CONSTRUCTION

ENGINEERING

OCTAVIAN G. ILINOIU, Ph.D., C.Eng., Lecturer

Department of Civil, Urban and Construction Engineering

Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest

First Edition

-Bucharest 2003-
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

PREFACE
The construction sector is a major part of the construction industry, with projects rang-
ing in size from the small to the very large, all sharing common factors - workers, machinery
and materials, and the required organization and control. The graduate civil engineer must be
therefore familiar with the range of these common factors, procedures and techniques in
common use, and must be able to plan, and direct construction works.
This course book will be limited to presentation of basic principles and process tech-
niques in construction execution. It is intended as an aid and a guide to circumvent some
problems encountered in design and execution, outlining present techniques and materials re-
lated to construction technology for their evaluation and improvement.
The content of this book is arranged in 11 chapters that are summarized below.
Chapter 1. Industrialization of Construction Works, provides an introduction in the field of
Construction Engineering and method of industrialization of construction works.
Chapter 2. Formwork, addresses the design and presents basic information and specifies ma-
terials, construction, and removal of formwork, mouldwork and shoring.
Chapter 3. Steel Reinforcement, provides information and specifies the materials and work-
manship required for manufacturing concrete reinforcement.
Chapter 4. Concrete, provides an overview of conventional concrete technology form mate-
rial science and engineering systems perspective – specifically its structure and composition,
processing, properties, performance, and the quality control of it.
Chapter 5. Batching and Mixing Concrete, is devoted to discussing the proper equipment and
procedures for batching and mixing concrete by ensuring uniform quality throughout the mix.
Chapter 6. Building Material Transport Machinery and Equipment, presents relevant infor-
mation regarding proper equipment and procedures for handling and transport of building ma-
terials.
Chapter 7. Handling and Placing Concrete, presents fundamental concepts in regard of han-
dling and placing techniques required for cast in place conventional concrete and the quality
control of it.
Chapter 8. Compaction, Vibration and Concrete Finishing, provides a background on the
benefits of compaction of concrete and the techniques for undertaking the process on site.
Chapter 9. Curing Concrete, provides basic information in relation to related concepts of
concrete curing. A review is presented of various curing requirements and techniques for un-
dertaking the process on site and in precast concrete production plants.
Chapter 10. Off-site Prefabrication, provides information concerning precast concrete, ad-
vantages and limitations, application, techniques and manufacture requirements for different
types of elements.
Chapter 11. Erection of Precast Concrete Elements, presents theoretical back ground regard-
ing erection of precast concrete units.
The primary object of this first volume, and those which follow, is to provide a refer-
ence guide to Construction Engineering within the framework of the Civil Engineering De-
partment – English Section of the Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest.

G. Ilinoiu, 2003

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

These notes are originally based on the ideas of Drs. Radu Popa and Mihai Teodorescu.
However, views and comments are the writer's own. The author has presented some positions
as starting points for drafting a course book rather than as the only positions that can be
adopted.

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of a number of organizations, institutions,

trade associations and manufacturers and who have given advice, and literature:
American Concrete Institute - ACI, USA
American Society of Civil Engineers - ASCE, USA
American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM, USA
American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials – AASHTO, USA
ATEX C.V.B.A., Belgium
Bell Engineering Group, England
BHS – Sonthofen, Germany
Building Science Insight - BSI, Canada
Canadian Building Digest - CBD, Canada
Civil Engineering Corps Washington – CECW, USA
Cement and Concrete Association Australia
Center for Innovative Grouting Materials and Technology - CIGMAT, USA
EFCO, USA
Elba –Werk, Germany
Heidelberg Cement AG, Germany
International Council for Building Research and Documentation - CIB, Canada
Institute for Research in Construction - IRC, Canada
International Committee on Asian Concrete Model Code
National Research Council - NRCC, Canada
National Institute of Standards and Technology - NIST, USA
Officine Riunite Udine SpA – ORU, Italy
OSCAM S.p.A, Italia
PERI, Germany
International Union of Testing and Research Laboratories for Materials and Structures
– RILEM
SC SOMACO SA, Romania
SBH Tiefbautechnik, Germany
The Engineering Wood Association - APA, USA
Thwaites Ltd., England
Tremix, Sweden
MACON SA, Romania
MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Aktieengesellschaft, Germany
Morgan Manufacturing Co., USA
Winget, UK

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Typical dimensioned lumber panel.10
Figure 2-2 Typical plywood sheathing panel ...10
Figure 2-3 Steel panel.......................................11
Figure 2-4 Pan forms ........................................12
Figure 2-5 Plywood panels...............................13
Figure 2-6 Climbing formwork ........................13
Figure 2-7 Sliding formwork............................14
Figure 2-8 Formwork table...............................16
Figure 2-9 Form table assembly .......................16
Figure 2-10 Permanent formwork ....................17
Figure 2-11 Below grade footing forms ...........17
Figure 2-12 Shallow footing............................17
Figure 2-13 Wall formwork..............................18
Figure 2-14 Typical gang panel........................19
Figure 2-15 Typical slab-on-grade edge form-
work ..........................................................19
Figure 2-16 Girder form details........................20
Figure 2-17 Spandrel beam form details ..........20
Figure 2-18 Typical example of column formed
with plywood panels stiffened with triangu-
lar yokes....................................................21
Figure 2-19 Typical steel column formwork....22
Figure 2-20 Typical telescopic joists................24
Figure 2-21 Typical adjustable steel shores .....24
Figure 2-22 Form accessories...........................25
Figure 2-23 Concrete pilot mould ....................26
Figure 2-24 Static metal moulds.......................26
Figure 2-25 Stack wooden mould.....................26
ε) for steel .................................................28
Figure 3-1 Characteristic stress- strain curves (σ-
Figure 3-2 Standard types of reinforcing bars PC
52 and PC 60.............................................30
Figure 3-3 Dimensions of wire mesh ...............31
Figure 3-4 Typical profile of SBPA .................31
Figure 3-5 Typical reinforcement spacing section
..................................................................32
Figure 3-6 Chairs and spacers ..........................32
Figure 3-7 Pliers for straightening bars attached
to winch. ...................................................33
Figure 3-8 Straightening of steel bars delivered
in coils with an electrical chain winch......33
Figure 3-9 Typical strengthening and cutting
machine.....................................................34
Figure 3-10 a. b. Rotating drum with screw die
arrangement ..............................................34
Figure 3-11 Rolling-mill arrangements ............34
Figure 3-12 Standard hook and stirrup details for
reinforcement............................................35
Figure 3-13 a. Bending of bars with two keys; b.
Bending of bars with three pins and a key;
c. Typical-bending plates..........................35
Figure 3-14 Hook bending machine .................36
Figure 3-15 Typical stirrup bending machine ..36
iii
Figure 3-16 Fixed arm and variable arm mesh-
bending machines .................................... 37
Figure 3-17 Hoop and spiral bending machine 37
Figure 3-18 Typical spiral reinforcement ........ 37
Figure 3-19 Manual shears .............................. 38
Figure 3-20 Electronic measurement model.... 38
Figure 3-21 Typical mesh cutting machine ..... 38
Figure 3-22 Typical arc-welding outfit............ 39
Figure 3-23 Typical automatic/tack welding ma-
chine......................................................... 40
Figure 3-23 Splicing of steel reinforcing......... 41
Figure 3-24 Sleeve splice connection .............. 42
Figure 3-25 Typical alternate tying procedure of
individual reinforcing bars to produce a
mesh ......................................................... 43
Figure 3-26 Detail of column and slab rein-
forcement intersection.............................. 43
Figure 3-27 Column cages being assembled on
site............................................................ 44
Figure 3-28 Typical procedure of wiring main
beam reinforcement to stirrups and ties ... 45
Figure 3-29 Typical wiring procedures ........... 46
Figure 3-30 Detail of slab reinforcement......... 46
Figure 3-31 Typical storage of wire in spools . 47
Figure 3-32 Typical storage off the ground of
reinforcement ........................................... 47
Figure 3-33 Typical wire coil storage.............. 47
Figure 3-34 Typical arrangement of reinforce-
ment manufacturing shop......................... 48
Figure 4-2 Fresh concrete sliding on chute...... 50
Figure 4-3 Measurement of slump from height of
slump cone ............................................... 51
Figure 4-4 Entrained air voids in concrete....... 53
Figure 4-5 Types of concrete shrinkage .......... 54
Figure 4-6 Effects and phases of plastic shrink-
age............................................................ 54
Figure 4-7 a. A sectioned clinker nodule, b. Un-
hydrated ordinary Portland cement parti-
cles, field width of 320 microns............... 56
Figure 4-8 Speed of cement components heat
hydration .................................................. 58
Figure 4-9 Mechanism of cement setting. Figure
shows long needle-like crystals and short
crystal–like formations of calcium-silicate-
hydrate gel................................................ 59
Figure 4-10 Schematic view of cement setting 59
Figure 4-11 Compressive strength gain of min-
eral cement components........................... 59
Figure 4-12 Significance of aggregates grading
................................................................. 61
Figure 4-13 Angularity and surface texture..... 62
Figure 4-14 Moisture conditions of aggregate. 62
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
Figure 4-15 Main moisture conditions of aggre-
gate ...........................................................62
Figure 5-1 Twin shaft batch mixer ...................66
Figure 5-2 Single shaft drum mixer..................67
Figure 5-3 Tilting drum mixer..........................68
Figure 5-4 Reversing drum mixer ....................68
Figure 5-5 Forward flow mixer ........................69
Figure 5-6 Backward flow mixer .....................69
Figure 5-7 Vibrating mixer...............................69
Figure 5-8 General layout of concrete plant.....70
Figure 5-9 Mixing tower - Batching plant........71
Figure 5-10 Linear batching center ..................72
Figure 5-11 Cement silo ...................................73
Figure 6-1 Wheelbarrow...................................74
Figure 6-2 Push chart........................................74
Figure 6-3 Forklift truck...................................75
Figure 6-4 Typical types of dump trucks..........75
Figure 6-5 Chute and hopper............................75
Figure 6-6 Typical concrete buckets ................76
Figure 6-7 Belt conveyor..................................77
Figure 6-8 Transit mix truck.............................78
Figure 6-9 Rail cars ..........................................78
Figure 6-10 Truck mounted concrete pump ....79
Figure 6-11. Boom extensions of pump ...........79
Figure 6-12 Typical tower pump detail ............79
Figure 6-13 Pumps for concrete transport ........80
Figure 6-14 Pneumatic pipeline........................80
Figure 7-1 a. Placing techniques for flatwork. .83
Figure 7-1 b. Concrete placing techniques for
columns and walls ....................................84
Figure 7-2 Compacting columns ......................85
Figure 7-3 Slab concreting ...............................85
Figure 7-4 Typical types of concreting joints for
arches/vaults .............................................86
Figure 7-5 Typical types of construction joints 87
Figure 7-6 Construction joint formed...............88
Figure 8-1 Typical detail of concrete showing
sand in a cement paste matrix...................89
Figure 8-3 Sinusoidal motion ...........................91
Figure 8-4 Types of vibration...........................91
Figure 8-5 Typical aspects of concrete compac-
tion during vibration .................................92
Figure 8-6 Hand tapping tools..........................92
Figure 8-7 Typical internal vibrator. ................94
Figure 8-8 a. Internal / poker vibrator. Example
of working procedures with vibrator ........94
Figure 8-9 b. Use of poker vibrator ..................95
Figure 8-10 a, b Typical surface vibrator.........96
Figure 8-10 c. Degree of compaction varies
across width when surface vibrators are
used...........................................................96
Figure 8-11 Typical positioning of clamp vibra-
tors in formwork .......................................96
Figure 8-12 External vibrators..........................97
Figure 8-13 Vibropress.....................................97
iv
Figure 8-14 Compacting by rolling ................. 97
Figure 8-15 Standard set of vacuum dewatering
installation................................................ 98
Figure 8-16 Compacting by centrifugal force.. 99
Figure 8-17 Trowels (floats) for surface finishing
............................................................... 100
Figure 8-18 Power float ................................. 100
Figure 8-19 Methods of concrete surface finish
............................................................... 100
Figure 9-1 Effect of duration of water curing on
the permeability of cement paste ........... 103
Figure 9-2 Variation of concrete strength with
curing environment (W/C =0,5)............. 104
Figure 9-3 Spraying on a curing compound .. 105
Figure 9-4 Temporary shelter ........................ 108
Figure 9-5 Typical heating enclosure ............ 108
Figure 9-6 Framed enclosure ......................... 108
Figure 9-7. a. Procedures for casting a structural
concrete wall in enclosure;..................... 108
b. Air supported structure ............................... 108
Figure 9-9 Typical protection of fresh cast con-
crete with heating forms ........................ 109
Figure 9-8 Heating form ................................ 109
Figure 9-10 Typical solution of concrete protec-
tion using insulating blankets................. 109
Figure 9-11 a. Heating aggregates before intro-
duction in mix; b. heat source underneath
the aggregate pile. .................................. 110
Figure 9-12 Typical curing racks in steam-
chamber; Precast concrete curing accelera-
tion cycle................................................ 112
Figure 10-1 Reinforced concrete centrifuged
pipe ........................................................ 116
Figure 10-2 Layout of Stand setting .............. 118
Figure 10-3 Typical Multiple Beam Tensioning
Stand cross section setting for prestressed-
concrete units ......................................... 118
Figure 10-4 Layout of Conveyor setting ....... 118
Figure 11-1 Typical trailers ........................... 121
Figure 11-2 Typical job-site casting yards .... 122
Figure 11-3 Typical stack storage of precast
stairs units .............................................. 122
Figure 11- 4 Typical lifting devices for precast
concrete members .................................. 125
Figure 11-5 Crane clearances ........................ 125
Figure 11-6 Typical tower crane.................... 126
Figure 11-7 Track-mounted crane ................. 127
Figure 11-8 Lorry mounted crane.................. 127
Figure 11-9 Self propelled crane ................... 128
Figure 11-10 Typical gantry crane ................ 128
Figure 11-11 Transfer of prefabricated facade to
the working level ................................... 131
Figure 11-12 The precast facade is secured with
temporary bracing .................................. 131
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ........................................................ I
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................II
TABLE OF FIGURES ................................. III
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................V
CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
CONSTRUCTION WORKS ..........................7
1.1. General Considerations ..............................7
1.2. Construction Industrialization ....................7
1.3. Basic Principles of Industrialization...........7
CHAPTER 2. FORMWORK .........................9
2.1. General Considerations ..............................9
2.2. Form Materials .........................................10
2.2.1. Wood .................................................10
2.2.2. Steel...................................................11
2.2.3. Plastic and Aluminum .......................12
2.3. Classification of Formwork......................12
2.3.1. Classification by Structure and Use ..12
2.3.1.1. Dismountable Formwork ...........12
2.3.1.3. Non dismountable Formwork ....14
2.3.1.4. Patent Formwork........................16
2.3.1.5. Permanent Formwork.................17
2.3.2. Classification by Final Destination ...17
2.3.2.1. Footing Forms ............................17
2.3.2.2. Wall Forms.................................18
2.3.2.3. Floor Forms................................19
2.3.2.4. Column Forms............................21
2.4. Form Liners ..............................................22
2.5. Release Agents .........................................22
2.6. Formwork Removal..................................23
2.7. Shoring Members .....................................23
2.8. Form Accessories .....................................24
2.9. Moulds......................................................25
2.9.1. Classification of Moulds ...................25
2.9.2. Basic Components and Main Types of
Moulds.........................................................25
CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE
REINFORCEMENT .....................................26
3.1. General Considerations ............................27
3.2. Classification of Reinforcement ...............27
3.3. Material Properties ...................................27
3.4. Standard Bar Diameters and Types of Rein-
forcement.........................................................28
3.4.1. Plain and Deformed Steel Bars .........30
3.4.2. Welded Wire Mesh Reinforcing .......30
3.4.3. Wires .................................................31
3.5. Reinforcement Concrete Cover ................31
3.6. Fabrication of Steel Bars, Stirrups and Wire
Meshes.............................................................32
v
3.6.1. Straightening of Steel Bars............... 32
3.6.2. Combined Straightening and Cutting
Machines .................................................... 33
3.6.3. Reinforcement Bending.................... 35
3.6.3.1. Manual Bending ........................ 35
3.6.3.2. Automatic Bending Machines ... 36
3.6.4. Cutting Devices (Shears).................. 37
3.6.4.1. Mesh Cutting Machines............. 38
3.7. Welding ................................................... 39
3.8. Splicing of Reinforcing Steel .................. 41
3.9. Reinforcement Assembly Workmanship. 42
3.9.1. Assembly of Column Reinforcement 43
3.9.2. Assembly of Wall Reinforcement .... 44
3.9.2.1. Wall Reinforcement Assembled
with Individual Bars ............................... 44
3.9.2.2. Wall Reinforcement Assembled
with Cages .............................................. 44
3.9.2. Assembly of Beam Reinforcement with
Individual Bars ........................................... 45
3.9.3. Assembly of Slab Reinforcement..... 46
3.9.3.1. Slab Reinforcement Assembled
with Individual Bars ............................... 46
3.10. Transport and Storage of Reinforcement47
3.11. Reinforcement Manufacturing Shop ..... 47
3.12. Quality Assurance of Reinforcement .... 48
CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE ......................... 49
4.1. General Considerations ........................... 49
4.1.1. Classification and Types of Concrete49
4.2. Properties of Concrete ............................. 50
4.2.1. Properties of Fresh Concrete ............ 50
4.2.2. Properties of Hardened Concrete...... 52
4.2.3. Durability.......................................... 55
4.3. Concrete Materials................................... 55
4.3.1. Cements ............................................ 55
4.3.1.1. Manufacturing Process .............. 55
4.3.1.2. Chemical Composition .............. 56
4.3.1.3. Standard Types of Portland Ce-
ment........................................................ 57
4.3.1.4. Physical Properties of Portland
Cements.................................................. 58
4.3.1.5. Influence of Portland Cement on
Concrete Properties ................................ 59
4.3.2. Aggregates........................................ 60
4.3.2.1. Characteristics of Aggregates.... 61
4.3.3. Additions .......................................... 62
4.3.4. Water ................................................ 64
4.4. Theory of Mixes ...................................... 64
CHAPTER 5. BATCHING AND MIXING
CONCRETE ................................................. 65
5.1. General Considerations ........................... 65
5.2. Batching Concrete ................................... 65
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
5.3. Mixing Concrete.......................................65
5.3.1. Hand Mixing .....................................65
5.3.2. Machine Mixing ................................66
5.3.2.1. Drum Type Concrete Mixers .....67
5.3.2.2. Forced Action Mixers ................68
5.3.2.3. Vibrating Mixers ........................69
5.3.2.4. Turbulent Mixers........................69
5.4. Mixing Times ...........................................70
5.5. Batching and Mixing Plants .....................70
5.5.1. Mixing Tower....................................71
5.5.2. Linear Mixing Center ........................71
5.6. Delivery, Storage and Handling of Aggre-
gate, Water and Cement ..................................73
CHAPTER 6. BUILDING MATERIAL
TRANSPORT MACHINERY AND
EQUIPMENT ................................................74
6.1. General Considerations ............................74
6.2. Categories of Transport ............................74
CHAPTER 7. HANDLING AND PLACING
CONCRETE ..................................................81
7.1. Preparation before Placing Concrete ........81
7.2. Basic Principles for Concrete Placement .82
7.3. Concreting Different Types of Members .84
7.3.1. Wall and Column Concreting............84
7.3.2. Slab and Beam Concreting ................85
7.3.3. Arch, Vault and Shell Concreting .....86
7.3. Concrete Joints .........................................86
CHAPTER 8. COMPACTION,
VIBRATION AND CONCRETE
FINISHING....................................................89
8.1. General Considerations ............................89
8.2. Vibration...................................................90
8.2.1. Basic Characteristics .........................91
8.3. Compaction of Concrete...........................92
8.3.1. Manual Compaction ..........................92
8.3.2. Mechanical Compaction....................93
8.3.2.1. Vibration ....................................93
8.3.2.2. Applying Pressure ......................97
8.3.2.3. Rolling........................................97
8.3.2.4. Vacuum Dewatering...................98
8.3.2.5. Centrifugal Force .......................98
8.4. Under-Vibration and Over-Vibration .......99
8.5. Revibration ...............................................99
8.6. Concrete Surface Finishing ....................100
CHAPTER 9. CURING CONCRETE.......102
9.1. General Considerations ..........................102
9.2. Basic Curing Requirements....................102
9.3. Duration of Curing .................................102
9.4. Curing Under Temperature Ranging from 5
o
C to 30 oC.....................................................103
9.4.1. Methods of Concrete Curing ...........103
vi
9.5. Curing Concrete in Extreme Weather Con-
ditions ........................................................... 105
9.5.1. General Considerations .................. 105
9.5.2. Placement of Concrete in Extreme
Temperatures ............................................ 106
9.5.3. Hot Weather Concreting................. 106
9.5.4. Cold Weather Concreting ............... 106
9.6. Accelerated Concrete Curing................. 110
9.6.1. General Considerations .................. 110
9.6.2. Effects of Accelerated Curing on Ce-
ment and Concrete Structure .................... 110
9.6.3. Classification of Concrete Accelerated
Curing Procedures .................................... 111
CHAPTER 10. OFF-SITE
PREFABRICATION.................................. 114
10.1. General Considerations ....................... 114
10.2. Industrialization of Factory-manufactured
Systems......................................................... 114
10.4. Off-site Precast Manufacturing Technolo-
gies................................................................ 115
10.4.1. Code Marking............................... 115
10.5. Concrete Products Precasting Methods 116
10.5.1. Concrete Pipe ............................... 116
10.5.2. Manufacturing Procedures............ 117
10.6. Quality Assurance, Product Certification
...................................................................... 119
CHAPTER 11. ERECTION OF PRECAST
CONCRETE ELEMENTS ........................ 120
11.1. General Considerations ....................... 120
11.2. Job Planning ........................................ 120
11.2.1. Preliminary Execution Works ...... 121
11.2.1.1. Manufacturing, Transport and
Storage of Precast Units ....................... 121
11.2.1.2. Inspection of Units After Trans-
port and Storage ................................... 123
11.2.1.3. Unit Preparation .................... 123
11.2.1.4. Selection of Lifting Devices and
Equipment ............................................ 123
11.2.1.5. Scheduling............................. 128
11.2.1.6. Health, Safety and Welfare Regu-
lations ................................................... 129
11.3. Erection of Precast Units .................... 130
11.3.1. Sequence, Schemes and Procedures
for Unit Erection....................................... 130
11.3.3. Unit Erection Detailing Sequences131
11.3.3. Connections .................................. 132
11.4. Inspection of Erection and Correction of
Dimensional Tolerances ............................... 132
REFERENCES ........................................... 134
ENDNOTE .................................................. 135
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 1. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF
CONSTRUCTION WORKS

1.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The history of technology, in the field of construction, represents man's efforts to con-
trol his material environment for his own benefit. Man has been able to do this using tools
and applying reason to the properties of matter and energy. For many thousands of years,
…his progress in technology was made by trial and error, which made possible impressive
results. It was only toward the end of the 18th century, once with the Industrial Revolution,
that technology started to transform itself form craft skills…. to applied science. (Encpl. Bri-
tannica)

1.2. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIALIZATION

Definition of industrialization: The application of scientific principles to the optimal
conversion of natural resources into structures, machines, products, systems, and processes
(DEX 1998).
Industrialization is concerned with both on-site and off-site methods of construc-
tion organized in a systematic way in such that erection can proceed as a continuous opera-
tion. This is achieved by careful planning of activities carried out and by setting up a produc-
tion line to provide an organized flow of components.
Much traditional building procedure remains site-bound and labor-intensive. Tradition
is still used in the field of “wet” construction. However, by incorporating factory produced
units and components into traditional in situ concrete construction, and by employing me-
chanical plant and equipment, erection time has been shortened considerably, particularly on
work of a repetitive nature. Sometimes the contractor uses part of the site as a workshop or
temporary factory for the production of woodwork or pre-cast components.
Whether traditional or industrialized, on-site organization of materials, components,
and labor is vital in construction procedure; pre-planning of each stage is essential, and ade-
quate time should be allowed for working out details before operations can commence. Pre-
planning of activities should cover - site layout, work sequence, design, manufacture, and fix-
ing of standardized components, mechanical plant.

1.3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION

The efficiency of industrialized production results from the careful, systematic appli-
cation of the ideas and concepts outlined above. The following summary lists the basic prin-
ciples of mass production:
- Prefabrication of building components. Many prefabrication technologies deliver a bet-
ter product because building is done in a quality controlled sheltered environment. Just as
importantly, prefabrication can dramatically improve productivity. The method controls
construction costs by economizing on time, labor, wages, and materials.
- Developing new construction methods like industrial type production to constantly im-
prove efficiency in the scope of improving labor productivity (minimizes the amount of
human effort required).

7
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Careful division of the production operations into specialized tasks comprising of rela-
tive simple, highly repetitive human motion patterns and minimal handling or positioning
of the workpiece that can be easily learned and rapidly performed with a minimum of un-
necessary motion or mental readjustment.
- Developing new and improved construction materials in factory type prefabrication up
to the total elimination of the time consuming operations (reinforcement bending, tying
wires, welding etc.) within the construction site. These operations must improve construc-
tion quality.
- Simplification and standardization of component parts through:
1. dimensional co-ordination – agreement made between the manufacturers of buil-
ding units and the designers in order to simplify assembly by standardizing sizes;

2. modular design – a technique that uses a standard size module (1M = 100 mm) as
the fundamental unit for space planning. Larger spaces comprise multiple modules
(n x M), while smaller spaces sub modules (M/n).
to allow large production runs of parts that are without difficulty fitted to other parts without
adjustment. The imposition of other standards (e.g. dimensional tolerances, parts location,
material types) on all parts of the product further increases the economic benefit that can be
achieved.
Carefully designed, construction engineering and management, projects are required to
achieve the maximum benefits that application of these principles can provide. Planning be-
gins with the original design of the product; raw materials and component parts shall be
adaptable to production and handling by mass techniques. The entire production process is
planned in detail, including the flows of materials and information throughout the process.
For the industrialization of construction to be efficient, the production flow of compo-
nents/materials shall be:
- Carefully estimated because the selection of techniques depends upon the volume to be
produced and anticipated short-term changes in demand.
- Large enough, first, to permit the task to be divided into sub-processes assigned to differ-
ent individuals; second, to justify the substantial capital investment often required for spe-
cialized machines and processes; and third, to permit large production runs so that human
effort and capital are efficiently employed.
- Planed in detail because the large, continuous flow of product from the factory requires
distribution and marketing operations to bring the product to the client.
Advantages of industrialization in construction: In addition to lowering cost, the
application of the principles of industrialization has led to major improvements in uniformity
and quality. The large volume, standardized design, and standardized materials and processes
facilitate statistical control and inspection techniques to monitor production and control qual-
ity.
Limitations of industrialization in construction - the resulting system is inherently
inflexible, because maximum efficiency is desired; tools, machines, and work positions are
often quite precisely adapted to details of the parts produced but not necessarily to the work-
ers involved in the process. Changes in product design may converge toward high costs.
Usually, a production line is designed to operate most efficiently at a specified rate. If
the required production levels fall below that rate, operators and machines are being ineffi-
ciently used; and if the rate goes too high, operators must work overtime, machine mainte-
nance cannot keep up, breakdowns occur, and the costs of production rise. Proper planning
can eliminate the problems encountered; flexibility to accommodate changes economically
must be planned into the system.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2. FORMWORK

2.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

If concrete is to be poured, in place-monolithically, on the job site some means of
support, known as formwork, is necessary to shape, to position it precisely (level and loca-
tion) and to retain it until it sets.
In other words, formwork is a temporary “mould” into which fresh concrete and rein-
forcement are placed to form a particular reinforced concrete element with a predetermined
strength.
A typical breakdown of total construction percentage costs, to produce the required
structural element, could be as follows: concrete (materials 28%; labor 12%) = 40%; rein-
forcement (materials 18%; labor 7%) = 25% and formwork (materials 15%; labor 20%) =
35%.
To ensure that the formwork is economical and practical to build, the designer puts
forward the following basic technical, economical and functional requirements that should
be kept in mind when designing and constructing formwork.
a. The economic requirements of formwork are:
- Manufacture of forms must lead to low cost of materials, energy, and labor.
- Formwork should be as repetitive and as adaptable as possible. They must be able to
withstand a good number of reuses without losing their shape.
- Designed so that the whole formwork can be assembled and dismantled with unskilled or
semi-skilled labor.
- Formwork care and maintenance should be done according to specifications.
b. The technical requirements of formwork are:
- Forms should assure the attainment of the desired shape, size and location of the member
in the structure according to the drawings.
- Careful selection of finish surface and linings to produce the desired concrete surface re-
sult direct from the formwork.
- Forms must be strong enough to withstand the pressure of fresh concrete and working
loads; and to maintain their shape during the concrete placing operation.
- Formwork must be capable of supporting the designed loads any other applied loads dur-
ing the construction period.
- The design must be made so that the forms may be removed without damage to the con-
crete or to themselves.
- Panels should be tightly connected so to minimize gap at the formwork connection to pre-
vent leakage of cement paste.
c. The functional requirements of formwork are:
- Form sections must be of a size that can be lifted into place without too much difficulty
and transported from one job site to another, if necessary.
- Formwork must be dismantled and moved as easily as possible so that construction of the
building advances.
- Units should be interchangeable so that they can be used for forming different members.
- Forms must be made to fit and fasten together with reasonable ease.
- Forms must be as simple to build, as circumstances will allow.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Forms must be as light (without any strength reduction) as possible so that one or two
workers can handle them. The weight of the panels should not exceed 30-40 kg for those
lifted by one worker and 60-70 kg for those lifted by two workers.
- Forms must be made so that workers can handle them in regard of safety, respecting the
Health, Safety, and Hygiene Regulation in effect.
A balance of the above requirements should be achieved, preferably at pretender stage,
so that an economic and competitive cost can be calculated.

2.2. FORM MATERIALS

Materials of formwork shall be selected and the formwork system shall be designed
and constructed so that the concrete structure has the satisfactory performance required as per
design and the safety of workers are guaranteed.
Desirable materials for making formwork (e.g. wood, plastic, aluminum, steel, insulat-
ing materials) shall have the following properties: sufficient strength, required stiffness, dura-
bility, lightweight, reusable, and/or recyclable and volume stability during application.

2.2.1. WOOD
Figure 2-1 Typical dimensioned lumber panel Figure 2-2 Typical plywood sheathing panel
Caption: 1. Longitudinal frame (stud); 2. Trans- Caption: 1. Plywood sheathing; 2. Longitudinal
verse frame; 3. Lumber planks. frame (stud); 3. Braces; 4. Edge framing; 5. Holes in
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. edge framing for tie insertion; 6. Noggins.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Wood in the variety of dimensioned lumber or plywood sheathing is a widely used

material for formwork panels because of its good strength, lightweight, workability, relative
low cost, better flexibility, easier to repair and reusability.
Dimensioned lumber (Figure 2-1) used in formwork is usually of the softwood va-
riety (spruce, pine, fir etc.) because of its availability and good strength. Although dimen-
sioned lumber has been used as sheathing material in the past, plywood sheets have replaced
it in this application, while dimensioned lumber is now used primarily for framing, bracing,
and shoring.
Plywood (Figure 2-2) is a sheathing product made of several wood veneers with their
grain lying (normal to one another) at right angles and firmly glued together under pressure,
producing a panel that has uniform properties in both directions. Plywood produces smooth
concrete surfaces and can be used repeatedly, having excellent strength properties, minimiz-
ing deflection during concrete pour.

2.2.2. STEEL
Steel angles and
bars are used as sup-
porting members for
form panels faced
with plywood or
steel sheathing.
Steel forms have
the following advan-
tages: very good du-
rability and easy to
clean, low cost of
erection/ stripping,
no distortion with
moisture changes,
non-inflammability,
and limitations:
heavy, more difficult
to assemble and re-
pair.

Figure 2-3 Steel panel

Caption: 1. Frame; 2.
Braces; 3. Welded
steel sheathing; 4.
Pipe; 5. Connecting
pipe piece; 6. Socket.
Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 2-4 Pan forms Source: ATEX, 1999.

Pan forms (referred to also as Waffle Moulds) are used in one-

or two-way ribbed slabs. Advantages of using pan forms: low
cost, speed of erection and striping, simplicity.

2.2.3. PLASTIC AND ALUMINUM

Plastic reinforced fiberglass is a desired material for sheathing do to its reusability,
mouldability, lightweight, strength, and toughness.
Aluminum expensive compared with the other materials is used as supporting, I and
U-shaped, members for form panels. Its advantages are its lightweight and strength. Alumi-
num sections are used also as beams for supporting slab formwork or as wales on wall form-
work.

2.3. CLASSIFICATION OF FORMWORK

The basic components of a formwork are: form panel (comprised of panel sheathing
and panel frame), shoring members and form accessories.
Forms can be classified in accordance with a number of criteria, such as by: structure
and use/reuse of formwork, final destination, materials used, quality of panel sheathing.

2.3.1. CLASSIFICATION BY STRUCTURE AND USE

2.3.1.1. DISMOUNTABLE FORMWORK

Prefabricated forms (referred to also as Traditional Wall Formwork) consists of standard
size framed panels tied together over their backs with horizontal members called wales that
provide resistance to the horizontal pressure of fresh concrete.
There main advantage is that they are can be reused many times at a convenient cost.
A standard procedure for site formwork assembly is as follows:
- Forms shall conform to the shape and dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be
accurately set to line and grade. All sheathing in contact with concrete surfaces shall be
sized to uniform thickness and free from wane, warp, splits, loose knots or other defects
which will prevent obtaining a smooth, tight form.
- Forms shall be erected one side of the wall formwork, ensuring its correct alignment,
plumbing, and/or strutting.
- Forms shall be tightened by means of slotted wedge that passes through the lower end of
the slot. Joints in the lining shall be filled with patching plaster or other plastic filler. Lin-
ing material may be re-used if it is in satisfactory condition, well cleaned and re-oiled
- Insertion and positioning of steel reinforcement cage before the formwork for the other
side is erected and fixed.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Correct spacing of forms at specified distance from one another by using plastic spacer
tubes in which ties are inserted.
- Positioning of horizontal members (wales) to increase the overall rigidity of the formwork
panels and to align them.
- Insertion of ties between wales, covering them at the outside with plate washers to ensure
that the loads are evenly distributed over the wales.
- Forms for walls, etc., shall have large cleanout openings at their lowest points, which
shall not be closed until just before placing concrete. All forms shall be thoroughly
cleaned and soaked with water immediately before filling.

Figure 2-5 Plywood

panels
Caption: 1. Plywood
panel; 2. Base plate;
3. Wale; 4. Plate
washer; 5. Nut; 6. Tie
rod, 7. Pipe spacer; 8.
Plastic cone; 9. Shoe;
10. Clamp; 11.
Wedge; 12. Concrete
kicker. Source: Popa
R., Teodorescu M.,
1984.

Climbing Formwork is a method of casting a

concrete wall in known vertical lift heights
(approx. 1m) using the same forms in a repetitive
fashion to obtain maximum usage from a mini-
mum number of panels.
A standard procedure, for site operations, is
as follows:
- Positioning of the first concrete lift against a
300 mm high kicker.
- Casting the concrete and allowing it to harden
after which the forms are removed.
- Resumption of the same operations (casting
and curing) for the next 1 m lift until the re-
quired height has been reached.

Figure 2-6 Climbing formwork

Caption: 1. Pair of steel studs; 2. Working platform;
3. Adjustable brace; 4. Tie; 5. Loop tie; 6. Plumbing
member (strut); 7. Plywood panel; 8. Clamp. Source:
Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

2.3.1.3. NON DISMOUNTABLE FORMWORK

a. Sliding formwork (referred to also as Slip Formwork) represents a formwork system that
slides continuously up the face of the concrete wall that is being cast. The climbing operation
is possible do to a series of hydraulic jacks that operate on jacking rods.
The formwork system presents the following advantages: they cast the structure
monolithically and jointless, very good durability and easy to clean, no distortion with mois-
ture changes, and limitations: heavy, more difficult to assemble and repair, the wall should
have a uniform thickness (with a minimum number of openings), and a height of at least 20 m
to make the cost of equipment, labor and planning economical.
Because of these factors,
this method is suitable for
constructing water towers,
chimneys, bins, silos, and
multi-story buildings that
have repetitive floors.

