Evolution

II PU| Biology (36) Chapter: 7 Evolution
Chapter: 7 Evolution
Evolution is an orderly change from one form to another. Evolutionary Biology:
It is a branch of biology which deals with the study of history of development of
newer life forms from pre-existing ones. Evolution is defined as, The process of
formation of new species from pre-existing one.
Origin of Life
Origin of Universe is explained by Big Bang Theory. It states that, Universe
originated about 20 billion years ago by a thermonuclear explosion (Big Bang) of a
dense entity. Results in the formation of number of Galaxies, it consists of stars,
clouds, and dust. By this universe start to expand…
Origin of Earth: Our earth is present in Milky way galaxy.
Conditions at early stages of earth formation… There was no atmosphere on early
earth, very high temperature, after sometimes gases like Hydrogen and Helium,
water in vapour state…
Conditions at later stages of earth formation… The UV rays from the sun broke up
water into Hydrogen and Oxygen (H2O → H2 + O) and the lighter Hydrogen
escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water (NH3 + O2
→ water), Carbon dioxide (CH4 + O2 → CO2) and others. The ozone layer was
formed. Slowly temperature fall down as it cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to
fill all the depressions and form oceans. Life appeared 500 million years after the
formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years back.
Theories of Origin of Life

Some of the important theories, which explain the origin of life are.
1. Theory of Special creation
2. Cosmozoic theory or Panspermia theory
3. Theory of Abiogenesis or Theory of Spontaneous generation.
4. Theory of Biogenesis
5. Theory of Chemical evolution of life.
Theory of Special creation
Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 1

According to this theory, all living beings on this earth were originally created by
God or Supernatural power.
Cosmozoic theory or Panspermia theory

Early Greek thinkers believes that, the unit of life on earth has come from a
distant planet in the form of Spores or micro-organisms called cosmozoa or
Panspermia which were preserved alive inside the meteorites.
Theory of Abiogenesis or Theory of Spontaneous generation.

According to this theory, Life originated from simple organic compound. That is
life came out of decaying and rotting matter like straw, mud etc.,
Louis Pasture (1864) demonstrated that life come from pre-existing life and
dismissed abiogenesis theory. He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not
come from killed yeast while in other flask open to air, new living organisms
arose.
Theory of Biogenesis
It was proposed by Francisco Redi, Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur. It states that,
Life originates from Pre-existing life.
Theory of Chemical evolution of life.

This theory was proposed by Oparin and Haldane. It states that the first form of
life was originated from non-living inorganic and organic molecules such as CH4,
NH3, H20, sugars, proteins, nucleic acids etc.,
Two hypothetical proposal of Oparin-Haldane’s theory are:
1. Chemical evolution from inorganic to organic molecules.
2. First life formed by assembly and interaction of organic molecules.
The experimental proof for Oparin-Haldane’s theory is Miller and Urey’s
Experiment
Miller and Urey’s Experiment

Stanley Miller and his co-worker Harold Urey conducted an experiment to prove
theory of Chemical evolution.
Apparatus used Spark discharge
Source of energy Tungsten electrode
Energy given 75,000 Volts

Temperature gained 800˚C
Gaseous mixture Methane, Ammonia and Hydrogen
CH2 : NH3 : H2
2 : 1: : 2
Tenure of experiment 18 days
Products produced Amino acids, formic acid, oxalic acid(Organic acids); sugars
like Ribose & Hexose; aldehyde, ketones etc.,
Analysis Chromatography, Calorimetri
It proved Oparin-Haldane’s assumption that the simple organic compounds
formed from inorganic compounds which eventually gave rise to life.

