyhun-
282.
dredsof yearsat currentratesof productionand market
0361-0128/95/1686/489-654.00 489
490 POLLARD

TABLE1. PrincipleUsesof RareMetals in theTransbaikal regionof Russia(e.g.,Orlovka).The bulk

Industries and uses
of the remaining production comesfrom reproeessing tin
slagsproducedfrom smeltingof southeast Asianconcen-
Beryllium Defense,aerospace, electronics trates,principally
thosesourced in Thailand.Theseconcen-
Lithium Glass,ceramics,televisions,chemicals,batteries tratesareproduced largelyfromeluvialandweathered (soft)
Niobium Steel,alloys,aerospace primarydeposits andonshore andoffshore placerdeposits.
Rare earths Catalysts,metallurgy,ceramics, phosphors,fertilizer, The primary soumefor mostof thesedeposits includesgra-
magnets
Tantalum Electronics,superalloys, aerospace
nitie pegmatites
and disseminated andvein-stylemineraliza-
Zirconium tionin granites(Pollardet al., 1995;Suwimonpreeha et al.,
Sand Foundries, casting,refactories,
ceramics 1995).Asthestockpile oftinslags diminishes
duetodeclining
Chemicals Adhesives,polymers, ceramics, jewelry,etc. tin productionin southeast Asia,the supplyof by-product
tantalumis alsodiminishing, leadingto increasedrelianceon
production fromlargeraremetalpegmatites in otherparts
opportunitiesarerestricted mainlyto value-added products of theworld(principally Australia).
such as ferroniobium and niobium oxide. Zirconium

Rare earth elements Primary zireonium deposits consistmainlyofdisseminated-

Rareearthelementsare produced principally fromby- style depositsin peralkaline granites andsyenitesandinclude
products of beachsandmining(monazite) andfromprimary the Strange Lake and Thor Lake deposits,Canada, andthe
andsecondary depositsassociated withcarbonatites. Increas- Khaldzan Buregty deposit in Mongolia (Kovalenko et al.,
ingenvironmental concerns relating tothoriumin beachsand 1995).Thesedeposits commonly containa varietyof zirco-
andplacermonazite depositsis causing a shiftin emphasisniumminerals, whichat Strange Lakeincludes zircon,elpid-
towardcarbonatite-related mineralization. Existingopera- itc (Na.2ZrSi601.5.3H.20),eatapleiite (Na.2ZrSi309.2H20), vla-
tionssuchasMountainPass,California (bastnasite),andpo- sovite (Na.2ZrSiaOn), dalyite (KsZrSi60•.5),
and armstrongite
tential mines such as Mount Weld, Western Australia(see- (CaZrSiaO•5.2H.20) in freshgranite,and gittinsite(CaZr-
ondarymonazite), whichare basedon miningcarbonatite- Si.207) in altered granite (SalviandWilliams-Jones, 1990).
relateddeposits, willthereforeprovidea largerproportion of The granite-hosted deposits are notpresentlyeconomic due
futureREE production. In addition, REE mineralization is to continuing low prices for zircon which isproduced mainly
a component of Proterozoicironoxide(Cu-U-Au-REE)de- the fromsandminingoperations in Australia,
SouthAfrica,and
United States.
posits suchasOlympic Dam(e.g.,Hitzmanet al.,1992)and
reaches ore concentrations in the stockwork and carbonate Carbonatites fromdeposits suchasPhalahorwa in South
replacement bodiesof thehugeBayanOboironoredeposit Africa and Kovdor in Russia produce baddeleyite (ZrO.2) as
in Inner Mongoliawhichcontainsat least48 Mt of REE a by-product of copper, iron, and/or phosphate mining.
oxides at anaverage gradeof 6 percent(Drewet al., 1990). Stylesof PrimaryRareMetal Mineralization
Tantalum Volcanic-hosted deposits
Primarytantalum production is derivedalmostexclusively Raremetaldeposits hostedwithinvolcanic rocksconsist
fromgranites andgraniticpegmatites. The majorpegmatite- predominantly of disseminations withinhydrothermally al-
producing deposits includeGreenbushes (Partingtonet al., teredtuffsandrhyolites. Mostimportantin thisgroupare
1995)andWodginain WesternAustralia, andTancoin Can- thebertrandite deposits thatoccurwithinalteredtuffsin the
ada,although someproduction isderived fromgranite-hostedSporMountainareaof Utah,sincetheyprovidemorethan
deposits in southChina(e.g.,Yichun;Yin et al., 1995)and halfoftheworld'sBeproduction. Thesedeposits occurwithin