Figure 2-7 Sliding formwork

Caption: 1. Form panel with
steel face; 2. Steel framed
yoke; 3. Hydraulic jack; 4.
Jacking rods; 5. Upper inte-
rior platform; 6. Upper exte-
rior platform; 7. Lower inte-
rior platform; 8. Lower exte-
rior platform; 9. Buck; 10.
Window opening; 11. Control
equipment for horizontality
inspection; 12. Control
equipment for vertical plumb-
ing inspection; 13. Electrical
installation; 14. Water instal-
lation. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

The sliding formwork is comprised of the following basic parts:

1. Side panels forms, made of timber or steel, usually 1,20 m in height, with an overall slid-
ing clearance of 6 mm by keeping the external panel plumb and the internal panel tapered so
that it is 3 mm in at the top and 3 mm out at the bottom, giving the true wall thickness, in the
center position of the form.
2. Horizontal wales stiffen the side forms along to resist the lateral pressure of concrete and
transfer the loads of working platforms to the supporting yokes.
3. Yokes assist in supporting the suspended working platforms and transfers the platform and
side form loads to the jacking rods.
4. Working platforms are usually provided to ease the work of the concrete team, for storage
of materials, for finishing operations and to carry jacking and control equipment.
5. Hydraulic jacks are anchored at the base of the structure and embedded in the concrete
below the forms. The jacks may be hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

The jacks used are usually specified by their load bearing capacities and consist of two
clamps operated by a piston. The clamps operate on a jacking rod of 25 to 50 mm diameter.
The upper clamp grips the jacking rod and the lower clamp, being free, rises, pulling the yoke
and platforms with it until the jack extension has been closed. The lower clamp now grips the
climbing rod while the upper clamp is released and raised to a higher position when the lifting
cycle is recommenced.
If the jack rod is to be reused, it is withdrawn from the wall after the forming is com-
plete. This is made possible by sheathing the rod with a thin pipe, which is attached at its top
end to the jack base and moves up with the forms. The sheath prevents concrete from bonding
to the jack rod and leaves it standing free within the hardened concrete. In some cases, the rod
is left unsheathed and remains as part of the reinforcing. The 2,5 to 4,0 m lengths of rod are
usually joined together with a screw joint arranged so that no joints occur at the same level.
A standard procedure regarding site operations is as follows:
- Formation of a concrete, 300 mm high, kicker incorporating the wall and jacking rod
starter bars.
- Anchorage of vertical reinforcing rods at the base of the structure that extends upward
between the inner and outer form. As the form rises and reaches the top of the first set of
rods, new lengths are added as concreting continues.
- Assembly of wall forms fixed together with yokes, upper working platforms, and jacking
device.
- Placement of first concrete lift. The commencing rate of climb must be slow (150…450
mm/hr.) to allow time for the first batch of concrete to reach a suitable maturity before
emerging from beneath the sliding formwork.
- When openings are required to be produced in the wall bucks are inserted in the section of
the wall.
- If a concrete projection from the wall is required, it must be added after the forming is
complete. A pocket is formed in the wall with dowels bent in so as not to interfere with
the operation of the forms. After the forming is complete, the dowels can be bent out, the
forms for the projection built around them, and the structure cast.
The success of a slip-forming operation depends on good planning, design, and super-
vision so that the operation may in fact, be as continuous as possible. Some of the major fac-
tors contributing to successful slip form construction are:
- Round-the-clock working which will involve shift working and artificial lightning to en-
able work to proceed outside normal daylight hours.
- Careful control of concrete supply to ensure that stoppages of the lifting operation are not
encountered. This may mean having standby plant as an insurance against mechanical
breakdowns.
- Suitably trained staff accustomed to this method of constructing in-situ concrete walls.
- The proper concrete mix design and careful control of the concrete to maintain the proper
slump and set, in spite of changing temperatures.
- Adequate facilities for supplying concrete to the forms at any height and an adequate con-
crete supply.
- A supply of reinforcing steel at hand and experienced workers to do the fabricating as
work progresses.
- Reliable forms, designed to stand the stresses placed on them by the constant heat of liq-
uid concrete.

b. Table formwork is used when casting large repetitive floor slabs in high-rise structures.
There main objective is to reduce the time factor in erecting, striking and re-erecting slab

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

formwork by creating a system of formwork which can be struck as an entire unit, removed,
hoisted and repositioned without any dismantling.

Figure 2-8 Formwork table Figure 2-9 Form table assembly

Caption: 1. Steel adjustable props; 2. Horizontal struts; 3. Inclined Source: EFCO 2001.
bracing; 4. Stringer; 5. Deck joists; 6. Plywood decking; 7. Wheel; 8.
Handling loops; 9. Base plate. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The procedure for assembling a form table is as follows (Figure 2-9):
- Positioning the stringer on the ground as required by the shop drawings.
- Bolting the deck joists to the stringer with bolts.
- Laying the plywood on the joists and nailing them tighter by driving them directly into
the lightweight steel.
- Positioning the adjustable steel props as support members (suitably braced) to carry the
framed formwork decking (a framed wheeled arrangement can be fixed to the rear end of
the table form so that the whole unit can be moved forward with ease).
- Maneuvering the form into position by attaching the handling loops to the crane hook.
- Balancing in horizontal position and lowering on to the recently cast slab for reposition-
ing.
- Adjustment for aligning and leveling of form.
- Casting the new concrete slab and after hardening – removal of formwork.
- Final extraction of forms by maneuvering them clear of the structure to a point where they
can be attached to the crane that lifts and repositions them to there new location.
- Provisions regarding existence of a working platform at the external edge of the slab that
means elimination of independent scaffolds.

2.3.1.4. PATENT FORMWORK

Patent formwork (referred to also as System formwork) is usually identified by the
manufacturer's name. It has the same common aim and similarity as traditional formwork, sat-
isfying most of the technical, economical and functional requirements by the simplification,
standardization and dimensional co-ordination of forms and by easy methods of positioning,
securing and bracing them.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

2.3.1.5. PERMANENT FORMWORK

In certain circumstances, formwork is left permanently
in place because of the difficulty and cost of removing it
once the concrete has been cast. Other times, it is used as
both formwork and outer cladding especially in the con-
struction of in-situ reinforced concrete walls. The external
face or cladding is supported by the conventional internal
face formwork, which can in certain circumstances over-
come the external support problems often encountered.
This method is, however, generally limited to thin
small modular facing materials (insulating board, gypsum
board, precast stone or concrete), the size of which is gov-
erned by the supporting capacity of the internal formwork.

Figure 2-10 Permanent formwork

Source: ACI – Construction Engineering Journal.

2.3.2. CLASSIFICATION BY FINAL DESTINATION

2.3.2.1. FOOTING FORMS

Figure 2-11 Below grade footing forms

Caption: 1. Poaling boards; 2. Horizon-
tal sheathing; 3. Vertical sheathing; 4.
Spreaders; 5. Wales. Source: Suman
R.,1988.

Figure 2-12 Shallow footing

Continuous footing forms cast
against excavations

Caption: 1. Traditional wooden panel;

2. Wood pegs; 3. Spreader, 4. Battens;
5. Plywood panel; 6. Wales.

A standard procedure for execution of footings is as follows:

- Positioning according to design to avoid loss of bearing area and eccentricity.
- Excavation of the last 100 mm of a footing cast in earth immediately before the concrete
is placed.
- Lining of trenches with wax paper or polyethylene film to prevent earth-absorbing water
from the concrete.
- Because the footing is below grade, no surface finish is necessary.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

2.3.2.2. WALL FORMS

The basic wall forms components are:
- Panel sheathing, to shape and retain the concrete until it sets.
- Studs, to form a framework and support the sheathing or Wales, to keep the form aligned
and support the studs.
- Braces, to hold the forms erect under lateral pressure.
- Ties and spreaders, to hold the sides of the forms at the correct spacing.
Several basic methods are available which will enable a wall to be cast in large quanti-
ties, defined lifts or continuous from start to finish: built in place forms, prefabricated
forms and giant panels respectively gang forms.

a. Built-in-Place Forms are built in place when the design of the structure is such that prefab-
ricated panels cannot be adapted to the shape or when the form is for one use only and the use
of prefabricated panels cannot be economically justified.

Figure 2-13 Wall formwork

Caption: 1. Formwork panel; 2. Base plate; 3. Adjust-
able steel prop; 4. Working platform; 5. Plate washer;
6. Tie rod; 7. Spacer; 8. Guardrail; 9. Reinforcement;
10. Sole plate. Source: Popa R., teodorescu M., 1984.

a. Sheathing; b. Studs; c. Wales.

Note: When studs are used in form construction, wales are placed outside of them and held in
place by nails, clips, or wale brackets nailed to the studs. When there are no studs, wales are
placed against the plywood sheathing. In such a case, strongbacks-vertical members tied to-
gether in pairs with long ties through the form-are set and braced to provide vertical rigidity.
A standard procedure to assemble a built in place wall form may be as follows:
- Proper location on the foundation or slab from which the wall will rise.
- Sole plate anchoring on either the foundation or slab with preset bolts.
- Fastening of plywood sheathing to the studs. The first panel should be set and leveled at
the highest point of the foundation to establish alignment for the remainder
- Insertion of ties as sheathing progresses, between the double-sided wales.
- When one side of the form has been completed, the other may be built in sections and set
in place, with the tie ends being threaded through predrilled holes.
- Panels will be bolted or clamped to adjoining sections.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Braces will be attached to the sole plate, form the wales or strongbacks. Braces may act in
compression only, in tension only or in both, as when forms are braced on one side only
heavy wire or cable is suitable for bracing that will be in tension only.
- Tightening of ties where possible and where not or not allowed, external bracing must be
provided to securely support both forms.
- Plumbing of formwork, by adjusting the braces. If braces are not adjustable, the wall must
be plumbed as the braces are installed and anchored. If one form is plumbed as soon as it
is built, there is no need to plumb the opposing one. The ties and spreaders will plumb the
second form automatically.
b. Giant Panels and Gang Forms. High
walls, in which the concrete will have to be
placed in two or more stages or lifts, will nor-
mally be formed by the use of giant panels
(panels much larger than the normal standard
size) or by gang forming. These large forms
are built or assembled on the ground by fasten-
ing together a number of steel (wood)-framed
panels and bracing them strongly to withstand
crane handling.
Figure 2-14 Typical gang panel
Caption: 1. Form sheathing; 2. Stud; 3. Wales; 4.
Steel strut. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

2.3.2.3. FLOOR FORMS

The design of forms for concrete floors depends a great deal on whether the floor is a
slab-on-grade or a structural slab supported on a steel or concrete structural frame.

1. Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade are usually quite sim-
ple. A standard procedure to produce a good slab-on grade from is as follows:
- Concrete will be placed on com-
pacted earth or gravel leveled base
(the granular material serving as a
capillary break under the slab where
moisture in the subgrade be a prob-
lem).
- Plank, plywood, or steel forms will
be required for forming the edges
(steel edge forms are commonly used
on larger jobs and for highway work).
- The forms will be held in place by
wooden pegs.
- Usually a vapor barrier will be placed
Figure 2-15 Typical slab-on-grade edge formwork under the slab on grade.
Caption: 1. Screed; 2. Slab edge form; 3. Cast con-
crete. Source: Suman R., 1988.
- Reinforcement in slabs on grade may or may not be specified depending on the slab area
and the use of control joints. Normally the amount of steel that is specified for slabs on
grade is for crack control rather than to increase the strength of the slab. Proper placement
of the reinforcement in the slab is important if it is to be of value. If a single layer of rein-

19
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

forcement is specified, its location should be 50 mm below the top surface of the slab to
help control cracking in the top of the slab.
- The reinforcement will be placed on its proper location according to the drawing on
chairs, bolsters, and spacers made of either metal or concrete.
- Temporary wooden guides named screeds will be positioned in the slab area to help in
bringing the concrete to the correct grade.
- When concrete has been placed to the correct level, the screed is removed and the depres-
sion filled.
- If the slab is to be placed in sections, construction joints must be made between them,
which will transmit shear from one to the other (see Concrete Placement).

2. Structural Slab Form general procedure assembly is as follows:

- Positioning of the girder or beam
form bottom.
- Girder side forms will overlap the
bottom form and rest on the shore
heads and the sides of the column
form.
- Side forms will be held in place by
ledger strips nailed to the shore
heads with double-headed nails.
Figure 2-16 Girder form details - Larger girders will have the side
Caption: 1. Girder; 2. Panel end support; 3. Stringer; 4. forms vertically stiffened to prevent
Prop; 5. Ledger; 6. Brace; 7. Prop; 8. Shore head; 9. buckling.
Panel sheathing. Source: Andres C., 1998.
- When constructing the girder and beam forms each part must be removed without disturb-
ing the remainder of the form; strike-off formwork will commence with the beam and
girder sides, followed later by the column forms, and finally by the beam and gird bot-
toms.

Spandrel Beam Forms (deep beams that

span openings in outer walls) need to be
carefully formed. Form alignment must be
accurate to produce an attractive wall.
Shore heads are often extended on the
outside to accommodate the knee braces
used to keep the forms aligned. The ex-
tended shore head also frequently supports
a catwalk for workers.

Figure 2-17 Spandrel beam form details

Caption: 1. Stud; 2. Tie back; 3. Plywood sheet; 4. Ledger; 5. Joist; 6. Slab for sheathing; 7. Tie; 8.
Wales; 9. Brace; 10. Ledger; 11. Shore head; 12. Double shores. Source: Andres C., 1998.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

2.3.2.4. COLUMN FORMS

Column forms are often subjected to greater lateral pressure
than wall forms because of their comparatively small cross sec-
tion and relatively high rates of placement. It is therefore neces-
sary to provide tight joints and strong tie support.
As column sizes increase, either the thickness of the sheath-
ing must be increased or vertical stiffeners must be added to pre-
vent sheathing deflection. In Figure 2-19, horizontal stiffening are
used (ties of this type are generally referred to as yokes).

Figure 2-18 Typical example of column formed with plywood panels

stiffened with triangular yokes.
Source: Pestisanu C., 1995.
A standard procedure to assemble a column form may be as fol-
lows:
- Locate column forms accurately by using templates, they are
carefully located by chalk line or paint and anchored in posi-
tion.
- Mark the location of each yoke on the side of the panel.

- Assemble three sides together, set the partially completed form in place, and add the
fourth side later (this would probably be done in setting column forms for a job where the
reinforcement is already in position).
- Anchor them at their base, and keeping them in a vertical position are prime considera-
tions by using braces.
- Provision of a cleanout opening at the bottom of the form so that debris may be removed
before concrete placing begins and to allow the placing of concrete in the bottom half of
the form without having to drop it from the top.
- Final check of column forms position, plumbing, bracing, and ready to support the ends of
the girder and the beam forms that will be built to them.
Note: The length of the column form is determined be subtracting the thickness of the bottom
of the girder form that the column is to carry from the column height indicated on the plans or
in the column schedule.

Modular steel panel forms provide several ways to form columns of various shapes
and sizes. Generally, modular panels provide a fast and more accurate column form than job-
built forms.
The form consists of four panels, of various widths and lengths (maximum forming
height of 7.20 m and maximum edge of column 95 cm, 1.5 to 3 mm steel sheathing) that are
fastened together at each corner with wedge bolts or clamps.
A standard procedure to assemble a steel column form may be as follows:
- Selection of proper type and thickness of sheathing.
- Location of forms accurately by using templates, they are carefully located by chalk line
or paint and anchored in position.
- Marking the location of each yoke on the side of the panel.
- Inspection of yokes to ensure that they withstand bending and shear and that deflection
will not exceed 1,5 mm.
- Four-panel assembly by fastening them together on each corner, which sets partially,
completed form in place.
- Assembly of yokes on the top of the first panel height.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Stacking the rest of the panels until reaching the desired height and positioning the rest of
the yokes on their upper frame.
- Final check of column forms position, plumbing, bracing, and ready to support the ends of
the girder and the beam forms that will be built to them.

Figure 2-19 Typical steel column formwork

Caption: 1. Steel panel; 2. Inclined brace; 3. Yoke; 4. Filler panel. Source: IPC.

2.4. FORM LINERS

Form liners serve two purposes:
- To improve stripping of the form from the concrete surface without damaging the sheath-
ing material or the concrete.
- To produce a desired texture on exposed concrete surfaces.
For a smooth finish plywood, steel, and fiberglass are usually used, while for textured
finish, plastic and rubber liners are used but are usually limited to a single application.

2.5. RELEASE AGENTS

Release agents (referred to also as Bond Preventives) have traditionally been used as
coatings to formwork to prevent adhesion of the concrete. These include oils, emulsions,
chemical release agents, and waxes. Liquid bond preventives can be applied by hand or
power-operated sprayer. Sprayer application requires less material and produces a smoother,
uniform coating.
Main limitations of different agents used: discoloration, residual deposits, or failure to
prevent bond conducting towards possible destruction of the concrete.

22
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

2.6. FORMWORK REMOVAL

The removal (referred to also as strike-off or stripping) of formwork shall be carried
out by ensuring the strength of concrete and the stability of the remaining formwork.
The rate of hardening is temperature dependent and affects the timed removal of
formwork, which will more than double in winter conditions. A special attention should be
given, after form removal, to the construction member because it will bear the whole design
load, which is very important especially for long-span members in flexure.
The following values of concrete hardening levels are recommended for striking off:
2,5 N/mm2 – for the lateral parts of the formwork;
70% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a
span of minimum 6,0 m;
85% of the concrete class for the inferior formwork parts of slabs and beams, with a
span of maximum 6,0 m.
The shores will be removed when the following values of concrete strength percentage
is achieved:
95 % for members with maximum spans of 6,00 m;
112 % for members with spans of 6,0...12,0 m;
115 % for members with spans grater than 12,0 m.
Forms shall be designed so that removal may be made in the following order: side of
beams and girders, slab and joist forms and beam and girder bottoms.
During formwork strike off the following rules must be followed:
- The parts and connections of the forms shall be so arranged that removal will be simple,
protecting the concrete from damage and the form panel so that it may be reused without
extensive repair.
- The procedure will be supervised by the engineer, when casting defects are seen
(honeycombing, caverns etc.) that can influence the stability of the structure the works
will be stopped until repair and rehabilitation.
- When forms adhere to the concrete, separation should be achieved by inserting wooden
wedges and not by forcing the crowbars against the concrete.
- Beam and joist bottoms shall remain in place until final removal of all shoring under
them.
- Formwork shall not be removed until the concrete maturity has developed sufficiently so
to support all loads placed upon it. The time varies depending on the structural function of
the member and the rate of strength gain of the concrete (concrete class, type of cement,
w/c (mass ratio of water to cement), temperature during curing).
- Joist forms shall be designed and removed so that the shores may be removed temporarily
to permit removal of joist forms but must be replaced at once. The shores and joists will
be dismantled beginning from the middle of the members span, continuing symmetrically
up the supports.
- The Engineer shall approve the sequence and pattern for removal of shores and for re-
shoring before any of this work is done. Shores and reshores shall be in the same position
on each floor to provide a continuous support from floor to floor; at no time shall large ar-
eas of new construction be required to support their own weight even temporarily.
- The unfastening of accessories will be done steadily without shocks.

2.7. SHORING MEMBERS

Shoring members are used to support concrete forms and their contents. They can be
divided into two major categories: horizontal shoring and vertical shoring.

23
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

a. Horizontal shores (also

referred to as telescopic
joists or centers) have the
following characteristics:
- Are manufactured from
wood or high-tensile
steel with clear spans
from 1,8 to 9m.
- According to their load
and span, they can bear
a specified load.
- They can be precam-
bered to compensate any
deflections when loaded.
- They require shoring
and bracing.
- An assembled unit is
lightweight and can be
carried by one laborer.

Figure 2-20 Typical telescopic joists Source: Chudley R., 1999.

b. Vertical shores are those that support the horizontal ones from a firm base below (e.g. con-
crete slab).
- Vertical wood shores may be single wood posts, with wedges at the bottom to adjust the
height, double wood posts, two-piece adjustable posts, or T head shores.
- Vertical steel shores may be adjustable pipe shores or shores made up of prefabricated
metal scaffolding. Scaffold-type shoring, is usually assembled into towers by combining a
number of units into a single shoring structure.

Figure 2-21 Typical adjustable steel shores

Source: Teodorescu M. 1998, EFCO 2002.

2.8. FORM ACCESSORIES

24
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Along side the ba-

sic components of
formwork a number
of products are
available to aid in
making forms
stronger and erect-
ing them faster.
These products in-
clude the following
items: ties, spread-
Figure 2-22 Form accessories ers, wedges, corner
Caption: a. Panel clamp; b. Scaffold tubes secured with wire lashing; c. brackets, clips,
Cone; d. Tie spreader units; e. Plate washer with tie clamp; 1. Plywood panel; keys, column
2. Steel clamp; 3. Wood wedge; 4. Steel shaped clamp; 5. Bolt screw; 6. Lash clamps, shores,
with bolt; 7. Shore; 8. Cross bracing. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
form rods, concrete
inserts, and many
others.

2.9. MOULDS
All concrete sections made with poured-in-place concrete require some temporary
means of support for the freshly mixed, plastic concrete. As in the case of precast sections,
some means of support is necessary to hold the concrete in place during its curing period; this
temporary framing is known as a mould.

2.9.1. CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDS

a. By structure and use - dismountable (some components of the mould can be dismantled
for removal) and non-dismountable (removal is achieved by griping or expulsion of precast
units).
b. By the position it has in the technological flow:
- Stationary: used primarily in the stand prefabrication technology.
- Portable: it moves from one workstation to another like in conveyer prefabrication tech-
nology or flow of aggregates.
c. According to the loads that they bear:
- Non-bearing moulds. The only loads they bear are weight of mould, concrete, pressure of
concrete on lateral faces and weight of reinforcement.
- Bearing moulds. They bear both the loads stated above and those of the tensions given by
the prestressed reinforcement.
d. According to the solution adopted of heating the concrete - heating moulds and non-
heating moulds (that are introduced after formation into steam rooms).
e. According to the number of units that are formed in the same mould - individual
moulds (1 element), coupled moulds (2 elements) and batteries of moulds (several elements).
d. According to the materials used for fabrication: The choice of materials is mainly a
question of economical justification on individual projects. They can be of metal, wood, plas-
ter, concrete etc.

2.9.2. BASIC COMPONENTS AND MAIN TYPES OF MOULDS

The basic mould components are: form sheathing, frame, and shoring elements.

25
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

In designing such details an effort is made to: select standard shapes and sizes for
economy of mouldwork, lower operational costs, limit size variations, withstand the required
number of reuses within permissible tolerances without excessive maintenance.
Concrete moulds - referred to also as
pilot moulds because when precasting
individual moulds a concrete replica (pi-
lot model) of the final mould is con-
structed. Several intermediate models,
cast from the pilot model, are used to
produce the required number of finished
moulds.
Figure 2-23 Concrete pilot mould
Caption: 1. Mould concrete base; 2. Com-
pacted sand; 3. Concrete mould; 4. Concrete
face; 5. Steel angle shape; 6. Edge form; 7.
Metal plate; 8. Bolt.
Metal moulds - are sometimes used in
place of milled woodwork, especially if
a detail is repeated.
Figure 2-24 Static metal moulds
Caption: 1. Brace frame; 2. Striking of de-
vice; 3. Thermal insulation; 4. Heating duct;
5. Prefabricated element; 6. Mould sheet; 7.
Sheet frame. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu
M., 1984.

Plaster moulds are used for various architectural or ornamental details. The moulds are made
of casting plaster containing jute fiber and further reinforced by rods, where necessary. A
mould can be used only once, as it is broken in stripping.
Wooden moulds – presents the limitation given by the woods tendency of the wood to swell.
For this reason and ease of stripping, it is best not to recess deep into the concrete mass.
The most common method of casting concrete using moulds is by using the stack
method. It consists of casting one element on top of another, with each successive element
utilizing the preceding element as a casting bed.
The stack may be started in an excava-
tion to permit a greater number of ele-
ments to be poured direct from transit-
mix trucks. All castings in one stack
should have identical dimensions and
openings of identical size and location.
The stack method conserves space, per-
mits castings to gain added strength be-
fore removal, simplifies curing, and
eliminates extra handling.
Figure 2-25 Stack wooden mould
Caption: 1. Mould base; 2. Mould sheath-
ing; 3. Stud; 4. Tie rods. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT

26
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

3.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

It is important to understand that correct sizing and positioning of reinforcement can
increase both strength and durability of reinforced concrete, and generally increase the ability
of reinforcement to control shrinkage cracking.
The combination of concrete and steel in reinforced concrete is mutual beneficial, al-
lowing them to work together as a composite material:
- Their coefficients of thermal expansion are approximately equal (αsteel = 1,2 x 10-5
and αconcrete = 0,8…1,2 x 10-5); if this were not so, when subjected to wide temperature
changes, reinforced concrete would tear itself apart by internal stress, but they expand or
contract by similar amounts, and therefore remain firmly bonded.
- The cement paste in concrete bonds strongly to the steel bars, transferring stress from
concrete to steel and protecting the steel against fire and against corrosion. Concrete pro-
vides an alkaline environment to steel embedded in it, thus protecting the steel from rust-
ing.

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF REINFORCEMENT

The type of reinforcement used will be selected and fabricated so that the reinforced
concrete structure has the satisfactory performance specified in the design, to be capable of
sustaining heavy loads over considerable spans.
Steel reinforcements may be used in concrete in more than one manner:
- Main reinforcement (continuous reinforcement), improves the load-carrying capability
of the structure by providing high tensile strength.
- Repartition (distributed) reinforcement - also referred to as discontinuous reinforce-
ment, limits cracking by bearing tensile stresses.
- Confinement reinforcement limits the transverse volumes increase of concrete in com-
pressed areas, increasing the longitudinal deformation and strength.
- Positioning reinforcement, secures other reinforcement against displacement caused by
concrete placing.

3.3. MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Reinforcing steels can be divided into two categories: low-strength (mild) and high
strength.
The low-strength steels are more workable than the high strength ones, but the elonga-
tion is higher. The workability of steel is assured by batching (altering the chemical composi-
tion of the steel, particularly the carbon content), or by improvement through mechanical
working of steel (cold SR 438/4-98 or hot pressing STAS 438/1-89).

Characteristic strength is the value of the yield or proof strength (ultimate specified
strength) of reinforcement, fy, below which 5% of all possible test results would be expected
to fall.
The most common steel grades are: OB 37, PC 52, and PC 60 with ultimate strength
of 37, 52, and 60 N/mm2.

27
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 3-1 Characteristic stress- strain curves (σ-ε) for steel

Caption: OA-elastic region; AB – plastic region; C –failure. Source: Carare T. 1986
Stress-strain relationship is a measure of the elasticity of the material. If a load is
applied to a material, and the material makes a recovery (it returns to is original size once the
load is removed), the elastic limit of the material has not been reached. If the material does
not recover on the removal of the load, it must have exceeded its elastic limit (yield point)
thus remaining permanently deformed (plastic limit).
Ductility is the ability of the steel to sustain high strains before failure. As the stress is
increased, the steel begins to act in a plastic manner until failure. Altering the chemical com-
position of the steel, particularly the carbon content, can increase both ultimate tensile
strength and yield strength.
Necking occurs when material starts to decrees its cross-section and increases its
elongation. For OB 37 this limit is shown by the tendency of oscillation or of stagnation of the
display testing device while its elongation grows. For PC type steels the necking (tendency of
elongation without load increase) is not shown through the equipment monitor, because of
this, we measure the limit value for which a certain permanent elongation is recorded.

3.4. STANDARD BAR DIAMETERS AND TYPES OF

REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement is usually provided by steel bars (also referred to as re-bars) or by
steel wires welded together to form a mesh or fabric. The types of steel bar for concrete
reinforcement must comply with the requirements of STAS 4381/1-89; 4382/2 - 91; 4383 - 89
and STAS 6482/1-73; 6482/2,3,4-80b and NE 012-99.
Table 3-1 Reinforcement types and application.
Type of steel Symbol Field of applicability
Round smooth bars
OB 37 Main or distributed reinforcement
STAS 438/1-89
Drawn smooth wire for reinforced concrete
STNB Main reinforcement of welded wire
STAS 438/2-91
fabric or welded cages for distributed
Welded wire fabric for reinforced concrete reinforcement
STNB
SR 438/3/1998
Main reinforcement for concrete grade
PC 52
Deformed bars for reinforced concrete min C 12/15
STAS 438/1-89 Main reinforcement for concrete grade
PC 60
min C 16/20
Prestressed reinforcement
-Smooth wire STAS 6482/2-80 SBP I and SBP II Main reinforcement for concrete grade
-Deformed wire STAS 6482/3-80 SBPA I and SBPA II min C 25/30
-Strands
Reinforcement varies as a result of its processing. Types and characteristics are sum-
marized below.

28
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Hot Rolled Steel Source: Ductil Steel SA, SR EN 10025

1. Hot Rolled Structural Steel OB 37
Size 6,0; 8,0; 10,0; 12,0; 14,0; 16,0; 18,0; 20,0; 22,0; 25,0; 28,0; 32,0; 36,0; 40,0 mm
Yield point φ 6-12 = min. 235 N/ mm2
φ 14-40 = min. 255 N/ mm2
Character-
Technical

istics

Tensile strength = max. 360 N/ mm2

Elongation A5 = min 26 %
Delivery of reinforcement
Delivery

Grade Coiled bundles

Bundles of bars (8-20 m length) Individual rods
φ 6 - 12 mm φ 14 - 30 mm > φ 30 mm
(40 – 600 kg)
OB 37
2. Deformed Steel PC 52, PC 60, PC 90
Size 6,0; 8,0; 10,0; 12,0; 14,0; 16,0; 18,0; 20,0; 22,0; 25,0; 28,0; 32,0; 36,0; 40,0 mm
PC 52 PC 60 PC90
Character-
Technical

Yield point min. 355 N/mm min. 410 N/mm2

2
min. 590 N/mm2
istics

Tensile strength min. 510 N/mm2 min. 590 N/mm2 min. 890 N/mm2
Elongation min. 20 % min. 16 % min. 8 %
Delivery of reinforcement
Grade
φ 6 - 12 mm φ 14 - 30 mm > φ 30 mm
Delivery

Coiled bundles (40 – 600 kg) Bundles of bars (8-20 m length) Individual rods
PC 52
PC 60 φ 6 – 12 mm φ 14 - 30 mm > φ 30 mm
PC 90 φ 10 - 30 mm > φ 20 mm
Heat Treated Cold Drawn Wire - not for prestressing Source: Ductil Steel SA, SR EN 10025, STAS 889
1. Wire for General Purpose, for Netting and Knitting
Black wire for tying 0,60 – 1,40 mm (STR – in Rom. Sarma trasa rascoapta)
Size

Drawn wire for concrete (STNB – in Rom. Sarma trasa neteda pentru beton)
Wire for meshes 4,00 – 10,00 mm
Technical Characteris-

Diameter Weight Tensile Strength Tensile Strength Inside Diameter

[mm] [kg] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [mm]
0.20 - 0.80 max. 15 max. 410 250 - 300
tics

1.00 - 1.60 40 - 60 max. 440 250 - 400

1.80 - 2.80 60 - 100 max. 450 max. 440 450 - 650
3.00 - 5.00 80 - 120 max. 440 450 - 650
5.50 - 10.00 80 - 200 max. 440 550 – 650
Delivery Coiled of 2 - 5 kg, secured in 3-4 places, that can be bundled in 5-10 coils/bundle
On metallic or plastic spools:
Wire Wire Charac-
Spool Characteristic
Diameter teristic on spool
[mm]
Net Weight Work Weight Inside diam Outside diam Axial diam Height
0.40 - 0.80 17 - 20 160 160 250 22 200
The wire is delivered: - coils (spools) unpacked;
- coils packed in crepe paper secured with adhesive band;
- spools packed in crepe paper or with stretch folio.
High tensile steel wire and strand - for concrete prestressing
Wire for Concrete Prestressing (plain round, crimped or indented) SBP – in Rom. Sarma pentru beton
1
precomprimat; SBPA – in Rom. Sarma pentru beton precomprimat amprentat.
Size SBP 1,50 – 7,00 mm; SBPA 5,00 – 7,00 mm.

29
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Diameter mm Cross Sectional Area [mm2] Unit Weight [kg/1000m]

Technical Characteristics
1.5 1.767 1.387
2.0 3.142 2.466
2.5 4.910 3.853
3.0 7.070 5.548
3.7 10.746 8.430
4.0 12.570 9.870
5.0 19.630 15.410
6.0 28.270 22.190
7.0 38.480 30.210
Coiled of 50- 80 kg, secured in 3-4 places. The wire is delivered: coils (spools) unpacked; coils
Deli-
very

packed in crepe paper secured with adhesive band; spools packed in crepe paper or with stretch
folio.
Strand for Concrete Prestressing (TBP – in Rom. Toron pentru beton precomprimat) -7 mm wire con-
2.
figurations with tensile strengths that vary between 1670 and 1860 N/mm2;
Size 2,0; 2,5; 3,0; 4,0 mm
Cross Sectional Area Unit Weight [kg/1000m]
Symbol Diameter [mm]
[mm2]
Characteristics

Min. Max.
Technical

7φ 2.0 6.1 22.31 0.172 0.187

7φ2.5 7.6 34.74 0.268 0.295
7φ3.0 9.1 49.93 0.388 0.423
7φ4.0 12.2 88.55 0.693 0.739

Delivery Spools with diameter of 900 mm, weight 100-600 kg.

3.4.1. PLAIN AND DEFORMED STEEL BARS

The simplest form of bar surface is the plain (smooth) bar. In order to improve the
bond between reinforcing and the surrounding concrete, lugs (or protrusions) are rolled on the
bar surfaces (the uneven surface of the reinforcing bars help them to bond tightly to concrete).
Consequently, these types of reinforcing bars are called deformed steel bars.
Figure 3-2 Standard
types of reinforcing
bars PC 52 and PC
60
Source: Carare T. 1986

3.4.2. WELDED WIRE MESH REINFORCING

Another form of concrete reinforcing consists of wire rods, either smooth or deformed,
welded into grids, known as welded wire mesh3 (also referred to as welded wire fabric).
The welded meshes come as sheets or rolls depending on the diameter of the wire or
rod used. Diameters of smooth wire used range from 3 to 10 mm, while deformed rods can
range from 4 mm to 10 mm or larger. Spacings (pitches) between wires range from 50 mm to
300 mm. The sheet sizes are manufactured in standard lengths of 4,8 m and widths of 2,4 m;
if they are rolled, they have the length up to 10 m.
A typical notation of welded wire reinforcing is written as: 14 GQ 246
Where: 14 represent the order number of the mesh.
G represents the general use of the mesh.
Q represents the shape of the eye.
246 represents cross sectional area of wire (2.46 cm2/m = 246 mm2/m), mm2

30
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 3-3
Dimen
sions
of
wire
mesh

Source:
Carare T.,
1986

Nominal parameters of meshes Size (mm)

Length of mesh Lc 2000-7000
Width of mesh Bc 1000-3000
Width between extreme longitudinal bars B 950-2950
Width between extreme transverse bars L 1950-6950
Longitudinal spacings between wires from 50 mm to 300 mm
Transverse spacings between wires from 50 mm to 420 mm

3.4.3. WIRES
Tie Wires are plain, cold drawn annealed steel of 1,5 mm diameter. Other types of
wires can be an assemblage of three or more ropes twisted together for extra strength, or a
rope made by twisting together several strands of metal wire.
This stranded wire rope for concrete (used in prestressing) is made of steel wire
manufactured from cold drawn plain carbon steel. The wire can be plain round, crimped or
indented with a diameter range of 2 to 7 mm. Consisting of six individual wires twisted about
a hemp (core) rope core to form the strand.
The function of the core is to provide a firm cushion for positioning the wires in the
strands, to maintain a firm rope structure, and to provide some internal lubrication when bend-
ing stresses are involved.
Figure 3-4 Typical
profile of
SBPA
Source: Carare T.
1986.
Crimped and indented bars (SBP, SBPA) will develop at greater bond strength than
plain round bars and are available in 5, 6, and 7 mm diameters.

3.5. REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE COVER

Two important criteria (provided by STAS 10107/0-904) must be considered in the lo-
cation of reinforcing bars in a concrete section:
1. Enough cover must be provided to protect the reinforcing steel from the environment
against corrosion (rusting).
2. Proper spacing must be provided between the bars to ensure that the concrete to be placed
without any blocking of coarse aggregates and an easy flow around the bars so to develop
the necessary bond with the bars.