Experiment: Miller introduced into the apparatus, a mixture of gases like

ammonia, methane, and hydrogen in the ratio 1:2:2 which was supported to be
present in the prebiotic environment (creating a prebiotic atmosphere). He
partially filled the flask with water and heated it (Simulating the ocean). This
mixture was then exposed to a continuous electrical discharge (simulating
lightning) for several days causing the gases to interact. The mixture was then
passed through a condenser and collected in the trap. He then analyzed the
contents.
Observation: The experiment yielded several amino acids and few other simple
organic compounds.
Inference: Thus, Miller’s experiment provided vital proof that organic compounds
which form the building material of life can be obtained from simple chemicals,
prevailed in the prebiotic conditions. Thus, proving the possibility of chemical
evolution of life.
In similar experiments others observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases,

pigment, and fats. With this limited evidence, chemical evolution was accepted.
First non-cellular form of life originated about 2000 million years ago. Later,
these were probably single cells. All life forms were in water environment only.
Evolution of life forms – Various Theory

According to Charles Darwin
Based on observation made during a sea voyage in a survey ship called H.M.S.
Beagle round the world, Charles Darwin concluded that existing living forms
share similarities to various degree not only among themselves but also with life
forms that existed million years ago.
There had been extinctions of different life forms in the years gone by just as new
forms of life, arose at different periods of history of earth.
There has been gradual evolution of life forms due to variation in characteristics.
Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions
(climate, food, physical factors, etc.) would outbreed others that are less-
endowed to survive under such natural conditions or fitness of the individual or
population.

The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive

fitness. Hence, those who are better fit in an environment, leave more progeny
than others. These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by nature.
He called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution.
According to Alfred Wallace:

Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago (the archipelago
between Indochina and Australia) had also come to similar conclusions around the
same time. All the existing life forms share similarities and share common
ancestors. However, these ancestors were present at different periods in the
history of earth.
The geological history of earth closely correlates with the biological history of
earth.
Evidence for Evolution

Evolution is incredibly and unimaginably a slow process. It is difficult to observe
the process during one’s lifetime. However, there are concrete direct and indirect
evidence to prove evolution has taken place. The evidence comes from various
fields of biology, they are…
1. Paleontological evidence
2. Morphological and Anatomical evidence
3. Embryological evidence
4. Biochemical evidence
5. Evidence for Evolution by Natural selection
6. Adaptive Radiations (Biogeological evidence)
Paleontological evidence
Paleontology is the study of the fossils which are regarded as the written
documents of evolution. Fossils are remnants of life forms or the parts preserved
in rocks. (earth crust)

Significance of Fossils
• To study phylogeny (evolution history or race history)
Ex: Horse evolution.
• To study the connecting link between two groups of organisms.
Ex: Archaeopteryx having reptilian and avian characters.
• To study about extinct animals. Ex: Dinosaurs
• To study about geological period by analyzing fossils in different
sedimentary rock layers.
• The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms
are restricted to certain geological time spans.
Morphological and Anatomical evidence

Comparative anatomy and morphology evidence showed that different forms of
animals have some common structural features.
This can be explained as follows.
1. Homologous organs and homology
2. Analogous organs and analogy
Homologous organs and homology

Homologous organs are the organs whose structure and origin are same but their
functions different. This phenomenon is called Homology.
Ex: Human hand, Whale’s flippers, Bat’s wings, and Cheetah’s foot.
All these perform different functions but are constructed on the same
fundamental plan. Homology can be seen in skeleton (Ex: Humerus, Radius,
Ulna, Carpals, Meta-carpals, and Phalanges), heart, blood vessels, excretory
system, brain of vertebrates etc.,
Homology in plants: The thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
The origin of homologous organs is due to divergent evolution. The divergent
evolution is the process by which related species become less similar in order to
survive and adopt in different environmental conditions. Homology indicates
common ancestry.
Analogous organs and analogy

Analogous organs are the organs having similar function but different structure
and origin. This phenomenon is called Analogy.
Example:
• Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap of chitin) and wings of birds
(modified forelimbs).
• Eyes of Octopus (retina from skin) and mammals (retina from embryonic
brain).
• Flipper of penguins (wings are modified into flippers) and dolphins
(flippers are modified fins).
• Sweet potato (modified roots) and Potato (modified stem).
• Trachea of insects (from ectoderm) and lungs of vertebrates (from
endoderm).
The origin of analogous organs is due to convergent evolution. The convergent
evolution is the proves by which unrelated species become more similar in order
to survive and adapt in similar environmental conditions.
Homology Analogy
Homologous organs are the organs whose Analogous organs are the organs having
structure and origin are same but their similar function but different structure
functions different. This phenomenon is and origin. This phenomenon is called
called Homology. Analogy.
Results in divergent evolution. Results in convergent evolution

