Cracking Bgcse Chemistry PDF

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CRACKING BGCSE
CHEMISTRY
WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS
Freedom Books Publishers
©Word Crackers Tutorials

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ISBN: 978-99968-437-0-9
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__________________________________________________________________________________
Writer: Moemedi Senwelo
Cover design by: Olerile Garekwe

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Contents
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES.............................................................................................................. 4
NATURE OF MATTER ......................................................................................................................... 4
ATOMIC STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................................ 5
PERIODIC TABLE ................................................................................................................................ 7
BONDING .............................................................................................................................................. 9
MOLES ................................................................................................................................................. 15
IONIC EQUATIONS............................................................................................................................ 18
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS .......................................................................................................... 18
ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS ........................................................................................................ 19
ENERGY CHANGES .......................................................................................................................... 27
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS ............................................................................................................... 29
RATES OF REACTIONS .................................................................................................................... 30
REDOX REACTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 31
METALS .............................................................................................................................................. 32
ELECTROLYSIS ................................................................................................................................. 34
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY .................................................................................................................... 41
NON METALS ..................................................................................................................................... 46
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIROMENT .............................................................................................. 48
ABOUT WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS ...................................................................................... 51

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SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
1. Solute-A substance that dissolves in a solvent.

2. Soluble-Ability to dissolve in a solvent.
3. Solvent-A substance that can dissolve in a solute.
4. Solution-A mixture of a solute and a solvent.
5. Insoluble-A substance that cannot dissolve in a solvent.
6. Miscible-liquids which can mix e.g. water and ethanol.
7. Immiscible-liquids which cannot mix e.g. water and oil.
8. Separating funnel-a funnel used to separate miscible liquids.
9. Filtrate-The liquid which is obtained by filtration.
10. Residue-The particle remains on the filter paper after filtration.
11. Pure substance-a substance that does not contain any impurity. Pure substances have
an exact melting and boiling point.
12. Filtration-A process used to separate solid particles from a liquid substance.
13. Decanting-A solid from liquid separation process whereby the solid settle at the
bottom of the container and then the liquid is poured out.
14. Centrifuging-It is method whereby solid particles are small that they spread out and
remain in suspension.
15. Evaporation–A process of heating a solution which there is a solvent dissolved in it.
16. Crystallisation-Using the sun to evaporate water and then obtain the saturated
solution.
17. Fractional distillation-it is used to separate miscible liquids e.g. water and ethanol.
18. Simple distillation-it is used to separate a solvent from a solution e.g. salt from water.
19. Chromatography-it is used to separate solids that are soluble.
PURE SUBSTANCE
To test for purity of a substance check the melting and boiling point, if it varies from the
actual points then the substance is not pure.
NATURE OF MATTER
STATE ARRANGEMENT MOVEMENT FORCES

GAS Particles are further Random Very weak or no
apart forces of attraction
LIQUID Particles are close Particles slide over Weak forces of
together each other attraction
SOLID Particles are tightly Tiny vibrations at Very strong forces
packed fixed points of attraction

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THE KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY OF MATTER
It states that all matter is made up of tiny particles which are always in motion. It further
states that when temperature of particles is increased their movement increases and when
temperature is decreased the movement of particles decreases.
DIFFUSION
The movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low

concentration until all particles are evenly distributed.
RATE OF DIFFUSION
The rate of diffusion depends on molecular mass of atoms in reaction. Larger molecular mass
atoms diffuse slowly while small molecular mass atoms diffuse faster. The lighter the
particles of gas, the faster the gas will diffuse.
Example: A particle of ammonia gas (17) has about half the mass of a particle of hydrogen
chloride (36.5) so it will diffuse faster. The cloud formed when the two gases meet is nearer
to the hydrogen chloride than the ammonia.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Proton-it is a positively charged particle of an atom. It is found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron-it is a negatively charged particle of an atom. It is located in the shells of the atom.
Neutron-it is an uncharged particle of an atom. It is found in the nucleus of an atom.
Atom-this is the smallest particle of an element.
Element-a substance made of atoms of one kind.

Molecule-a substance made of two or more atoms of the same or different elements.
Compound-a substance made of two or more elements which are chemically combined.
Mixture-a substance made of two or more elements which are physically combined.
Isotopes-these are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
Atomic number (proton number)-it is the number of protons in an atom.
Mass number (nucleon number)-it is the total number of protons and neutrons.