31
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

φmax aggregate = minimum distance between rebars - 5 mm

Spacing of reinforcing bars is computed taking into consideration the following limita-
tions:
Common spacings of reinforcing bars are as fol-
lows: 25 mm for beams;
50 mm for columns;
75 mm for slabs and walls.

Not less than 1,4 bar diameters

1,4 maximum aggregate size nor 30
mm
Not less than 1,4 bar diameters
1,4 maximum aggregate size nor 30
mm
Maximum distance 500 mm
Figure 3-5 Typical reinforcement spacing
section
Minimum concrete cover of reinforcing bars is
Where: S - Clear concrete cover
considered according to environmental restrictions.
D - Distance between longitu-
dinal bars
To ensure the proper location of the bars or wire mesh, the following types of chairs,
bolsters and spacers made of either metal or concrete can be used, Figure 3-5.

Source: Carare T., 1986.

Figure 3-6 Chairs and spacers

3.6. FABRICATION OF STEEL BARS, STIRRUPS AND WIRE

MESHES

3.6.1. STRAIGHTENING OF STEEL BARS

Hot rolled steel rods delivered in bundles or coils need be strengthened with the help
of specific machinery or tools according to the steel type, grade, diameter, and type of deliv-
ery.

32
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

The following methods of strengthening can be employed.

Is used for OB 37 and PC 52 φ ≤ 12 mm and for PC φ 10- 12 mm.

a. Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils using a normal chain winch.

The strengthening of rods is usually achieved with a force that must exceed half of the
necessary stress needed to reach its yield point R0,2 .

- Straightening force: F≤ 0,5x A (bar surface = π d2/4) x R0,2.

The straightening verification is achieved by:

- Elongation: the total elongation must not exceed 2%o.

Al< 2 x Length of bar /1000 = 2x50/1000 = 0,10 m= 10 cm.
For the commencement of operations, it
is necessary to have a 50 m length and 2-3
m wide concrete platform on which to exe-
cute the works. On one end, a peg is driven
into the ground, on which a cable is fas-
Figure 3-7 Pliers for straightening bars attached to tened, and the other side a manual chain
winch. winch is fixed firmly. A plier is secured at
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M. 1984. the end of the winch that is connected to
reinforcement.
Normally the initial length of the steel bars is marked on the platform its original
length, and after computing their final elongation there, location will be as well marked.
The winch will be operated and the steel bar will increase its length until it reaches the
mark on the platform, at that point the operation will be stopped. Only then the steel bar can
be considered as being straight.
b. Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch.
Figure 3-8 Straight-
ening of steel
bars delivered in
coils with an
electrical chain
winch.
Source: Carare T.,
1986, Popa R.,
Teodorescu M. 1984.
a. Device for straightening of steel bars delivered in coils; a. Straightening device: 1. Coils; 2.
Wedge; 3. Hook plate; 4. Peg; 5. Wheel; 7. Winch; 8. Elongation hook. b. Hook fixing for
straightening: 1. Re-bars; 2. Anchorage plate; 3. Hook for straightening; 4. Cable without end.
Straightening of steel bars delivered in coils with an electrical chain winch consists of
two procedure phases: straightening phase and elongation phase (as described).

3.6.2. COMBINED STRAIGHTENING AND CUTTING MACHINES

These machines are comprised of automatic measurement, strengthening, cutting, and
handling devices of large quantities of reinforced concrete rods.

work orders and a mobile shear able to cut twelve 32 φ rods at the same time.
They consists of a control console able to interface a remote PC for programming of

The machine is available in two basic models, with a hydraulic power of 50 and 100
tons respectively (corresponding to a maximum rod diameter of 32 and 40 mm).

33
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Measurement and transfer

track is complete with an inde-
pendent retractable measurement
that stops at a distance of 0.5 m
from each other that are moved
by pneumatic pistons that acti-
vate a set of levers. This track is
equipped with double pneumatic
tilting system for unloading of
the cut bars.
The rods are introduced in
the infeed mouth and pulled,
Figure 3-9 Typical strengthening and cutting machine along the channel infeed mouth,
Source: OSCAM SpA.
by powered rollers at a speed of 100 m/min. They are measured and cut by a powerful hy-
draulic shear and then transferred onto the powered roller collection tracks from where they
are sent to the workstations.
The entire structure rests on a frame fitted with powered wheels for traverse in front of
the store and tracks of the bending and storage stations.
A primary straightening takes place in several passes through roll stands in open, semi
continuous, or fully continuous arrangement. These can use an alternating rolling principle on
horizontal and vertical rolls, as shown in Figures 3-10 and 3-11.
Figure 3-10 a. b. Rotating
drum with screw die ar-
rangement
Caption: 1. Reel; 2. Rein-
forcement coil; 3. Infeed
mouth; 4. Rotating drum with
screw die arrangement; 5.
Traction wheels; 6. Shear; 7.
Automatic measurement de-
vice; 8. Frame; 9. Measured
rod. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M,. 1984.
Figure 3-11 Rolling-mill ar-
rangements
Caption: 1. Reel; 2. Coil; 3.
Infeed mouth; 4. Traction
wheels; 5. Vertical rolling-mill
arrangements; 6. Horizontal
mill arrangements; 7. Shear; 8.
Measurement device; 9.
Frame; 10. Rod. Source: Popa
R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

Source: MCI, 1984.

34
 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

3.6.3. REINFORCEMENT BENDING

Reinforcement is fabricated to shapes
and dimensions as indicated on Shop Draw-
ings.
For the reinforcing bars to withstand
the designed loads, they must be worked on
by bending them at different angles, in the
scope of assuring there crossing form one
part to the other of the concrete sections and
for assuring a good bond with the concrete.
Sometimes section sizes may have
to be altered to accommodate the bending of
steel. The usual bent diameter is adopted
according to the steel type and grade, an-
chorage conditions and loads (STAS
10107/0-90).
Bar bending should not be carried
out if the temperature of the steel tempera-
ture is below -10°C. It is permitted to heat
the steel as long as this does not exceed
100°C specially when bending bars with
bigger diameters that 25 mm.

Figure 3-12 Standard hook and stirrup details

for reinforcement

The preliminary works that need be completed before bending starts are: removal of soil,
oil spots and paint from the bars; removal of loose rust by light hammering and removal of
adherent rust by brushing or wiping with a cloth.

3.6.3.1. MANUAL BENDING

Manual bending of steel bars can be achieved
by using simple plate and pin devices. The bending
procedure consists of simple or successive bending
of bars at a given radius (usually indicated in the
Shop Drawings).
Bending is made at different radiuses using
different size pins, according to the nature of bend-
ing (e.g. hooks, inclined bars etc.), the profile of the
bars and quality of steel.

Figure 3-13 a. Bending of bars with two

keys; b. Bending of bars with three
pins and a key; c. Typical-bending
plates c
Source: Carare T., 1986.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

3.6.3.2. AUTOMATIC BENDING MACHINES

These machines
are produced in
a wide range of
models for
bending of up
to 50-mm di-
ameter rods.
They are
equipped with
cycle counter,
self-test and up
to 90° angle
corrector. They
are suitable for
installation at
sites and in pre-
fabrication
shops.
Source: Carare
T., 1986,
OSCAM SpA
Figure 3-14 Hook bending machine
These type of bending systems use a central fixed pin, that ensures that the rods are
not pulled or stretched during bending, thus assuring high level precision.

a. Stirrup Bending Machines are automatic machines for construction of stirrups and shaped
parts from coils, particularly suitable for medium production runs.

Figure 3-15 Typical stirrup

bending machine
Caption: 1. Horizontal
rolling mill arrangement;
2. Infeed mouth; 3.
Strengthening arrange-
ment; 4. Traction wheels;
5. Shear; 6. Bending arm
mechanism. Source:
OSCAM SpA.
They are used to bend hot-rolled rods. The two-way bending head also makes it possi-
ble to produce multi-sided stirrups. The straightening unit promotes fast, trouble-free modifi-
cation of diameter without requiring further adjustments.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

The work cycles are programmed, stored, and controlled by a dedicated industrial
computer installed on a console complete with buttons and selectors for manual operations.

b. Mesh Bending Machines are hydraulically driven machines for bending welded mesh
consist of work cycles that are controlled by an electronic appliance with keyboard-type pro-
grammer that can record 60 cycles containing up to 10 angles to be carried out in sequence.
The scope of this machine is to both flatten the mesh so it will not have reveres bends or ten-
dency to spring back and to bend it.

Figure 3-16 Fixed arm and variable arm mesh-bending machines

Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
This type machine is available in a basic fixed-arm version with differently shaped 19-
to 28-mm bending arbors and a variable-arm version that makes it possible to form difficult
shapes without rotating the mesh and to bend the various diameters according to regulations.
The standard models have a length of 4 and 6 m that can be modified according to
needs, being able to bend up to 12-mm mesh.
c. Hoop / Spiral Bending Machines are available
in various versions for horizontal or vertical form-
ing of hoops and spirals from straight bars (with a
diameter of 6 to 40 mm) or coils.
They feature different feed speeds for pro-
duction of hoops and spirals from a minimum di-
ameter of 300 mm to an unlimited maximum di-
ameter.
The bending diameter setting and adjustment
device is mechanical-manual or hydraulic-
automatic according to the models.

Figure 3-17 Hoop and spiral bending ma-

chine
Source: OSCAM SpA.

Figure 3-18 Typical spiral reinforcement

Source: OSCAM SpA.

3.6.4. CUTTING DEVICES (SHEARS)

The rod-cutting machine is suitable for job sites and prefabrication shops, with me-
dium-small production runs that do not require high-level automation.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 3-19 Manual shears

Source: Carare T., 1986, OSCAM SpA.

They are electro-hydraulic portable tools for rod cutting. The electric motor drives a
small hydraulic pump that supplies the cutting cylinder. The cutting length is set by position-
ing a mobile locator along a roller track against which the rods are driven by using an electric
winch with a steel cable. The cutting unit consists of a special shear mounted at the end of the
track. The machine is complete with powered wheels for sideways movement.
Two models are available: manual model (manual movement of the measurement lo-
cator) and electronic measurement model (automatic positioning of the measurement locator
controlled by a computer).
The range includes a large number of models
for cutting of up to 25-mm diameter rods.
Electro-mechanical machines available in
various models for cutting of 6- to 42-mm diameter
rods (they are able to cut the maximum diameter also
in the case of high strength materials). These ma-
chines are able to cut the rods from the minimum to
maximum diameter without any adjustment.
A hydraulic model is also available with an up
to 60-mm cutting capacity.
Figure 3-20 Electronic measurement model
Source: OSCAM SpA.

3.6.4.1. MESH CUTTING MACHINES

Hydraulic mesh-cutting machine
consists of a mobile cutting head
with two pairs of opposing
blades for cutting in both direc-
tions. Feed speed can be adjusted
up to a maximum of 25m/minute
to adapt to the different diame-
ters and mesh width. Cuts mesh
Figure 3-21 Typical mesh cutting machine 4 to 6m in length, and up to
Source: OSCAM SpA. maximum diameter of 12 mm.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

3.7. WELDING
Welding is technique of jointing metals by heating with/or without the application of
pressure and filler metal.
The main techniques used for welding are:
1. Electric arc uses an electric current in conjunction with a filler rod.
2. Gas uses a hot flame from a torch to melt the metal in conjunction with a welding or filler
rod.
3. Resistance Spot/Seam uses electrodes on either side of metal sheets to be joined.
All these methods use high amounts of energy, resulting in heat to locally melt and
fuse two pieces of metal, at the same time ensuring continuity of the metallic bonding and
crystal structure across the join.
As welding effectively makes a larger piece of the same material, there are repercus-
sions in having one large piece. When the welded areas cool, stresses can be generated which
interfere with bonding, ultimately causing cracking. Defects can spread across large areas of
material, do to this some components have to be designed so that large sheets are joined by
riveting in this case cracks cannot then jump across separate components.
Note: Welding reinforcement on site is not encouraged, only particular weldable steels can be
used, and welding should be restricted to fixing reinforcement in position between crossing
members, or transferring loads to other steel members (in accordance with C28-835 and C
150-846).
1. Metal arc welding with consumable rod electrodes (named also line welding) consists of
an arc that burns between the electrode and a rod of suitable composition (heavy cellulose or
mineral coating) and the parts to be welded. The metal parts should be properly shaped before
the welding takes place by beveling them on both edges when they are to be joined in the
same plane or by butt-welding. The metal is fused at both ends of the arc and the fused elec-
trode deposited in the joint in a series of layers until it is properly filled. After each layer, the
protective slag formed by the melting of the coating is removed by chipping.
Figure 3-22 Typical arc-welding outfit
Caption: 1. Metal parts to be welded; 2.
Electric arc; 3. Electrodes; 4. Electrode
holder and a suitable shield or helmet for
protecting the eyes of the laborer; 5. Electric
cables; 6. Welding generator or transformer
with a control panel for varying the current,
a voltmeter, and ammeter. Source: Carare
T., 1986.

Welding may be done with:

- Direct current - DC (flows in one direction and does not reverse its direction of flow as
does alternating current).
- Alternating current - AC (an electrical current that reverses its direction at regular inter-
vals, such as 60 cycles alternating current, or 60 hertz) that is usually supplied by a suit-
able transformer provided with taps to adjust the current.
2. Gas/ Torch welding is carried out by the heat produced by the burning of acetylene with
pure oxygen, the flame temperature being about 3,000° C. high enough to melt any metal lo-
cally, allowing the metal pieces to be easily fused together. When welding thick materials the
edges to be joined must be bevel so to form a V that will be filled up by melting into it a rod
of suitable composition.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

As the weld proceeds, the rod metal should be added until the surface of the joint is
built up a little above the edge of the plates. Impurities and the small amount of oxide that
forms during welding remain on the surface, as scale, easily removed after they have been
cooled by grinding or machining.
3. Resistance (Tack/Seam) welding is made in a relatively short time (typically 0,2 seconds)
using a low-voltage, high-current power source with force applied to the joint through two
electrodes, one on each side. The parts to be joined, after proper shaping, are pressed together.
A large electric current is then passed through the joint until it has reached the required weld-
ing temperature, when further pressure is applied upsetting the joint and completing the weld.
The voltage required is so low and the current so high that the only convenient source
is a large-turns-ratio transformer, built into the welder and as close as possible to the jaws,
which hold the parts and transmit the current to them.

Tack welds are made at regular

intervals on sheet metal that has an over-
lap.
Where air tightness is not required,
a lap seam may be welded in spots by
clamping the seam overlap between two
electrodes and passing the necessary
electrical current between them and
through the overlapping edges of the
plates. As the electrical resistance of the
surface contact is least in the region un-
der pressure, most of the current and
therefore the weld is confined to a spot
of about the same area as that of the elec- Figure 3-23 Typical automatic/tack welding machine
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984. OSCAM SpA.
trodes. The mechanical strength depends
upon the number and size of the spots.
Seam welding is a continuous process wherein the electric current is successively
pulsed into the joint to form the weld. The overlapping edges of sheet metal are passed be-
tween two narrow roller electrodes, the speed, current, and pressure being so adjusted as to

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

produce a continuous seam or a series of overlapping spots. This method is usually limited to
relatively thin sheets, but is readily applicable to straight seam or to circular seams.

3.8. SPLICING OF REINFORCING STEEL

Reinforcing bars can be fabricated and shipped only in predetermined manageable
lengths, but there are times when larger lengths are necessary to ensure their continuity in the
structural member. To accomplish this continuity when using small length bars, splicing is
necessary. The splices will be made only as required or permitted on the Shop Drawings, or as
authorized by the engineer, when so, they shall conform to STAS 10107/0-90 and C 28-837; C
150-84 Norms. Lap lengths shall not be less than 40 times of the reinforcing bar diameter or
as shown on the Drawings. All laps shall be staggered (alternating) or be made at points
where stress in the steel is less than half the allowable stress. Where laps cannot be staggered
or be made at points of reduced stress for physical or any other inevitable reasons, lap length
shall be increased.
Three types of splices are available to the designer for the splicing of reinforcing steel:
welded splices, lap splices, and mechanical splices. Each method has its limitations, and one
method should not be substituted for another without approval from the engineer.
Normally, welded splices are not recommended when splicing normal reinforcing
bars. Because of the large amount of heat required in the welding process, the properties of
the bar will be affected in the area of the weld. Cracking of the joint can occur if the weld is
not done with the proper preparation of the bar. When required, welding of reinforcing bars
shall only be permitted where shown in the Drawings or approved by the Engineers. All weld-
ing shall be performed in accordance with the requirements of C 28-83 and C 150-84 Norms
or approved equivalent.
The lap splice is the most common
type of splice primarily because they are
cost efficient and simple to manufacture.
Splices are considered as either tension lap
splices or compression lap splices depend-
ing on the stresses that are encountered at
the point of splicing.
Their lengths are established accord-
ing to code requirements and must be indi-
cated on Shop Drawings, sufficient lap
lengths must be ensured, the provided lap
shall be in accordance with STAS
10107/0-90.

Figure 3-23 Splicing of steel reinforcing

Caption a. Butt welded splice; b. Strapped
weld splice (with cover plate); c. Side lap weld
splice; d. Mechanical sleeve splice; e. Lap
splice.
Mechanical splices are normally used for large bars as butt type splices where weld-
ing, if allowed, would be time consuming and expensive.
A mechanical splice usually consists of some type of metal sleeve that is held securely
in place by a wedge driven over the sleeve ends. In some applications, the sleeve can be filled
with a grout or a molten metal. Mechanical splices can also consist of couplers that are
threaded over the bar ends.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 3-24 Sleeve splice connection

Source: Suman R., 1988, ACI – Construction
engineering Journal 2002.

3.9. REINFORCEMENT
ASSEMBLY
WORKMANSHIP
The standard of reinforcement workman-
ship on site will be such as to ensure the
required performance for the structure
throughout its service life.
General rules that must be followed for correct reinforcement assembly:
- Reinforcement should be free from mud, oil, paint, retarders, loose rust, loose mill scale,
grease or and other substances which can be shown to affect adversely the steel or con-
crete chemically, or reduce the bond (normal handling and fabrication prior to embedment
in the concrete is usually sufficient for he removal of loose rust and scale form reinforce-
ment).
- Reinforcing bars shall be accurately placed at the position prescribed, in the drawings,
within an acceptable tolerance and sufficiently secured to maintain continuity (displace-
ment) of the cage through the period of placement and curing of concrete.
- The location, anchorage length, laps, and splices of reinforcing bars shall be in accordance
with the design documents and drawings.
- Bar lists and Bending schedules shall be furnished in accordance with design drawings.
- The concrete cover value shall not be less or mare than the value specified in the drawings
by an appropriate limit, to achieve this chairs and spacers will be used: they will be posi-
tioned as follows: slabs - 3 spacers/m2, beams – 1 spacer/m, for beams – 4 spacers/m2.
- Lapping lengths of re-bars will be calculated while splicing of re-bars shall be welded or
tied.
Tying of re-bars shall be made according to specific rules for type of member (slab,
wall, and beam):

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Slab and wall: the mesh network will have all the
marginal intersections, on at least two rows tied;
for the rest of the intersections the tying can be
made two by two on both directions (alternate);
Figure 3-25 Typical alternate tying procedure of indi-
vidual reinforcing bars to produce a mesh
Beam: All the intersections between the longitu-
dinal bars and the edges of the stirrups/ ties will
be wired; the rest of the longitudinal bars will be
tied from two to two intersections.
The inclined (bent) reinforcement will be tied to all the stirrups that they intersect.
Substitution of reinforcement shall be done according to the following:
- Using other diameters, than the ones designed, is allowed only if the re-bar cross sectional
area is equal or bigger by 5% than the initial one. The new diameter chosen will be 25 %
bigger or smaller that the one designed.
- Substitution in the field of bars differing from the design should be done only with the ap-
proval of the designer.

3.9.1. ASSEMBLY OF COLUMN REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcing steel in columns consists
of two parts: the longitudinal bars that run the
length of columns, and the lateral reinforcing that
encloses the longitudinal steel (stirrups, ties).
They can be assembled as prefabricated steel
cages that run on a story height or as individual
bars.
Assembly of reinforcement assumes that
they are positioned correctly in the form, that
they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respect-
ing the technical specifications and structural de-
Figure 3-26 Detail of column and slab rein- sign.
forcement intersection
For achieving the minimum concrete cover, circular spacers will be used, and at the
same time assuring the proper geometry surface, stability, tightness and cleanness of form-
work.
A standard procedure to assemble column reinforcement shall be as follows:
- Inspection of dowels (starter bars) for surface cleanness, straightness, positioning etc.
- Inspection of cages before positioning in the scope of remaking possible ties that are un-
fastened and for positioning the circular spacers on the longitudinal bars (minimum l
spacer/1 ml of column).
- Positioning of stirrups over the lapping area – starter bars.
- Splicing of bars is achieved between stories by welding.
- Marking with caulk on a starter bar the exact position of stirrups.
- Hanging the cage on the crane sling.
- Lifting the cage to the top of the job position.
- Lowering slowly the cage and positioning it manually into location.
- Splicing of longitudinal bars over the starter bars, by lapping (if necessary) or by welding
(using a single seam weld).

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Unfastening the cage from the crane sling.

- Wiring the stirrups to the longitudinal bars from the bottom
upwards.
- Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as
shown on the plans and placed and held in position within the
specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover
must be checked for compliance with the plans.
Figure 3-27 Column cages being assembled on site

3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF WALL REINFORCEMENT

The walls can be reinforced using one of two systems:
with individual bars or with prefabricated reinforcement cages.
Assembly of reinforcement assumes that they are posi-
tioned correctly in the form, that they are held, tied and correctly
spliced in accordance with technical specifications and structural
design.
For achieving the minimum concrete cover, circular spac-
ers will be used, and at the same time assuring the proper geome-
try surfaces, stability, tightness and cleanness of formwork.

3.9.2.1. WALL REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH

INDIVIDUAL BARS
A standard procedure to assemble wall reinforcement
with individual bears shall be as follows:
- Assembly of formwork on one side of the wall.
- Marking with caulk the position of longitudinal and vertical reinforcement bars on the
formwork surface.
- Positioning of reinforcement cages in boundary elements.
- Wiring of a number of horizontal bars to the vertical ones of the reinforcement cages.
- Positioning and wiring of vertical bars to the tied horizontal bars.
- Positioning and wiring of the remaining horizontal bars to the vertical bars.
- Positioning of ties.
- Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 2 spacers/m2).
- Assembly of the second face of formwork on the remaining side.
- Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as shown on the plans and placed
and held in position within the specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover
must be checked for compliance with the plans.

3.9.2.2. WALL REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH CAGES

A standard procedure to assemble wall reinforcement with cages shall be as follows:
- Transport and lifting of reinforcement cages without deforming them.
- Inspections of cages before positioning in the scope of remaking possible ties that are un-
fastened.
- Inspection of dowels (starter bars) for surface cleanness, straightness, positioning etc.
- Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 2 spacer/m2).
- Hanging the cage on the crane sling.
- Lifting the cage to the top of the job position.
- Lowering slowly the cage and positioning it manually into location.
- Welding the reinforcement to achieve a temporary support to the cage.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Unfastening the cage from the crane sling.

- Final inspection of reinforcement, it must be fabricated as shown on the plans and placed
and held in position within the specified tolerances. The spacing bars and concrete cover
must be checked for compliance with the plans.

3.9.2. ASSEMBLY OF BEAM REINFORCEMENT WITH INDIVIDUAL

BARS

Figure 3-28 Typical procedure of wiring main beam

reinforcement to stirrups and ties
The beams can be reinforced using individual reinforcing bars or by using cages.
When using cages, the best practice is to wire the stirrups to the tie bars and main rein-
forcing in the inverted position on horses. After which it is positioned by crane in the required
location.
When using individual pieces (straight or bent bars) they are placed and wired tighter,
held in alignment by stirrups. In this case it is imperative that the stirrups by open-end at the
top, in order to facilitate the placing of additional steel. The whole assembly is supported on
chairs set on the form bottom. To ensure that the reinforcement is not moved during the con-
crete pour, the bars are held in position inside the formwork by securing them to the form ties.
A standard procedure to assemble beam reinforcement shall be as follows:
- Inspection of beam formwork to ensure its proper geometry surfaces, stability, cleanness,
and tightness.
- Marking with caulk the location of stirrups on the formwork surface.
- Positioning of marginal stirrups in the formwork with the topside open.
- Positioning and wiring of bottom longitudinal bars to the stirrups according to the design.
- Positioning the rest of the stirrups in the formwork with their upper side open.
- Positioning and wiring of the remaining bottom longitudinal bars.
- Positioning and wiring of the inclined (bent) reinforcement bars.
- Positioning and wiring of the top longitudinal bars.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Closing and wiring the topside of the stirrups according to the design.
- Positioning and wiring of ties.
- Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement at the bottom and edges (minimum 1
spacer/ml).
- Final inspection of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form,
that they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respecting the technical specifications and
structural design.
Note: The beam reinforcement will commence after concrete placement has finished for the
walls or columns at a level not more that 50 mm under their clear height.

3.9.3. ASSEMBLY OF SLAB REINFORCEMENT

Assembly of reinforcement assumes that they are positioned correctly in the form, that
they are held, tied, and correctly spliced respecting the technical specifications and structural
design.
For achieving the minimum concrete cover, chair spacers will be used, and at the same
time assuring the proper geometry surface, stability, tightness and cleanness of formwork. The
tying of reinforcement bars is achieved by using two wires of 2 STR type, l mm diameter.

3.9.3.1. SLAB REINFORCEMENT ASSEMBLED WITH INDIVIDUAL BARS

Figure 3-29 Typical wiring procedures Figure 3-30 Detail of slab reinforcement.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
A standard procedure to assemble slab reinforcement with individual bars shall be as
follows:
- Inspection of slab formwork to ensure its stability and tightness.
- Marking with caulk the location of stirrups on the formwork surface.
- Positioning of reinforcement bars on one direction.
- Positioning of reinforcement (main or repartition) on the other direction.

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- Wiring of bars at intersections, in accordance to the following rule, the grid will have all
the intersections between bars tied on minimum two marginal rows; for the rest of the in-
tersections the tying can be done from two to two intersections, on both directions.
- Positioning of circular spacers on the reinforcement (minimum 1 spacer/m2).

3.10. TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF REINFORCEMENT

Transport and storage of reinforcement shall be done in such a way that the selection,
shape, ease of and avoidance of deformation and properties of the reinforcement will not
change.
The delivery of the steel bars shall be accompanied by a manufacturers’ quality cer-
tificate and a copy of the conformity certificate issued by an authorized company after the
steel bars have been certified.
The documents that accom-
pany the reinforcement delivery
should contain: name and type of steel
bars according to the standards, in-
formation for the identification of the
batches, net weight and defined values
concerning the performance criteria.
Reinforcement will be stored
by raising them off the ground, in such
a manner as to avoid contact with dirt,
oil, and grease and to reduce rusting
and to identify each range and diame-
Figure 3-31 Typical storage of wire in spools
ter as easy as possible.

Figure 3-32 Typical storage off the ground of rein- Figure 3-33 Typical wire coil storage
forcement

3.11. REINFORCEMENT MANUFACTURING SHOP

The manufacturing shop serves the scope of accurately fabricating and dimensioning
the reinforcement according to the working drawings and cutting list by assembly line
straightening, cutting, bending, tying, welding and splicing so to obtain the final product that
will be transported to the job site.
The control of fabrication on assembly lines is very good do to the repetitive units that
are manufactured.
In a typical manufacturing yard layout, the bars and meshes are handled separately, as
they require different equipment for cutting and bending, while the prefabrication of cages is

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

done on jigs or on job constructed template benches, with the reinforcement tied or spot-
welded.
For moving the reinforcement bundles and coils the yard is usually equipped with a
gantry crane or a traveling crane.

Figure 3-34 Typical arrangement of reinforcement manufacturing shop

Caption: 1. Storage area; 2. Reinforcement manufacturing workshop; 3. Exterior manufacturing plat-
form (yard); 4. Shed for manufacturing and mounting reinforcement; 5. Reinforcement straightening
platform; 6. Final product storage area.

3.12. QUALITY ASSURANCE OF REINFORCEMENT

Quality control shall be carried out on the following items to ensure that the concrete
structure has the satisfactory performance required in the design.
The main inspections made on site to assure the integrity of the reinforcement are:
- Inspections before shipment from manufacturer must include tests to assure that the
specified grade, ductility, variation from nominal weight, tensile8 and bend tests of steel
confirm to the design documents. A system of tagging must be adopted to permit identify-
ing tested bars or meshes on receipt at the site.
- Inspections in forms are visual inspection of number, surface, correct shapes, fabric and
dimensions conform to the design documents and drawings. Height and distribution of
chairs to maintain required bottom and side covers. Effectiveness of tying (bars to bars,
bars to fitments, lap splices, chairs to bars or meshes). And, location, clearance between
reinforcement, anchorage length, laps, and splices in accordance to the design documents
and drawings.
- Inspection at the forms should include checking to assure that the steel is supported rig-
idly enough to prevent distortion or displacement from the planned position or loads from
construction operations.

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CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE

4.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Concrete is a conglomerate of hydraulic cement, sand, stone, and water. The sand and
stone are dispersed particles in a multiphase matrix of cement paste. When mixed with water,
the cement powder hydrates to form cement paste (through a chemical reaction called hydra-
tion), which is an interconnected network of solid and semi-solid phases that gives concrete
its strength, forming a natural stone imitation, known as concrete.
Good concrete that achieves
its specific properties depends
first on the careful selection, pro-
portioning and mixing of its con-
stituent materials. A concrete
mixture that does not have
enough paste to fill all the voids
between the aggregates will be
difficult to place and will produce
rough, honeycombed surfaces
and porous concrete.
The physical characteristics,
the chemical composition, and
the proportions of the ingredients
in the mixture influence the prop-
erties and durability of concrete.
Source: Stutzman P., 1993.
Figure 4-1 Typical detail of concrete surface.
Many of the characteristics of concrete, particularly its strength and durability, depend
on the development of chemical and physical bonds: between the cement paste and the aggre-
gate particles as the cement hardens. Hardened cement paste may be regarded as a cement gel
matrix that contain unhydrated cement particles, air, and water.
A typical breakdown of percentage costs regarding construction could be as follows:
pumping and placing of the concrete 11-13%, material constituents 14-16%, reinforcement
25-30%, and formwork 45-50%.

4.1.1. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF CONCRETE

The types of conventional concrete must comply with the requirements of NE 012-999
and STAS 3622-8610.
According to their destination, concrete is classified as follows: conventional concrete
(civil constructions, industrial, agricultural, bridges etc.), hydraulic concrete (dams, harbor
lock etc.), road concrete, and special destination concrete (acid resisting, refractory, wear re-
sisting, radiation protection etc.).
According to their density, concrete is classified as follows: normal density concrete
and light weight concrete and heavy weight concrete.

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4.2. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete can be described in terms of their properties; usually, it is useful to consider
each property on a continuum. None of the changes that take place relatively rapidly in con-
crete cease at the end of the formal curing period. Some may continue slowly over a long time
and others may be initiated by elements in the environment to which the concrete is subse-
quently exposed. Despite all these complications, concrete of predictable properties and per-
formance is regularly produced and used.

4.2.1. PROPERTIES OF FRESH CONCRETE

Desired properties of concrete in the fresh state include specific weight, workability,
consistency, temperature, settlement and bleeding etc.
a. Density11. Indicates how much con-
crete is in a given volume; it is mass per
unit of volume.
Bulk density = Mass / Bulk volume
Solid density = Mass / Solid volume
Specific gravity compares the density of
concrete with that of pure water at 40 oC.
It is a dimensionless ratio.
Relative density compares the density of
a material with that of water at the same
temperature.
Figure 4-2 Fresh concrete sliding on chute
Source: Elba – Werk, 1994.
Specific weight is a quality index, because its correlates with other characteristics as:
compaction, mechanical strength, permeability, freeze – thaw resistance etc. At the same time,
it gives references upon the effective quantities of materials used in 1 m3.
The specific weight of concrete is between 2100 and 2500 kg/m3, ranging form light-
weight concrete (≤1000 kg/m3) to normal (≅2400 kg/m3) and heavyweight concrete (≥ 2500
kg/m3).
For building materials, the difference between specific gravity and relative density is
usually negligible and the terms are often used interchangeably.
b. Workability - is a prime factor that influences the desired properties of concrete. It is
therefore very important to consider it in the design of a concrete mix and employ means of
control that will ensure its attainment on the job.
Workability can be defined as the ease with which a given set of materials can be
mixed into concrete and subsequently handled, transported, and placed with minimum loss of
homogeneity and avoidance of segregation. Workability is not an absolute property but varies
with the size of the structure, reinforcement spacing, method of placement, temperature etc.
The character of concrete is determined primarily by the quality of the cement-water
paste that binds the aggregates together. If too much water is used, the paste becomes thin and
will be weak when it hardens. The strength of the cement paste and ultimately the durability,
strength, watertightness, and other properties of the concrete depend strongly on the amount
of mixing water used. The proportions of water and cement are usually referred to as the wa-
ter-cement ratio expressed as the weight of water used per unit weight of cement. The lower
this ratio, so long as the concrete is workable, so long as each particle of aggregate is com-
pletely surrounded by paste and all spaces between the aggregate particles are completely
filled with paste, the more durable and strong will be the concrete.

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c. Consistency – the consistency of fresh concrete is an important characteristic in that, it af-

fects its workability, it can be defined as the concrete ability to flow12. Required consisten-
cies vary with the type of structure being poured. Once chosen in making the mix design, the
required consistency should be closely adhered to. Consistency is commonly measured with
the slump cone of metal 2 mm thick (Figure 4-2). Briefly stated, the slump test is made by
measuring the number of centimeters (millimeters) which concrete subsides when a standard
conical mould into which it has been tamped is removed. The greater the slump the wetter the
consistency.
The slump cone is standard equipment on
every well-managed job. It is very impor-
tant that the exact method presented in the
standard test be followed.

Figure 4-3 Measurement of slump from height

of slump cone

Table 4-1 Test methods for determining concrete consistency.

Slump ISO 9812
Compaction grade STAS 1759-88
Time for remodeling (VE-BE) STAS 1759-88

Table 4-2 Concrete consistency according to the slump cone.

Item no Type of member Class of consistency Slump (mm)
1 Plain or weak reinforced concrete footings, massive ele- Stiff - T2 or T3 30±10
ments 70±20
2 Reinforced concrete footings, columns, beams, bearing Stiff -T3 or T3/T4 70±20
walls 100±20
3 Idem, achieved by concrete pumping, tanks, grouting Medium - T4 120±20
4 Members or grouted joints with dens reinforcement causing Medium fluid - T4/T5 150±30
compaction difficulties, members with small cross sections
5 Members that require procedures of casting using fluid Fluid - T5* 180±30
concrete
* Superplasticizer additives are required
d. Temperature - is considered only when it is required as a necessity in the design project
that establishes the maximum and minimum values for concrete temperature.
e. Settlement and bleeding - Concrete is said to be in a plastic state before it begins to set.
When concrete is placed, the aggregate is dispersed by the cement paste and the particles in
the paste are dispersed in the water. After placing, there is a period of settlement when the
particles come closer together; most of this settlement usually occurs within an hour to an
hour and a half before placement. Total volume change may, in extreme cases, amount to 2
per cent or more, but it is not of great significance because the concrete is in a plastic or
semiplastic state and no appreciable stresses can result from these changes. During settlement,
water often appears at the surface, having exuded from the plastic mass. This phenomenon is
called bleeding.
Accumulation of water at the top of a mass of concrete is often undesirable; for exam-
ple, when concrete is placed continuously in a deep form, the upper part can gain progres-
sively more water as the filling of the form progresses, leading to relatively poor quality at the
top. On the other hand, the accumulation of some water at the surface is not always undesir-
able because surface water is required to prevent plastic shrinkage and to lubricate the tools
used for finishing the surface. Care must be taken that finishing does not begin before the
bleeding period is over.