Indicates common ancestry. Does not indicates common ancestry.
Anatomically similar structures. Anatomically different structures.
Ex: Forelimbs of Human, Whale, Bat Ex: Wings of insects (formed of a thin
and Cheetah. flap of chitin) and wings of birds
(modified forelimbs).
Divergent evolution. Convergent evolution

The origin of homologous organs is due to The origin of analogous organs is due to
divergent evolution. convergent evolution.
Same structure developed along different Different structures evolving for the same
direction. function.
Due to adaptation to different needs. Due to adaptation to meet similar needs.

Ex: Forelimbs of Human, Whale, Bat and Ex: Wings of insects (formed of a thin flap
Cheetah. of chitin) and wings of birds (modified
forelimbs).
Embryological evidence
Embryology is the study of development of an organism from egg to adults.
Embryological support for evolution was also proposed by Ernst Heckel, based
upon the observation, during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that
are absent in adult.
For example, the embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of
vestigial gill slit just behind the head, but it is a functional organ only in fish and
not found in any other adult vertebrates.
However, this proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by Karl
Ernst von Baer. He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of
other animals.
Biochemical evidence
Similarities in proteins and genes: Here, evidence performing a given function
among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry.
Similarities in other biochemicals and metabolism: Here, evidence points to the
same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms.
Evidence for Evolution by Natural selection

Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best suited for their
environment survive and reproduce.
Example of Natural selection: Industrial Melanism in England.
Before Industrialization (1850’s): There were more white winged moths ie.,
Biston betularia on trees than dark winged or melanised moths ie., Biston
carbonaria.
Reason: White coloured lichens covered the trees. In that background the white
winged moths survived but the dark-coloured moths were easily spotted out and
picked out by predators.
After Industrialization (1920): More dark winged moths and less white winged
moths.
Reason: The tree trunks become dark due to pollution by industrial smoke and
soot. No growth of lichens. Under this condition the white winged moth did not
survive because the predators identified them easily against dark background.
Dark winged moth survived because of suitable dark background.
• Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics, or drugs etc., resulted in

selection of resistant varieties.
• It is a Natural selection by anthropogenic action.
Adaptive Radiations (Biogeological evidence)

It is also called as evolution by adaptation. It is defined as the evolution of closely
related species in a given geographical area starting from a point in a
geographical area and finally radiating to another geographical area.
Example:
1. Darwin’s finches seen in Galapagos Island.
2. Australian marsupials
3. Placental mammals in Australia
Causes of Adaptive radiation
1. Need of food.
2. Need for safety.
3. Need for better breeding grounds.
Adaptive radiation of two types.
1. Adaptive Divergence
2. Adaptive Convergence

Adaptive Divergence: Animals of the same or closely related group exhibit great
divergence in their morphology when found in a different habitat.
Ex: Darwin’s finches seen in Galapagos Island.
Adaptive Convergence: Animals of unrelated groups occupying same habitat
exhibit common features.
Ex: Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial.
Darwin’s finches seen in Galapagos Island.

During Darwin’s journey to Galapagos island, he observed small black birds
called Darwin’s finches. The Darwin’s finches were divers in their food habitats
like original form seeds eating features to many other form with altered beaks
arose enabling them to become insectivorous and vegetarian finches.
From the given image 1st bird is seed eating, 2nd bird is leaves eating, 3rd bird is
fruit eating and 4th bird is insect eating.
Australian marsupials
A number of marsupials (They are any members of the mammalian infraclass
marsupials), each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock but
all within the Australian continent.
Ex: Tasmanian wolf, Tiger cat, Marsupial rat, Marsupial mole, Kangaroo, Koala,
Wombat, Sugar glider etc.,

Placental mammals in Australia

In Australia adaptive radiation is exhibited
where placental mammals are evolved into
different varieties of species.
Ex: Mole, Anteater, Bobcat etc.,
Adaptive Convergence: Animals of unrelated

groups occupying same habitat exhibit common
features.
Australian marsupials & Placental

mammals in Australia
Each of Placental mammals in Australia
appears to be similar to a corresponding
Australian marsupial.
Ex: Placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf-
marsupial.