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PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL A.M.U

Electron -1 e 1/1840
Neutron 0 n 1
Proton +1 p 1
NB: In a neutral atom the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons.
ISOTOPES
These are atoms of the same element which have same number of protons but different
number of neutrons.
OR these are atoms of the same element which have the same atomic number but different
mass number.
Example
Chlorine has two isotopes (Cl35 and Cl37).Each has 17 protons and 17 electrons but one has
15 neutrons and mass number 35 while has 20 electrons an mass number 37. The 50:50
mixture of 35 Cl and 37 CI would have a relative atomic mass of 36.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (R.A.M)
The average mass of a large number of atoms of an element is called Relative Atomic Mass,
symbol (AR).
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
The electrons in an atom move in a path called shells or orbitals around the nucleus. The first
shell (nearest to the nucleus) can hold just two electrons. The electrons have less energy,
because of the strong forces of attraction, because they are close to the nucleus.
The second can hold electrons depending on the number of electrons for a particular element,
so are the following shells. The atom with two electrons is stable when first shell is filled
with two electrons. For example Helium is stable because it has two electrons in the outer
shell. We say its electronic structure is stable; atoms do not take part in chemical reactions if
the outer shell is full. These elements with full outer shells are called noble gases. They are
unreactive because of their electronic structure and they are found in the same group of the
periodic table.

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PERIODIC TABLE
This is the table of elements arranged in an order of increasing atomic number consequently
the relative atomic mass. Elements with the similar chemical properties fall in one group, so
it can be said that the periodic table is the arrangement of elements according to their
chemical properties.
GROUPS
A group also known as a family is a vertical column in the periodic table of the elements. The
periodic table has 8 groups. In some groups the elements have very similar properties down
the groups. All elements in a group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell.
Metals always have a positive valency because they lose electrons while non-metals have a
negative valency because they gain electrons. Many groups show similarities in certain
features e.g. group 1, 2 and 3.
PERIODS
A period is horizontal row in the periodic table of the elements. Although groups are most
common way of classifying elements periods can also be used. The periodic table has 7
periods. All elements in a period have the same number of shells and the number shells
represent the period number.
GROUP 1
The elements in group 1 are called alkali metals because they react with water to form alkali
solutions. Alkali metals are the most reactive elements in the periodic table. This is because
they have only one electron in the outer shell which makes it easier for them to lose it.
Properties of alkali metals
They are soft metals, can be cut with a knife.

They react with water to give a flame.
Their reactions with acids are highly explosive.
They have low densities, melting and boiling points.
Reactivity increases going down the group.
They are stored under oil to prevent them from reacting with air and moisture.

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GROUP 2
They are called earth alkali metals. This is so because their compounds are quite common in
rocks in the earth‟s crust. They are less reactive than group 1.
TRANSITION METALS
This is a block between group 2 and group 3.
Properties of transition metals
They and their compounds can be used as catalysts.

They have variable valencies.
They form coloured compounds.
They have high melting and boiling points.
They have high densities.
They conduct electricity and heat.
GROUP 7
They are also known halogens. All elements in this group are diatomic.
Properties of halogens
They are diatomic-exists as two atoms.

They all form coloured vapours:
Chlorine - green.
Bromine - red/brown.
Iodine - purple.
They get darker going down the group.
Melting points and boiling points are relatively low due to molecules been held
together by weak inter-molecular forces. As you descend the group the melting and
boiling point increases as the attraction between molecules gets larger.
Halogens are very reactive. This is because halogens need to gain only 1 electron
from another atom to gain more stability.
Fluorine is the most reactive since the electron it is attempting to attract is coming
into a shell closest to the positive nucleus. Greater attraction means that it is easier to
gain an extra electron - therefore it is the most reactive.
GROUP 8

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They are also known as noble or inert gases. Elements in this group are unreactive since they
have full number of electrons in the outer shell. Elements in this group are helium, neon,
krypton, xenon and radon.
Properties of noble gases
They are non-metals.

They are colourless.
Density increases going down the group.
They are unreactive.
Uses of noble gases
Helium is used to fill balloons.

Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert atmosphere.
Neon used to make advertising signs.
BONDING
COVALENT BONDING
It is formed by two or more non-metals which share electrons. A covalent bond is held
together by weak inter molecular forces.
Properties of covalent bonds
They are not soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

They do not conduct electricity in any state.
They have low melting and boiling points because of weak inter molecular forces.
They form a simple molecular structure.
Difference between inter and intra molecular forces
Inter molecular forces exists between atoms (hold them together) and are very weak whereas
intra molecular forces exist within atoms.
IONIC BONDING

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It is a bonding between a metal and non-metal; atoms form ionic bonds by transferring
electrons. Ionic bonds are held together by strong electrostatic forces.
Properties of ionic bonds
They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces.
They conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because ions can easily
move about.
Most are soluble in water.
NB: Ionic bonds in their solid state cannot conduct electricity because of strong electrostatic
forces which does not allow flow of electrons.
METALLIC BONDING
In a metal, the atoms are very tightly packed, leaving little space between them. Atoms in a
metal have at least one electron that is loosely held hence creating a 'sea' of electrons which
why metals conduct electricity.
ION
It is an electrically charged particle. When an atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a
positively charged ion. For example during the chemical reaction of sodium, each atom loses
an electron to form a positive ion, Na+. When an atom gains one or more valency electrons it
becomes a negatively charged ion.
CATIONS
It is a positively charged ion. This results from atoms losing electrons.
ANIONS
It is a negatively charged ion. This results from atoms gaining electrons.
RADICLES
Ions made up of more than one atom, e.g. NH4+.
METALLIC CHARACTERISTICS
This is the ability to lose valency electrons to form positively charged ions. It is also known
as electro-positivity. Any atom with a net change (whether positive or negative) is called an

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ion. Metals donate electrons therefore they form positive ion, cations. Metallic character of
elements decreases from left to right and increases right to left across the periodic table. Non-
metallic character is the ability of atoms to attract electrons towards their nucleus. Electro-
negativity increases on moving up the group and decreases on going down the group.
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Complete the table below; [9]
State of matter Movement of Arrangement of Forces of

particles particles attraction
Gas
Liquid
Solid
2. State the Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [2]
3. What is diffusion?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………..…………………………….. [2]
4. Explain why ammonia diffuses faster than hydrogen chloride gas.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
5. Define the following terms;

(a.) atom
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(b.) molecule
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c.) element
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(d.) electron
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(e.) compound
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [1]
(f.) mixture
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(g.) atomic number
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(h.) mass number
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

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5. (a.) Draw an atom of sodium. [2]
b. Complete the table below; [6]
PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL A.M.U

Electron -1
Neutron n
Proton 1
c. Draw the structure of atoms of elements below in the periodic table showing the electron
arrangement; [4]
i. Calcium
ii. Oxygen
6. a. What is an isotope?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [2]
b. Give three examples of pairs of isotopes.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [3]
7. a. State how elements are arranged in the periodic table.

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
b. What term is used to refer to;
i. the vertical column of the periodic table
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
ii. The horizontal row of the periodic table
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c. Describe the change in character across period III in terms of;

i. Reactivity
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
ii. Density
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [1]

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iii. Boiling point

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. Element X has 7 shells, in which period does it lie in the periodic table?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
8. State two properties of the following;
a. Transition metals
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
b. Halogens
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
c. Noble gases
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
9. State the uses of the following;
a. sodium……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. calcium…………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c. neon………………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
d. helium……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
e. argon………………………………………………………………………………………[1]
10. Name the method used to separate the following;
a. ethanol from water…………………………………………………………………… [1]
b. salt from water……………………………………………………………………….. [1]
c. petrol from water…………………………………………………………………….. [1]
d. soil from water……………………………………………………………………….. [1]
11. a. What is covalent bonding?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
b. What is ionic bonding?

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…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
12. Draw the structures to show the bonding in the following;
a. sodium chloride [3]
b. ammonia [2]
13. Define the following;
a. Metallic bonding
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
b. Radicle
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c. Diatomic
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. Ion
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
e. Electro-negativity
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
f. Electro-positivity
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

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MOLES
The term mole refers to the value particles. This is known as Avogadro‟s
constant.
REACTING MASSES
Example
Calculate the mole of 60g of calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
Find the mass of 0.4 moles of copper sulphate, CuSO4.
MOLES AND VOLUME OF GASES
1 Mole of any gas at r. t. p occupies a volume of 24 dm3.

1dm3= 1000 cm3 1dm3= 1 Litre

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Example
Calculate the number of moles of oxygen molecules, O2 in the following volumes of oxygen
gas.
i) 48dm3 ii) 12dm3
i.
ii.
CONCENTRATION
Example
Calculate the concentration of 0.1dm3 of sodium hydroxide NaOH with 0.05 moles.