180 1500
A
170-
160-
1000-
150-
140 -

130- 5OO
120-
110-
100
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Year Year

FIG. 1. A. Worldtin production

1983-1992(source:
MetalsandMineralsAnnualReview,1990-1993).B. World
tantalumproduction
1983-1992(source:MetalsandMineralsAnnualReview,1990-1993).
 INTRODUCTION AND OVERWE•V 491

water-laid tuff and breccia that contain abundant clasts of

associated predominantly with Zr-Nb-REE(-Be-Y-Sn-Ta)
underlyingPaleozoic
dolomite anddolomitic limestonewhich mineralization andcommonly containprimaryarfvedsonite,
are variablyreplacedby silica,fluorite,and bertranditc sometimes accompanied by,orpartiallyreplacedby,aegirine.
(Shawe,1966;Lindsey,1977;Davis,1978).The ore zones Theperalkaline granites
arecharacterized byhighFe, F, Nb,
are structurally
controlledandconsist of hydrothermally al- Zr, Rb, Sn, and REE contents, by low CaO, Ba, and Sr
teredtuff coinposedlargelyof glass,zeolite,andclaywith contents,and low TdNb (Pollard,1989a).Rare metal miner-
zonesof laterpotassiumfeldsparalteration(Lindsey,1977). alization in peralkaline
granites occurs
mainlyasdisseminated
The SporMountaindepositand otherBe deposits in the Zr, Nb, andREE minerals thatformedduringcrystallization
regionshowa closeassociation with topaz-bearingrhyolites ofthemelt(Kovalenko et al.,1995)orduringpervasive
hydro-
thatarecharacteristically
enriched in incompatiblelithophile thermalalteration includingNa metasomatism (Kinnairdet
elements includingRb, U, Th, Ta, Nb, Y, Be, Li, andCs al., 1985)and Ca metasomatism (SalviandWilliams-Jones,
(Christiansenet al., 1986). 1990).
The Brockman rare metalsdepositin WesternAustralia Therearefew,if any,primaryhard-rock raremetaldeposits
is a low-grade Zr-Nb-REEdepositoccurring withinF-rich, in peralkaline granitesthat are minedin marketeconomy
alteredtuffswhichare overlainby incompatible element- countries. The Pitingaminein Amazonas State,Brazil,is a
enriched trachyticflows(Rainsden et al.,1993).Themineral- rich Sn(-Ta-Nb)alluvialandsaprolitedepositderivedfrom
izationprobablyresultedfroinalteration of tuff containingweathering of peralkaline granite.Thegraniteitselfis a large
primarycolumbite andzirconbyF-rich(magmatic) fluidsthat resource of eryolite-Sn-Nb-Ta-Zr-REE mineralization thatis
wereretained withinthetufffollowing ernption(Ralnsden et presentlybeinginvestigated (Horbeet al., 1991).As noted
al., 1993). above,the granite-hosted Zr deposits are currentlyuneco-
nomic,andtheperalkaline pyroehlore-bearing andassociated
Granite-hosted deposits peraluminous eolumbite-eassiterite-bearing granites(e.g.,
The majortypesof granite-related raremetaldeposits in- Kinnaird,1985)areunlikelyto compete withtheearbonatite-
cludethosein whichraremetalminerals forinasanintegral relatedNb deposits in theforeseeable future.
partof the crystallization history, generally withinthe more
evolvedfaciesof the granite,andthosein whichpervasivePegrnatite-hosted deposits
hydrothermal alterationaccompanied mineralization. Many
of thesedeposits are economic onlywheresuperimposed Graniticpegmatites area majorsource of raremetalsand
weathering hasmadethemsoftenoughto minevia alluvial- are especiallyimportant as sources of tantalum andlithium.
styletechniques. The granite-hosted deposits rangefroln Productivepegmatites are dominantly Archcan to Proterozoic