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4.2.2. PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE

The main desired properties of concrete in the hardened state are compaction,
strength, water tightness, durability, volume stability etc.
a. Compaction13 - (co) is defined as the ratio of the apparent weight (ρa) to that of the specific

ρ
weight (ρ), or between the solid volume phase (Vs) and the apparent total volume (Va).
co = a = s
ρ
V
Va
b. Strength14 - is used as a quick method of evaluating other properties of concrete and is
generally used as the measure of quality. Actually, strength is not always true indicator of
other properties such as durability. However, when all other variables are fixed there is usu-
ally a good correlation between strength and other desire properties.
Compressive strength of concrete is the force needed to crush a sample of a given age
or hardness. These tests are generally made on samples taken from the forms and allowed to
set for some predetermined period such as 3, 7, 14, or 28 days.
The class of specified concrete is defined based on the characteristic strength fck (cyl-
inder/cube) MPa (N/mm2) of a concrete specimen (cube - with the facet of 150 mm or cylin-
der - 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm high) tested at the age of 28 days under ideal curing
conditions, below which 5% of all possible results will be expected to fall.
Table 4-3 Standard concrete classes (MPa).
Concrete classes C C C C C C C C C C C
according to 4/5 8/10 12/15 16/20 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55 50/60
NE 012-99
Characteristic strength (grade) of concrete (MPa)
fc,28 cylinder 4 8 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
fc,28 cub 5 10 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60

Table 4-4 Strength of concrete according to age.

Concrete Characteristic Cube strength at given age (MPa)
grade strength. fcu 7 days 2 months 3 months 6 months 1 year
(MPa)
20 20,0 13,5 22 23 24 25
25 25,0 16,5 27,5 29 30 31
30 30,0 20 33 35 36 37
40 40,0 28 44 45,5 47,5 50
50 50,0 36 54 55,5 57,5 60
Other strengths as: tensile strength, flexural strength, and shearing strength are af-
fected by the same factors as compressive strength. The basic laws governing these strengths
are w/c ratio and temperature-time curing.
c. Watertightness15 - is desired because it prevents the passage of moisture from the exterior
to the interior of structures and is undesirable because of its general bad effect on durability.
The most significant concrete parameters defining the resistance of concrete to deterioration
are the permeation characteristics of the surface and near-surface concrete. Permeation can be
divided into three distinct and connected transportation phenomena for moisture vapor, dis-
solved ions, gases, and aqueous solutions:
Absorption is the process by which concrete takes in a liquid, normally water or
aqueous solution, by capillary attraction. The rate at which water enters is termed absorptivity
(or sorptivity). The moisture may contain dissolved salts, such as chlorides or sulphates and
dissolved gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The transportation of
ions is therefore often a combination of absorption and diffusion.

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Diffusion is the process by which a vapor, gas, or ions can pass through concrete un-
der the action of a concentration gradient. Diffusivity defines the rate of movement of the
agent and is the mechanism by which carbonation occurs, characterizing the ingress of chlo-
rides and other ions. It is, therefore, closely linked to reinforcement corrosion problems.
Permeability16 is defined as the flow property of concrete which quantitatively char-
acterizes the ease by which a fluid or gas will pass through it, under the action of a pressure
differential. It may be tested by measuring the flow, measured in Bar (1 Bar = 10 MPa),
through a saturated specimen, of 100 mm respectively 200 mm height, subjected to pressure
(4, 8 or 12 Bar); (Permeability grades: P104 , P108 , P1012 , P420 , P820 , P1220). The permeabil-
ity of concrete is a major indicator of its potential durability, both in the sense of mechanical
strength and resistance to chemical attack.
Moisture movement in concrete may be use-
fully considered in terms of both permeability
and diffusion. Although these are derived
from the same physical processes, the
mathematical forms differ. Permeability is
associated with a pressure difference and is
associated with saturated materials, while dif-
fusion is more useful in considering partly
dry materials with the fluid driven by chemi-
cal or moisture potential.
Figure 4-4 Entrained air voids in concrete
Source: Stutzman P., 1993.
Permeability is influenced by porosity and hydration of material within pores, and
capillaries will greatly reduce flow. Normally, water movement will occur within capillaries,
rather than the pores. The most important driving force for diffusion is the gradient between
internal moisture and surface or capillary forces.
Porosity is the property of concrete, which describes to what extent it contains pores
or voids17 filled with gas (usually air). There are two classifications of pore sizes: capillary
pores – space formed between hydrated grains and gel pores – very small spaces in the
chemical compounds of the hydrated grains
The bulk volume of concrete is the total volume of the material and the pores it con-
tains.
The solid volume is the volume of the actual material, so,
Vb (Bulk volume) = Vs (Solid volume) + Vp (Volume of Pores)
d. Volume change - Volume stability18 is desired in order to minimize the formation of ei-
ther small or large cracks in the concrete. Most cracking is caused by excessive volume
change that occurs during setting, during temperature changes, and during moisture changes.
For a concrete to be successful there must be good adhesion between the reinforcement, ag-
gregate and the matrix. Concrete relies partly on good mechanical binding achieved in the
kind of surface irregularities found on reinforcement, as well as some weak chemical binding
between cement and the aggregate interface. Cracking is more likely to propagate at these in-
terfaces and this can be minimized by choice of aggregate. If aggregates are chosen angular as
a result of crushing rather than smooth and rounded from the wearing action in running river
beds, the greater mechanical degree of interlocking will improve the overall strength of the
concrete.
Thermal cracking may arise from great temperature differentials through the harden-
ing concrete member and the outside air temperature. The only acceptable level of cracking is
a dimensional gap of 0.3 mm or below. Wider gaps will significantly affect water penetration
and the corrosion of reinforcement and durability generally.

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a b
Figure 4-5 Types of concrete shrinkage
Caption: a. Free shrinkage, b. Restrained shrink-
age, restrained shrinkage cracking.

c
Plastic shrinkage - cracking of concrete can occur in the initial set do to shrinkage of
the hardening material and from settlement of aggregates and cement and loss of water, often
referred to as bleeding, in deep sections.
When the evaporation rate exceeds the rate of bleeding and the free settlement period
is ended (water evaporates faster than it can reach the surface), a hydrostatic tension begins to
develop throughout the mass owing to the formation of menisci at the water surfaces in the
capillaries, resulting in vertical and lateral compressive forces manifested, primarily in slabs,
by pattern cracking, known as plastic shrinkage cracking.

Figure 4-6 Effects and phases of plastic shrinkage

Remedial measures may involve: sun shades (to reduce the concrete temperature) and
windbreaks (to control the wind velocity), application of water sprays or application of a cur-
ing compound to slow the evaporation process (increase the humidity of the surface).

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e. Freeze –thaw strength19. Represents the maximum number of freeze-thaw successive cy-
cles that the concrete specimens can go through without decreasing their strength by 25 % in
comparison with the laboratory reference specimens. Freeze-thaw grades: G50, G100, G150
(approximately 50 cycles per year, average max. 150-200 cycles per year).
Major factors that affect resistance to freezing and thawing: air entrainment, w/c ratio,
volume stability of aggregates (stiff aggregates with low coefficient of thermal expansion).
f. Other properties of hardened concrete include: thermal properties, electrical conductiv-
ity, exposure to high temperature, fire resistance, acoustical properties etc.

4.2.3. DURABILITY
The main factors that affect concrete durability are as follows: curing conditions (hu-
midity, temperature), w/c ratio, air content, aggregates (characteristics, roughness, grading,
mineralogical composition), cement (composition, fineness, cement content), strength poros-
ity relationship and mixing water.
To ensure the long term service of concrete, the following items shall be considered:
expansion in wet condition, drying shrinkage, carbonation, corrosion of reinforcement, alkali-
silica reaction20 (chemical reaction between the alkalis contained in the cement paste and cer-
tain reactive forms of silica within aggregate, that creates a gel that can swell and cause ex-
pansion and cracking of the concrete), erosion, sulfate attack (chemical attack on concrete, do
to the presents of sulfates in groundwater, soil, and seawater), freezing and thawing, biologi-
cal degradation other chemical attack.

4.3. CONCRETE MATERIALS

4.3.1. CEMENTS

4.3.1.1. MANUFACTURING PROCESS

21
Portland cement (calcium silicate dry powder cement) is simply a mixture of very
fine particles of calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron. The first step in the Portland cement
manufacturing process is obtaining raw materials (e.g. limestone, shells, chalk, shale, clay,
sand, iron ore). At the quarry, primary and secondary crushers reduce the raw materials. Once
the raw materials arrive at the cement plant, the materials are proportioned to create cement
with a specific chemical composition. Two different methods, dry and wet, are used to manu-
facture Portland cement.
- In the dry process, dry raw materials are proportioned, ground to a powder, blended to-
gether, and fed to the kiln in a dry state.
- In the wet process, adding water to the properly proportioned raw materials forms slurry.
The grinding and blending operations are then completed with the materials in slurry
form. After blending, the mixture of raw materials is fed into the upper end of a tilted ro-
tating, cylindrical kiln. The mixture passes through the kiln at a rate controlled by the
slope and rotational speed of the kiln. Burning fuel consisting of powdered coal or natural
gas is forced into the lower end of the kiln.
Inside the kiln, raw materials reach temperatures of 1430 oC to 1650 oC. At 1480 oC, a
series of chemical reactions cause the materials to fuse and create cement clinker-grayish-
black pellets, often not bigger than 25 mm in diameter (Figure 4-7). Clinker is discharged red-
hot from the lower end of the kiln and transferred to various types of coolers to lower the
clinker to handling temperatures. Cooled clinker is combined with gypsum and ground into a
fine gray powder named Portland cement.

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Table 4-5 Raw Materials Used in the Manufacture of Portland cement.

Raw material CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO Loss on
ignition
Limestone 52 3 1 0,5 0,5 42
Chalk 54 1 0,5 0,2 0,3 43
Cement rock 43 11 3 1 2 36
Clay 1 57 16 7 1 14
Slag 42 34 15 1 4 0

Figure 4-7 a. A sectioned clinker nodule, b. Unhydrated ordinary Portland cement particles, field
width of 320 microns.
Source: Stutzman P., 1993.

4.3.1.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

There are four important compounds22 which have been isolated in cement and which
have specific properties with regard to their setting and hardening. By designing the cement to
alter the proportion of these compounds formed, control is achieved over its setting and
strength.
The main compounds23 formed in the clinker are:
- tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO4) known as alite (abbreviated C3S) - this gels very quickly
with great heat determining the initial set and early strength gain of the cement;
- dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO5) known as belite (abbreviated C2S) - this compound hy-
drates and hardens slowly. It has greater resistance to chemical attack, shows greater du-
rability and low drying shrinkage;
- tricalcium aluminate (Ca3A12O6) (abbreviated C3A) - this compound hydrates rapidly
with great heat and although it assists in the initial setting of cement, it has littler strength
contribution. Cement low in C3A is sulphate resistant;
- tetracalcium alumino ferrite (Ca4Al2Fe2O10) known as ferrite or brownmillerit
(abbreviated C4AF) - this compound prime importance is that is acts as a fluxing agent
which reduces the melting temperature of raw materials in the kiln. It hydrates rapidly,
but does not contribute much to strength of the cement paste; it could be regarded as a
product of the reaction, taking space as a filler.
- Sodium oxide (Na2O) (abbreviated N), Potassium Oxide (K2O) (abbreviated K) and
Gypsum (CaSO42H2O) (abbreviated CSH2). The amounts of these compounds that can
theoretically be formed can be calculated from the amounts of the four oxides of which
they are composed.
In modern technology, the calculated amounts of these compounds provide a basis for
estimating the properties of the cement. Early strength development is attributed largely to
C3S, whereas, with continued moist curing, C2S causes increase in strength at the later ages.

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The need for retardation of set is attributed mainly to the C3A, and the content of C3A is re-
lated inversely to ability of the concrete to resist disintegration by sulfate-bearing water. Rais-
ing the amount of C4AF, by raising the iron-oxide content of the mix without increasing the
alumina content, is one means of reducing the amount of C3A. The C3A and C3S are the com-
pounds that release the most heat when the cement hydrates, or hardens.

4.3.1.3. STANDARD TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The properties of concrete depend on the quantities and qualities of its admixtures and
additives24. Because cement is the most active component of concrete and usually has the
greatest unit cost, its selection and proper use are important in obtaining most economically
the balance of properties desired for any particular concrete mixture.
Different types of Portland cement are manufactured to meet various physical and
chemical requirements. The Romanian standards SR 388/1995 and SR 1500/1996 provides
five categories of cements with several subcategories regarding types. These types, discussed
below serve to indicate variations in properties that can be brought about by varying composi-
tion and fineness.
- Ordinary Portland cement (Type I25) is high-early strength cement causes concrete to
set and gain strength rapidly; it is used for normal general-purpose cement suitable for all
uses. It is used in general construction projects such as buildings, bridges, floors, pave-
ments, and other precast concrete products.
- Blended cements (Type II26- Composite Portland cement (slag cements), III- Fly ash
Cement, IV- Pozzolan cement, V33- Composite cement) are general-purpose suitable
for all uses, generates less heat at a slower rate and has a moderate resistance to sulfate at-
tack.
- Sulphate Resistant Cements27 (SR) are used where a high sulfate resistance is required,
and are produced by intimately blending two or more types of cementitious material.
These cements are commonly used in the same manner as Portland cements.
- Limited hydration cements (H) are used where a low heat of hydration is desired (in
massive structures) SR 3011-96.
- White and Colored Portland Cements28 are identical to gray Portland cement except in
color. The gray color of Portland cement is due mainly to the presence of iron in the ce-
ment. By lowering the iron content, light colored cements can be produced. White cement
is used whenever architectural considerations specify white or colored concrete or mortar.
The different types of Blended Portland Cements are manufactured to meet different
physical and chemical requirements for specific purposes, such as durability and high-early
strength.
Table 4-6 Types of cements and brief descriptions of their composition proportions
Name Composition %
Symbol
Type

Clinker Granulated Pozzolans Limestone

ash
Fly

furnace slag Natural Artificial

P Q
Normal Portland I 95-100 - - - - -
Cement
I

Slag cement II/A-S 80…94 6…20 - - - -

Portland Ce-
Composite

II/B-S 65…79 21…35 - - - -

Fly ash cement II/A-V 80…94 - - - 6.20 -
II

Natural Poz- II/A-P 80…94 - 6…20 - - -

zolan cement II/B-P 65…79 - 21…35 - - -
Limestone ce- II/A-L 80…94 - - - - 6…20

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

ment II/B-L 65…79 - - - - 21…35

Composite ce- II/A-M 6…20
ment II/B-M 21…35
III

Slag furnace cement III 36…65 - - - - -

- 11…35 -
IV

Pozzolan Cement IV
Composite Cement
V

V 18…30 18…30 -

4.3.1.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PORTLAND CEMENTS

1. Fineness of the cement29, 30 influences the rate of hydration. Greater fineness increases the
surface available for hydration, causing greater early strength and more rapid generation of
heat. Average fineness of modern cement ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 cm2/g (300 to 500
m2/kg).
2. Soundness33, which is the ability of hardened cement paste to retain its volume after set-
ting.
3. Heat of hydration of cement compo-
nents31 (loss of ignition), is the heat gener-
hydration
C3A
Heat of

J/g
ated when cement and water react. The
amount of heat generated is dependent C3S
mainly upon the chemical composition of the
cement, with C3A (tricalcium aluminate) C4AF
and C3S (tricalcium silicate) being the com-
pounds primarily responsible for high heat C2S

evolution.
Figure 4-8 Speed of cement components heat
hydration
Table 4-7 Cement component heat of hydra-
0 3 7 28 180 days
tion development.
Component Heat of hydration (J/g)
3 days 7 days 28 days 90 days
C3S 406 460 485 519
C2S 21 105 167 184
C3A 590 661 866 929
C4AF 92 251 377 414
4. Setting time32, 33- early hydration of cement is principally controlled by the amount and
activity of C3A, balanced by the amount and type of sulfate interground with the cement. C3A
hydrates very rapidly and will influence early bonding characteristics.
Cements are regarded as gels that are mixtures of solids and liquids. In cement the
chemical reaction progresses when water is added and silicate structures form, sometimes
forming three-dimensional structures from fine tubes that hold together other cement particles
and water. Every particle is wrapped in cement and connected to other particles by cement
bridge like links.
Time of setting: initial set – paste begins to stiffen (2-4 hours) and final set – ability
to withstand loads (5-8 hours).
Abnormal hydration of (C3A) can lead to flash set, false set, slump loss, and cement-
admixture incompatibility.
Early stiffening. The two measures of early stiffening are: false set – rapid rigidity
without much heat generation, plasticity can be regained by further mixing with no additional

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

water and flash set - is a significant loss of plasticity shortly after mixing with considerable
heat generation, plasticity cannot be regained.

Figure 4-9 Mechanism of cement setting. Figure Figure 4-10 Schematic view of cement setting
shows long needle-like crystals and short
crystal–like formations of calcium-silicate-
Source: NRC, 1999.
hydrate gel.
Table 4-8 Physical criteria for usual setting times for different types of cement.
Cement grade 32,5; 32,5 R; 42,5; 42,5 R 52,5; 52,5 R
Setting time (minutes) ≥ 60 ≥ 45
5. Compressive strength34.
strength (MPa)
Compressive

The strength developed by Portland ce-

ment depends on its composition and the
fineness to which it is ground. The C3S is C 3S
mainly responsible for the strength devel-
oped in the first week of hardening and the C 4A F
C2S for the subsequent increase in C 2S
strength. The alumina and iron compounds
that are present only in lesser amounts C 3A
make little direct contribution to strength.

Figure 4-11 Compressive strength gain of

0 3 7 28 180 days
mineral cement components

Other properties of Portland cement are: loss on ignition, air content, specific gravity etc.

4.3.1.5. INFLUENCE OF PORTLAND CEMENT ON CONCRETE PROPERTIES

Cement composition and fineness play a major role in controlling concrete properties.
Fineness of cement affects the placeability, workability, and water content of a concrete mix-
ture much like the amount of cement used in concrete does.
Effects of cement on the most important concrete properties are shown in Table 4-9.
Table 4-9 Effects of cements on concrete properties.
Cement Property Cement Effects
Placeability Cement amount, fineness, setting characteristics
Strength Cement composition (C3S, C2S and C3A), loss on ignition, fineness
Drying Shrinkage SO3 content, cement composition
Permeability Cement composition, fineness
Resistance to sulfate C3A content

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Alkali Silica Reactivity Alkali content

Corrosion of steel Cement Composition (esp. C3A content)
Cement composition affects the permeability of concrete by controlling the rate of hy-
dration. However, the ultimate porosity and permeability are unaffected. The coarse cement
tends to produce pastes with higher porosity than that produced by finer cement. Cement
composition has only a minor effect on freeze-thaw resistance. Corrosion of embedded steel
has been related to C3A content. The higher the C3A, the more chloride can be tied into
chloroaluminate complexes, and thereby be unavailable for catalysis of the corrosion process.

4.3.2. AGGREGATES
Aggregates are inert granular materials classified35, 36 in: igneous rocks (granite, gab-
bro, basalt, ash, tuff etc. – cooling of molten rock), sedimentary rocks (mechanically depos-
ited -consolidated shale, siltstone, sandstone etc. or chemically deposited - calcareous: lime-
stone, dolomite or siliceous: chert, opal etc.) or metamorphic (originally sedimentary, but un-
der high pressure and heat they converted similar to igneous rocks, e.g. slate, quartzite, marble
etc.)
Cement is relatively expensive, strong fillers (sand, gravel, stones, or even boulders,
that are called aggregates) are not, do to this they are usually added to the mix to form what is
called concrete.
Aggregates along with water and Portland cement, are an essential ingredient in con-
crete. For a good concrete mix, aggregates need to be clean, hard, strong particles free of ab-
sorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that could cause the deteriora-
tion of concrete. Even small quantities of the organic compounds present in topsoil will seri-
ously retard and impair the strength-producing chemical reaction between cement and water.
Aggregates, are divided into two distinct categories - fine and coarse.
- Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with most particles
passing through 7 mm sieve. They shall be clean sand in compliance with STAS 1667-76
or approved equal. Any contamination shall not be allowed. Crushed sand may be added
to natural sand in order to achieve required gradation. Beach sand or others from chloride
environment shall not be used on any conditions.
- Coarse aggregates (also referred to as gravels) are any particles greater than 7 mm, but
generally range between 7 mm to 40 mm in diameter. They shall comply with the re-
quirements of STAS 1667-76 or approved equivalent. They can be used as either natural
gravel or stone crushed to the desired size and shall only be obtained from quarries, qual-
ity approved pits or other sources.
Gravel aggregate shall be free from clay, earth, loam, or other organic or similar mate-
rials and shall be hard and dense.
Crushed stone shall be from hard durable rock and perfectly clean and shall contain no
soft, clayey, shaley, or decomposed stones. Any dust or fine materials below 5 mm in size re-
sulted in the crushing process shall be removed through screening. The stone obtained and
screened shall be thoroughly washed by a method approved by the Engineer.
Coarse aggregate containing significant portion of elongated particles shall not be ac-
cepted. The tolerable portion of the elongated particles shall be assessed by sieve method as
directed by the Engineer.
Natural gravel and sand are usually dug or dredged from a pit, river, lake, or seabed.
Crushed aggregate is produced by crushing quarry rock, boulders, cobbles, or large-size
gravel. Aggregate processing consists of crushing, screening, and washing the aggregate to
obtain proper cleanliness and gradation. Once processed, the aggregates are handled and
stored in a way that minimizes segregation and degradation and prevents contamination. Ag-

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gregates strongly influence concrete's freshly mixed and hardened properties, mixture propor-
tions, and economy. Consequently, selection of aggregates is an important process. Although
some variation in aggregate properties is expected, characteristics37 that are considered
when selecting aggregate include: grading of aggregates, abrasion / skid resistance, particle
shape, size, surface texture, unit weights, absorption/surface moisture and durability.

4.3.2.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATES

a. Grading of Aggregates38. The concrete becomes both cheaper and stronger if the aggre-
gates are densely packed. This is possible by mixing fine aggregates, such as sand, with sev-
eral coarse aggregates, such as gravel of different sizes. Grading refers to the determination
of the particle-size distribution for aggregate. For a mix to be continuously graded means
there is complete range of sizes in the mix. Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are
specified because grading and size affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and
water requirements, workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete.
If the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used
without a major effect on strength. When gap-graded aggregate are specified, certain particle
sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size continuum. Gap-graded aggregates are used to
obtain uniform textures in exposed aggregate concrete. Inspection of mix proportions is nec-
essary to avoid segregation.
The strength of concrete can be shown
to increase as the size of the aggregate
increases. There are two main reasons
for this. If a crack grows, it tends to
propagate around aggregate particles
and more energy is needed for an in-
creased path length of fracture.

Figure 4-12 Significance of aggregates

grading
As stress is applied there is enough displacement of particles so that frictional forces
become important, there is greater cohesion and resistance to the force with the result that
fracture may then occur at a higher stress as the material behaves more plastically. Alterna-
tively, as the crack finds difficulty in propagating through the matrix, it then passes through
the actual aggregate, again at a higher stress. As a general observation, concrete should be
made with the maximum sizes of aggregate available.
In practice, concrete tends to fracture at lower values than its theoretical strength. This
is due to a number of micro-defects such as scratches between aggregate and mortar or small
holes that act as stress concentrators.
b. Abrasion and Skid Resistance of an aggregate are essential when the aggregate is to be
used in concrete constantly subject to abrasion as in heavy-duty floors or pavements. Differ-
ent minerals in the aggregate, wear and polish at different rates. Harder aggregate can be se-
lected in highly abrasive conditions to minimize wear.
c. Particle Shape, Size and Surface Texture influence the properties of freshly mixed con-
crete more than the properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated
particles require more water to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact ag-
gregate.
Consequently, the cement content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement
ratio. Generally, flat and elongated particles are avoided or are limited to about 15 percent by
weight of the total aggregate.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Unit-weight measures the volume that graded aggre-

gate and the voids between them will occupy in con-
crete. The void content between particles affects the
amount of cement paste required for the mix. Angular
aggregates increase the void content. Larger sizes of
well-graded aggregate and improved grading de-
crease the void content.
Figure 4-13 Angularity and surface texture
d. Specific Gravity. Aggregates are classified in terms of their
Specific gravity = weight of aggregate in air / weight of equal volume of water.
Total volume = volume of solid matter + volume of pores
Absolute volume = Volume of solid matter only.
Aggregates can be classified according to there specific gravity as follows: lightweight
aggregates are those below 2000 kg/m3, normal aggregates between 2000 kg/m3 and 3000
kg/m3 and heavyweight over 3000 kg/m3.
e. Absorption and Surface Moisture are measured when selecting aggregate because the
internal structure is made up of solid material and voids that may or may not contain water.

Figure 4-14 Moisture conditions of aggregate Figure 4-15 Main moisture conditions of aggregate
The amount of water in the concrete mixture must be adjusted to include the moisture
conditions of the aggregate.
Moisture conditions in aggregate: damp or wet (pores connected to surface are
filled with water + free water on surface), SSD (pores connected to surface are filled with wa-
ter no free water on surface), Air dry (dry surface with some water in pores) and Oven dry
(no water on surface and in pores).

4.3.3. ADDITIONS
Additions are ingredients other than water, aggregates and cement that are added to
the concrete batch immediately before or during mixing to induce a desired change in prop-
erties. A proper use of additions offers certain beneficial effects to concrete, including im-
proved quality, acceleration or retardation of setting time, enhanced frost and sulfate re-
sistance, control of strength development, improved workability and compaction they
also prevent the segregation of aggregates and consequent bleeding of cement, prevent plastic
cracking by the control of shrinkage, and generally improve durability.
Additions vary widely in chemical composition, and many perform more than one
function. They can be either soluble (plasticizers and pigments) or insoluble (retarders, air en-
training agents, superplasticizers, accelerators and waterproofers).
The basic types of additions are available: mineral and chemical.
1. Mineral admixtures are added to the cement (between 6-35% of the cement weight) in the
scope of making the mixture more economical and to enhancing the properties of concrete
(workability of fresh concrete, reduce permeability, increase strength, improve resistance of

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concrete to thermal cracking, or influence other concrete properties). Typical examples are
natural pozzolans, fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag that can
be used individually with Portland or blended cement or in different combinations.
- Fly ash is a fine divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered
coal from thermal power generating stations that is carried from the combustion chamber
of the furnace by exhaust gases. Their chemical composition resulting from the type of
coal burned. They are generally finer than cement and consist mainly of glassy-spherical
particles as well as residues of hematite and magnetite, char, and some crystalline phases
formed during cooling. It is used in concrete to improve its properties: workability, re-
duces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution, and permeability, inhibits alkali-aggregate
reaction, and enhances sulfate resistance. In addition it cheapness the final cost of cement.
- Silica fume, also called condensed silica fume and microsilica, is a byproduct of silicon
or ferro-silicon alloys that is carried from the electric furnace by the exhaust gases. It is
used in concrete to improve its properties: compressive strength, bond strength, and abra-
sion resistance, reduces permeability, protects reinforcing steel against corrosion. It can
be used up to 15 percent by weight of cement, although the normal proportion is 7 to 10
percent.
- Slags. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when molten
iron blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion in water. It is a granu-
lar product with very limited crystal formation, is highly cementitious in nature and,
ground to cement fineness, hydrates like Portland cement. It can be substituted for cement
on a 1:1 basis.
2. Chemical additions, known as additives, are added by to concrete by producers, in very
small amounts, to modify certain properties of fresh or hardened concrete.
Successful use of additives depends on the use of appropriate methods of batching and
concreting. Most admixtures are supplied in ready-to-use liquid/powder form and are added to
the concrete at the plant or at the jobsite.
The effectiveness of an additive depends on several factors including: type and
amount of cement, water content, mixing time, slump, and temperatures of the concrete and
air.
Admixtures are classified in several distinct categories:
- Air-Entraining Admixtures produce air-entrained concrete, they are used to incorporate
a distribution of fine air-voids in the cement-paste phase to provide spaces for the water to
expand on freezing, reducing the possibility of internal stress and cracking. The amount
of entrained air is usually between 2…7 % of the volume of the concrete, but may be var-
ied as required by special conditions. The use of air-entraining agents results in concrete
that is highly resistant to severe frost action and cycles of wetting and drying or freezing
and thawing and has a high degree of workability and durability. They reduce bleeding
and improve the workability of the concrete, minimizing particle segregation.
- Water-Reducing Admixtures. They reduce the required water content for a concrete
mixture by about 5 to 10 percent. Consequently, concrete containing a water-reducing
admixture needs less water to reach a required slump than untreated concrete. The treated
concrete can have a lower water-cement ratio. This usually indicates that a higher strength
concrete can be produced without increasing the amount of cement.
- Retarding Admixtures Retarding water reducing agent, these reduce the temperature rise
in concrete. These work by reducing the temperature and rate of reaction at which the
concrete will set. They delay the setting time normally by one to three hours but can be
specified to delay setting for two or three days. This may be needed for continuous con-
creting operations, by keeping the concrete workable (without affecting the long-term
mechanical properties). They can avoid complications when unavoidable delays between

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mixing and placing occur and they compensate for concreting in hot weather and allow
for a better junction in poured concrete to be made when large quantities are being placed.
- Accelerating Admixtures are added to concrete either to increase the rate of hydration
/early strength development or to shorten the time of setting, or both (particularly in cold
climates). Accelerators have a negligible effect on long-term strength but can improve
early strength by at least 25 % after one day. Plasticizers can also be used to reduce water
demand and accelerate early strength gain of the concrete.
- Superplasticizers, also known as plasticizers39 or high-range water reducers (HRWR),
reduce water content by 12 to 30 percent. They can be added to concrete with a low-to-
normal slump and water-cement ratio to make high-slump flowing concrete. The effect of
superplasticizers lasts only 30 to 60 minutes, depending on the brand and dosage rate, and
is followed by a rapid loss in workability. Because of the slump loss, superplasticizers are
usually added to concrete at the jobsite.
Other types of admixtures are: damp-proofing and water-proofing admixtures40, cor-
rosion inhibitors, shrinkage reduction, alkali-silica reactivity reduction, workability enhance-
ment, bonding.

4.3.4. WATER
Water shall comply with the requirements of STAS 790-8441 or approved equivalent.
Clean fresh potable water shall be used for the mixing of all concrete and mortar and shall be
from an approved source. Seawater shall not be used at any time.
The function of water when incorporated in concrete is as follows:
- Water begins the reaction of cement hydration. Reacting chemically with the cement to
form a cement paste in which the inert aggregates are held in suspension until the cement
has hardened.
- Water serves also as a vehicle or lubricant between the fine and coarse aggregates in order
that the concrete may be made more readily placeable in the forms (more workable).
Only 1/3 of the water is needed for cement chemical reaction (hydration) the rest is
used form workability, most remaining in the pores and holes thus resulting porosity.
The water used in concrete must be clean, and free from injurious amounts of oils, ac-
ids, alkalis, organic materials, or other deleterious substances. Excessive impurities in mixing
water not only may affect setting time and concrete strength, but also may cause efflores-
cence, staining, and corrosion of reinforcement, volume instability, and reduced durability.

4.4. THEORY OF MIXES

There are two ways of specifying a concrete mix prescribed and designed. The first
is to use ordinary prescribed mixes that already have the proportions of cement and aggre-
gates worked out relative to a required strength, i.e. the grading is specified. There can be
special prescribed mixes where an aspect or aspects of the mix control will change rather than
the constituents, i.e. workability, maximum free w/c ratio, air content, temperatures and ad-
mixtures. Must building professionals will use prescribed mixes that have already been
worked out and the proportion of constituents already fixed. They can be specified by grade
that relates numerically to the characteristic strength.
The second is to use a designed mix, which is a performance specification staring re-
quired strength and minimum cement content but leaving the grading and details of the mix
design to be worked out. The Romanian norm NE 012-99 regarding design of nor-
mal/conventional concrete mixes takes users through a process which works in clear stages:
strength and w/c ratio, workability and free water content, stages 1 and 2 combine to give ce-
ment content, total aggregate content and selection of coarse and fine aggregates.

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CHAPTER 5. BATCHING AND MIXING CONCRETE

5.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Concrete is one of the few major structural material manufactured at the site. To reach
the desired properties of strength, durability, watertightness, and homogeneity is necessary.
Concrete homogeneity means the attainment of a condition where the four ingredi-
ents are uniformly distributed through the mass. This requires the maintenance of constant
proportions of ingredients, with a high degree of accuracy (1% for cement, 2% for aggregates
and 1,5 % for water), and thorough mixing.

5.2. BATCHING CONCRETE

To assure uniformity and simplify the checking of the proportions, the practice has
developed of making concrete in separate fixed volumes called batches.
Concrete can be batched by two methods: by volume or by weight.
Volume batching is usually carried out using an open box (of such dimensions as to
make manual handling possible approx. 50 kg) called a “gauge box”. For a 1:2:4 mix gauge
box is filled once with cement, twice with fine aggregate and four times with coarse aggre-
gate, the top of the gauge box being struck of level each time.
Aside from the labor involved, volumetric batching leads to inaccuracies due to vari-
able bulking of the sand from variation in surface moisture. If the aggregate is damp or wet,
its volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore the amount of fine aggregate should be
increased by this amount. This increase is called bulking. That is why it is recommended for
concrete with grades lower than C12/15, and use for small jobs as sidewalk repairs, small ga-
rage floors, or simple farm structures.
Weight batching involves the use of a scale that is linked to a dial giving the exact

grater accuracy aggregate ± 2%, cement ±1%, and water ±1,5%.

mass of the materials as they are placed in the scales. This is the best method since it has

5.3. MIXING CONCRETE

Proper mixing is essential to produce homogeneous, uniform concrete. Inadequate
mixing will result in concrete with lower strengths and greater batch-to –batch variations.

5.3.1. HAND MIXING

The quality of hand mixing is usually judged by uniformity of color and texture.
Since mixing involves effort, either human or mechanical, it requires close inspection.
Hand mixing is used usually for: concrete grades smaller than C 12/15 and for small
or inaccessible jobs that require batches up to 1 m3;
A common procedure for hand mixing is to:
- Arrange a working platform to facilitate mixing and to minimize the introduction of dirt
and loss of mortar, it must be clean, level, watertight, and preferably nonabsorbent. Its size
depends on the total amount to be mixed and number of laborers engaged.
- Spread the coarse aggregate and sand over the platform to a uniform depth and then
spread the cement over them.

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- Mix by shoveling the aggregates with the cement, using a turning and spreading motion
until a uniform color is obtained.
- Mound the material and form a crater in the center
- Add water slowly into the crater and turn the material into the water.
- Shovel the components from the edge towards center of the mass, until a consistency
somewhat wetter than the required final concrete texture and consistency is obtained. If
too dry, additional water may be sprinkled on and the mass again turned.
- Mixing should continue until every piece of aggregate is completely coated with a thor-
oughly mixed cement paste.

5.3.2. MACHINE MIXING

Figure 5-1 Twin shaft batch mixer
Source: BHS – Sonthofen, 1999.
Most concrete mixers used on building sites are of the batch type. The basic forms are:
drum type - gravity free-fall mixers (tilting drum mixer or horizontal mixer), forced action
mixers (countercurrent -backward flow mixer or forward flow mixer), vibrating mixers,
turbulent mixers, combined mixers.
Machine mixing is far more economical and
can, when properly handled, produce perfectly ho-
mogeneous concrete.
Concrete should be mixed until it is uniform
in appearance and consistency. The time required for
mixing depends on the volume and stiffness of the
mix, the size of the C.A., the additive or admixture
used, the weather (cold or hot) and on the type of
mixer method being used.
The choice of method for mixing the concrete
or mortar must be made based on the volume of
mixed material required in any given time.
A mechanical mixer generally consists of one
or more drums with open ends mounted with axis of
rotation horizontal or tilted, rotated by a gasoline or
electric motor.
The rate of rotation will be the most rapid so
to avoid any tendency to adherence of concrete to the
drum, using the right amount of centrifugal force.
This speed is approximately 200 rpm peripherally,
which means that the larger drums rotate more
slowly. Each manufacturer will establish the opti-
mum speed for his mixer by tests adjusted according
to his particular mixer characteristics.
The mixer shall be equipped with a charging
hopper and with an adequate water storage container
with a device for accurately measuring and automati-
cally controlling the amount of water used in each
batch. This device shall be capable of setting to give
an amount of water registering to 1 percent of the re-
quired volume with uniform delivery. It shall also be
capable of rapid adjustment to allow for the water
content of the aggregates or to correct variations in
the slump.