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EMPERICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
Empirical formula is a simplified formula of a given compound e.g. Y3W15 will be YW5.
Example
1. A hydrocarbon contains 92.3% of carbon. Its relative molecular mass is 78. Work out
its
a) Empirical formula
b) Molecular formula
Solution
C H
% composition 92.3 7.7
7.76 7.7
Mole ratio 1 1
Emperical Formula = CH
Molecular Formula = (empirical formula) n
Molecular Formula = (CH) 6
Molecular Formula = C6 H6

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IONIC EQUATIONS
EXAMPLE
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid → sodium chloride + water
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Na+ OH- (aq) + H+ Cl- (aq) → Na+ Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
Na+ OH- (aq) + H+ Cl- (aq) → Na+ Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
PERCENTAGE YIELD
PERCENTAGE PURITY

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ACIDS, BASES AND ALKALIS
ACIDS
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ion when dissolved in water. They are
therefore said to be proton donors.
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
- They have a sour taste.

- Turns blue litmus paper red.
- React with metal to form salt and hydrogen.
- pH is less than 7.
- React with bases to form salt and water.
- All acids produce hydrogen ions H+.
NB: The number 7 on the pH scale represents the conditions of pure water in relation to
acidity and alkalinity i.e. the condition of exact neutrality.
Universal Indicator and Litmus paper can be used to test alkalinity or acidity of a solution.
WEAK ACIDS
They ionise partially when dissolved in water. Not all the molecules actually break apart but
only part fraction of acid molecules ionise. Colour range between yellow and orange.
Examples: Carbonic acid (H2CO3), Citric acid, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Lactic acid,
Ascorbic acid.
STRONG ACIDS
Ionise completely when dissolved in water. All the molecules give out hydrogen ions.
Produce a lot of H+.
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)
BASES
A base is a proton acceptor. Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis.

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PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
Acid + alkali salt + water

An alkali reacts with ammonium salts to form salt and water.
Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
Alkali has pH value of greater than 7.
STRONG BASES
They completely ionise in water.
E.g. NaOH →Na+ +OH-
WEAK BASES
It partially ionise in solution i.e. form mainly molecules and few ions.
E.g. NH3+H2O →OH- + NH+
CONCENTRATION AND STRENGTH
Ethanoic acid is always classified as weak despite its concentration i.e. there is no
relationship between concentration and strength.
Indicator Colour in acidic Colour in neutral Colour in alkaline

solution solution solution
Blue litmus paper Red Blue Blue
Red litmus Red Blue Blue
Methyl Orange Pink Orange Yellow
Phenothalaine Colourless Colourless Pink
TYPES OF OXIDES
BASIC OXIDES –MgO, CuO, NaO-few are soluble.
ACIDIC OXIDES-SO4, SO3, CO2,-react with alkalis to give salt and water.
NEUTRAL OXIDES –H2O, NO, CO
AMPHOTERIC OXIDES –ZnO, Al2O3, PbO

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ACID RAIN
It is caused when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases are released into the air. When
they dissolve in the water droplets and fall to earth as rain or snow.
BEHAVING AS A BASE
ZnO + 2HNO3→ Zn (NO3)2 + H2O
BEHAVING AS AN ACID
ZnO + NaOH→ NaZn + H2O (Sodium Zincate)
TYPE OF OXIDE REACTION WITH HCL REACTION WITH NaOH

Basic e.g. CuO Reaction No reaction
Acidic, SiO2 No reaction Reaction
Neutral, CO No Reaction No Reaction
Amphoteric, ZnO Reaction Reaction
SOLUBILITY IN WATER
Generally organic compounds do not dissolve in water, while non-organic/inorganic

compound dissolve in water, but not all inorganic compounds are soluble in water.
SOLUBILITY RULES-INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS
All carbonates except group 1 metals and ammonium carbonates.

All hydroxides except those of group 1 metals and those of Ca, Sr and Ba.
All sulphates of Barium, Calcium and Lead
SOLUBLE COMPOUNDS
All compounds and complexes of group 1 metals and ammonium

All nitrates
All sulphates except those of Barium, Calcium & Lead, sulphates of Barium and
Calcium are sparingly soluble upon warming.
All group 1 oxides.
All phosphates.