EarlyProterozoic to Mesozoic in ageandweretypically era- in ageand are hostedmainlywithinuppergreenschist to
placedat relatively shallow crnstallevels(<4 kin).Theyfall loweramphibolite Faciesrocksin greenstone belts,or within
mainlyintotwobroadgroupings basedonthealuminasatura- eugeosynclinal beltsbordering Archcan eratons (Cema,
tionindex(ASI)of thehost.Theperaluminous varietiesgen- 1989a).They generallyforin part of more or less zoned peg-
erallyoccurin foldbeltsaspostorogenic plutonsemplaced matitcfieldssurrounding late-topost-tectonic, peraluminous
into greenschist Facies hostrocks.The peralkaline varieties, granites,with the Ta- and Li-mineralized pegmatites com-
together withassociated nonperalkaline granites, weremostly monly occurrin•gin theouter,moreevolved partsofthepeg-
eraplaced duringextensional eventsor abovemigrating man- matitefields(Cern•,1989a,b).
tle hotspotsin oldercratonic regions, commonly assubvol- Rare metalpegmatites rangefrom relativelysimpleto
canicintrnsions in ringcomplexes (Kinnaird, 1985;Kovalenko strongly concentrically(butasymmetrically) zonedbodiesde-
andYarlnolyuk, 1995). pending onthepegmatite type(Cema, 1989a, 1991a). Among
Peraluminous alkali-feldspargranitesare associated pre- the producers of tantalum and lithium, the most important
dominantly withTa(-Sn)mineralization andfrequently con- arethecomplex (petalitc andlepidolite) subtypes ofCern•
rainprimarytopazand Li-richmicas.Mineralization occurs (1991a),althoughthe Mount Cassiterite albite-spodumene
mainlyascolumbite-tantalite, microlite,andTa-richcassiter- pegmatites nearWodginaareemerging asa significant tanta-
itc whichare disseminated throughthe apicalpartsof the lum producer.
mostevolvedFacies of the granitebody(e.g.,Raimbault et Raremetalpegmatites arelargelya magmatic phenomenon
al., 1995;Yin et al., 1995).The granites are moderately to withoreminerals ge•nerally forming asan integral partof
strongly enriched in A1203,Na20,F, Li, Rb,Cs,Ga,Nb, Sn, their crystallization (Cern•, 1991a;London,1992).Spodu-
andTa, havehighTdNb, andaredepleted in TiO.•,MgO, mene-richzonesconstitute nearly50 percentof thevolume
CaO, Zr, Sr, and Eu (Pollard, 1989a;Raimbaultet al., 1995; of the Tancopegmatite, includingthe lowerintermediate
Yinetal.,1995).In manycases themagmas werealsostrongly (microcline-perthite + albite+ quartz+ spodumene (+ am-
enrichedin B whichmaybe expressed astourmaline in the blygonite)) andupperintermediate (spodumene + quartz+
graniteand/oras tourmaline in the hostrocksdepending amblygonite (+ petalRe)) zones (Crouse andCema,1972),
largelyontheFe contentof the magma(LondonandMan- whereasat Greenbushes spodumene occurspredominantly
ning,1995).The low P.•O5(<0.10 wt %) andhighP.•O.• in footwall andhanging-wall zonescomposed mainlyof spod-
(>0.40 wt %) subtypes of topaz-bearing granites recognizedumene,quartz,K feldspar, andalbite(Partington et al.,1995).
by Taylor(1992)havemanyof the featuresof fractionatedTantalum(-tin) mineralization in rare metalpegmatites can
I-type and S-typegranites, respectively (seeChappelland occurin a numberofdifferent units,butin highlyfractionated
White, 1992; Pollardet al., 1995). pegmatites occurs predominantly withinlatealbite-andmica-
The peralkaline alkali-feldspargranitesand syenites are rich unitsascolumbite-tantalite,microlite,ixiolite,cassiterite,
492 POLLARD