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Mechanical mixers are available in sizes varying from 0,01 to 3 m3 capacity. For lar-
ger projects and central mixing plants, mixers of 1,5…6 m3 capacity are used, with drum
speeds of 22 (rev/min) capable of mixing at a rate of 12 batches per hour having the produc-
tion output rate 1,2…2,4 m3/hr.
In no case shall the volume of the mixed material exceed the manufacturers rated ca-
pacity of the mixer and they should not be operated at speeds other than those for which they
were designed. Overloading or running either too quickly or too slowly prevents the proper
mixing action from taking place. When increased output is required, a larger mixer or addi-
tional ones should be used.
The mixer shall be washed out with cementitious grout sufficient to coat the inside of
the drum before mixing the first batch after any stoppage or alternatively the first mix shall be
discarded.
The plant and the concreting program shall be so arranged that only one class of con-
crete be produced in one mixing drum until the pours of that class of concrete have been com-
pleted. When such a phase of work has been completed, the mixing drum and wet hopper
shall be washed out thoroughly before another class of concrete is mixed in the same drum.
Mixing shall continue for a minimum of two minutes and maximum of 5 minutes after
all the materials, including the water, are passed into the drum before any of the batches is
discharged. Batch mixers shall be fitted with timers to record the mixing time for each batch.
Admixture shall be introduced at specified points in the batching process to provide the in-
tended concrete properties at the actual time of casting.
During windy weather, precautions shall be taken to prevent loss of cement during
batching and mixing.

5.3.2.1. DRUM TYPE CONCRETE MIXERS

Drum mixers, or also referred to as free-fall or
Gravitational mixers, (see Figure 5-2) consists of
a rotating drum with stationary blades fixed on the
inside set at an angle to the axis so as to pick up
the ingredients as the drum rotates and spill them
over one another and move them longitudinally.
Mixing is accomplished by the action of the blades
passing through the fluid concrete. For this type of
mixer, specifications usually require a minimum of
1 min for mixers of up to 0.75 m3 capacity, with an
increase of at least 15 sec for every 0.5 m3 (or
fraction) of additional capacity, but not more than
120 sec. If mixes are stiff, additional time will be
required, and the same is true for mixes containing
Figure 5-2 Single shaft drum mixer
fine sand or small C.A. The mixing time begins
Caption: 1. Rotating steel drum, 2. when all materials are in the mixer drum. These
Blades, 3. Wheels, 4. Fluid concrete, 5. types of mixers unload the concrete by tilting the
Sliding level of concrete of the blade. entire drum.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The tilting type is considered superior because it discharges more quickly, with less
segregation, and is easier to keep clean.
The drum mixers are subdivided into three distinct forms:
a. Hand fed tilting drum mixers (T) - in which the single-compartment drum has an inclin-
able axis with loading and discharge through the front opening. This form of mixer is primar-

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ily intended for small batch outputs ranging from 100…200 liters mixed batch output. The
complete cycle time for mixing one batch from load to reload is usually specified as max. 2
minutes.

Figure 5-3 Tilting drum mixer.

Caption: a. loading, b. mixing, c. unloading
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984: Winget, 2001.
This type of mixer is not justified economically because the height of free fall of mate-
rials is smaller do to the tilting of the drum at 20o.
b. Non-tilting drum mixers – Horizontal mixers (NT) - may be equipped with a swinging
discharge chute. Many mixers are provided with timing devices so that they can be set for a
given mixing period and cannot be opened until the designated mixing time is up.
The ingredients are fed into one end of the mixer in a steady stream and discharged by
a chute so mounted that it may be unloaded steadily at the other end.
Operating features - the single-compartment drum has two openings and rotates on a
horizontal axis with output capacities ranging from 0,20…0,75 m3. Loading is through the
front opening and discharge through the rear opening by means of a discharge chute collect-
ing the mixture from the top of the drum. The chute should form an angle of not less than 40°
with horizontal axis of the drum.
c. Reversing drum mixers (R) – consists of a drum that rotates on a horizontal axis.
Capacities of this type of mixer
range from 0,20…0,50 m3 mixed
batch output. Loading is through a
front opening and discharge from a
rear opening carried out by revers-
ing the rotating of the drum
Figure 5-4 Reversing drum mixer
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

5.3.2.2. FORCED ACTION MIXERS

They are generally used for larger capacity outputs than the drum mixers described
above and can be obtained within the range of 0,20…2,0 m3.
Forced action mixers have optional equipment (besides the blades they can be
equipped with paddles or stars) that intensifies the movement of the particles in the mix that
bring about rapid homogenization of concretes. Such mixers are particularly efficient for mix-
ing additives, colors, and low slump concrete mix.
The mixing of the concrete is achieved, in a stationary drum, by the relative move-
ments of rotation between the mix and blades or paddles giving a shorter mixing time.
The basic forms of forced action mixers are: forward flow mixer and backward
flow mixer (countercurrent / counter flow).

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1. Forward flow mixer has the primary current flowing in the same direction with the current
of the mixing system employed. Both the pan and the mixing tools rotate in a clockwise direc-
tion. The pan rotates with the speed of 20 rpm while the paddles with 40 rpm.
The cycle consists of the following phases: load-
ing of materials, lowering the paddles in the pan, mix-
ing, lifting the paddles, tilting the pan for unloading and
bringing back to the initial position of the pan.

Figure 5-5 Forward flow mixer

Caption: 1. Direction of rotating paddles, 2. Revolving
drum. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

2. Backward flow mixer consists of a horizontally revolving pan, into which is suspended
one or more, vertical three-paddle mixing tools (stars), offset from the center of the pan. The
drum rotates in a clockwise direction, while the mixing tools turn counterclockwise, thus pro-
ducing a high degree of agitation in the materials being mixed.
The mixing cycle consists of the following phases:
- Turning on the mixer and priming the drum with approximately 10% of the required mix-
ing water before the dry ingredients are added.
- Adding the coarse aggregate followed by the sand and then the cement.
- Blending the ingredients until a uniform color is achieved.
- Adding the rest of the water
slowly and sparingly until a
workable mix is achieved.
- Continuing mixing according to
the time specified.
- Discharging the mixer.

Figure 5-6 Backward flow mixer

Caption: 1. Direction of rotating pad-
dles, 2. Drum. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

5.3.2.3. VIBRATING MIXERS

Uses the effects of vibration to induce in he concrete a back and
forth motion of the particles, displacing them from there equilib-
rium condition thus making the mix more fluid and easer to mix.

Figure 5-7 Vibrating mixer

Caption: 1. Drum, 2. Elastic support, 3. Hopper, 4. Eccentric, 5. Cen-
tral shaft, 6. Concrete mix. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

5.3.2.4. TURBULENT MIXERS

They operate in the principal of the forced action mixers with vertical axle. In the inte-
rior of the drum a shaft with paddles rotates with pallets (speeds of 500-1000 rpm), this forced
action generates a turbulent mix.

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5.4. MIXING TIMES

The optimum mixing time depends on several factors: type of mixer employed, condi-
tion of the mixer, speed of the mixer, the size of the charge, and the nature of the materials.
In general mixing time should be assessed in the field based upon batch – to –batch
variations. Lean, dry, or harsh mixes require longer mixing times. Concrete made with angu-
lar aggregates required more time than concretes made with more rounded aggregates.

5.5. BATCHING AND MIXING PLANTS

Central-mixing concrete batch plants (also referred to as concrete mixing plants)
come in a variety of styles and configurations designed to accommodate a variety of markets,
technical and environmental considerations.
- Portable Plants – operate on the same location for a relatively short period, according to
the market demand. In general, they have a cement silo and an overhead bin for sand or
one or two coarse aggregates.
- Permanent Plants – operate on the same location for a relatively long period. Large
quantities of materials of greater variety are stored at the plant. The plant will tend to have
larger overhead storage and may have two lanes to permit batching two trucks at the same
time.
Plants may be also classified, as:
- High profile - the traditional stack up plant is a tall plant that has aggregate and cement
storage bins that feed into batchers or weigh hoppers by gravity.
- Low profile - the aggregate weigh hoppers are near the ground with belts to elevate the
aggregate to load the mixer.
The batching plant consist of storage facilities for water, cement, and aggregates, mix-
ers, batching and weighing units, various control systems, cranes for loading the bins, boiler
room, offices, and a paved road to accommodate the heavy truck traffic.
The aggregates are feed by gravity to a weighing device from which in turn the mate-
rials drop into a mixer and then after into transit-mixing trucks or batch trucks, to reach the
weighing devices the materials are loaded by cranes, bucket elevators or inclined-belt con-
veyors into overhead bins.
The cement is com-
monly elevated to a closed
compartment in the overhead
bin by continuous enclosed
bucket elevators or horizon-
tal-screw conveyors from the
delivery truck or railroad
car.

Figure 5-8 General layout of

concrete plant

The plant layout will

vary greatly according to the
space available, the charac-
ter and size of the project,
and the equipment available
to the contractor.

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5.5.1. MIXING TOWER

The Mixing Tower has an output that ranges from 100…400 m3 concrete/hr. A com-
mon arrangement for moderate-sized plants is its simplicity by level.
- The top level contains bins of aggregates that are loaded by portable crane and dragline
bucket from a stockpile within boom reach, and cement bins that are loaded by a vertical
endless chain of buckets placed alongside a storage silo that is kept supplied by truck or
freight car.
- The next lower level contains weighing hoppers, batchers and concrete mixers. Operator
and inspector work at this level; it is frequently enclosed for comfort. The material flows
by gravity from the bins above into the hoppers and into the mixer or, if dry batches are
used, by separate chute into dry-batch trucks.
- The bottom level is for the transportation of concrete by any of different methods men-
tioned below.

Figure 5-9 Mixing tower

- Batching plant
Caption: 1. Pneumatic
pipeline for cement load-
ing; 2. Air separator; 3.
and 4. Cement silo; 5.
Conveyor belt; 6. Chute;
7 – 10. Aggregate silo;
11. Water reservoir; 12.
Cement weighing hop-
per; 13. Aggregate
weighting hopper; 14.
Chute; 15. Water pipe-
line; 16. Water weighing
tank; 17. Vibrator; 18.
Concrete mixers; 19.
Concrete silo; 20 – 21.
Concrete transport ma-
chinery; 22. Batching
plant structure; Ns. silo
level; Nm. mixer level;
Nd. delivery level.
Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

5.5.2. LINEAR MIXING CENTER

The Linear mixing center has an output ranging from 50…200 m³ concrete/hr.
The most significant advantages are that they are: reliable, economic, safe, accurate,
easy to service, accessible from all sides, no scaffolding for service or repair works.

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Figure 5-10 Linear batching

center
Caption: 1. Cement silo; 2.
Dragline; 3. Boom; 4. Cement
screw- conveyor; 5. Separat-
ing sieve walls; 6. Aggregate
sorted in standard sieve size;
7. Cement weigher; 8. Water
(flowmeter or weigher); 9.
Control center; 10. Discharge
hopper; 11. Transit mix truck.
Source: Pestisanu C., 1995;
Suman R., 1988; Suman R,
1988; Popa R., Teodorescu
M., 1984; MCI, 1984.

The loading of the aggregates is achieved by radial dragline. All the operations re-
quired such as scrape, pivot and slewing operations are controlled manually from the high-
visibility cabin via clearly arranged operation levers and foot pedals. After which they are dis-
charged form the weighing belt into the feeding device of the concrete or by front power
loaders, via a ramp or ramps piled on one or both sides, or by means of belt conveyer systems.

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5.6. DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING OF

AGGREGATE, WATER AND CEMENT
Aggregates for concrete shall be stored on clean platforms with drainage slope, or in
bins. The storage facility will prevent segregation of aggregates and avoid the inclusion of dirt
and other foreign materials, having each size of aggregate stored separately, the usual practice
is to build prefabricated partitions between them to prevent intermixing.
Gradation tests shall be made on each sample. All other tests for aggregates required
shall be made on the initial source samples, and shall be repeated whenever there is a change
of source. The tests shall include an analysis of each grade of material and an analysis of the
combined material representing the aggregate part of the mix.
The frequency of aggregate testing shall comply with the requirements specified in NE
012-99 Cod Annex VI.1 and the method of testing shall be in accordance with Romanian
Standards STAS 4606-80 or approved equivalent.
Water - the source of water must be studied since a considerable quantity may be
needed. If a convenient public water-supply system exists, there is no problem unless the
pressure is very low. In such cases, a pump and elevated tank may be desirable. If a well has
to be drilled, the required capacity will have to be computed considering the following: mix-
ing water (200 to 300 l per 1 m3 of concrete), wash water for transit-mix trucks (200 l per
load), water for keeping stockpiles moist (100 l per m3 of concrete is desirable), water for
boiler for heating aggregates (small quantity).
Cement is a moisture-sensitive material; if
kept dry, it will retain its quality indefinitely. When
stored in contact with damp air or moisture, Portland
cement will set more slowly and will loose strength in
comparison with one that is kept dry.
Cement transportation should be made in vehi-
cles with watertight, properly sealed lids. While being
loaded or unloaded and whether conveyed in vehicles
or in mechanical means to the concrete mixers, ce-
ment shall be protected from the weather by effective
measures.
Upon delivery, the cement shall at once be
placed in sheds/silos in the order that they arrived on
delivery.
When storing bagged cement (25 and 50 kg
bags), a shaded area or warehouse is preferred with its
floor raised at least 0,2 m from the ground level.
When storing bagged cement outdoors, it should be
stacked on pallets and covered with a waterproof cov-
ering.
The frequency of cement testing shall comply
with the requirements specified in NE 012-99 Cod
Figure 5-11 Cement silo Annex VI.1 and the method of testing shall be in ac-
Caption: 1. Air filter, 2. Silo, 3. Crossed cordance with Romanian Standards SR EN 196-1-
braced legs, 4. Bottom discharge outlet, 1995, STAS 5296-77 and SR EN 196-3-1995 or ap-
5. Pneumatic pipeline, 6. Railway. proved equivalent.
Source: Suman R., 1988; MCI 1984.

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CHAPTER 6. BUILDING MATERIAL TRANSPORT

MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT

6.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

There are many different ways to handle and transport concrete, the choice depending
on many factors. In general, any means of transportation should protect the building materials
from weather; avoid segregation, loss of constituents in the concrete mixture, and serious loss
of workability. The handling and transport of building materials is very important to ensure
the proper quality of delivered on site.
Achieving a specific construction means supplying the site with a large quantity of
building materials (aggregate, cement, concrete, reinforcement etc.) from the producer to the
site or to the storage facility, located near the job site.
Unless proper care is taken, the quality of materials may be destroyed by failure to
load, transport and unload properly the materials in the transport means or to transfer them to
the storage facility.
A typical breakdown of percentage costs of building materials transport could be as
follows: transport 10%; labor 10 – 15% = 20%.

6.2. CATEGORIES OF TRANSPORT

Building material transport can be classified in two main categories: short distance
transport <1 km and long distance transport > 1 km.

1. Short Distance Transport - for short distance the following means of transport can be
used: wheel barrows, push charts, forklift trucks, dump trucks, chutes, crane hoisted buckets,
belt conveyers, pneumatic devices etc.
a. Wheelbarrows are produced in a variety of sizes and ca-
pacities ranging from 0,08 to 0,12 m3. They are used on
small jobs (maximum economical distance of transport 70
m), permitting most of the load to be carried on the wheel,
but some of the load must be assumed by the operator to bal-
ance it during movement. Bouncing of the wheelbarrow can
cause concrete to segregate, to avoid this it is important to
provide smooth runways for its travel.
Figure 6-1 Wheelbarrow
b. Pushcarts produced in a variety of sizes and capacities
ranging from approximately 0,10 to 0,30 m3 capacity. They
are used on small jobs (maximum economical distance of
transport 150 m), permitting the load to be carried by the
rubber tire wheels, while the worker is required to balance it
during movement. Bouncing of the wheelbarrow can cause
concrete to segregate, to avoid this it is important to provide
smooth runways for its travel.
Figure 6-2 Push chart

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

c. Power trucks are powered by batteries and an electric-motor drive or by an inter-

nal-combustion engine. They can be fitted with non-lift platforms is used simply for hauling,
or with mechanisms, usually hydraulic, for lifting loads.
c.1. Forklift trucks are equipped with a
forklike mechanism on the front end de-
signed to pick up loads on specially de-
signed platforms (pallets), elevate the load
to the desired height, transport it, and de-
posit it at the desired location and height.
Figure 6-3 Forklift truck
Caption: 1. Steel rail mast; 2. Cabin; 3. En-
gine; 4. Rear steering wheels; 5. Front steering
wheels; 6. Twin lifting forks. Source: Chudley
R., 1999.
c.2. Dump trucks produced in a variety of sizes and capacities ranging from approximately
0,50 to 1,0 m3 capacity. They are used on small jobs (maximum economical distance of
transport 700 m).
They have a special
drum shape, rounded
bottom and end sloping
front.
Figure 6-4 Typical types
of dump trucks
Source: Thwaites, 1999.

d. Chutes are of steel or wood with metal lining (galvanized iron), with rounded bottoms, and
of sufficient size to guard against overflow. They are used to carry concrete directly from
mixer to forms or form or hopper, conveniently situated to allow chuting.

Figure 6-5 Chute and hopper

Source: Morgan, 1999; Suman R., 1988.
They should be designed so that concrete will flow without assistance without causing
segregation, and they should be light enough to be moved by hand. It is generally recom-

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

mended that the slope of chutes be 30o, depending on site conditions and the consistency of
the concrete as well as the smoothness of the chute.
In setting up chutes, it is important that they be braced sufficiently to prevent serious
deformation or actual collapse under the weight of concrete.
Usually at the discharge end of the chute a hopper should be attached to prevent the
segregation that results from a free discharge and to direct the flow perpendicular on the con-
creting surface.
e. Crane-hoisted buckets are metal containers produced in a variety of sizes / capacities
(ranging from 0,4 to 6 m3) and types (circular or rectangular in cross section).

Figure 6-6 Typical concrete buckets

Caption: a. Laydown bucket (Vertical Dis-
charge Type 1,3 m3); b. Laydown bucket
(Lateral discharge into clean out door).
Source: MCI, 1984.

a b
Buckets are lifted and moved about by crane, cable, railroad car, or truck. The crane
offers one of the most flexible methods of handling mixed concrete. It is used where concrete
has to be placed at a considerable height above ground level where forms are in otherwise in-
accessible locations or when needed to be placed over wide areas.
The concrete load is released by opening a self-closing gate that is located at the bot-
tom of the bucket; they can regulate the flow by closing them so that only a part of the load
will be discharged.
Where the loading height of concrete is low, a special type of "laydown" bucket has
been developed which can receive concrete while lying on its long side but turns through 90°
when lifted (see Figure 6-6).
f. Belt conveyors are used to transfer concrete; they are produced of sizes - capacities (rang-
ing from capacity of concrete transport 60 m3/h; width of belt 400 mm; maximum lengths 40
m; speed 150 m/min. or better) and types (portable, series or side discharge conveyors).
They can be made of fabric, rubber, plastic, leather, or metal and are driven by a
power-operated roll mounted underneath or at one end of the conveyor.
The belt forms a continuous loop and is supported either on rollers, for heavy loads, or
on a metal slider pan when the load is light enough to prevent frictional drag on the belt. Elec-
tric motors operating through constant- or variable-speed reduction gears usually provide the
power.
Concrete should be fed onto a belt conveyor from a hopper to get an even distribution
of material along the belt, and it should be supported well enough so it will not vibrate and
cause segregation of the concrete. The slope used will vary with the concrete mix and with the
type of belt used. It is generally recommended that the slope of conveyors be 30o, depending
on site conditions and the consistency of the concrete as well as the smoothness of the chute
(those with straight ribs on their surface work best on steep slopes). Conveyors should be
covered to prevent climatic conditions (sun, rain or wind) from affecting the concrete during
its transfer.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 6-7 Belt conveyor

Source: Morgan, 1999.

2. Long Distance Transport

a. Transit mix trucks consist of a heavy-duty truck chassis and motor on which is mounted a
large, drum-type concrete mixer a water tank and auxiliary engine that operates the mixer (see
Figure 6-8). There capacities range from 3 to 10 m3.
The revolving drum has an axis inclined to the horizontal. Inside the shell of the mixer
drum are a pair of blades (two spirals) that wrap in a helical (spiral) configuration from the
head to the opening of the drum, working in the opposite direction, provoking a counterflow
mixing effect in axial as well as in radial direction resulting in very good homogenization
within short mixing times. This configuration enables the concrete to mix when the drum
spins in one direction and causes it to discharge when the direction is reversed.
Each batch of concrete should be mixed not less that 50 to more that 100 revolutions
of the drum or blades at the prescribed rate of rotation. Any additional mixing should be done
at he designated agitating speed. Concrete should be delivered and discharged form the truck
mixer within 1,5 hours after the introduction of water to cement and aggregate. The site al-
lowance time for unloading is usually 30 minutes, allowing for the discharge of a full load in
10 minutes leaving 20 minutes of free time to permit for reasonable degree of flexibility in
planning and programming to both the supplier and the user.
According to the distances involved:
- Trucks can be charged with dry or wet ingredients at the batching plant. If the distance to
be traveled from the batching plant to job site can be covered within the initial setting
time of the cement paste, water is added to the dry ingredients that are charged into the
truck from a batching plant. The concrete is then mixed and agitated en route; on arrival,
the contents are remixed before being discharged.
- When long distances are involved, the concrete can be fully or partially mixed and loaded
into the truck mixer at the plant. During transportation to the site, the mix is agitated by
the drum revolving at 1 to 2 revolutions per minute. On arrival, the mix is finally mixed
by increasing the drum's revolutions to between 10 and 15 revolutions per minute for a
few minutes before being discharged.
- When the time taken to deliver the mix to the site may be unacceptable, the mixing can
take place on site by loading the truck mixer at the depot with dry batched materials and
adding the water upon arrival on site before completing the mixing operation and subse-
quent discharge.
b. Agitator trucks are similar to a transit truck, except that they do not carry water tanks.
This means that the wet mix is made at the batching plant and charged into the truck drum.
The truck simply keeps the concrete agitated until it is delivered. As a result, the distance that
may be traveled is limited to that which can be covered within the initial setting time of the

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

paste. In extremely hot weather, it may be necessary to use ice to keep the temperature down.
This is done to prevent the initial set of concrete from taking place before it can be delivered.

Figure 6-8 Transit mix truck

Caption: 1 Chassis; 2. Drum; 3. Motor; 4. Hinged feed chute; 5. Primary distribution cute; 6. Storage
water tank; 7. Pallets for mixing. Source: Trelea A., 1997; MCI, 1984.
To load, or charge, raw materials from a transit mix plant or centrally mixed concrete
into the truck, the drum must be turned very fast in the charging direction. After the concrete
is loaded and mixed, it is normally hauled to the job site with the drum turning at a speed of
less than 2 rpm.
If water is added, it should be added all at once, while the drum of the truck mixer
should be turned minimum of 30 revolutions, or about two minutes, at mixing speed.

Figure 6-9 Rail cars

Source: Trelea A., 1997.

c. Rail cars are specially designed for transporting concrete for large projects. Some are tilted
to discharge through side or end gates, whereas others discharge through bottom gates. Con-
crete is normally dumped into a large hopper from which short chutes or downspouts direct it
to the forms. It is essential to closely supervise this operation to prevent segregation.

d. Concrete pumps can be divided into three categories: stationary concrete pumps, truck
mounted concrete pumps, and tower concrete pumps.
Concrete pumps are used to transport concrete under pressure through some type of
piping system that can be: piston pump, pneumatic pump, and squeeze pump.
Truck mounted concrete pumps. Standard equipment includes motor, feed hopper,
delivery pipeline, chassis, and outriggers on which a distributing three-, four- and five-fold
boom is mounted.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 6-10 Truck

mounted concrete
pump
Caption: 1. Cabin; 2.
Feed hopper; 3. Steel
placing boom; 4. Deliv-
ery pipeline. Source:
MCI, 1984.

Pumping distances - The distance concrete can be pumped depends on a series of factors: the
capacity of the pump, the size of the pipeline, velocity of pumping and characteristics of con-
crete.

Figure 6-11. Boom extensions of pump

Source: Elba – Werk, 1994.
Tower pumps are used for placing concrete in tall
buildings (height of 30 …350m). The concrete is
supplied by pumps via stationary booms. The pump
pressures expected, the complete line including the
transfer tubes is designed for concrete pressures up
to 200 bar.
The stationary boom is fitted with a hydraulic
working self-climbing device. With the aid of spe-
cial climbing and guiding frames, the column of the
boom pulls itself up independently on the wall that
will be the lift shaft, in line with the progress of the
construction. The boom and climbing system are
supported by latches that can lock into the side of
the shaft recesses and are partially released during
the climbing procedure. The maximum slipping
speed of this design is 300 mm an hour.

Figure 6-12 Typical tower pump detail

e. Conveying systems
e.1. Piston pump consists of an inlet and outlet valve, a piston, and a cylinder connected to a
hopper on the intake end and to a hose or pipe on the discharge end. The cylinder receives
concrete from the hopper, and the piston forces it out into the house and, by continuous ac-
tion, eventually to the form. A delivery system carries the concrete to the job.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 6-13 Pumps for

concrete transport
Caption: a. Piston
pump, b. Squeeze
(pressure) pump: 1.
Piston (hydraulic cyl-
inder); 2. Valve; 3.
Concrete; 4. Flexible
hose; 5. Rotor; 6.
Feeding hopper with
agitator paddles; 7.
(a) (b) Rollers.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Trelea A., 1997.
e.2. Squeeze pump (also referred to as pressure pump) consist of a steel drum maintained
under high vacuum, inside which hydraulically powered rollers operate. A flexible hosed runs
from a hopper, enters the bottom of the drum, and runs around the inside surface and out the
top. The vacuum maintains a supply of concrete from the hopper in the hose, while the rollers,
rotating on the house inside the drum, force the concrete out at the top. A delivery system car-
ries the concrete to the job.
e.3. Pneumatic conveyers (also referred to as pipelines) consists of a pressure vessel (air
tight tank) and equipment for supplying compressed air – blower and a tank or hopper con-
nected near the pipeline inlet to feed solid particles into the pipeline and a tank near the pipe-
line outlet to separate the transported solids from the airstream. Concrete is taken into the
pressure vessel, the intake valve is closed, and compressed air is supplied into the top end of
the vessel. The pressure forces the concrete out through a pipe at the bottom and into the de-
livery system, while the exhaust air is filtered to prevent air pollution.
The delivery line may be either rigid pipe or flexible hose. Depending on the equip-
ment, a concrete pump will deliver from 7,5 to 70 m3/hr through lines that can range up to
10000 m horizontal and to 90 m vertically (there restriction being high energy consumption
and abrasiveness to pipe and materials). One meter of vertical lift is considered to equal 8 m
of horizontal run, a 90o bend in rigid pipe is equivalent to 121 m of horizontal run, and a 45o
bend is equal to 6 m. Pumping will generally be restricted to concrete that has a maximum
coarse aggregate size of 40 mm and ultimate strength of 15 MPa or better.

Figure 6-14 Pneumatic pipe-

line
Caption: 1. Air compressor;
2. Airtight tank; 3. Pipeline; 4.
Air filtered tank; 5., and 6.
Vales. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.
There is a limit to the amount of pressure that can be applied to the concrete, which
will vary, depending on slump, water: cement ratio, gradation, and size and type of aggregate.
All concretes, however, have their bleed-out point – the pressure point beyond which the ce-
ment and water will be forced (bled) out of the concrete at the pump by applied pressure into
the concrete ahead it. The concrete that has bled out becomes dry and becomes what is called
a slug in the line, which makes pumping very difficult.

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CHAPTER 7. HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE

7.1. PREPARATION BEFORE PLACING CONCRETE

This chapter provides guidance and specification for the concrete handling and placing
work procedures needed to assure the proper execution of different concrete construction
members in accordance with its design specified shape, dimensions and quality.
Placing concrete is comprised of the following main works: verifications and prepa-
rations before concrete placement, concrete placement, and concrete compaction and
finishing of surfaces.
The methods used in placing concrete in its final position have an important effect on
its fresh and hardened properties, such as: homogeneity, density, and behavior in service. The
same care, which has been used to secure good concrete, is necessary to make certain verifica-
tions and preparations before placing so that operations will commence without unpredictable
stops and in conditions that will guaranty the required quality.
Main verifications before concrete placement are as follows:
- The subgrade shall be properly prepared by excavating it to specific project size (shape,
dimensions, etc.).
- The subgrade surfaces against which the fresh concrete is to be placed shall be dampened
or covered with wax (Kraft) paper for plain concrete casting. On the other hand, shall be
covered with a 50 mm base leveling concrete for reinforced concrete coverings.
- The forms and reinforcement shall be erected according to project specifications.
- The forms shall be examined for correct alignment and adequate rigidity to withstand con-
crete load and construction impacts without undue deformation.
- The forms shall be checked for tightness and clean surfaces before any concrete is placed.
- The forms shall be oiled or treated with some type of form seal that will prevent water ab-
sorption form the concrete mix.
- The forms shall be made of material that will impart the desired texture to the concrete.
- The reinforcement should be checked for accordance with design (size, grade, type, bend-
ing radius etc.), rigidity, and cleanness.
- The transportation of concrete mixture shall be carry out by methods that will prevent the
segregation of the concrete materials and the displacement of the reinforcing steel form its
proper position in the form.
Required preparations before concrete placement:
- All loose debris (e.g. formwork nails, sawdust) shall be removed from the bottom of the
formwork before placement.
- Temporary openings in formwork "clean out windows" shall be provided to facilitate debris
removal and to inspect reinforcing steel.
- Wetting with water the hardened concrete, masonry or formwork, starting with 2 –3 hr.,
before concrete placement and immediately before placement.
- Filling up joints or cracks between form panels that were not closed.
- Building of adequate runways for wheelbarrows or buggies, reasonably smooth and
straight to prevent concrete bouncing as they travel.
- Means of transferring concrete from the wheelbarrow, charts, or bucket into the forms
must also be provided (hopper, chute, hose).
Precautions regarding good concreting operations:

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- Assurance of the necessary amount water for wetting of concrete surfaces after placement
and for cleaning of concrete trucks (1m3 per truck, by rotating the drum 5 minutes with the
water inside).
- Assurance of electricity necessary for concrete transport and vibration.
- Assurance of runways for laborers and equipment.
- Assurance of standby equipment to replace any that fails during the pour (vibrators, trans-
port equipment etc.).
- Protection of fresh concrete from heavy downpours of rain. If the pour takes place in cold
weather the necessary protective materials and equipment should be immediately avail-
able. These would include canvases, warm-sir blowers etc.
- Assurance shall be made for standby carpenters and ironworkers to make immediate re-
pairs that can occur during the pour.

7.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR CONCRETE PLACEMENT

Concrete placing basic principles are as follows:
- When arriving to the site the concrete transport certificate must be checked for desired
characteristics of ordered concrete (quantity, class, maximum aggregate size, slump, tem-
perature, type cement etc.) and time duration of transport.
- Concrete shall be delivered to the site and discharged from the truck completely and in the
forms ready for vibration within 1-1/2 hours after batching.
- Concrete shall be placed in maximum 15 minutes after its arrival to the site, and the fin-
ishing of placement will take place before the cement starts setting.
- Concrete shall be stored / deposited as near as (physically and economically) possible to
its final position, in crane hoisted buckets, concrete pumps, chutes etc.
- The receptacles used for the transport and deposition of concrete shall be cleaned and
washed out at the end of each day’s work and whenever concreting is interrupted for more
than 30 minutes.
- If the concrete, do to transport, is segregated. It should be mixed again on clean platforms,
without adding water, if not possible the batch should be refused.
- As placing begins the consistency of the delivered concrete should be checked with a
slump cone for conformance with specifications and the required number of samples must
be taken (1 sample = 3 specimens) according to the volume of concrete placed (see NE
012-1999).
- Concrete shall be placed to prevent segregation. The concrete shall not be permitted to
strike against forms and ricochet on bars and form faces. The free fall of concrete should
in no case exceed 1,5 m. For greater heights, as in walls or columns, metal or rubber hop-
pers, chutes or flexible hoses must be lowered into the formwork to control the rate of fall
of the concrete, if not the concrete will flow rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting
separation and honeycombing.
- In some cases, when it may not be possible to use chutes inside the formwork, concrete
may be deposited through openings in the side of the form, known as cleanout windows.
They provide an outside pocket from which the concrete can flow into the form at a con-
trolled rate, rather than allowing it to enter directly into the form at a high velocity.
- When concrete is dumped from a cart or wheelbarrow, there is a tendency for the heavier
particles to separate from the mass. To prevent this, the concrete should be discharged
against a striking (baffle) board.
- Concrete shall not be allowed or caused to flow horizontally or on a slope in the forms.
Concrete placing on a slope shall begin at the lower end of the slope and progress upward.
If necessary, boards forming the sloping surfaces may be placed as concreting progresses.

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- When unloading concrete on the surface of

a cast member, the direction deposition
should be into the face of previously placed
concrete and not away from it.
- Concrete shall de placed as nearly as possi-
ble in its final position. It should not be
placed in large quantities in one position or
allowed to flow or be worked over more
than 1,5 m. The mortar will tend to flow
ahead of the coarser materials, thus causing
stone pockets and sloping work planes.
- The concrete should be spread and depos-
ited in horizontal uniform thick layers, ac-
cording o the type of vibrating equipment
used (it should be usually between 200…
400 mm thick).
- Placing of concrete shall be so regulated
that the pressures caused by the wet con-
crete shall not exceed those used in the de-
sign of forms.
- Concreting should be as continuous as pos-
sible to avoid planes of weakness. When the
concrete placement stops do to different
reasons a construction joint will be made;
- Efforts should be made to consolidate the
concrete by using different means of vibra-
tion (manual or mechanical) according to
type of member, site possibilities, volume
of works etc.
Figure 7-1 a. Placing techniques for flatwork.
Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Austra-
lia, 2000.
When fresh concrete is to be placed on hardened concrete surface:
- It is important to secure a good bond and a watertight joint.
- The hardened concrete shall be level, rough, clean, and moist. Some of the aggregate par-
ticles must be exposed by cutting away part of the existing surface by sand blasting clean-
ing with hydrochloric acid, or by using a wire brush. Any laitance or soft layer of mortar
must be removed from the surface.
- When concrete is to be placed on a hardened concrete surface a layer of mortar must be
placed on the hard surface first. This provides a cushion on which the new concrete can be
placed and stops aggregate from bouncing on the hard surface and forming stone pockets.
The mortar should be approximately 50 mm deep leveling concrete.
- The concrete shall be placed continuously from one side or end of the section to the other,
using precaution to put the full load upon any given area of form as rapidly as possible.
- The rate of delivery of concrete to the work shall be such as to insure continuity of place-
ment. No partially completed surface shall be allowed to stand more than 45 minutes be-
fore continuing the placing of concrete thereon.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- The mixing drums of

transit-mix trucks
shall be thoroughly
washed after dis-
charging each load
to prevent the accu-
mulation of adherent
layers of concrete.
- Concreting of any
unit or section of the
work shall be carried
out in one continuous
operation or until an
authorized construc-
tion joint is reached.
Figure 7-1 b. Concrete placing techniques for columns and walls
Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.

7.3. CONCRETING DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEMBERS

7.3.1. WALL AND COLUMN CONCRETING

To ensure that the wall and columns concreting will provide a long-lasting and ser-
viceable element, the designer puts forward the following concreting recommendations:
- Wall and column forms that have small cross sections require the rate of concrete pour to
be controlled to avoid large hydrostatic pressures on the lateral side of the form.
- The free fall of concrete should in no case exceed 1,5 m, while for greater heights, hop-
pers, chutes or flexible hoses must be lowered into the formwork to control the rate of fall
of the concrete, if not the concrete will flow rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting
separation and honeycombing. If possible, clean out windows must be made and posi-
tioned at least for 1 m to 1 m on the height of the formwork.
- Concrete in walls shall be deposited in continuous horizontal layers. No layer shall be ta-
pered off, but shall be stopped against tight forms to produce square ends and shall be so
molded by inset formwork that the construction joint will finish square to all exterior sur-
faces.
- Concrete should be placed in wall forms in relatively thin layers or lifts, 300 to 500 mm
deep, each layer being placed full length of the form and vibrated before the next lift is
begins.
- The first batches of each lift must be placed at the ends of the form section or in corners,
and placing should then proceed toward the center. This positioning is done to prevent the
trapping of water at ends of the sections, in corners, and along form faces so that that no
pockets or spaces remain unfilled and that the face of the formed concrete will been made
as smooth as required by specifications.
- Internal vibrators shall always be inserted vertically into the concrete (see Figure 7-2)
while external vibrators are used against the outside of forms, when the width of the wall
is smaller that 15 cm, and are most effective in producing smooth surfaces against the
form faces.
- The integration of each lift with the one below is done with the aid of puddling spades or
vibrators.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- The placement of each layer shall take place so that each lift is placed in time to integrate
easily and completely with the one below. This time factor is determined by type of ce-
ment used in making the concrete, the w/c ratio, the presence, or absence of accelerators,
and atmospheric conditions at the time of placing.
- Excessive vibration should be avoided as it causes segregation by forcing the coarse ag-
gregates away from the vibrator resulting in pockets of cement mortar lacking in coarse
aggregates.
- Concrete placed in columns and walls shall be allowed to stand for approximately 2 hr be-
fore placing the concrete for monolithic girders, beams, and slabs. This time allows the
concrete in the walls or columns to settle and thus prevents cracking due to settlement,
which would occur if all members were placed at one time.