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Most chlorides, bromides and iodides are soluble. Some exceptions are those of lead,
barium and silver.
METHODS OF PREPARING SOLUBLE SALTS
1) TITRATION
It is used to prepare a soluble salt from a soluble base such as sodium hydroxide or
sodium carbonate and an acid.
This method is used to make salts of group 1 metals and ammonium.
2) NEUTRALISATION- of an insoluble base by an acid

An excess of the base is added to an acid and the excess of the base is removed by
filtration. The filtrate is partially evaporated to obtain crystals of salt. Soluble salts of
most of the other elements are made by this method.
3) METAL REACTING WITH ACID
This method is essentially the same as one as one above. The reaction is not neutral but
redox. The method can be used to make magnesium, zinc, aluminium and iron (ii) salts. It
cannot be used to prepare salts of very reactive metals such as sodium, potassium,
because they react explosively with acids.
PREPARATION OF AN INSOLUBLE SALT
Precipitation method is used to prepare an insoluble salt. Two soluble solutions are mixed
together to give one soluble and one insoluble salt. The two are separated by filtration.
EXAMPLE: Reacting an INSOLUBLE BASE with AN ACID.
1) Copper (ii) oxide is an insoluble black powder. Copper (ii) oxide is added to hot dilute
sulphuric acid until it is in excess. The reaction is very slow when the acid is cold.
Reaction: CuO + H2SO4→CuSO4 + H2O
2) Excess copper (ii) oxide is removed by filtering.

3) Copper sulphate solution is heated until it is saturated. The solution is cooled to form
crystals. Crystals are then dried.

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REACTING A METAL AND AN ACID
All metals react with at least one acid. This method can therefore be used on a number of
metals. Some unreactive metals need very strong, concentrated acids and only react very
slowly. Other very reactive metals explode dangerously with acids. It is best to use this
method with moderately reactive metals.
Metal + acid → salt + Hydrogen
Example
1. Magnesium powder is added to dilute acid until the reaction stops.
Reaction: Mg + H2SO4→MgSO4 + H2
2. Excess magnesium is removed by filtration.
3. Magnesium Sulphate solution is heated to evaporate off excess water. Solution is heated
until it is saturated.
4. Saturated magnesium sulphate solution is boiled so that crystals form.
5. They crystals are then air dried.
REACTING A CARBONATE WITH AN ACID
All carbonates react with acids to give out water, salt, and carbon dioxide.
Example:
Reaction: CuCO3 + HCl → CuCl + H2O + CO2
1. Copper (ii) carbonate is an insoluble green powder. It is added to dilute hydrochloric

acid until it is in excess.
2. Excess copper (ii) carbonate is removed by filtering.
3. Solution is heated until it is saturated.
4. Saturated solution is cooled so that it crystallises.
5. Crystals are pressed dry with filter paper.

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1. a. Calculate the moles the following;
i. 20g of sodium. [3]
ii. 5g of magnesium [3]
iii. 20dm3 of oxygen [3]
iv. 0.5mol/dm3 of sodium chloride with volume 20cm3. [3]

a. An acid
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
b. A base
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
c. Strong alkali
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
d. Weak acid
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
3. a. Give three properties of acids.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

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b. Give three properties of alkalis.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
4. a. What are the results for following tests of acid?

i. Methyl orange…………………………………………………………………………..… [1]
ii. Universal indicator.......………………………………………………………………….. [1]
iii. Red litmus paper……...…………………………………………………………………. [1]
b. What are the results for following tests of alkali?

i. Methyl orange…………………………………………………………………………..… [1]
ii. Universal indicator....…………………………...……………………………………….. [1]
iii. Red litmus paper……………………………...…………………………………………. [1]
5. What is pH?
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
6. Complete the equation below.
Hydrochloric acid + sodium carbonate = ______________+___________+____________[3]
7. Describe the test for;

i. Hydrogen
test………………………………………………………………………………………………
result………………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
ii. Carbon dioxide
test……………………………………………………………………………………………....
result……………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
8. Complete the equation below.
Sodium hydroxide + ammonium sulphate= __________+___________+_____________ [3]
9. Give two applications of acid/base reactions in daily life.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
10. Give one example of the following;

a. Acidic oxide……...…………………………………………………………………….... [1]
b. Basic oxide…....…...…………………………………………………………………….. [1]
c. Neutral oxide…..………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. Amphoteric oxide...……………………………………………………………………… [1]
11. Describe how crystals can be obtained from a solution of copper sulphate.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]

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12. What are the tests and results for the tests for the following ions:
a. Iodide ions
...………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
b. Nitrate ions
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………...………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
c. iron (ii) ions
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
d, iron (iii) ions
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..…………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
13. Match the following cations with the effect that is seen when they are reacted with
aqueous sodium hydroxide/ammonia. [5]
CATION EFFECT
Copper(II) Light blue precipitate
Iron (III) Ammonia gas produced
Iron(II) White precipitate soluble in excess
Ammonium Dirty green precipitate
Zinc Reddish brown precipitate
14. During an experiment a student releases a gas inside a fume cupboard. The student does
not know which gas is it. Describe different tests on how the student might identify the gas
released.
a) Oxygen
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
b) Ammonia
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
c) Chlorine
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
d) Hydrogen
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….... [2]
e) Carbon dioxide
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