w,odginite,
anda varietyvofotherTa-bearing
minerals (e.g., stratetheexistenceof magmaswitha bulkcomposition simi-
Cern:•andEreit, 1989;Cern:•,1992;Trumbull,1995). lar to raremetalgranites
duringcrystallization
of theirhost
Twopapersin thisvolumeprovideimportant variations on minerals.
thesegeneral features. Partington et al. (1995)pointoutthe Theroleof postmagmatic alteration in modifying themin-
lackofanysimplerelationship between thegiant,synteetonieeralogical, textural,andchemical features of someraremetal
Greenbushes pegmatite andoutcropping granites in the re- graniteshasalsobeenconfirmedin severalrecentstudies
gion,whereasSuwimonprecha et al. (1995)note that the whichindicatethatpervasive alteration by magmatic-derived
Phuketpegmatites occurin hostrocksof unusually lowmeta- hydrothermal fluidsaccompanies mineralization (Salviand
morphic grade(greenschist facies) anddisplay a closeassocia-Williams-Jones, 1990;Pollardet al., 1991a,b). In thosecases
tionwithgranites thatarethemselves mineralized. wherethehydrothermal fluidsescape intothecountry rocks,
mineralization stylesarethosetypicalof othergranitoid-re-
Alkaline-ultramafic andcarbonatite complexes lated mineralization systems (skarns,breccias, veins,etc.),
Alkaline-ultramafic andcarbonatite complexes arethema- but thesegenerally do not formmajorraremetaldeposits.
jor sourceof niobiumandan increasingly importantsource However,at the tin-richendof the spectrum thesearethe
of rare earth elements. The niobium and rare earth element mostimportantdeposittypes(Taylor,1979)andsometimes
orescanoccurasprimaryconcentrations of pyrochlore (Nio- containraremetalby-products. Of special interestisthework
bec, Canada) and bastnaesite(Mountain Pass, California), reported byLondon andManning (1995)ontourmaline from
andasextensive, supergene-enriched zonescontaining sec- southwest England. Thisprovides notonlyanexplanation for
ondarypyrochlore (AraxS,Brazil)and secondary monazite the common occurrence of tourmaline in aureoles around
(Mount Weld, Australia) aboveweathered carbonatiteand granites thatmaythemselves lacktourmaline butalsoplaces
alkaline-ultramaficrocks (Gomes et al., 1990; Lottermoser, severe ]imitations on interpretations of tourmaline composi-
1990;Notholtet al., 1990).Furtherconcentration in placer tionasan indicator of proximity to the granitesourcesince
deposits is a featureof the hugeTomtor(Nb-REE)deposit tourmaline chemistry in theaureolelargelyreflects thehost-
(Kravchenko andPokrovsky, 1995). rockcomposition (LondonandManning,1995).
Carbonatites and associated alkaline-ultramafic rocks are In the southern part of the Siberianplatformandin the
alsosignificant sources of a varietyof othercommodities in- UkrainianShielda groupof fault-related alkalineraremetal
cluding phosphate, copper,magnetite, titanium, baddeleyite,(Ta-Nb-Be-Zr-REE)metasomatites are reportedto have
vermiculite,and carbonatefor cementmanufacture(Notholt formedfrom subcrustal hydrothermal solutions whichmi-
et al., 1990). gratedup ductileshearzonesafterpeakmetamorphism and
graniteeraplacement (e.g.,Arkhangel'skaya et al., 1993).As
Perspectiveson Granites,Pegmatites, yet,thesetypesofdeposits havenotbeenreported elsewhere
andRelatedDeposits andfurtherworkis requiredto placetheirformation within
In the late 1950sa groupof Russian geologists working the contextof the deposits discussed here.
on raremetalsexploration in Siberiadeveloped a modelfor Petrogenetic modelsfor raremetalpegmatites havealso
granite-hosted mineralization whichproposed thatthegran- advanced rapidlyin recentyearsdue to a combination of
iteswere entirelytransformed by pervasive, postmagmatiefieldandlaboratory studies. The broadscale characteristics of
alteration (Beuset al., 1962).Thisapogranite model(Beus, pegmatitefields,togetherwith detailedworkon individual
1982)wasbased onthehypothesis thatthealbite-rieh granites pegmatite types,haveenabled thedevelopment of a compre-
whicharetypically themostevolved granites in thebatholith hensive classificationofpegmatites andpredictive models for
andwhichhostthe mineralization, are productsof intense theassessment ofpegmatite fields((2erujh 1989a, b; 1991a,
albitization of preexisting granite.Fromthe lowerlevelsto b). An application of thispredictive capability to a seriesof
the upperlevels,zonesof mieroelinization, albitization, and pegmatite fieldsisprovided by Morteaniet al. (1995).
greisenization are recognized andattributedto the upward Thecharacteristics ofmanypegmatite fieldssuggest forma-
movement of postmagmatie fluidswhicharethoughtto have tionfroma single pulseofessentially crystal-free magma from
leachedmetalsfrom lowerzonesand to haveprecipitated thecupolas of parental granites, followed bysporadic closure
themin upperzones(BeusandZalashkova, 1964). of dikelike conduits and internal differentiation of restricted
Sincethattime,therehasbeena markedshiftawayfrom bodiesof magma(London,1992).The chemical differentia-
the apogranite modeltowardrecognition of magmatie frae- tionofindividual pegmatites isthuslikelytohavebeeninher-
tionationin volatile-enriched magmas asthe majorprocess itedintheliquidstatedirectly fromthesoume bodyofmagma
in the formation of primaryraremetaldeposits. Thisshiftin ((2eru:•, 1982).In thiscontext, the Ta-Li-Sngranites that
emphasis hasbeenprompted bydetailed studyofthedeposits occupyapiealpositions in granitebatholiths (e.g.,Beauvoir,
themselves (e.g.,Kovalenko et al., 1970;Raimbaultet al., Raimbaultet al., 1995;Yiehun,Yin et al., 1995)appearto
1995;Yin et al., 1995),by discovery of volcanic andsubvol- be shallower levelanalogues of the mostevolvedraremetal
canicanalogues of raremetalgranites (Kovalenko et al.,1971; pegmatites, withthesouthwest Thailand granites andpegma-
Pieravant et al.,1987),andbyexpansion of theexperimentaltires(Pollardet al., 1995;Suwimonpreeha et al., 1995)dis-
baserelevantto the evolutionof volatile-enriched magmas playingelements of bothsystems.
and their associated magmatie-hydrothermal systems (e.g., Advances in the experimental baserelevantto raremetal
Manning,1981;Pieravant, 1981,1987;Londonet al., 1988, graniteandpegmatite systems havebeenthroughstudies of
1989,1993;seebelow).Anothermajorfacethasbeenthe vapor-saturated liquidusphaserelations in the haplogranite
identification and analysis of melt inclusions in rare metal system with addedcomponents (Manning,1981;Piehavant,
granites (e.g.,Kovalenko et al., 1995)because thesedemon- 1981,1987;Londonet al., 1993),andin vapor-saturated and
 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 493