Figure 7-2 Compacting columns

Caption: a. Puddling spade/internal vibrator introduced in the top of column; b. Vibrator introduced in
from pocket (clean out window); c. Vibrator layout, and successive positions for placing external vi-
brators. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

7.3.2. SLAB AND BEAM CONCRETING

To ensure that the slab and beam concreting will provide a long-lasting and
serviceable element, the designer puts forward the following concreting recommendations:
- Structural concrete floor slabs are usually
poured in one concreting operation (they can be
poured at the same time monolithic with walls
or columns, but there is danger of horizontal
shrinkage cracks development on the lower sur-
face of the slab, unless an interval of a few
hours is allowed between completion of the ver-
tical pour and commencement of the slab pour).
- Concreting of slabs can stop do to unavoidable
circumstances, in this case the concreting must
stop at a 90o angle with the formwork.
- Concrete should be placed in beam forms in
layers or lifts, 300 to 500 mm deep, each layer
Figure 7-3 Slab concreting being placed on the full length of the form and
Source: Elba – Werk, 1994. vibrated before the next lift is begins.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

- The first batches of each lift shall be placed at the ends of the form section or in corners,
and placing should then proceed toward the center. This positioning is done to prevent the
trapping of water at ends of the sections, in corners, and. along form faces. The integration
of each lift with the one below is done with the aid of puddling spades or vibrators.

7.3.3. ARCH, VAULT AND SHELL CONCRETING

When concrete is placed on sloping surfaces:
- The concreting should begin at the bottom of the slope, to improve the compaction of the
concrete as placing progresses and to prevent the flowing out of mortar which would oc-
cur if pouring had begun at the top of the slope.
- Concrete shell roofs have constructed formwork adequately supported to bear the loads.
- When casting barrel vaults it is necessary to have a movable form consisting of birdcage
scaffolding supporting curved steel ribs to carry the curved plywood or steel forms. Top
formwork is not usually required unless the angle of pitch is grater that 45o.
- When the span is smaller that the side (L<G) it is preferably the concrete should be placed
continuously in 1,0 m wide strips perpendicular on the edge beams over the crown of the
member.
- When the span is bigger that the side (L>G) it is preferably the concrete should be placed
continuously in 1,0 m wide strips commencing at both ends and running from edge beam
to edge beam towards the keypiece of the member.
Figure 7-4
Typical
types of
concret-
ing joints
for
arches/va
ults
a. L – width;
G - span.
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

7.3. CONCRETE JOINTS

Concrete joints are included in the design to serve a number of purposes: limit the size
of the member, limit the stress, make provisions for member movements such as expansion
and contraction, separate castings at different times do to unavoidable stops.
Their location and detailing, e.g. spacing of joints, will be governed by a number of
factors, namely member thickness, presence of reinforcement, load intensity and the tempera-
ture at which the concrete is placed.
The main joint types are: construction joints (day work joints) and control joints that
can be expansion joints, contraction joints, longitudinal joints, and isolation joints.
1. Construction joints - ideally a structure should be concreted continuously without un-
avoidable stops so it will have a monolithic bond between the sections of concrete either
side of the bond. If such a stop occurs a construction joint is created, requiring special at-
tention because they cause areas of strength reduction and permeability, for these reasons
they should be avoided wherever possible.
They are called also day work joints because they are commonly used when there is
discontinuous placement of concrete and successive pours are allowed to harden beyond the
initial set, or at the end of the working day. They may also be necessary if unforeseen events
(e.g. delays in delivery or bad weather).

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 7-5 Typical types of construction joints

Caption: a. position for column joint; b., and c. for slabs; d. and e. for beams, girders and arches and
vaults. Source: NE 012-99;Suman R., 1988; Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
The joints positioned will be in accordance with the existing execution possibilities
(they must not be placed within 3,00 m of another joint and) and they must be located in sec-
tions subjected to small loads.
For special types of structures (e.g. reservoirs, tanks, arches, large span members and
massive constructions) the construction joints location and surface treatment will be indicated
in the structural design, if not, there location will be decided only by the engineer, before con-
creting starts, taking into account the following rules:
- Columns are allowed to have joints only at their bottom side; in special cases they can
have another joint at their upper side (30 – 50 mm underneath the beams) (Figure 7-5 a).
- Beams are usually not allowed to have joints, but when occurring they will be located
only in the areas of minimum bending moment.
- When the beams are concrete separately, the joint will be located at 30-50 mm under the
drop panels.
- Solid slabs will have the joints located parallel with the main reinforcement in the area of
minimum bending moment.
- One way ribbed slabs (Figure 7-5 b) in which the concreting is made in the direction of
the ribs, the joint will be located in the area of (1/5…1/3) x span of rib; If the concreting is
made perpendicular on the ribs, the joint will be located in the area of (1/5…1/3) x span of
girder.
- Concreting for plain concrete members will stop in 45o slop joints and reinforced concrete
members in 90o slop joints (Figure 7-5. d and e).
- Arches and vaults are allowed to have joints by dividing the vault or arch in small ele-
ments located symmetrically along side the keypiece or if by dividing it in small 1 m ele-
ments parallel with the parallel with the generating line (Figure 7-5 f).
- Shells are not allowed to have joints the concreting will be continuous.

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- Special types of equipment foundation that will be subjected to intense vibrations are not
allowed to have construction joints, they will be concreted continuously.
It is usually desirable to provide a key between adjoining sections to prevent lateral
movement. One method of doing this is to attach a galvanized iron strip to the inside face of
the bulkhead form (Figure 7-6).
The strip is bent into a right angle and fastened to the
inside face of the bulkhead. When the bulkhead is re-
moved, the bent half is straightened and projects into
the adjacent pour. The metal also acts as a waterstop
to prevent passage of water through the joint.
Figure 7-6 Construction joint formed
Caption: 1. Bulkhead form; 2. Galvanized iron. Source:
Andres C., 1998.
2. Contraction joints are also called control joints because they control the location of
cracking because of the shrinking of the concrete and they allow lateral movement of the
concrete on either side of the joint. These are transverse joints, placed between expansion
joints at 12 to 24 m in reinforced slabs and at 4,5 to 7,5 m in non-reinforced slabs to limit
the size of the slab.
3. Longitudinal joints are similar to contraction joints and are required where slab width
exceeds 4,5m.
4. Expansion joints are necessary in slab construction to provide space for the slab to ex-
pand, due to changes in temperature, without exerting damaging pressure on the member
adjacent to it. They are transverse joints located at 36 to 72 m in reinforced slabs and at 27
to 54 m in non-reinforced slabs. They are usually formed around exterior walls, columns,
and machine bases by placing a tapered wood strip around the perimeter before concrete is
placed, removing it after the concrete has set, and filling the void with some type of filling
material.
5. Isolation joints. Allow the free / independent movement of slabs between walls, around
columns etc., and are often used in combination with other types of joints to allow maxi-
mum panel movement causing shrinkage, temperature changes, and seasonal variations.
Compressible cellular materials are commonly used to fill these joints.

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CHAPTER 8. COMPACTION, VIBRATION AND

CONCRETE FINISHING

8.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Compaction of concrete is the process that expels trapped air from the freshly placed
concrete and packs the aggregate particles together to increase the density of concrete, greatly
reducing the concrete nonuniformities and plastic settlement cracking over deep bearing
members and mesh/bar reinforcement.
Nonuniformity of concrete manifests itself in a variation of physical - mechanical
properties (i.e. concrete compressive strength). Therefore, the strength of concrete in struc-
tures manufactured in accordance with the same production process and from the same mate-
rials varies for different structures.
Nonuniformity of concrete can be classified according to a number of criteria
(Leschinsky A. 1991):
a. Level location: internal and external.
Internal defects, of solid bodies, can be considered defects of molecules and crystalline lat-
tice that are revealed at various levels, as:
Spherical pores - Capillary-pores of concrete resulted by the water
evaporation form the concrete mix (size approx.
Gel pores 26…500 Å, where 1 Å= 1x10-10 m).
Cement matrix - Spherical pores resulted by air entrapment do to
Sand Particle batching, transport, and casting operations (size
approx. > 500 Å)
- Gel pores resulting do to chemical reaction be-
tween cement and water < 26 Å ).
- Cracks resulted do to thermal contraction of con-
crete.
Figure 8-1 Typical detail of concrete
showing sand in a cement paste
- Caverns and cavities in the concrete are the larg-
matrix. est defects in a structure, do to incorrect placement
or vibration of concrete (size approx. > 5 x 104 Å).
External (surface) defects. Are inherent weaknesses in monolithical concrete which make its
finishing irregular to itself, they are:
- Form marks are considered objectionable, the forms must be rigidly supported in true
planes, and the number of joints must be minimized.
- Air bubbles appear as circular depressions varying in size. They are caused by entrapping
air bubbles against the form and appear to be aggravated by drier mixes and rough forms
which resist the tendency of the bubbles to float to the surface during placement of con-
crete.
- Honeycomb is concrete's worst surface defect. Its appearance is that of exposed coarse
aggregate with insufficient mortar to fill the voids. It can be caused by poor mixing, seg-
regation during placement, or leaching out of the mortar at a leak in the form. The causes
suggest their own methods of prevention. The great difficulty is that honeycomb is dis-
covered only when too late. In this case, the only recourse is to cut away the loose stones
and fill in the depression with concrete of the same mix in order to achieve a good match.
b. Source of origin: random and systematic.

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Random nonuniformity of concrete is the nonuniformity that varies in a random manner.

Such nonuniformity may be caused by several reasons: variations of properties of materials,
instability of the concrete composition, various degrees of mix consolidation, different curing
conditions etc.
Systematic nonuniformity of concrete is caused by constantly and directionally acting proc-
ess and/or service factors. In addition, it is manifested at various levels. Thus, e.g. the follow-
ing types of nonuniformity are considered to be systematic: an increase in the concentration of
Ca(OH)2 in the contact zone between aggregate and cement paste, different hardness and
strength of a mortar above and under a coarse aggregate, different contents of water and
coarse aggregate in various zones over the structure height (in the top-bottom direction), dif-
ferent values of concrete strength in this direction etc.
The main causes of concrete systematic difference in a structure are:
- Poor production process, and often with specific factories, devices, and machines that
are used in the production of concrete mix or precast elements. Causes of such regula-
rities may also lie in various service conditions.
- Segregation of the concrete mix as a result of vibration.
- Less favorable conditions of upper layers of concrete in the structure.
100
Relative strength Properties improved by compaction are: ul-
(%)
timate strength of concrete, bond with rein-
forcement, abrasion resistance, durability of the
concrete, decreases the permeability and helps to
minimize its shrinkage-creep characteristics.
50
The effect of compaction on compressive
strength is dramatic. For example, the strength of
concrete containing 10% of trapped air may be
as little as 50% that of the concrete when fully
compacted.
Figure 8-2 Loss of strength through incomplete
0
0 15 30 Air voids (%) compaction

8.2. VIBRATION
Vibration is a periodic back-and-forth motion of the particles of an elastic body (e.g.
fresh/plastic concrete) or medium, commonly resulting when almost any physical system is
displaced from its equilibrium condition and allowed to respond to the forces that tend to re-
store equilibrium.
Vibrations fall into two categories: free and forced.
1. Free vibrations occur when the system is disturbed shortly and then allowed to
move without restraint. A classic example is provided by a weight suspended from a spring.
These kinds of vibrations have a simple harmonic motion (SHM). This occurs whenever the
disturbance to the system is countered by a restoring force that is exactly proportional to the
degree of disturbance. In this case, the restoring force is the tension or compression in the
spring, which (according to Hooke's law) is proportional to the displacement of the spring. In
simple harmonic motion, the periodic oscillations are of the mathematical form called sinu-
soidal.
A universal feature of free vibration is damping. All systems are subject to frictional
forces, and these steadily sap the energy of the vibrations, causing the amplitude to diminish,
usually exponentially. The motion is therefore never precisely sinusoidal.
2. Forced vibrations occur if a system is continuously driven by an external force. A
simple example is a child's swing that is pushed on each downswing. Of special interest are

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systems undergoing SHM and driven by sinusoidal forcing. This leads to the important phe-
nomenon of resonance.
Table 8-1 Frequencies for which aggregates of different diameters go into resonance.
Frequency (Hz) 10 20 25 50 100 150
Rot./min 600 1200 1500 3000 6000 9000
Diameter of particle that goes into 100…280 24…69 16…44 4…11 1…2,8 0,4…1,2
resonance
Resonance occurs when the driving frequency approaches the natural frequency of
free vibrations. The results in a rapid take-up of energy by the vibrating system, with an at-
tendant growth of the vibration amplitude, ultimately, the growth in amplitude is limited by
the presence of damping, but the response can be very great.

8.2.1. BASIC CHARACTERISTICS

In physics, motion repeated in equal intervals of time (repetition, cycle, of the motion)
is called the period.
a. Period (T).
The harmonic equations of motion

y = a sin ωt - motion equation

are:

v = + a cos ωt – velocity equation

g = - aω2 sinωt – gravity accelera-
tion
Periodic oscillations are called si-
nusoidal motions
Figure 8-3 Sinusoidal motion

One period therefore equals the reciprocal of the frequency, or 1/frequency (T=1/ν).
In simple harmonic motion, the period is the time required to complete one vibration.

When a point moves around a circle with uniform speed, its projection on any line
taken as the diameter will execute simple harmonic motion. Although the point is moving
with constant speed, the projection point will accelerate or decelerate according to whether it
is moving toward the center of the circle or away from it. If the ratio of its displacement dis-

monic motion is equal to 2π -i.e., T = 2π.

tance from the center to the acceleration is denoted by c, then the period T of a simple har-

velocity v and has a wavelength λ,

If the wave is propagated with a

then the period (T) is equal to

or T = λ/v. Because frequency (f)

wavelength divided by velocity,

is the reciprocal of the period--i.e.

written f= v/ λ.
f = 1/T—this equation may be

Figure 8-4 Types of vibration

Caption: a. Horizontal; b. Vertical. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

b. Amplitude (a) is measured by the maximum displacement of a particle from its position of
equilibrium. When the amplitude of a wave steadily decreases because its energy is being lost,
it is said to be damped. a = r x m/M
where: a – amplitude; m – weight of the vibrator eccentric;
r – radius of the vibrator; M – total weight of vibrator.

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8.3. COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

Proper compaction ensures that the formwork is completely filled (there are no pock-
ets of honeycombed material) and the required finish is obtained on vertical surfaces.
When first placed in the form, conventional concretes will contain between 5-20% by
volume-trapped air. The aggregate particles, although coated with mortar, tend to arch against
one another preventing from slumping or consolidating by internal friction.
Compaction of concrete is, therefore, a two-stage process. First the aggregate particles
are set in motion and the slump to fill the from, giving a level top surface. In the second stage,
trapped air is expelled.
The optimal period of compaction is: 5 seconds for fluid concrete; 20 seconds for plas-
tic concrete; 60 seconds for stiff concrete and 120 seconds for very stiff concrete. The overall
time being suggested by the following effects: appearance of loose air bubbles and excess mix
water floating on the concrete surface.

Figure 8-5 Typical

aspects of con-
crete compac-
tion during vi-
bration

Caption: a. placed concrete before compaction; b. concrete after compaction; c. concrete after a effi-
cient compaction; d. over compaction (segregated concrete). Source: Ionescu I.,1997.

8.3.1. MANUAL COMPACTION

Hand compacting is used only for small jobs that require compaction of small amounts
of concrete.
Figure 8-6 Hand
tapping tools
Caption:
a, b. Mallet; c.
Shovel; d., and e.
Steel rods (pud-
dling spades);
f. Wooden ham-
mer. Source:
Carare T., 1986.
The most
common manual
compaction
methods are:
- Tamping with screed board on thin concrete elements. In certain situations, tamping with
wood floats and surface working closes up some types of cracking.
- Rodding, with special rod tools, is effective for compacting elements where vibrators
cannot be inserted, especially where reinforcement is congested, and space is limited.
The procedure of compacting by hand is different according to the workability of con-
crete:

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- Stiff concrete will be compacted with wooden or steel mallets (G=12-15 kg). The proce-
dure consists of tamping the concrete; every hit has to overlap half of the last hit. The
concrete member will be cast in layers of maximum 200 mm. Compaction will start from
the extremities of the form towards the direction of concrete placement. This operation
will commence until loose bubbles of air and excess mix water will float on the surface;
- Fluid concrete will be compacted differently according to type of member:
1. For slabs, the procedure of compaction consists of hitting the concrete surface with
shovels or by striking off the level as soon as it has been placed, which is done by the
use of strike-off bars worked against the top edge of screeds previously set to the
proper height. These bars are operated either by hand or by power the latter acting as
vibrators as well as strike-off bars. Striking off removes all humps and hollows, leav-
ing a true and even surface;
2. For beams, columns and walls the concrete will be placed in maximum 300 mm lay-
ers that will be compacted with steel rods, that will compact the concrete between re-
inforcing bars. The distance between two consecutive strikes will be about 5-10 cm.
After using the rods, the compaction will continue using light mallets (5-8 kg) and
wooden hammers (2-3 kg).
This operation will commence until loose bubbles of air and excess mix water will
float on the surface

8.3.2. MECHANICAL COMPACTION

The most common methods for compacting concrete are: vibration, applying pressure,
rolling, vacuuming or combined methods.

8.3.2.1. VIBRATION
The most common methods for compacting concrete by vibration are of two types:
immersion vibrators - internal (also referred to as poker / spud vibrators) and surface - ex-
ternal vibrators (clamp vibrators, vibration tampers and form vibrators – used in precast
work).
1. Internal Vibrators - The common type of internal vibrator is the poker vibrator. It consists
essentially of a tubular housing, and a vibrating head that contains a rotating eccentric weight.
The out-of-balance rotating weight causes the casing to vibrate and, when immersed in con-
crete, the concrete itself. Power is supplied by a small petrol, diesel, or electric motor and in
some cases by compressed air.
Table 8-2 Technical characteristics of internal vibrators.
Average amplitude
of vibrations(mm)

Radius of action

crete placement
Vibrating head

frequency (Hz)
diameter (mm)
Recommended

Total weight
Rate of con-

Application
(m3/h)
(mm)

(kg)

38 150- 0.8 80-150 0.8-4 16.0 High slump concrete in very thin members and confined
250 places.
58 140- 0.8 130- 2.3-8 22.5 Concrete (100-150 mm slump) in thin walls, columns, beams,
210 250 precast pipes, thin slabs, and along construction joints.
71 130- 0.9 180- 4.6-15 21.8 Concrete (less than 80 mm slump) in normal construction (e.g.
200 360 walls, floors, beams and columns in buildings).
110 120- 1.5 300- 11-31 37.0 Mass and structural concrete (0-50 mm slump) deposited in
180 500 large quantities in relatively open forms of heavy construction.
180 90- 1.0- 400- 19-38 50.0 Mass concrete in gravity dams, large piers, massive walls etc.
140 2.0 600

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Note: Assumes insertion spacing 1 ½ times radius of action, and that vibrator operates two-
thirds of time concrete is being placed.

Figure 8-7 Typical internal vibrator. Source: Tremix, 2001.

To ensure that the concrete element is vibrated correctly, the designer puts forward
the following recommendations:
- It is necessary to select the correct size of vibrator for particular cases. One controlling
consideration is that the spacing between reinforcing-steel bars has an effect on the maxi-
mum diameter of a vibrator head.
- The effectiveness of a vibrator (especially its head diameter and eccentric weight) is de-
pendent on its frequency and amplitude, the larger the head the larger the amplitude. The
rate of vibration influences efficiency, specifications usually require between 3,200 and
9,000 rotations per minute.

Figure 8-8 a. Internal / poker vibrator. Example of working procedures with vibrator
Caption: 1. Steel cylinder (head); 2. Rotating eccentric element; 3. Electric motor; 4. Reinforced rub-
ber hose. D1= 1.4 r, D2= 1.73 r, where r- radius of vibrator head (see Table 8-2). Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984; Cement & Concrete Association of Australia, 2000.

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- In concrete members that are thin and heavily reinforced, careful vibration will cause the
concrete to follow uniformly around the reinforcement and this increased fluidity due to
vibration will occur with mixes which in normal circumstances would be considered too
dry for reinforced concrete.
- When operating the vibrators, they should be inserted vertically into the concrete as
quickly as possible, penetrating previous layers of freshly placed concrete (about 50-150
mm), and then held stationary until air bubbles cease to raise to the surface, usually in
about 15-20 seconds. The vibrator should then be slowly withdrawn and reinserted in a
fresh position adjacent to the first. These movements should be repeated in a regular pat-
tern (see Figure 8-8).
- Random insertions are likely to leave areas of the concrete uncompacted. Never use the
vibrator to lead the concrete towards a certain direction because it will segregate the con-
crete.
- The effective radius of a poker vibrator is about 600-700 mm; therefore the poker should
be inserted at approximately 700-1000 mm centers (1,4 x effective radius) to achieve an
overall consolidation of the concrete. The circle of concrete that is set in motion should be
observed and these areas should overlap (see Figure 8- 8 c). The distance between two in-
sertions can be shortened in accordance with the member size and reinforcement dense-
ness.
- The vibrator should not be allowed to
touch the forms as this can cause deterio-
ration of forms. Generally, the vibrator
should be kept about 50 mm clear of the
form face. Similarly, the vibrator should
not be held against the reinforcement as
this may cause its displacement.

Figure 8-9 b. Use of poker vibrator

Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Aus-
tralia, 2000.

2. Surface vibrators (also referred to as external vibrators) are applied to the top surface of
concrete and act downwards form there, they are useful in compacting slabs, industrial floors,
road pavements, and other flat surfaces, they also aid in leveling and finishing the surface.
Surface vibrators can cover al speeds and centrifugal forces, and can be used inde-
pendently or with external frequency converters and switch boxes.
The basic forms of vibrator used in building works, are: vibration plates and tam-
pers, clamp vibrators and vibormoulds and vibrating tables.
a. Vibration plates and tampers consist of small vibrating engines (shaft with eccentric) that
are fixed to the top of a plate or a tamping board (steel or aluminum) for consolidating con-
crete paving and slabs.
The intensity of vibration, and hence the amount of compaction achieved, decreases
with depth because surface vibrators act form the top down. They are most effective, there-
fore, on slabs less than 200 mm in depth.
The vibrating beams and plates combine in-depth action with the capability to produce
flat floors. They are ideal for finishing operations in small areas and for low-slump concrete.
They are usually left in one place between 30-60 sec. Two consecutive work positions must
overlap on minimum 50 mm, on all sides.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Figure 8-10 a, b
Typical sur-
face vibrator
Caption: a. Vibra-
tion plate; b., and
c. Vibration tam-
per.
Source:
Tremix, 2001

Figure 8-10 c.
Degree of
compaction
varies across
width when
surface vi-
brators are
used

With centrally mounted vibration units, the degree of compaction achieved may vary
across the width of the beam. When they rest on edge forms, the latter may tend to damp the
vibration at the extremities of the beam. It is generally desirable to supplement vibrating –
beam compaction by using immersion vibrators alongside edge forms.
Technical characteristics of vibration plate: plate width 300 – 600 mm, operating
weight 60-90 kg, frequency 80 – 100 Hz, average travel speed 18 – 20 m/min, maximum
compaction depth 200-350 mm.
b. Clamp vibrators (also referred to as form vibrators) are devices that are attached to the

wall, they can be attached to only one side (< 150 mm) or on both (≥ 300 mm).
external sides of formwork to vibrate the whole of the form. According to the thickness of the

Care must be taken when deciding the clamps

number, location, frequency - according to the
concrete mix design (workability, cement content,
w/c, and aggregate grading) and ensuring that the
formwork has enough strength to resist the load of
the concrete and to withstand the vibrations.

Figure 8-11 Typical positioning of clamp vibrators in

formwork
Caption: 1. Clamp vibrator; 2. Whale; 3. Form panel.
Source:Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

c. Vibormould and vibrating table.

Vibrating moulds and tables are devices used

for compacting prefabricated concrete elements,
they resemble vibration clamps that are attached to
the external sides of moulds or beams, thus vibrat-
ing the whole concrete.
Technical characteristics of vibration plate:
frequency 25 – 100 Hz, maximum compaction
depth 200-400 mm.

Figure 8-12 External vibrators

Caption: a. Vibormould; b. Vibrating table: 1. Steel
brace; 2. Mould; 3. Clamp vibrator; 4. Elastic spring
support; 5. Foundations; 6. Vibrating table. Source:
Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

8.3.2.2. APPLYING PRESSURE

Compacting by applying pressure is a spe-
cific procedure for compacting prefabricated
concrete elements, by applying an external
pressure on the topside of the concrete mem-
ber. The initial pressing force will be located
in fresh concrete areas of low strength that
will cause there sliding. By this effect, the
particles will rearrange themselves eliminat-
ing at the same time excess mix water through
permeable sides of moulds.
Figure 8-13 Vibropress
Caption: 1. Permeable mould; 2. Table; 3. Press; 4. Concrete; 5. Elastic support; 6. Foundation.
Source: Suman R., 1988; Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

8.3.2.3. ROLLING
Compaction by rolling is a specific proce-
dure for compacting concrete prefabricates
using the conveyor procedure (see chapter
10).

Figure 8-14 Compacting by rolling

Caption: 1. Belt conveyor; 2. Steel rollers; 3.
Concrete bucket; 4. Vibrating beam; 5. Com-
paction rollers. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu
M., 1984.

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8.3.2.4. VACUUM DEWATERING

Figure 8-15 Standard set of vacuum dewatering installation

Caption: 1. Steel panel; 2. Flexible plastic tubing; 3. Main steel tubing; 4. Water separator tank; 5.
Vacuum pump; 6. Electric motor; a. Steel mesh; b. Filter material; c. Steel sheet; d. Connecting tube
piece. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Tremix 2001.
Vacuum dewatering is a method of reducing the time delay before finishing can take
place. The object is to remove the excess water from the flat member immediately after the
initial compaction and leveling has taken place, by using a vacuum pump with a flow capacity
of approx. 150 l/h.
The slab is covered with a fine filter sheet and a rigid or flexible suction mat to which
is connected to a transparent flexible plastic pipe attached to a vacuum generator. The vacuum
created will compress the concrete slab and force the water to flow out up to a depth of 300
mm. The dewatering process will cause a reduction of about 2% in the slab depth and there-
fore a surcharge should be provided by means of packing strips on the side forms or at the
ends of the tamping boards. The filter sheet will ensure that very little of the cement fines of
the mix are carried along in suspension by the water being removed.
The vacuum should be applied for about three minutes for every 25 mm of concrete
depth, which will generally mean that within approximately 20 minutes of casting the mats it
can be removed and the initial finishing (power floating) operation commenced, followed by
the final trowelling (leveling) operation. This method enables the laying of long strips of pav-
ing in a continuous operation. It is possible for a team consisting of six operatives and a su-
pervisor to complete 200 m2 of paving per day using this method.
Vacuum dewatering treatment reduces the total cost of concrete operations. It in-
creases the compressive strength, minimizes shrinkage of concrete members, and reduces
maintenance requirements. With only one pump connected to two or more suction mats, 60
m3 of concrete can be treated simultaneously. In cold weather, the dewatering achieved by
vacuuming reduces hardening times.

8.3.2.5. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

Radial compaction by centrifugal force consists of feeding the fresh concrete materi-
als, layer by layer, in a cylindrical mould that is accelerated.

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

The process times include feeding

times and curing times. Depending on the
diameter, pressure class, and stiffness
class, the feeding times lie between 6 and
60 minutes, and the curing times between
10 and 45 minutes.
After the feeding process, the mould
is rotated at higher speed and sprayed with
hot water at 70 degrees Celsius in order to
accelerate the curing process. The starting
curing temperature of the moulds is be-
tween 30 and 40 degrees Celsius.
The high centrifugal forces gener-
ated during the casting process causes
high pressures ensuring that the solid ma-
terials are thoroughly compacted.
Figure 8-16 Compacting by centrifugal force
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.
After curing, the mould is cooled down again with water to approx. 40 degrees Cel-
sius, causing the pipe to shrink for easier extraction. The pipe is pulled then out by a pneu-
matic device, placed on a trolley with a winch, and sent for finishing.
After the pipe has been extracted, the mould is cleaned and sprayed with a special
separating agent. The cover is mounted at the end of the mould and the pipe is then released
for further processing.

8.4. UNDER-VIBRATION AND OVER-VIBRATION

Normal-weight concrete’s that are well proportioned are not readily susceptible to de-
fects caused by over-vibration, these result from segregation and are characterized by an ex-
cessive thickness of mortar on the surface of the concrete.
Over-vibration appears do to oversized equipment operated for an excessive length of
time, that are used on poorly proportioned mixes or those to which excessive amounts of wa-
ter have been added. Leading to concrete segregation and poor surface finishes, such as dust-
ing and flaking.
When signs of over-vibration are detected, the initial reaction may be to reduce the
amount of vibration. The proper solution is to adjust the mix design.
Under-vibration is far more common than over-vibration and, when it occurs, it can
causes serious defects do to incompletely compaction of concrete.
Under-vibration is the most common filing, it affects structural properties, lowers
concrete strength, increase permeability, lowers durability, and increase susceptibility to cor-
rosive elements. Despite this, many specifications contain a caution against the over-vibration
- and even lay down a length of time for vibration that must not be exceeded - whilst neglect-
ing totally the question of under-vibration.

8.5. REVIBRATION
Revibration of concrete is the intentional systematic vibration of concrete that has
been compacted some time earlier. It should not be confused with the double vibration that
sometimes occurs with the haphazard use of immersion vibrators or multiple passes of a vi-
brating-beam screed.

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It is generally agreed that revibration of concrete can be beneficial to its strength, its
bond to reinforcement and its surface finish, the practice is not widely used, partly due to the
difficulty of knowing just how late it can be applied. A good rule of thumb is the revibration
may be used as long as the vibrator is capable of liquefying the concrete and sinking into it,
under its own weight.
Re-vibration is used to: bond layers of concrete into those preceding them, close plas-
tic shrinkage and settlement cracks, improve the surface finish at the tops of columns and
walls by expelling the air that tends to congregate there as the concrete settles in the form-
work and improve bonding to reinforcement when concrete is placed in layers

8.6. CONCRETE SURFACE FINISHING

Finishing represents the treatment of exposed concrete surfaces to produce the desired
appearance (correct minor irregularities of surface), texture and durability (wearing qualities).

Figure 8-17 Trowels (floats) for surface finishing

Source: Suman R., 1988.

Figure 8-18 Power float

Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Australia,
2000.
Figure 8-19 Methods of concrete surface finish

The procedure to follow depends primarily on whether the surface is horizontal or ver-
tical. Horizontal surfaces are usually exposed and must be finished before the concrete has
hardened. Timing is an important factor in this operation. Finishing must be done when the
concrete is neither too hard to be worked nor so soft that it will fail to retain the desired finish.

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The main types of finishes are as follows: screeding, floating and trowelling.
a. Screeding is the operation of leveling the concrete after it is placed in the forms and
roughly distributed with shovels. It is done by hand, or by means of vibrating-beam screeds,
which work off the forms or guide rails. It should be done before bleed water rises to the sur-
face.
Hand screeding off edge forms involves the use of a screed board (or beam) to strike
off the concrete to the required height. The striking surface of a screed board should always
be straight and true. The surface is struck off by pulling the screed board forward, while mov-
ing it back and forth in a sawing-like motion across the top of the edge forms. A small roll or
surcharge of concrete should always be kept ahead of the screed. Surface hollows created by
aggregate “roll out” or insufficient surcharge in front of the screed should always be filled
immediately to prevent variations in floor levels.
b. Floating. The purpose of floating is to make the surface even and open in texture, ready for
finishing. It embeds large aggregate particles beneath the surface, removes slight imperfec-
tions and produces a surface closer to the true plane and compacts the concrete, consolidates
mortar at the surface, preparing it for finishing and closes minor surface cracks, which might
appear as the surface dries.
Floating is working the surface of concrete with hand floats, bullfloats or with rotary
finishing machines fitted with suitable floats or shoes. Generally, it should not begin until all
bleed-water has evaporated from the surface and the concrete is hard enough to withstand foot
traffic with only minor indentations in the surface. These indentations are removed by the
floating operation.
Bullfloating. The bullfloat is a large float on a long handle, which is worked back and
forth on the concrete -in a direction parallel to the ridges formed by screeding. Bullfloating is
useful as an initial floating operation to smooth the concrete surface immediately after screed-
ing, and should be completed before bleed water appears on the surface.
Floating by hand. The hand float is held flat on the surface and moved in a sweeping
arc to embed the aggregate, compact the concrete, and remove minor imperfections and
cracks. The surface may sometimes be floated a second time-after some hardening has taken
place-to impart the final texture to the concrete.
Floating by machine. Float blades are turned up along the edges to prevent them dig-
ging into the surfaces in the flat position. The power-float should be operated over the con-
crete in a regular pattern, leaving a matt finish. Surfaces near to obstructions, or in slab cor-
ners, that cannot be reached with a power-float should be manually floated before power
floating.
c. Trowelling is carried out some time after floating. The delay is to allow some stiffening to
take place so aggregate particles are not torn out of the surface.
Trowelling by hand. A trowel for hand finishing has a flat, broad steel blade and is
used in a sweeping arc motion with each pass overlapping the previous one. For trowelling to
be most effective, the timing of the operation calls for some experience and judgment, but in
general terms, when the trowel is moved across the surface, it should give a ringing sound.
For the first trowelling (often referred to as 'breaking'), the trowel blade should be kept
as flat against the surface as possible because tilting, or pitching, the trowel at too great an
angle can create ripples on the surface. More trowelling increases the smoothness, density,
and wear resistance of the surface. Successive trowelling operations should be made with
smaller trowels at increasing pitches. This increases the pressure at the bottom of the blade
and compacts the surface.
Trowelling by machine. The trowelling machine (power trowel) is a common tool for
all classes of work and consists of several (generally four) steel trowel blades rotated by a mo-
tor and guided by a handle.

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CHAPTER 9. CURING CONCRETE

9.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

“Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement,
and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the con-
crete. [...] More specifically, the object of curing is to keep concrete saturated, or as nearly
saturated as possible, until the originally water-filled space in the fresh cement paste has
been filled to the desired extent by the products of hydration of cement.” ACI Committee 308
(1994).
Hydration of cement takes time (hours or even days) while concrete curing can take
days, and even weeks, according to a series of factors (e.g. time, cement type, water-cement
ratio, temperature and concrete grade). Proper curing is essential for the concrete to perform
its intended function over the life of the structure, in the scope of obtaining maximum strength
and durability.
Proper curing will: improve compressive strength, reduce the incidence of drying
shrinkage cracking, improve protection of reinforcement, increase the hardness of surfaces,
and consequently their resistance to abrasion.

9.2. BASIC CURING REQUIREMENTS

The basic requirements for proper curing are (ENV 206):
1. Maintain adequate water content in the concrete mix by retaining (through different cur-
ing methods) a suitable moisture content in the cement paste. Evaporation can occur do to
high temperatures and wind, prematurely drying out the concrete, influencing the cement rate
of hydration causing the formation of shrinkage cracks before the curing has started (high in-
ternal thermal gradients.
2. Protect the concrete against extreme temperatures (low temperature or frost) and envi-
ronments that can cause rapid cooling during the first few days after placing. Maintaining an
adequate temperature above freezing at a relatively constant value throughout the period of
curing, and at the same time protecting it from high temperatures that can at early ages impair
long-term properties or that can cause cracking due to temperature gradients. Temperature
control can be a difficult matter since there are three potential sources of heat - the ambient
environment, absorption of solar heat, and the heat generated from the hydration reactions.
3. Provide adequate protection from damaging mechanical disturbances during the
early period of curing as the concrete gains strength – such as heavy loads, large stresses,
shock, and excessive vibration.
4. Provide adequate time for sufficient hydration to produce concrete having satisfactory
properties for its intended use. The amount of time needed depends on a number of variables -
curing temperature, type of cement, and w/c ratio of mix.
5. Protect the concrete against vibration and impact that may disrupt it and interfere with
its bond to the reinforcement.