Theories of Biological Evolution

Lamarckism (Theory of Inheritance of Acquired characters)
It was proposed by Lamarck in 1801 and was explained in his book Philosophic
Zoologique. It states that, Evolution of life forms occurred by use and disuse of
organs. Continued use of an organ makes it larger, more elaborate, and
continued disuse of an organ cause its gradual decrease in size, degeneration
and finally its elimination. The new character so acquired is passed on to next
generation.
Example for Lamarckism:
Evolution by use of organs: Long neck of giraffe is due to continuous elongation
to forage leaves on tall trees. This acquired character was inherited by
succeeding generations.
Evolution by disuse: Disappearance of limbs in snakes.
This theory was eliminated out because, it is proved that the characters are
inherited only through somatic cells.
Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)

It was proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859 and was explained in his book Origin
of species.
It is based on two key concepts namely,
1. Branching descent (Adaptive radiation)
2. Natural selection (Convergent evolution)
Branching descent (Adaptive radiation): It explains that all organisms are
modified descendants of previous life forms.
Natural selection (Convergent evolution): Natural selection is the process by
which the organisms that are best suited for their environment survive and
reproduce.
• Consider a bacterial colony (Say A) growing on a given medium. If the
medium composition is changed, only a part of the population (Say B) can
survive under new condition. This variant population outgrowth the others
and appears as new species ie., ‘B’ is better than ‘A’ under new condition.
Nature selects for fitness that is ‘B’.

The work of Thomas Malthus on Principle of Population in 1794 was influenced

the Darwin.
Natural selection is based on the following facts:
1. Heritable minor variations
2. Over production by organism
3. Limited natural resources
4. Struggle for existence for food and space
5. Survival of the fittest
Population size grows exponentially if every individual reproduces maximum. Ex:

Bacterial population In fact, population size is limited due to competition for
resource ie., Struggle for existence and only some survives ie., Survival of the
fittest.
Darwin said that the organisms with heritable variation make resource
utilization better. They reproduce and leave more progeny. It leads to change in
population characteristics and new forms appear.
Mechanism of evolution
Mechanism of evolution can be explained by various factors like Mutation,
geneflow, genetic drift, natural selection, speciation, isolation, Reproduction etc.,
In this mechanism, Darwin ignored about origin of variation and mechanism of
speciation.
Mutation theory
It was proposed by Hugo de vries in 1901 and was explained in his book Mutation
theory. He conducted some experiments on Oenthera lamarckiana ie., evening
primrose and believed that evolution takes place through mutation and not by
minor variation.
Evolution for Darwin was gradual while for De vries it is a sudden / spontaneous
process.
He believed mutation caused speciation and hence called it Saltation ie., single
step large mutation.
Darwinian Variation Mutation

It shows minor variation. It shows large variation.
It is slow and directional. It is random, sudden and directionless.
It showed gradual evolution. It showed discontinuous evolution and

speciation by saltation.
It is caused by reshuffling of genes. It is caused by change in the genetic

material.
Hardy-Weinberg principle
It was proposed by G H Hardy and E Weinberg in 1908. This principle establishes
a connection between evolution and gene frequencies. Evolution depends on
change in gene frequency (It is the ratio of different alleles of a gene in a population),
they put a formula p + q = 1 or 100% to calculate gene frequency
Hardy-Weinberg principle defined as In a large population, the gene frequencies
of various kinds of genes remain constant, generation after generation under
certain conditions.
Following are the conditions responsible for Hardy-Weinberg principle:
• It operates only on a large sexually reproducing population.