undersaturated experiments usingnaturalstarting materials Lenton(1995)interpretcompositional gradientsalongshal-

similar inbulkcomposition toraremetalgranites andpegma- low-dipping pegmatite sheetsasreflecting inheritancefrom
tites (London et al., 1988, 1989). These have led to a more a zonedmagma chamber and/ordifferentiation duringintru-
detailed understanding of theevolution andcrystallizationof sioncaused byinternaldifferences in fluidityanddensity.
graniteandpegmatite magmas, including the development
ofcharacteristic texturesandzoning in pegmatites(e.g.,Lon- Acknowledgments
don, 1990, 1992). Disequilibrium fractionalcrystallization Thisspecial issuewouldnothavebeenpossible withoutthe
duringliquidus undercooling appears the mostlikelymodel dedication andcooperation of all the authors andreviewers.
toexplain pegmatite crystallization,
withthedegreeofunder- Financial support forthisprojectwasprovided bytheInter-
cooling andtheconcentrations of quartzandfeldspar incom- national Geological Correlation Programme andtheNational
patiblecomponents (e.g.,H20, B, F, andP) controlling tex- KeyCentrein Economic Geology at JamesCookUniversity.
turaldevelopment by determining the rateandnumberof NeffPhillipsandChrisCuffarethankedfor theircontinued
stablecrystalnucleiformed(London,1992).Thismodelof supportandencouragement. Economic Geologyreviewers
pegmatite crystallization
alsohaswideapplication tothecrys- providedvaluablecomments on the manuscript, andChar-
tallization of raremetalgranites. lotteMorganproduced the figures. I wouldlike to express
One of the mostsignificant featuresof manyrare metal mygratitude toPetrOern•andSlava Kovalenko, whose coop-
granitesand graniticpegmatites is the extremedegreeof eration,wisdom,and sheerhard work havebeen the founda-
chemical fractionationinferredfor,or measured in, thepar- tiononwhichthesuccess ofProject282andthisspecial issue
entmagmas. Rb/Srratiosof meltinclusions, volcanic glasses,have been built.
raremetalgranites, andgranites parentalto raremetalpeg-
matitesusually exceed100andaresometimes greaterthan REFERENCES
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Associa-
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thattheoriginal magmas wereprobably derivedfromnormal -- 1989a,Characteristics of pegmatite depositsof tantalum,in M611er, P.,
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--
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ismostcommonly invoked asthema- environments andpetrogenesis: Geoscience Canada, v. 18,p. 68-81.
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