9.3. DURATION OF CURING

The following factors influence the duration of curing:
- Curing sensitivity of the concrete as influenced by its composition (type of cement used,
mixture proportions, required strength etc).

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- Concrete temperature.
- Size and shape of member.
- Ambient conditions during and after curing.
- Exposure conditions of the structure in service.
- Method of curing.
Since all desirable properties are improved with curing, the period should be as long
as practical. For most concrete structures, the curing period at temperatures above 5°C should
be a minimum of 7 days or until 70% of the specified compressive or flexural strength is at-
tained. The period can be reduced to 3 days if high early strength concrete is used and the
temperature is above 10° C (see formwork strike off).
Table 9-1 Minimum curing times in days according to exposure classes.
Strength development of concrete Rapid Medium Slow
Temperatures of concrete during curing above °C 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15
Ambient conditions during curing
I - No direct sunshine, relative humidity of surrounding air not lower 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 2
than 80 %
II - Exposed to medium sunshine or medium wind velocity or rela- 4 3 2 6 4 3 8 5 4
tive humidity not lower than 50 %
III - Exposed to strong sunshine or high wind velocity or relative 4 3 2 8 6 5 10 8 5
humidity below 50 %

9.4. CURING UNDER TEMPERATURE RANGING FROM 5 OC

TO 30 OC
Concrete properties and durability improve with age as long as conditions are favor-
able for continued hydration of the cement. The necessary conditions required are sufficient
moisture and temperatures preferably in the 5° to 30°C range.

9.4.1. METHODS OF CONCRETE CURING

The standard methods for the concrete curing are (CEB-FIP Model Code 1990; NE
012-1999):
1. Sprinkling with Water (also referred to as Fog Curing) – uses a fine spray or fog of water
to bring additional moisture to the concrete surface, not to allow the surfaces to dry out be-
tween applications, reducing the severe temperature stresses and early cracking of the con-
crete surface layers.
10-17
Coefficient of permeability (m/s) Limitations: include the need for large amounts of
water and supervision. Water could also erode the
concrete surface if adequate care is not taken. If wa-
ter to cold – possibility of concrete thermal shock,
contributing to cracking, while alternate wetting
10-11 and drying of the concrete can cause volume
changes and cracking of surface.
Figure 9-1 Effect of duration of water curing on the
permeability of cement paste
As seen, extending the period of curing reduces the
-7
10 permeability.
03 7 14 28 Curing period
(days)

2. Ponding – is a quick, inexpensive and effective form of curing concrete. The method con-
sists of ponding or hooding (immersing) the concrete surface, to a depth of 1 to 5 cm, in water
(this method is suited to curing flat surfaces, such as pavements and floors).

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Advantages: preventing loss of moisture by providing a positive excess of water con-

tinuously and maintaining a uniform temperature.
Limitations: it requires considerable labor and supervision being impractical for big
jobs. Ponding is also commonly used for curing specimens in laboratories.
3. Impervious Paper (Kraft Paper) - all surfaces shall be thoroughly wetted with a fine
spray of water and be completely covered with waterproof paper, polyethylene sheathing or
with polyethylene coated burlap thoroughly saturated with water before placement of the con-
crete.
Covering shall be lapped not less than 300 mm and securely weighted down or shall
be lapped not less than 100 mm and taped to form a continuous cover by completely closed
joints. Sheets shall be weighted to prevent displacement or billowing from winds. Covering
shall be folded down under exposed edges of slabs and secured by appropriate means as ap-
proved by the Engineer. Sheets shall be immediately repaired or replaced if tears or holes ap-
pear over the curing period.
Advantages: very efficient for curing horizontal surfaces, periodic additions of water
are not required, assures suitable hydration by preventing loss of moisture, it is reusable and
tears and holes can easily be repaired with patches.
Compressive strength (MPa)
In air 28 days
4. Wet Coverings – such as moisture-
45
retaining fabrics saturated with water,
Moist-cured
entire time i.e. burlap, cotton, or jute felt mats,
In air 14 days rugs, and sand, hay or saw dust. These
In air 7 days are sometimes used as preliminary to
In air 3 days
the paper curing and sometimes used
25
alone. The mats must be wide enough to
In air drape over the concrete edges. They are
entire time
kept wet continuously for the duration
of the curing period. In place of the
mats, saturated straw may be used to
5 retain the mixing water by preventing
03 7 28 90 Age (days)
Figure 9-2 Variation of concrete strength with curing evaporation. The curing duration is
environment (W/C =0,5) given as a specified interval such as 7
days.
Advantages: No discoloration, resistant to rot and fire.
Limitations: Periodic additions of water, use of polyethylene film over wet covering
will eliminate continuous watering.
5. Forms Left in Place - may also provide an effective barrier if they are left in place after
casting. In this case, the exposed surface of the concrete has to be kept wet using sprinkler or
hoses, especially during hot weather.
Where formed surface are cured, the forms shall also be kept continually wet. If the
forms are removed before the end of the specified curing period, curing shall be continued on
stripped surfaces, using suitable materials.
6. Plastic sheets are made of polyethylene films, generally 4 mm thick.
Advantages: lightweight and effective moisture barrier that can be easily applied to
complex as well as simple shapes of concrete members.
Limitations: effectiveness is reduced if they are not secured and wind enters under-
neath, they can cause patchy discoloration, more pronounced when film is wrinkled and peri-
odic additions of water may be necessary to prevent discoloration.
7. Membrane Curing Compounds – are applied by spraying or rolling the member with a
liquid membrane-sealing compound (blend of waxes, oils or resins held in solution by a vola-
tile solvent), used to retard or reduce evaporation of water. It is an excellent method where

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temperature is above freezing and humidity is low. A common requirement is that it shall
form a film that shall retain at the end of 3 days at least 85 per cent of the water.
Advantages: low cost to apply and easy ap-
plication on vertical surfaces.
Limitations: failure in the field to place them
at the correct instant (when surface is watery
the spray will collect in globules on the water
and no film will form and if it is applied too
late the water in the upper concrete layer will
evaporate and the harm is done), and also the
failure to cover the surface completely.
Figure 9-3 Spraying on a curing compound
Source: Cement & Concrete Association of Aus-
tralia, 2000.
Surfaces coated with curing compound shall be kept free from foot and vehicular traf-
fic, and from other causes of abrasion and contamination during the curing period.
8. Insulating Blankets - when temperatures fall below freezing, layers of dry porous material
such as straw may be used to insulate the concrete from the cold. Formwork can also be eco-
nomically insulated with commercial blanket. Framed enclosures of canvas, polyethylene, or
other material can also be used and heated by space heaters or steam. In these cases, care
needs to be taken to ensure that temperatures do not rise excessively.

9.5. CURING CONCRETE IN EXTREME WEATHER

CONDITIONS

9.5.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The general loss in output in the construction industry in normal circumstances during
the winter and summer period is about 15…20%, causing under-employment of staff and
plant and delay in completing the building.
Weather factors that can damage the concrete are air temperature, relative humidity,
prevailing winds and wind intensity, they affect the maturity by slowing down the rate at
which concrete hardens or increases the rate at which the water evaporates to an unacceptable
level. The following precautions should ensure mat no detrimental effects occur when mixing
and placing in extreme weather conditions:
- Storage of cement under cover and in perfectly dry conditions to prevent air setting.
- Cooling /defrosting of aggregates.
- Minimum of delay between mixing and placing.
- Temperature of concrete when placed ideally should be 10°…30°C.
- Newly placed concrete to be kept at a temperature of more than 5 °C for at least three days
since the rate at which concrete sets below this temperature is almost negligible. It may be
necessary to employ the use of covers with heating elements to maintain this minimum
temperature or a polythene tent to provide about 500 mm air space underneath. Warm air
can be blown under the tent to create an insulative layer.
- If special cements with extra fineness of particles are used, due to greater surface area the
hydration reaction will be faster providing a high rate of heat evolution helping prevention
of frost damage and faster strength gain.

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9.5.2. PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE IN EXTREME TEMPERATURES

Most concrete contractors need, at some time or another, to place concrete in extreme
temperatures, in these cases (in either hot or cold concreting conditions) adjustments shall be
made to the mix and to the placing and finishing practices to avoid problems occurring.

9.5.3. HOT WEATHER CONCRETING

Summer, if defined as that period requiring special precautions to prevent damage to
constructions, by hot weather or low humidity, it is considered as the interval when the exte-
rior temperature is between +5 oC and +30 oC.
High temperatures, low humidity and high winds accelerate the set of concrete by
causing moisture loss - rapid drying of surfaces, shorter setting times and lower strength caus-
ing shrinkage cracks, for placing the concrete a short time is available in which finishing may
be done.
Placing concrete during hot weather presents some special problems, and the success
of a concreting project under such conditions depends on their solution. Good practice re-
quires during hot weather to follow details that will reduce the risk of poor concrete quality
work:
- Plan the job earlier in the day, or work at night.
- Transportation should be carried out as rapidly as possible. Precise co-ordination between
the contractor and the plant is also imperative. If trucks are delayed before unloading, heat
builds up in the concrete, before unloading, be sure they are parked in the shade. Misting
the top of the mixer drum will also allow heat to be pulled off as the water evaporates.
- Plan the job to avoid delays once the concrete pour has started.
- Damped the sub base before placement of concrete (but do not leave surface water).
- Cool the aggregate. Spraying or misting coarse aggregate with water or shading them is
probably the most practical because the cooling takes place by evaporation (as the water
evaporates, the heat is pulled off).
- Substitute ice or chilled water for a portion of the mixing water is another method of cool-
ing. Liquid nitrogen can be injected into the mixer; however, it requires special setup and
is extremely expensive.
- Adjust the mix to compensate for warm weather, and use readers (water reducing retard-
ers).
- Sprinkle the forms and steel cool water just before concrete is placed, to prevent them
from drying out and taking moisture from the concrete.
- Spray concrete with curing compounds (e.g. evaporation retarders - reduces the rate of
evaporation) that are applied over the surface to trap bleed water, which in turn minimizes
the extent of plastic shrinkage cracking that would otherwise occur under hot windy con-
ditions.

9.5.4. COLD WEATHER CONCRETING

Winter, if defined as that period requiring special precautions to prevent damage to
constructions, by high winds, frost action, excess precipitation, snow and poor daylight levels,
it is considered as the interval when the ambient temperature is between +5 oC and –10 oC.
Conventionally this period starts on 15 November to 15 March. This will cause a stoppage of
work unless adequate winter construction equipment is used.
In cold conditions prolonged setting times are required, concrete can crack when the
water in the concrete mass freezes and expands. In these conditions, freshly placed concrete
must be protected to prevent freezing.

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Concrete which has attained a strength of 5 MPa is considered past the danger stage,
although it is still not capable of withstanding repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. Fur-
ther gain in strength will depend on temperature and humidity conditions, but care must be
taken to see that temperatures do not rise to a high level.
Good practice requires during cold weather to follow details that will reduce the risk
of poor concrete quality work, such as using:
1. Fast hardening cement, adding of accelerator additives and hot water blended to the
mix, to achieve the required temperature range;
2. Enclosure and protective layers of insulating materials;
3. Steam generators for defrosting plant and materials or heating water.
1. Hot concrete. Emphasis has been placed on the necessity for keeping fresh concrete tem-
peratures in the range of +5°…+30°C. For concrete that is to be placed in the field, the main-
tenance of such temperatures is necessary to allow time for placing, compaction, and finish-
ing.
But in situations in which concrete is to be mixed in a central plant for use in produc-
ing reinforced precast products, it has been found that, under the proper conditions, fresh con-
crete can be placed successfully at temperatures up to 80°C.
The primary reason for using hot concrete is that it sets and gains early strength much
more rapidly than concrete placed at conventional temperatures. For example, it has been
shown that curing times of 3 hr can produce approximately 60% to 70% of the 28-day design
strength. Therefore, more intensive use can be made of expensive plant facilities. Moulds can
be used two or sometimes three times in an 8-hr day rather than once, as is the case with nor-
mal temperature concrete.
Good practice requires during cold weather to follow details that will reduce the risk
of poor concrete quality work:
- Heat the mixing water and the aggregates. When hotter concrete is required, injection of
steam into the mixer is used to produce temperatures of 50° to 80°C. Temperature is con-
trolled by regulating the amount of steam entering the countercurrent mixers mixer. Nor-
mally, steam is injected into the mixer at the same time the aggregates are dumped, but
just before adding cement and water. Water produced in the mix due to the condensation
of steam is included in the total amount of water required for strength and slump control.
If more water is required for slump adjustment, it should be the same temperature as the
concrete.
- Additives added to the mix as an accelerator, speed up setting so the concrete can be fin-
ished. Faster setting and earlier finishing allow the concrete to be covered more quickly,
retaining heat and reducing the risk of freezing.
- Do not place concrete on a frozen subgrade, it will most likely thaw unevenly, which
means it will settle unevenly and have hollow areas under the slab.
2. Enclosures and Protective Layers of Insulating Materials. Workers and materials will
need protection from adverse winter conditions if an acceptable level of production is to be
maintained without interruption under adverse conditions to ensure maximum quality and
productivity.
Such protection can be of one or more of the following types: temporary shelters,
framed enclosures, air-supported structures and protective layers of insulating materi-
als.
a. Temporary shelters are the most common enclosure material is reinforced polyethyl-
ene/plastic sheets because they are the cheapest and simplest form of giving protection to the
working areas. Sometimes the plastic is used only as temporary hoarding for door and win-
dow openings or as window strips, but often the whole enclosure is covered with polyethylene
fixed to the outside of the scaffold to form a windbreak.

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Enclosures can be heated using numerous

types of heaters and fuel sources. The main types
of heater in use are convectors (gas-burning appli-
ances), radiant heaters, and forced-air heaters
(water vapor into the space being heated) using
electricity, gas, or oil as fuel.

Figure 9-4 Temporary shelter

Caption: 1. Slab; 2. Insulating blanket; 3. Horizontal

enclosure (polyethylene sheets); 4. Vertical enclosure
(polyethylene sheets); 5. Heaters. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

At a minimum, the level below the floor you

will be working on should be enclosed. Some con-
tractors enclose two levels below and the one on
which they are working.

Figure 9-5 Typical heating enclosure

Caption: 1. Wall; 2. Form; 3. Auxiliary structure for
protective enclosure; 4. Heaters. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

b. Framed enclosures. They consist of a

frame covering the whole structure cov-
ered by a polythene sheet. The frame can
be constructed from standard tubular scaf-
folding. The frame must be rigid enough
to take the extra loadings of the coverings
and any imposed loading such as wind
loadings. Anchorage to the ground of the
entire framed structure is of grate impor-
tance.
Figure 9-6 Framed enclosure
Source: GP 004-9742
c. Air-supported structures. These are sometimes called air domes and are being increas-
ingly used on building sites as a protective enclosure for works in progress and for covered
material storage areas.
Two forms are available: internally supported dome and air rib dome.
Figure 9-7. a. Procedures for
casting a structural con-
crete wall in enclosure;
b. Air supported structure
Caption: 1. Internally supported
dome; 2. Concrete structure; 3.
Heaters.

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The internally supported dome (referred to as an air-structure) is held up by internal

air pressure acting against the covering membrane with access through an air lock or air cur-
tain door, whereas in the air rib dome the membrane is supported by air-inflated ribs to
which the covering membrane is attached.
The usual shape for an air-supported structure is semi-cylindrical with rounded ends
through which daylight can be introduced by having a translucent membrane over the crown
of the structure.
The advantages of air supported structures are the low cost, light in weight, re-usable,
while only a small amount of labor is required to erect and dismantle them and with only a
low internal pressure workers inside are not affected.
Limitations are the need to have at least one fan in continuous operation to maintain
the internal air pressure, provision of an air lock or curtain entrance that will impede or re-
strict the general site circulation and the height limitation that is usually in the region of 45%
of the overall span of the structure.
d. Protective layers of insulating materials. One of the easiest ways to protect concrete is to
cover it with insulating blankets. Straw can be used if these are not available. On elevated
slabs, the deck area should be covered the night before pouring to trap the temporary heat that
is rising. Heat must be maintained below the placed slab, otherwise, the insulation will be
covering a cold slab, moisture will be trapped, and the top will freeze.

Figure 9-9 Typical protection of fresh cast concrete with

heating forms
Caption: 1. Concrete member; 2. Insulating blanket; 3.
Heating steel form; 4. Heating pipes; 5. Insulating blanket
for form; 6. Insulating blanket for free surface of concrete.
Figure 9-8 Heating form
Caption: 1. Concrete member; 2. Heating steel form; 3. Space required for circulation of
heating agent; 4. Insulating blanket. Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984.

Figure 9-10 Typical solution of concrete protec-

tion using insulating blankets
Caption: 1. Concrete cup-shaped footing; 2.
Insulating blanket. Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M., 1984.

3. Steam generators for defrosting plant and materials or heating water. The steam genera-
tor can be connected to steam coils that can be inserted into stockpiles of materials or alterna-
tively the steam generator can be connected to a hand-held lance.

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Figure 9-11 a. Heat-

ing aggregates
before intro-
duction in mix;
b. heat source
underneath the
aggregate pile.
Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M.,
1984.

9.6. ACCELERATED CONCRETE CURING

9.6.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Although accelerated curing is used more frequently for precast members (structural
members, pipes, masonry units and prestressed products), it also applies to cast-in-place con-
crete.
The scope of accelerated curing practices is the allowance for a rapid and frequent re-
use of the casting beds, so to increase productivity, and protection of freshly placed concrete.
In normal circumstances, concrete after 14 days of curing has completed only 40% of its
potential, and after 28 days 70%. By using accelerated curing practices, precast concrete after
16...20 hr reaches 70% of its potential, which in normal conditions would have been attained
after 5-7 days after casting (NE 013-200243).
The major concerns regarding of accelerated curing are: potential for increased mois-
ture loss and high temperatures, occurring during the curing process, that can have a detri-
mental effect on long-term concrete properties.
Accurate design and control of concrete curing:
- Improves the overall quality by maintaining the humidity of the freshly placed concrete to
assure satisfactory hydration and preventing early age cracking caused by restrained ther-
mal and shrinkage deformations and damages related to early age frost exposure.
- Lowers the costs by optimizing the choice of measures for humidity and temperature con-
trol and to improve the planning of the concrete production by optimizing the execution of
the concrete work including the time schedule, lowering the production costs by an effi-
cient control of the hardening of the concrete.
Do to these, the procedures used for accelerating strength gain aim to create a favor-
able humidity and temperature for hydration to occur.
The objectives of curing acceleration of concrete are:
- Prevention of loss of moisture from concrete (not less than 80% r.h.).
- Maintenance of favorable temperature for hydration to occur for a definite period (above
freezing and below 80 oC).

9.6.2. EFFECTS OF ACCELERATED CURING ON CEMENT AND

CONCRETE STRUCTURE
Heat curing may cause two types of effects that could negatively influence the durabil-
ity of the precast concrete element. These effects are of chemical and physical nature.
1. Chemical effect is manifested by the increased hydration of the cement due to the high cur-
ing temperatures, which lead to a rapid crystal growth and consequently, high early strengths.
However, the strengths at later ages (from 7 days and beyond) are lower than those of the
same concrete cured at the standard laboratory conditions (21±2°C and 95±5% relative hu-

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midity). Therefore, the chemical effects are the strength loss at later ages, which influence
negatively the durability.
Table 9-2 Strengths (MPa) of normal and steam cured concrete specimens.
Age (days) 1 7 28 90
Curing Steam Normal Steam Normal Steam Normal Steam Normal
Compressive 55.4 67.2 84.1 74.1 93.1 84.1 102.1 94.8
Flexural 6.3 6.5 7.3 7.4 9 7.8 10.7 9.3
Tensile 4.2 4.6 4.8 4.6 5.3 5.2 6 5.9
E Modulus 32,571 36,756 39,183 37,858 40,810 40,533 45,600 42,750
2. Physical effect of heat curing of concrete is microcracking. The constituents of concrete
are cement, aggregates, admixtures, water, and air. Of all these materials, air has the highest
coefficient of expansion. Therefore, during the temperature rise phase of heat curing, air ex-
pands the most and, as the concrete is still very weak, the stresses caused by the air expansion
may cause microcracks to form, do to the porosity of the concrete that has is increased. If dur-
ing the cooling phase, concrete cools very rapidly, further stresses are induced which may
widen the existing microcracks and/or create new ones.
From this it is evident that microcracking is a parameter of concrete deterioration and
the causes for microcracking are: high curing temperatures, rapid cooling after demoulding
(thermal shock), non uniform transfer of prestress leading to localized stress concentration.
With careful temperature selection, the strength of concrete after 3 days can exceed
the 28-day strength of normally cured concrete. Besides the early strength gain, steam-cured
concrete has reduced drying, shrinkage and creep as compared to normally cured concrete do
to the induced microcracks that are preferable paths for ingress of aggressive agents that cause
concrete deterioration.

9.6.3. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE ACCELERATED CURING

PROCEDURES
1. Steam Curing - can be achieved by two methods: live (low pressure) steam at atmos-
pheric pressure or by high-pressure steam curing in autoclaves.
Strength development in concrete is a function of the temperature of concrete, its age
from casting and the type of cement. The temperature at which the concrete has to be cured
depends upon the strength required at the time of demoulding, prestress transfer, and/or han-
dling. High curing temperatures (up to 80 °C) are often used for obtaining high strengths (30
to 55 MPa) at ages ranging from 6 to 16 hours.
a. Atmosphere Pressure Steam Curing - is used for enclosed cast-in-place structures and
large precast units. In the precast concrete industry, steam curing allows increased production
by a more rapid turnover of moulds and formwork.
Units may be placed in a curing chamber (free from outside drafts) and cured in a
moist atmosphere maintained at a maximum temperatures range from 40° to 100°C (with the
optimum being in the 65 °to 80 °C), by the injection of steam for a period of not less than 12
hours or, when necessary, for such additional time as may be needed to enable the units to
meet the strength requirements.
The higher the initial temperature of the curing environment, the lower the ultimate
strength. This means that the temperature used will be a compromise between the rate of
strength gain and the ultimate strength.
The steam inlets shall be placed in such a manner and/or the concrete members shall
be protected in such a way that steam will not be blown directly against the concrete, or cause
uneven heating of the members at any point. The enclosing arrangements shall be kept suffi-
ciently airtight during the whole period of steam curing to prevent the entry of cool air at any

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time, and so that the variation of temperature throughout the steam chamber at any time shall
not exceed 5°C.

Temperature within steam enclosure (oC) Curing of associated con-

Steam temperature in enclosure held to 80 C o crete test cylinders shall be
until desired concrete strength is developed achieved by placing the cylinders
80 Concrete within the enclosure in a position
temperature
variation adjacent to the lower face of the
Steam applied Temperature structural units that they repre-
reduced to 40 oC/hr
to enclosure at
until within 20oC of
sent.
40 20oC /hr
outside temperature The cylinders shall be lo-
cated midway between steam en-
Outside air at
20oC Enclosure try points and shall be distant at
temperature least half the width of the struc-
0 variation
0 4 8 18 22 Time after
tural unit from these points.
I II III IV placing (hr) The cylinders shall not be
placed on top of the structural
I. Initial delay prior to steaming 2…5 hr.
II. Temperature increase period 2…3 hr. units or on the steam jet lines and
III. Constant temperature period 6…12 hr. shall not be in line with any
IV. Temperature decrease period 2 hr.
steam jet. The test cylinders shall
be marked to identify them with
Figure 9-12 Typical curing racks in steam- chamber; Precast
concrete curing acceleration cycle particular structural units.
Steaming shall be continued until at least 7 days strength (under normal curing) is ob-
tained. After completion of curing the steam supply shall be cut off, and the members shall be
allowed to cool gradually and evenly for a period of 8 hours to avoid concrete cracking.
Special care shall be exercised to prevent any rain falling on the concrete during the
cooling period. Steam cured sections shall not be lifted within 36 hours after the completion
of concreting unless otherwise agreed with the Engineer for pretensioned members. Transfer
of prestress may be performed when the units have cooled to 60°C.
The Contractor shall provide accurate instruments for recording and controlling the
temperature inside the enclosure. These instruments shall record graphically the temperature
inside the enclosure during the whole of the steaming operation. Sufficient instruments shall
be provided and so positioned to record variations in temperature between various points
within the enclosure. Spacing of recording points shall not exceed 10 m except where the En-
gineer is satisfied that uniform temperature distribution is achieved. The instruments shall be
secured against access by unauthorised persons.
The recording thermometers shall be set in operation immediately upon completion of
the casting and screeding, the temperature sensitive part of each thermometer being installed

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in position at the same time. Charts shall not be removed from any recording thermometers,
nor the recording thermometers disturbed or moved in any way until after the removal of the
steam covers.
The following information shall be recorded on the chart: date on which steaming
commenced, description of concrete unit, temperature correction (if any), time correction (if
any), time completion of placing concrete, temperature of concrete when placed, ambient tem-
perature at time of removal of steam covers, name of Contractor or Manufacturer and name of
Engineer.
During curing, the concrete is taken through a curing cycle consisting of the following
stages:
1. An initial delay before steaming named presetting period (i.e.: the duration be-
tween placing the last concrete and commencement of steam curing) so to facilitate de
setting of cement in good conditions. This period after completion of concreting al-
lows the concrete to gain sufficient tensile strength to resist the expansive forces. Rec-
ommended stage period Ta = 3…6 hr.
2. A period for increasing the temperature, the temperature inside the enclosure shall
not be increased or decreased at a rate greater than 10…20oC/hr. Recommended stage
period Tr = 1…4 hr.
3. A period for holding the maximum temperature constant. The maximum tempera-
ture of the air space during the application of steam (typically 75 oC). The nominated
temperature shall be maintained within ±3°C and the maximum and minimum tem-
peratures occurring, and the variation of temperature with time, shall be recorded us-
ing a suitable thermograph. Recommended stage period Ti = 4…21 hr.
4. And a period for cooling. Recommended stage period Tr = 1…4 hr.
When a curing chamber is not available, units may be placed in an enclosure of canvas
and subjected to steam at the temperature and of steam around the entire unit. The interior sur-
faces of the curing room or canvas jackets and the surfaces of the unit shall be entirely moist
at all times. The manufacturer shall provide automatic temperature recorders to continuously
record the curing temperatures. The units shall then be cured outdoors for a minimum of 3…7
days.
b. High pressure steam. This method is used for small manufactured units. The curing is
done in autoclaves at temperatures in the 80°C range and pressures of 550 to 1170 kPa. This
environment changes the chemistry of the hydration producing a concrete that has the follow-
ing modified properties: a 24 hour strength equal to 28-day strength under ambient curing,
less creep and shrinkage, better sulfate resistance, lower moisture content after curing.
2. Electrical, Oil, and Infrared Curing These methods are used primarily in the precast
concrete industry. Electrical methods include a variety of techniques such as using the con-
crete itself as a conductor, using the steel as the conductors, and heated steel forms. Hot oil
may also be circulated through steel forms to heat the concrete. Infrared rays may also be used
to heat concrete under a covering or steel forms.
3. Radio-frequency curing is a process of heating materials through the application of radio
waves of high frequency - i.e., above 70,000 hertz (cycles per second). Two methods of radio-
frequency heating have been developed. One of these, induction heating, has proved highly
effective for heating metals and other materials that are relatively good electric conductors.
4. Dielectric curing is a method by which the temperature of an electrically nonconducting
(insulating) material can be raised by subjecting the material to a high-frequency electromag-
netic field. The material to be heated is placed between two metal plates, called electrodes, to
which a source of high-frequency energy is connected. The resultant heating, in homogeneous
materials, occurs throughout the material.

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CHAPTER 10. OFF-SITE PREFABRICATION

10.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Off-site prefabrication is the manufacture and partial assembly of building compo-
nents (referred to also as Precast units) at a location other than the job site (e.g. prefabrica-
tion shop/manufacturers yard). The manufacture technology uses an assembly line that mass-
produces precast building components controlling construction costs by economizing time,
wages, and materials, improving the quality of the products.
A precast unit can be defined as a concrete that has been cast into the desired shape
prior to placement in a structure. Precast components can be designed and used to serve as
dual functions: forms for cast-in-place concrete and as a durable exterior finish. Precast con-
struction involves concrete forming, placing, finishing, and curing operations away from the
project site and then erecting the precast components as part of a completed structure.

10.2. INDUSTRIALIZATION OF FACTORY-

MANUFACTURED SYSTEMS
Large precast units are made in a mechanized central plant and erected on site by
cranes. Common precast concrete elements would include piles and decks for bridges, floor
and roof slabs, wall panels, joists, beams, girders, rigid frames, and shell units.
Precasting is a controlled operation, similar to factory production, and thereby assures
better control of quality and a shorter period for building completion.
Precasting can be done: at the building site or at a mechanized temporary factory that
can be established at the site or in permanent factories. Production in permanent factories is
characterized by a high degree of mechanization and standardization.
The most important aspects of precasting are:
1. Sophisticated design and innovative construction techniques are becoming common
practice to minimize project costs while maintaining or improving project quality, du-
rability, and operability. Use of precast concrete construction can result in lower costs
by more effective material usage and reduced onsite labor.
2. Allowance of strict production controls which in turn make safe and economical use of
unusually high quality concrete’s and highly advanced design techniques.
3. Protection from the unfavorable weather does not interrupt production.
4. Complete buildings even large industrial structures can be erected all year round pro-
viding important economies by advancing the date when a new structure begins to
give economic returns.
5. Standardization of units to facilitate economic and repeated use of forms.
6. Some factories offer a variety of standardized sections made in whatever lengths are
needed. Such products are often offered for sale in catalogues, including the strength
and performance characteristics needed in architectural and engineering design of
structure assembled for each specific structure from precast units.
7. A few firms have predesigned elements, catalogued for consumer selection. With a
known building size and loading, the elements for a complete structure are quickly
fabricated from detailed standards and shipped to the site.
8. The precasting process is also sufficiently adaptable so that special shapes can be pro-
duced economically.

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10.4. OFF-SITE PRECAST MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGIES
Off-site assembly line manufacture technologies for prefabricated concrete members
have a lot in common according to the type of element produced.
The manufacture of precast unit primarily involves the following main steps:
- Cleaning and coating of moulds, with special mechanical machines or manually. It is for-
bidden to hammer or drop the moulds do to there possible deformation or deterioration.
To break the adherence between the concrete and the face of the mould, they will be oiled.
- Assembly of mould components according to there design.
- Assembly and installation of reinforcing (pre assembled meshes or cages sometimes-
individual bars) and prestressing steel reinforcement, positioned according to the design
reinforcement details.
- Production, placement and vibration of concrete, required for adequate consolidation of
concrete.
- Concrete curing through thermal treatment according to the manufacturing technology
used. Precast units require adequate curing procedures, because their sections are thinner
and more highly stressed during handling, transportation, and erection, that conventional
cast –in place concrete sections. Therefore, adequate means of curing must be specified
and enforced. Steam curing at atmospheric pressure is widely employed in precast manu-
facture so to accelerate the early-strength gain and permit daily turnover of forms. The
adoptions of a proper cycle of steam curing and subsequent water curing is essential for
good their quality. When precast products are removed from steam curing, the moisture
extraction from the concrete is accelerated due to the change in temperature and humidity,
so the products must be covered for protection from wind and rapid changes in tempera-
ture and moisture.
- Strike-off of moulds will be achieved only after the concrete has reached its required
strength.
- Quality control of prefabricates elements according to the specified deviation and toler-
ances.
- Cod marking at one face of the unit.
- Storage until delivery in the position indicated by the design.
According the specific technology used other work procedures will be followed:
- Positioning of miscellaneous fittings.
- Tensioning of prestressed strands.
- Precompression transfer to concrete.
- Finishing works, insulation works, installation works and sandblasting etc.

10.4.1. CODE MARKING

Each casting is physically coded by marking upon it, with paint, after removal from
the mould, the following information:
a. Name or trademark of manufacturer.
b. Date of manufacture, mould number and lot number - the casting date indicates the
age and relative strength of the casting during all operations. The date, combined with
the mould number, facilitates comparison of the castings with concrete-cylinder test
results. This code combination quickly locates an individual mould producing castings
with improper dimensions, contact finish, insert location, or other undesirable trait;
permits correction before further faulty elements are cast; and simplifies identification
of faulty castings from the same mould before delays are encountered in handling or
erection.

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c. A letter identifying type of casting (precast unit).

d. Mark of Quality Control Supervisor - units of a general shape and/or size may have
minor variations in some dimensions, reinforcing, inserts, opening, or finish.
e. Directional mark for orientation during erection – each unit that does not have an inte-
gral frame or a design that indicates the top surface shall have the words "INSTALL
THIS SIDE UP" placed on its top surface in the scope of correct positioning during
transport, storage, and erection. The code readily identifies the particular variable ele-
ment, and the directional notation assures proper orientation and location of variable
properties on erection.
Code marking should be weatherproof, legible, and of sufficient size to be seen from a
distance. It is located where it will remain visible when the element is stacked, transported, or
stored but not on finished surfaces exposed on the completed structure.

10.5. CONCRETE PRODUCTS PRECASTING METHODS

10.5.1. CONCRETE PIPE

This product is manufactured for raw water supply mains and discharge lines, sanitary
and storm sewer, and drainage culverts. Pipes are made of either plain or reinforced concrete,
and can be produced to exhibit characteristics corresponding to intended function. Structural
tests indicate the ability of the pipe to resist the pressure of soils in which it is buried. Freez-
ing and thawing tests indicate resistance to ice pressures. Hydrostatic pressure tests reflect
resistance to internal pressure.
Concrete pipe is made by several manufacturing methods:
- Cast pipe is made by placing concrete into forms of the desired sizes.

Figure 10-1 Reinforced concrete centrifuged pipe

Source: SOMACO SA
- Packerhead pipe, a very dry concrete mixture
is packed into the form with such force that the
freshly made pipe section can be taken to a cur-
ing chamber where the form is removed imme-
diately and the newly compacted pipe stands
vertically during the curing and hardening pe-
riod. Similar results are obtained by various
other mechanical tamping methods.
- Centrifugal concrete pipe is manufactured in
forms rotating at high speed so that the con-
crete is compacted as excess water is forced out
by centrifugal force. The pipe may be plain, re-
inforced, or prestressed concrete. Curing is ac-
complished by steam, water spray, saturated
covers, or in water.
1. Bar-Wrapped Concrete Cylinder Pipe - The manufacturing procedure for this type of
pipe includes the following steps (see Radial compaction by centrifugal force):

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- Positioning of steel cylinder mould horizontally on the assembly line;

- Cement-mortar placement or concrete lining by the centrifugal process inside the cylin-
der.
- Curing of lining, after which the mould is removed, with saturated steam at elevated tem-
peratures in a curing kiln;
- Reinforcing the pipe by wrapping it with a smooth, hot-rolled steel bar, using a moderate
tension in the bar;
- Covering the pipe and bar wrapping with a cement slurry and a cement-rich dense mortar
coating.
2. Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe has the following two general types of construction:
Manufacture of core:
- Joint rings are attached to each end, and the steel cylinder assembly.
- A concrete core is placed by the centrifugal process, radial compaction, or by vertical
casting.
- Curing of core after which high-strength wire is wrapped helically to the pipe.
- Control of wire spacing to produce a predetermined residual compression in the concrete
core.
- Coating the wire with a thick cement slurry by gunite covering.
- Curing of cover coat usually by the same method as for the cores.