• In this population mating has to be random.
• The allele frequencies of male and female should be same.
• The allele genotype is equal in viability and fertility.
The formula p+q = 1 can be applied to any population to find out the gene
frequency.
Let us consider two allele ‘A’ and ‘a’, then the genotype in the population will be
‘AA’, ‘Aa’ and ‘aa’.
Let the gene frequency of ‘A’ allele taken as ‘p’ and that of ‘a’ taken as ‘q’.
According to Hardy-Weinberg principle, p + q = 1
Applied as (p+q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2
Let us assume frequency of ‘A’ and ‘a’ is 50%. Hence

1
p=50% = =0.5
2
1
q=50% = =0.5
2
Then,
(p+q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2
= (0.5)2 + 2 (0.5) (0.5) + (0.5)2
= 0.25 + 0.5 + 0.25
= 25% p2 + 50% pq + 25% q2
Written in the form of ‘A’ and ‘a’

= 25% AA + 50% Aa + 25% aa
= 1 or 100%
The value of p+q=1, hence there is no change in gene frequency. Therefore, there
is no evolution. Change in frequency of alleles in a population causes
disturbance in genetic equilibrium. This is due to evolution.
Significance:
• This principle clearly describes that when the population is in equilibrium

there is no evolution.
• Evolution occurs only when the equilibrium is altered.
• Equilibrium conserved recessive characters.
Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

Five factors are known to affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. They are.
1. Gene Migration or Gene Flow
2. Genetic Drift
3. Mutation
4. Genetic Recombination
5. Natural Selection
Gene Migration or Gene Flow

It is defined as the transfer of gene between two inter-breeding population which

differ genetically. This results in the production of new genetic combinations.
Gene flow is mainly brought about by migration and hybridization.
Genetic Drift
It is defined as the random change in gene frequency in a small population, purely
by chance.
It is also called as Founder effect. Because, due to the sudden change in the
environment sometimes one or few individuals get dispersed from the parental
population. The dispersed individuals who are away from the original parent
population now become the founder of new isolated population. Due to
continuous breeding within the new population, there will be marked change in
the allele frequency.
Mutation
The spontaneous, permanent change in the genetic make-up of an individual.
Caused due to,
• Errors during DNA replication

• Environmental factors like chemicals, radiation etc.,
• If mutant genes are in the somatic cell, they may not be evolutionary
signification. If mutant genes are in the germ cell they are passed on to the
next generation and are of evolutionary signification. Hence mutations are
considered as the raw material for evolution.
Genetic Recombination
It is the reshuffling of gene combination during crossing over resulting in genetic
variation.
Natural selection
Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best suited for their
environment survive and reproduce. It is the major factor which adds variations
in the population, change the gene frequencies in the gene pool resulting in the
formation of new gene pool.

Gene pool: The sum total of all the genes presents in a large sexually reproducing
population.
These are of three types namely,

1. Stabilizing selection
2. Directional selection
3. Disruptive selection
Stabilizing selection: Here, more individuals acquire average character value and
variation is reduced.
Directional selection: Here, individual of one extreme is move favoured.
Disruptive selection: Individuals of both the extremes are favoured. It produces
two peaks that may lead to the development of two different population.

A brief account of Evolution

• Geological time scale has been formed to show the whole past history of
the earth.
• Animals and plants in prehistoric time were not like as they appear today.
• The time scale is divided into a number of major divisions, called eras,
which in turn are sub-divided into periods, which are further subdivided
into shorter intervals called epochs.
• The oldest geologic era is Archaeozoic which is followed by Proterozoic,
Palezoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic era.
Proterozoic Era
First cellular forms of life appear.
Some of the cells had the ability to release oxygen as the light reaction in
photosynthesis.
Single celled organism to multicellular organisms
Paleozoic Era
500 mya Invertebrates
400-600 mya First land organisms (Plants)
400 mya Arthropods invaded the land.
350 mya Jawless fish, Fish with stout and strong fins could
move on land and go back to water.
320 mya Sea weeds and few plants.
Amphibian to reptiles They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in

sun unlike those of amphibians.