10.5.2. MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES

1. Stand Fabrication Procedure - its main characteristic is the fact that the moulds are sta-
tionary (they are fixed to the casting bed) and facilities for concreting, vibrating, and curing
are portable.
Sand, gravel, and cement are transported to the concrete plant by truck. Certain mate-
rials, such as inert aggregates, are typically stored outdoors in stockpiles. Moisture-sensitive
materials, such as cement and fly ash, may be stored in high-capacity silos.
The transport of materials (reinforcement, concrete etc.) is made by forklift trucks,
dump trucks and belt conveyors up to the reach of the crane (traveling crane gantry crane).
As the materials are needed, they are transported by conveyor to large storage bins at
the top of the block plant. At the start of production, the raw materials are discharged into a
weigh batcher, which measures the correct proportion of dry materials for the mix. The dry
materials are mixed for several minutes before water and admixtures are added. The propor-
tioning of the mix is carefully controlled by computer.
After mixing is complete, the batch is discharged into a hopper and compacted into
moulds. Each mould consists of a re-usable, one-piece mould box with replaceable liners.
The moulds are compacted using pressure and vibration to assure an even distribution
of concrete. The compacted precast unit is pressed out of the mould onto a moving conveyor
belt or is compacted using a vibrating table. As the precast element goes down the belt, a ro-
tating brush removes loose particles of aggregate from the top surface of the block. At this
stage of the process, the uncured elements as referred to as "green." The "green" units are me-
chanically loaded onto a curing rack.
Fully loaded curing racks are then transported by forklift into an available steam-
curing chamber (kiln). Racks of concrete block are placed in the steam-curing kiln at normal
temperature for a holding period of 1-3 hours. This "presetting" allows the units to harden
slightly.

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Steam is then gradually in-

troduced, increasing the
chamber, the temperature in-
creasing incrementally, until
peak temperature (usually
80oC) is reached. The units
are then allowed to cool, be-
fore they are extracted.

Figure 10-2 Layout of Stand

setting
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu
M., 1984.

Figure 10-3 Typical

Multiple Beam
Tensioning
Stand cross sec-
tion setting for
prestressed-
concrete units
1. Concrete casting bed; 2. Anchor; 3. Jack; 4. Tensioning strands; 5. Structural units cast
along side one another; 6. Parallel stressing assemblies; 7. Outline of member to be poured
and stressed; 8. Anchor; 9. Concrete casting bed.
The concrete mix should be designed and so treated (steam curing) to produce a strong
concrete with a high bond value in the shortest possible time, giving maximum production for
a given casting bed.
Storage and transport - pallets of cured block are then removed from the chamber and
transported by forklift to outdoor storage yards. Steam-cured block typically reaches 90% of
its final strength within 2 to 4 days. Large quantities of standard-sized blocks are stored until
ready for transport to the jobsite. Blocks are transported by flatbed truck to the jobsite.
Tension Strand At Both Ends: If more than one beam is in the casting bed, the draped strand
must be tensioned successively from both ends. At each end, the strand is pulled to the desired
load and elongation measured. The load determined from the sum of the two elongation
measurements must agree within 5% of the gauge reading. If the casting bed is set up for one
beam and the 5% tolerance in elongation is achieved by the cable at one end, tensioning at the
subsequent end can be waived.
2. Conveyor Fab-
rication Proce-
dure - - Its main
characteristic is
the fact that the
moulds are port-
able and facilities
for concreting, vi-
brating, and curing
are stationary.
Source: Popa R.,
Teodorescu M.,
Figure 10-4 Layout of Conveyor setting 1984.

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10.6. QUALITY ASSURANCE, PRODUCT CERTIFICATION

Quality assurance and plant certification44 (STAS 1799-88) are important items in pre-
fabrication. It is based on two levels: in-house quality assurance program with continuous in-
house control and plant certification with quality control supervised by an independent body.
Certification of precast concrete production plants means that the capability to produce
quality products and the good functioning of the in-house control system is confirmed by an
independent inspection body.
Confirmed capability means that a plant is well equipped and the people who operate
it are competent to produce quality products. They do this through inspection of their produc-
tion operations, materials, equipment, personnel, and products for conformance to the Plant
Certification Program - means that the producer has the capability by virtue of person-
nel, facilities, experience, and an active quality assurance program to produce quality prod-
ucts. Plant certification evaluates a plant's overall ability to maintain sound production proce-
dures and to maintain an effective in-house quality assurance program.
Quality control (the procedure to be followed for the quality control are normally
based on ISO 9001 or EN 29001 standards) requires much more than merely achieving con-
crete strength. Many other factors also enter into the control of quality of precast concrete
products. Some of the most important are: completeness of work orders and product draw-
ings, testing and inspection of the materials selected for use, accurate manufacturing equip-
ment, proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete, handling, placing and consolidation of
concrete.

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CHAPTER 11. ERECTION OF PRECAST CONCRETE

ELEMENTS

11.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Precast-concrete construction should be based upon good practical planning along
with mass-production methods. Weight and strength are primary considerations in precast-
concrete construction. A successful design is one that utilizes the least number of assembly
elements, possessing the least erection weight and the greatest strength per unit weight of
framing. It requires a complete design of connection details and an investigation of stresses
involved in the sequence of erection, which will influence the framing and design of the ele-
ments.
Precasting is a controlled operation, performed under ideal conditions of forming,
pouring, vibration, curing, and inspection; the requirements of strength and dimensional re-
strictions necessary for casting slender sections are generally met with little difficulty.
Generally, it is essential that the number of various shapes and sizes of the precast
elements be kept to a minimum. This allows maximum reuse of the forms and reduces form-
ing, casting, and handling costs.
The layout of the frames and enclosures is controlled somewhat by the available han-
dling and erection equipment. While lifting capacity is always a factor, the maneuverability of
the equipment within the building area may be facilitated by changes in column spacing, di-
rection of main framing, or erection sequences.
Advantages of precast-concrete construction: speed of construction, optimum use of
materials, controlled production conditions, and economy do to the fact that the materials can
be better utilized and wastage can be kept to a minimum.
Limitations of precast-concrete construction: lack of flexibility and if precast units are
small in quantity, the construction cost will be high, while storage and transportation of pre-
cast units can also be a problem for construction sites located in congested urban areas.

11.2. JOB PLANNING

The construction of a precast-concrete structure requires considerable planning and
development of details. All planning, from working drawings to the completed structure, must
be completed in the early stages.
The erection planning of structure will consist of methods and details regarding:
1. Preliminary execution of works that will consist of the following steps:
- Transport, yard casting and storage of precast units.
- Inspection of units after transport and storage.
- Unit preparation before erection.
- Selection of lifting devices and equipment.
- Materials and labor scheduling.
- Necessary requirements for work safety and fire assurance.
2. Erection of precast elements, will consist of the following steps:
- Erection method.
- Sequence, schemes and procedures for unit erection.
- Sequence of member erection.
- Ground location and position layout of precast units before erection.

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- Routs and work stations for cranes.

- Routs and stops for trailers.
- Unit installation detailing sequences.
- Preliminary positioning of units.
- Inspection of erection execution in provisory position and correction of dimensional
tolerances.
3. Final connections between elements.

11.2.1. PRELIMINARY EXECUTION WORKS

The details and planning of erection will materially affect the earlier phases of casting,
storage, and handling.

11.2.1.1. MANUFACTURING, TRANSPORT AND STORAGE OF PRECAST UNITS

Precast-concrete elements are cast or manufactured in: permanent factories, temporary
factories, off-site casting yards, or supplied from a combination of these facilities.
In determining the location and type of facilities for producing the necessary elements
of a structure, a number of factors must be considered, such as: availability of raw materials,
transit-mix facilities, existing factories, and labor supply, number, size, and weights of vari-
ous castings involved, space available on the job site, financial comparison of estimated site-
produced castings and factory-produced and delivered castings.
Sometimes temporary factory facilities are located on the job site, if economically jus-
tified. Castings too large or unwieldy for truck or rail transportation must be cast on the site.

Figure 11-1
Typical
trailers

Source: Suman
R., 1989.

Transport of units is normally provided from these facilities to the site by trucks, only
after a very careful examination of the following:
- Shape, dimensions, and weight of prefabricated concrete element.

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- Type and capacity of transport means.

- Correct position for transport of member, availability, and quality roads etc.
Trucks can be classified in:
- Straight or articulated trailers (a straight truck is one in which all axles are attached to a
single frame while an articulated truck is one that consists of two or more separate frames
connected by suitable couplings).
- Truck tractor that are designed primarily for pulling and carrying part of the weight and
load of a semi trailer.
- Other types include: full trailer, deck trailer, flat bed trailer, lorry trailer, single axle
trailer, heavy duty trailer, low-bed trailer etc. of 8-20 tones.
Special devices are used to assure the stability and the integrity of the prefabricate
over the whole transport period, so that no accidents could be encountered.
Storage and transportation of precast units can be a problem for construction sites lo-
cated in congested urban areas.
Storage represents an intermediate faze between the prefabricated production and there
transport to the site for assembly. The storage yard can be located in the prefabricated manu-
facturing shop or on the job-site. If it is located on the job-site, it will be as close as possible
located near the crane but protected against other construction activities and erection of cast-
ings without interference with the erected framework or with the erection equipment.
Precast units will be stored, raised off the ground, in such a manner as to avoid contact
with dirt, oil, and grease, to reduce any kind of degradation, and to identify each type of unit
as easy as possible.

Source: SC SOMACO SA, 2003

Figure 11-2 Typical job-site casting yards Figure 11-3 Typical stack storage of precast
stairs units

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11.2.1.2. INSPECTION OF UNITS AFTER TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

The precast elements shall be visually checked for defects (cracks, voids etc.) when
the forms are removed off the trailer, when the strands are cut, or when they are placed in
temporary or permanent storage. Any significant defect should be reported immediately with
the description of its size, type, and location. The Engineer will decide if the defect needs fur-
ther inspection, what type of repair, or if it is needed

11.2.1.3. UNIT PREPARATION

Unit Preparation Before Erection - during lifting, storage and transport of precast units
it is possible that the elements will be exposed to dirt, mud, oil, and grease. They will be
cleaned through washing them with water, and by wirer brushing.

11.2.1.4. SELECTION OF LIFTING DEVICES AND EQUIPMENT

The planning of erection (lifting) devices and details for their attachment to the ele-
ments must be completed. It is obvious that changes in methods or details of any phase of the
construction may be difficult after actual commencement of that part of the work.
Lifting Devices for Handling Precast Concrete Units. A lifting device consists of
two main parts: the anchorage element embedded in the precast unit and the attachment
element, which is attached to the anchorage to fasten the lifting line to the component.
To provide adequate strength, the anchorage should bear against the reinforcement. A
simple and common device is to embed several steel loops in the concrete, leaving the loop
exposed for attachment of the crane hook.
Selection of proper anchors for lifting precast concrete products requires considera-
tion of a number of factors including the type of load, type of lift, concrete shape and weight,
concrete compressive strength at time of initial lift, number of lifting points and type of rig-
ging to be used, direction of pull (cable or sling angle), reinforcement, ease of attachment to
product, compliance with safety requirements and ease of use during final installation and
cost.
The location of lifting devices in the components should be carefully considered, tak-
ing full account of the special loading that will be imposed on the concrete as a result of tilt-
ing, lifting, or moving the component, including an allowance for impact. For example, rais-
ing a horizontally cast precast panel to a vertical position (e.g. columns cast on site) may in-
duce stresses in the concrete that exceed any loading that may be imposed on the panel after it
has been installed in a structure.
Selection of the correct lifting devices depends on a number of factors concerned with
the type, weight, configuration, thickness, and strength of the precast component.
Selection of the lifting device and its location should be based on the manufacturer’s
recommendation and an engineering analysis of the proposed installation. The locations and
details of lifting and handling devices should be shown on the shop drawings.
Safe, effective, economical lifting and handling of precast concrete units is essential
for producers and users of these products. Precast concrete products need to be lifted and han-
dled a number times during production and installation, particularly when removing from the
casting bed or form, transporting from the casting bed to storage or from storage to point of
use, lifting into installed position or anchoring to a structural frame or other concrete members
(where required).
Precast concrete products should not be moved until the concrete has gained sufficient
compressive strength. In some cases, the form and the product are moved at the same time
with the lifting hook connected directly to the form. Some forms are made to remain in place

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while inserts, loops, lifting eye bolts, hooks, plates, pulling irons and lift pins or slings are
used to remove the product.
The method used in removing a casting from the mould and to position it in the struc-
ture is influenced by the characteristics of the casting, temporary stresses developed, practical
use of available equipment, and economy. In securing a physical attachment to the casting for
lifting purposes, simple devices and inserts are frequently used. Lifting devices designed spe-
cifically for precasting are available from manufacturers.
A spreader beam is used in transmitting vertical loads from the two surface inserts to a
single point at the lifting hook. Larger elements may require three inserts to reduce the indi-
vidual insert load or bending in the panel. A continuous cable through sheaves on the spreader
and at the center insert may be used to equalize the load at all three inserts. The center insert
may be moved higher or lower on the panel to avoid openings. Large or heavy panels are of-
ten lifted with a four-point pickup with sheaves on the spreader for load equalization.
For direct vertical insert loads a double set of spreaders are used. To reduce bending in
a four-point pickup, two inserts are placed near the panel top and two near the center with ca-
bles run through sheaves on the spreader beam to rotate the panel to a vertical position.
Timber or steel strongbacks are often used to reinforce panels for bending stresses.
The panel may be lifted by a connection to the strongbacks or to other points on the panel.

b Composite slab lifting c Lifting device for spatial

a Device for lifting packages
device with rolling blocks elements

d Spreader beam for lifting pre-

cast beams in two points of pickup e Four-cable lifting device f Six cable slab lift-
ing device with roll-
ing blocks

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g Spreader beam for lifting precast h Spreader beam for lifting precast
beams with two wire cables in two roof slabs with four wire cables in
points of pickup four points of pickup
i Staircase lifting de-
vice with rolling
blocks
Figure 11- 4 Typical lifting devices for precast concrete members
Source: Popa R., Teodorescu M., 1984; Suman R., 1989, Trelea A., 1997.
Cranes - a crane may be defined as a machine for lifting loads by means of a cable. The use
of cranes has greatly increased in the construction industry due mainly to the need to raise the
large and heavy prefabricated components.

Figure 11-5 Crane clearances

Caption: a. boom angle; b. maximum clearance height of cabin; c. maximum radius of tail swing; d.
center of rotation to boom foot pin; e. height from ground to boom foot pin; f. distance from center of
boom point sheave to bottom of hook; g. clearance radius of boom; h. length of boom.
Source: Andres C., 1998.
Characteristics of Cranes - a crane consists primarily of a power unit mounted on a
carrier with a hoist, a boom, and control cables for raising and lowering the load and boom.
The boom can be a welded steel lattice or a hydraulic boom made of 1 articulated base
element and several telescopic sections, that are extended and retracted hydraulically (from 5
to 30 m) allowing the crane to be completely self-contained.
A jib, an extension to the end of the boom, is used for extending the height to which
loads can be lifted; it can be added to a lattice boom or a hydraulic boom. A jib decreases the
lifting capacity of the crane and should be used with caution. Two basic jib formats for this
type of crane are available, namely the folding lattice jib and the telescopic jib.
Outriggers are hydraulic telescoping supports (4-6 suspension cylinders, individually
controlled in both – horizontal and vertical – directions from the frame).
Crane Selection Criteria: The range of cranes available is very wide and therefore
actual choice must be made on a basis of sound reasoning, overall economics and technical
capabilities: of cranes under consideration, prevailing site conditions and the anticipated utili-
zation of other erection equipment.

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The criteria by which to chose cranes is based on the following considerations:

a. Maximum hook height (H).
b. Extended / retracted boom length (f). The shallower the boom's angle, the less load
it can lift. The longer the boom, the less load it can lift.
c. Clear radius of boom (R). Should the load be lifted at a grater radius, the angle of the
boom be decreased, the load capacity of the crane is greatly decreased.

lowing restriction: 0,75 lifting capacity of crane ≤ tipping load of crane

d. Lifting capacity (Q). To assure the cranes stability, it is necessary to respect the fol-

If not possible then the stability of the footing must be increased by leveling and com-
pletely supporting them by their outriggers, which must be fully extended and positioned
firmly on stable ground.
Depending on the circumstances under which a load is lifted, either of these can gov-
ern the safe lifting load of the crane. Loading charts are provided with each crane and must be
adhered to religiously. Load charts should never be exceeded.
e. Traveling clearance for crane (S = min. 500 mm) given by maximum radius of tail
swing, width of chassis or length of outriggers.
Five basic types of cranes are commonly available for use on the construction site,
they can be classified as: tower cranes, track-mounted cranes, lorry-mounted cranes, self-
propelled cranes, and gantry cranes. There are several variations of each type, and each is
available in a wide range of lifting capacities and boom lengths, thus providing the contractor
with a generous selection of options.
A tower crane comes in several basic
variations (e.g. self-supporting static
tower cranes, supported static tower
cranes, traveling tower cranes and
climbing cranes).
Advantages offered by using a tower
crane:
- Tower cranes have one advantage
over mobile cranes in that the
operator's cab is placed at the top
of the tower, providing the oper-
ator an unobstructed view of the
construction site.
- Tower cranes are usually set up at
a location on the construction site
from where all corners of the
building can be reached, often in
Figure 11-6 Typical tower crane the elevator shaft of the building
being constructed.
Caption: 1. Outer tower; 2. Inner tower; 3. Jib; 4. Tail - High capacities range radii and
(counter jib); 5. Cab; 6. Load line; 7. Inner guy line; 8. heights (30 m and 100 m).
Outer guy line; 9. Fall back line; 10. Trolley line; 11. Limitations:
Counterweight; 12. Tower base with central ballast coun- - Low lifting capacities 150 kN.
terweights; 13. Frame; 14. Drive motor (hoist gear).
- At the completion of the building,
Source: Andres C., 1998.
they must be disassembled and
lowered to the ground in relatively
small sections by a mobile crane.

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The track-mounted cranes (crawler crane)

come in a wide variety of designs and ca-
pacities, generally with a 360° rotation or
slewing circle, a low pivot, and jib.
Advantages:
- Mobility on the job site with load on
hook.
- It can lift relatively heavy loads
(10…900 kN) without the use of outrig-
gers.
- Capacities ranges similar to the lorry
mounted cranes, height capacities 60 m;
Limitations: slow speeds and large bulk, the
crane cannot move from one site to another
without some disassembly and the use of 10
tone trailers to transport it between sites.
Characteristics: The jib is of lattice con-
struction with additional sections and fly;
jibs to obtain the various lengths and capaci-
ties required.
Figure 11-7 Track-mounted crane
Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Jib; 3. Cab; 4. Boom sus-
pension rope; 5. Hoist rope; 6. Pendant rope.
Source: Chudley R., 1999.

Lorry-mounted cranes come in a wide

variety of designs and capacities, generally
with a 360° rotation or slewing circle, a
low pivot, and jib. To improve the mobility
of the crane from one site to another lorry-
mounted cranes have rubber tires and an
additional cab were a driver drives the
crane from site to site on public roads.
Characteristics: The crane is operated by
a separate crane engine and controls. The
capacity of lorry-mounted cranes ranges up
to 2000 kN in the freestanding position but
this can be increased by using the jack out-
riggers. Their height capacity range to 100
m.
Mobile lorry cranes can travel between
sites at speeds of up to 48 km/h, which
makes them very mobile, but to be fully
efficient they need a firm and level surface
from which to operate.

Figure 11-8 Lorry mounted crane

Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Pendant ropes; 3. Hoist
ropes; 4. Engine; 5. Jib. Source: Chudley R.,
1999.

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Self Propelled Cranes (also re-

ferred to as a crane truck) is a portable
boom crane mounted on an industrial
truck. They can be distinguished from
other mobile cranes by the fact that the
driver has only one cab position for both
driving and operating the crane.
Characteristics: They are small capacity
machines having a fixed boom or jib
length, with small radii and low lifting ca-
pacities 10 t.
They are extremely mobile but to be effi-
cient they usually require a hard level sur-
face from which to work. Road speeds ob-
tained are in the region of 30 km/h.

Figure 11-9 Self propelled crane

Caption: 1. Hook; 2. Boom; 3. Cabin; 4. Chas-
sis; 5. Outriggers; 6. Boom suspension ropes;
7. Hoist ropes; 8. Pendant ropes. Source:
Chudley R., 1999.

Gantry Cranes (also referred to as portal crane) is a rail-mounted crane consisting of

a horizontal transverse beam that carries a combined driver's cab and hook supporting saddle.
This is a particularly safe form of crane as it requires no ballast, gives the driver an ex-
cellent all-round view and allows the hook three-way movement of vertical, horizontal and
transverse directions. Although limited in application this special form of mobile crane can be
very usefully and economically on repetitive and partially prefabricated blocks of medium -
rise dwellings.
Characteristics: They are small capacity machines having low lifting capacities 50
kN…320 kN and small lifting height 6…10 m.

Figure 11-10 Typical gantry crane

11.2.1.5. SCHEDULING
Materials and Labor Scheduling - the job planning required, however, is a sound in-
vestment. The basic nature of precast-concrete construction provides the contractor with close
control over all labor and materials, with little effort.
The continuous repetitious operations provide ideal opportunities for perfection of la-
bor and equipment allocation and efficiency. The daily repetitive use of identical quantities of
materials reduces waste. Close control and detailed and accurate records can be obtained on
materials, labor, costs, and progress on all phases of the work.

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The application of basic precasting principles creates a neat and clean working area,
both at the casting yard and throughout the construction area. This cleanliness, rarely obtain-
able in other methods of construction, eliminates waste, promotes efficiency, and discourages
accidents.
Proper scheduling will permit the installation of foundations and related work during
the period that the casting yard is being constructed and put into operation. The elapsed time
between storage and erection of the elements, at any specific portion of the building area, will
be short. Each area becomes available to the mechanical and other trades immediately upon
completion of the precast erection in that area. Therefore, exceptional continuity in the work
of those trades can be maintained.

11.2.1.6. HEALTH, SAFETY AND WELFARE REGULATIONS

These regulations detail the minimum requirements for lifting devices and equipment. In
summary the main points include:
- Examination of all forms of lifting devices to ensure sound construction, materials appro-
priate for the conditions of use, adequate strength for the intended task, retention in good
order and inspection regularly at intervals depending on use and exposure as determined
by a competent person.
- Adequate support, strength, stability, anchoring, fixing and erection of lifting appliances
to include an appropriate factor of safety against failure.
- Traveling and slewing cranes require a 500 mm wide minimum clearance provided wher-
ever practicable between the equipment and fixtures such as a building or access scaffold.
If such a clearance cannot be provided, movement between the appliance and fixture
should be prevented.
- A cabin is required for the crane operator that must provide an unrestricted view for safe
use of the equipment. The cabin must have adequate protection from the weather and
harmful substances with a facility for ventilation and heating.
- Equipment which can be adapted for various operating radii and other configurations
must be clearly marked with corresponding safe working loads for these variables.
- Brakes, controls, and safety devices must be clearly marked to prevent accidental opera-
tion or miss-use.
- Safe means of access is to be provided for examination, repair, and servicing particularly
where a person can fall more than 2,0 m.
- Stability of lifting devices on soft ground, uneven surfaces and slopes must be considered.
Cranes must be either anchored to the ground or to a foundation, or suitably counter-
weighted or stabilized to prevent overturning.
- Rail mounted cranes to have a track laid and secured on a firm foundation to prevent risk
of derailment. There must be provision for buffers, effective braking systems, and ade-
quate maintenance of both track and equipment.
- Measures must be taken to prevent a freely suspended load moving uncontrollably. De-
vices that could be fitted include multiple ropes.
- Cranes must be erected under planned conditions and the supervision of a competent per-
son.
- If the operator cannot see the whole passage of a lift, an efficient signaling system must
be used. A signaler must be capable of giving clear and distinct communications by hand.
mechanical or electrical means.
- Testing examination and inspections are required for all equipment. Chains, slings, ropes,
hooks, shackles, eyebolts, and other small components are no less important than grabs
and winches. All must be tested and thoroughly examined before being put into operation.

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- All cranes are clearly marked with their safe maximum working loads relevant lifting ra-
dius and maximum operating radius particularly when fitted with a derricking jib. Lifting
equipment not designed for personnel must be clearly marked as such.
- Jib cranes to be fitted with an automatic safe load indicator such as a warning; light for
the operator and a warning bell for persons nearby.
- Except for testing purposes, the safe working load must not be exceeded.
- When loads are approaching the safe maximum load, the initial lift should be short. A
check should then be made to establish safety and stability before proceeding to complete
the lift.

11.3. ERECTION OF PRECAST UNITS

Selection of erection method precast units is an important design decision. Each erec-
tion method has its special implications to project cost, construction schedules, traffic, towing
system, positioning accuracy, and level of risks during construction.
In many ways, the erection method will determine the:
- size and configuration of the precast units;
- construction procedure adopted, construction sequence, and schedule;
- volume of works, plant and equipment etc.
In general, a thorough evaluation should be made in the early stage of design to de-
termine the effects of the erection methods, because the erection method and equipment to
install precast units will affect the structural concept and layout, fabrication of precast com-
ponents, and construction logistics.
The method of erection will take into account the following:
- Assurance of member stability in the structure, during the hole duration of erection execu-
tion.
- Process flow and work procedures must create a working front, as fast as possible, for
other processes that will commence afterwards (e.g. electrical installations etc.).
- Assurance of complete use of erection equipment time.
Methods of erection for prefabricated concrete elements can be planned after two
models:
- Sequence method - consisting of erecting all the members of the same size and type in
the structure or in one construction faze, the crane having its own route for every member
(columns, beams, roof slabs etc.). After the joints for a group of members of the same
type are completed (after the grout concrete has reached the necessary strength) another
group, which will be supported by the first, will be erected;
- Complex method - consisting of erection organization, in normal sequence of erection
(of all members) on a small area of the warehouse, most likely a bay (span-bay), the next
phase being the erection of the next bay.

11.3.1. SEQUENCE, SCHEMES AND PROCEDURES FOR UNIT

ERECTION
The efficiency obtained throughout all sequences of the construction will be deter-
mined by the degree of organization, planning, scheduling, and development of details com-
pleted before commencement of work at the site.
Maximum efficiency in erection is obtained by placing the elements in their final posi-
tion direct from transporting equipment or building storage in one operation. Erection proce-
dures are planned to approach this objective. All other precasting operations are based upon
the estimated erection schedule, and any delays in this schedule increase the storage area and
dunnage required. Delays in completing connections of erected elements either interrupt the

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erection or increase the quantity of erection devices. Using additional erection devices to
shorten the schedule is justified only when sufficient cured castings are available to ensure a
continual operation.
Planning includes a study of casting weights and sizes, capacities and reaches of lifting
equipment, and clearances required for movement of the equipment and castings without in-
terference with previously erected framing members. A plan detailing the erection procedure
for all elements is drawn and checked to ensure conformance with the above limitations and is
then rigidly followed.
When choosing the erection scheme, we must take into consideration the following:
- Size of bay and span of warehouse.
- Height of erection.
- Cranes characteristics (regarding the clearance characteristics: height, radius of tall swing,
rotation of boom pin, height to boom pin, clearance radius of boom, length of boom).
- Assurance of safety (guard) lanes.
- Scheme adopted for precast units.
Along side these we must respect the following conditions:
- Assurance of member stability during erection.
- Process flow and erection operations must create, in a short period, job fronts for jobs that
will proceed.
- Assurance of complete use of equipment job time.
Schemes of precast unit erection must include the following:
- Ground positioning of precast units before erection.
- Order of precast unit erection in accordance with their types and sizes.
- Routs and stops for cranes for every type and sizes of precast units.
- Indication of members that will be mounted on every crane stop.
- Sequences and stops for lorries if the mounting takes places from the lorries.

11.3.3. UNIT ERECTION DETAILING SEQUENCES

A grate deal of detailing work is necessary before a member can be erected. Each
member is given an erection mark that it carries through the fabrication stage and subse-
quently is used on the job to identify the member and its position in the frame. The erection
mark is usually placed on the left end of horizontal members to eliminate the possibility of
trying to place the member end for end or upside down.
When delivered to the site, the precast unit will be lifted by crane to the designed posi-
tion, secured with temporary bracing, welded, and finally fixed into position by grout.

Figure 11-11 Transfer of prefabricated facade to the Figure 11-12 The precast facade is secured
working level with temporary bracing

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 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

The general procedure for installation is as follows:

- Set precast concrete units, straight, level and square (P42-1971 - Norm for execution of
constructions made of precast panels) to avoid non-cumulative erection tolerances.
- Fasten units in place by welding or overlapping.
- Provide temporary erection anchorage for welded anchorage system.
- Clean field welds with wire brush.
- Provide and install sufficient temporary bracing to brace precast units adequately, at all
stages of construction, so that units will safely withstand loads to which they may be sub-
jected. This temporary bracing shall remain in position until all connections have been
completed.
- Apply sealant and joint backing to exterior and interior joints to provide a complete
weathertight installation.
- Clean exposed face work by washing and brushing only, as precast is erected, if required.

11.3.3. CONNECTIONS
Connections may be either:
- Temporary (also referred to as dry connections) are made by weld, shear anchors, inserts,
additional reinforcing bars, posttensioning, or some combination of these can be used to
provide this continuity. The temporary connection is usually provided until the permanent
ones have been completed.
- Permanent (also referred to as wet connections) by concreting grout keys. When precast
units are placed adjacent to each other, load transfer between adjacent members is often
achieved through a grouted keyway. The keyway may or may not extend for the full depth
of the member. The keyway is grouted with one of several different grouting materials
(concrete, epoxy resins etc).
Connections to tie precast units together, and to join precast segments into a monolith,
are of paramount importance. Both temporary and permanent connections must be designed
with careful attention to details and construction procedure to ensure the critical load paths
and durability performance.
Connections usually consist of dowels, plates/pads or angles embedded in the units
ends that bear on similar plates embedded in the supporting section, the connections are usu-
ally made by welding them together or by overlapping them, until the final concrete casting
has been completed.
Care must be taken to provide temporary bracing during the erection of beams with
these types of connections until the connections are completed.

11.4. INSPECTION OF ERECTION AND CORRECTION OF

DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
Many factors enter into the quality control of precast/prestressed concrete prod-
ucts. Some of the most important are:
- Management commitment to a quality control program.
- Qualified personnel for all stages of design and construction.
- Testing and inspection of the various materials selected for use.
- Clear and complete shop drawings (good production drawings translate documents into
usable information for manufacture, handling, and erection of precast/prestressed units.).
- Accurate stressing procedures.
- Control of dimensions and tolerances.
- Correct positioning of all embedded items.
- Proportioning and adequate mixing of concrete.

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- Handling, placing, and consolidation of concrete.

- Adequate curing.
- Handling, storing, transporting, and erection of members.
- Thorough documentation.
Scope of Inspection - in general, precast/prestressed concrete plant inspections should
include the following:
- Identification, examination, testing, and acceptance of materials.
- Inspection and recording of tensioning.
- Inspection of beds and forms before concreting.
- Checking the dimensions of members, number, size and positions of tendons, reinforcing
steel, other incorporated materials, openings, blockouts, etc.
- Regular inspection of batching, mixing, conveying, placing, compacting, finishing, and
curing of concrete.
- Observation of test performances for slump, air content, and the preparation of concrete
specimens for strength testing.
- Inspection of operations of detensioning, product removal from beds, handling and stor-
ing.
- Final inspection of finished product before shipment (i.e. monitoring dimensions, camber,
blockouts, and adequate concrete cover and finishes).
- General observation of plant equipment, working conditions, weather, and other items that
may potentially affect the products.
Deviations and Dimensional Tolerances (STAS 6657/3-8945; C 156-8946) - there
will be inevitably differences between the specified dimensions and the actual dimensions of
the components and final building. These deviations must be recognized and allowed for. Cast
in place and precast concrete is generally manufactured with relatively small deviations but
designers should take a realistic view of dimensional variability (inaccuracies). Some inaccu-
racies are unavoidable, and a slight reduction in theoretical size must be provided in the de-
tails for tolerances to provide for these inaccuracies.
Particularly in large areas of small elements, minor variations are accumulative, and to
neglect an allowance for tolerances will lead to difficulties during erection. Once permissible
tolerances are established, they should be stipulated on the detail drawings. Frequent checks
of the over-all dimensions of the completed castings and checks during erection will reveal
variations, and corrective steps for adjustment should follow immediately.
Tolerances must be evaluated on each structure and on the various elements in the
structure. This reduction, of course, is not required or desired where the elements are sepa-
rated by grout, calking, or expansion material.
The plans and drawings for structures frequently specify the permissible variations for
lines, grades, and dimensions that the contractor is expected to observe. The tolerances should
be realistic, considering the nature of the structure. Tolerances that are more than rigid than
justified will increase the cost of a structure unnecessarily.
Particular attention must be paid to dimensional accuracies. Some inaccuracies are un-
avoidable, and a slight reduction in theoretical size must be provided in the details for toler-
ances to provide for these inaccuracies.

Tolerance – can be defined as the allowable range of deviation from design specifications
expressed as a percentage of the nominal value (the allowable variations in the dimensions of
members).
Deviation - can be defined as the difference between the measured value and the expected
value of a controlled variable.

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42. Volumetric mixer standards of the volumetric mixer manufacturer bureau. USA, 2001.

ENDNOTE
1
STAS 438/1-89. Steel products for reinforcement of concrete. Welded fabric.
2
STAS 438/2 – 91. Steel products for reinforcement of concrete. Cold drawn wire.
3
SR 438/3-98. Wire fabric.
4
STAS 10107/0-1990. Calculul si alcatuirea elementelor structurale din beton, beton armat si beton pre-
comprmat.
5
C 28-83. Technical instructions of welding of reinforcing steel for concrete.
6
C 150-84. Technical specification for quality control of welded steel joints for civil, industrial and agricultural
constructions.
7
C 28-83. Technical instruction for steel reinforcement welding.
8
STAS 6605-78. Tensile testing of reinforcing steel wire and wire products for prestressed concrete.
9
NE 012-99. Practice code for the execution of concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete works,
Part 1 – Concrete and reinforced concrete.
10
STAS 3622-86. Cement concretes. Classification.
11
STAS 1759-88. Tests on concretes. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of apparent density, consistence
fine aggregates content and setting time.
12
ISO 9812. Concrete consistency. Slump test.
13
STAS 2414-91. Tests on concrete. Determination of density, compactness, and porosity of hardened concrete.
14
STAS 1275-88. Test on concrete. Tests of hardened concrete. Determination of mechanical strengths.
15
STAS 3519-76. Tests on concretes. Inspection of waterproofness.
16
ISO 7031. Tests on concrete watertightness.
17
STAS 5479-88. Tests on concrete. Tests on fresh concrete. Determination of air content.
18
STAS 2833-80. Tests on concrete. Determination of axial shrinkage of hardened concrete.
19
STAS 3518-89. Tests on concretes. Strength determination at frost-thawing.
20
STAS 5440-70. Inspection of the reaction between the alkalis and aggregates.
21
STAS 9602-90. Reference concrete. Specifications for manufacturing and testing.
22
SR EN 196-4/95. Methods of testing cement. Quantity determination of constituents
23
EN 196-2. Methods of testing cement. Chemical analysis of cement.
24
SR 6232-96. Cements, mineral admixtures and additives. Vocabulary.
25
SR 388-95. Portland cement.
26
SR 1500-96. Usual composite cements, type II, III, IV and V.
27
SR 3011-96. Limited hydration warmth cements and resistant to water damage with sulphates content.
28
SR 7055-96. White Portland Cement.
29
SR 227/2-98. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of grinding fineness.
30
SR EN 196/6-94. Methods of testing cement. Determination of grinding fineness.
31
SR 227/5- 96. Cements. Physical tests. Determination of hydration heat.
32
SR EN 196/3-97. Methods of testing cement. Determination of setting time and soundness.
33
SR 227/4-86. Cements. Physical tests. Setting time determination.
34
SR EN 196/1-95. Methods of testing cement. Determination of strength.
35
STAS 1667-76. Heavy aggregates for concrete and mortars with mineral binder.
36
STAS 2386-79. Lightweight mineral aggregates. General technical requirements for quality.
37
STAS 4606-80. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material. Test-
ing method.
38
STAS 1667-76. Natural heavy weight aggregate for concrete and mortars with mineral binding material.
39
STAS 8625-90. Mixed plastified additive for concretes.
40
STAS 8573-78. Waterproofing additive cement mortars.
41
STAS 790-84. Water for concretes and mortars.
42
GP 004-97. Guide for design and execution of temporary membrane structures.
43
NE 13-2002. Practice code for the execution of prefabricated elements.
44
STAS 1799-88. Concrete reinforced and prestressed concrete buildings. Type and frequency checks of materi-
als and concrete quality used for civil engineering execution.
45
STAS 6657/3-89. Concrete, reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete elements – procedures, instrumenta-
tion and devices for characteristic geometry checks.
46
C 156-89. Handbook for the application of STAS 6657/3-89 prescriptions - Concrete, reinforced concrete and
prestressed concrete elements – procedures, instrumentation and devices for characteristic geometry checks.

135