In the next 200 million years reptiles dominated on earth. Giant ferns
(Pteridophytes) were present, but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
Mesozoic Era
200 mya: Some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish-like
reptile. (Ex: Ichthyosaurs)
The land reptiles were Dinosaurs.

They include,
1. Tyrannosaurus rex: Largest Dinosaur (20 feet in height, huge fearsome
dagger- like teeth)
2. Triceratops
3. Pteranodon
4. Stegosaurus
5. Brachiosaurus
Cenozoic Era
65 mya: Dinosaurs suddenly disappeared.
First mammals (Shrew-like): Their fossils are small sized.
In South America, there were mammals resembling Horse, Hippopotamus, Beer,

Rabbit etc.,
Due to continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals
were overridden by North American fauna.
Due to continental drift, Australian marsupials survived because of lack of

competition from any other mammals.
Origin and Evolution of Man

Human ancestry as follows…
1. Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus

2. Australopithecines
3. Homo habilis
4. Homo erectus
5. Neanderthal man
6. Homo sapiens
Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus

• They are about 15 mya
• Hairy
• Walked like Gorillas and Chimpanzee
• Dryopithecus = Ape like
• Ramapithecus = Man like
• Fossils of man-like bones found in Ethiopia and Tanzania.
• Man like primates they are about 3 to 4 mya, there height up to 4 feet.
Australopithecines
• In east African grasslands.
• Hunted with stone weapons.
• Ate fruits.
Homo habilis
• First human-like being (hominid)
• Brain capacity: 650-800 cc (cc = Cranial capacity)
• Did not eat meat.
Homo erectus
• They are about 1.5 mya
• Large brain
• Brain capacity 1100cc.
Neanderthal man
• Brain capacity 1400cc.
• Lived in east and central Asia.

• Used hides to protect their body.

• Buried their dead.
Homo sapiens (Modern man)

• Evolution took place during 10,000 to 75,000 years.
• Brain capacity is 1600cc.
• Prehistoric cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
• Agriculture and settlements: 10,000 years ago.
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II PU| Biology (36) Chapter: 7 Evolution

Theories of Origin of Life

Theory of Special creation

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 1

Cosmozoic theory or Panspermia theory

Theory of Abiogenesis or Theory of Spontaneous generation.

Theory of Chemical evolution of life.

Miller and Urey’s Experiment

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 2

Source of energy Tungsten electrode

Energy given 75,000 Volts

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 3

Experiment: Miller introduced into the apparatus, a mixture of gases like

In similar experiments others observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen bases,

Evolution of life forms – Various Theory

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 4

The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive

According to Alfred Wallace:

Evidence for Evolution

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 5

Morphological and Anatomical evidence

Homologous organs and homology

Analogous organs and analogy

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 6

Results in divergent evolution. Results in convergent evolution

Anatomically similar structures. Anatomically different structures.

Divergent evolution. Convergent evolution

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 7

Due to adaptation to different needs. Due to adaptation to meet similar needs.

Evidence for Evolution by Natural selection

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 8

• Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics, or drugs etc., resulted in

Adaptive Radiations (Biogeological evidence)

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 9

Darwin’s finches seen in Galapagos Island.

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 10

Placental mammals in Australia

Adaptive Convergence: Animals of unrelated

Australian marsupials & Placental

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 11

Theories of Biological Evolution

Darwinism (Theory of Natural selection)

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 12

The work of Thomas Malthus on Principle of Population in 1794 was influenced

Population size grows exponentially if every individual reproduces maximum. Ex:

Darwinian Variation Mutation

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 13

It shows minor variation. It shows large variation.

It is slow and directional. It is random, sudden and directionless.

It showed gradual evolution. It showed discontinuous evolution and

It is caused by reshuffling of genes. It is caused by change in the genetic

• It operates only on a large sexually reproducing population.

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 14

Written in the form of ‘A’ and ‘a’

• This principle clearly describes that when the population is in equilibrium

Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 15

It is defined as the transfer of gene between two inter-breeding population which

• Errors during DNA replication

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 16

These are of three types namely,

Shilpa A R: Lecture in Biology 17

A brief account of Evolution

400-600 mya First land organisms (Plants)