27
ENERGY CHANGES
EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS
1) Reaction gives out heat to the surrounding

2) The chemical energy of the reactants is bigger than that of the product
3) Examples are Respiration, Hydration, Neutralisation Reaction, Combustion/burning.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
1) Reaction absorbs heat energy from the surroundings

2) The chemical energy of the reactants is smaller than that of the product
3) Examples are Photosynthesis, Decomposition, Dehydration and Melting.
BOND BREAKING AND BOND FORMATION
BOND BOND ENERGY kJ/mol
C-H 413
F-F 158
H-F 565
C-F 495
Calculate the energy for bonds broken and bonds formed for the reaction
CH4 + F2 → CH3F + HF
CALCULATING BOND BREAKING ENERGY
C-H × 4
413 × 4 = 1652 kJ/mol
F-F
158 × 1 = 158

28
Total bond breaking energy
1652 + 158 = 1810kJ/mol
CALCULATING BOND FORMATION ENERGY
C-H × 3
413 × 3 = 1239kJ/mol
C-F × 1
495 × 1 = 495kJ/mol
H-F × 1
565 ×1 =565kJ/mol
Total bond formation energy
1239 + 495 +565 = 2299kJ/mol
Energy change = bond breaking energy – bond formation energy
Energy change = 1810 – 2299
Energy change = -489kJ/mol
Since its negative, it is an endothermic reaction.

29
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
It is a reaction that can proceed both ways. The reaction can go forward or backward
depending on the conditions of reaction.
Reactants form products while products decompose to form the original reactants.
Dynamic equilibrium-this is whereby the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of
the reverse reaction.
LE CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
When a change is made to the conditions of a closed system in dynamic equilibrium, the
system moves so as to oppose that change.
CONDITIONS THAT AFFECT REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
1. Concentration- If reactants are added or products removed at equilibrium the

forward reactions is favoured hence more products are formed.
2. Temperature-When temperature increases an endothermic reaction is favoured.
Lowering temperatures favours an exothermic reaction.
3. Pressure (for gaseous reactions)-Has no effect if the number of moles is the same in
both sides (products and reactants). For different number of molecules increasing
pressure favours a reaction that produce less molecules while reducing pressure
favour a reaction that produce more molecules.
4. Catalyst- It does not change equilibrium but ensures that equilibrium is attained
quickly.

30
RATES OF REACTIONS
It measures the speed at which reactants change into products.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT REACTION
To understand how different factors determine the reaction rate, first understand the collision
theory.
COLLISION THEORY
A reaction will occur when particles collide and they have enough energy to react. Reaction
depends on the collision rate of the reactant particles and the energy of these particles.
1. CONCENTRATION
When concentration is increased, the rate will increase. When concentration is
decreased, the rate will decrease.
Increasing the concentration of a reactant increases the number of particles in unit
volume, so there will be more collisions hence the rate of reaction increases.
2. TEMPERATURE
When temperature is increased, the rate will increase. When temperature is decreased,
the rate will decrease.
When temperature is increased the particles have more energy to move. As the
particles move faster they collide more frequently hence increasing the rate of
reaction.
3. PRESSURE
The pressure only affects reactions affecting gases. When pressure is increased, the
rate will increase. When pressure is decreased, the rate will decrease.
Increasing pressure brings gas particles close together hence they collide more
frequently hence increasing the rate of reaction.
4. CATALYST
A catalyst increases the rate of reaction but remains chemically unchanged.

31
5. PARTICLE SIZE
Only affects reactions involving solids. The larger the particle, the lower the rate of
reaction and the smaller the particle, the higher the rate of reaction.
Small particles i.e. powders have larger surface area as compared to blocky particles.
6. LIGHT INTENSITY
When light intensity is increased, the rate of reaction will increase. When light
intensity is decreased, the rate will decrease.
REDOX REACTIONS
Redox stands for Reduction/Oxidation reactions.
OXIDATION REDUCTION
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen
Loss of electron(s) Gain of electron(s)
Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number
Example
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
CuO has lost oxygen, therefore it has been reduced to Cu. CuO is an oxidising agent or
oxidant.
H2 has gained oxygen, therefore it has been oxidised to H2O. H2 is a reducing agent.
TEST FOR OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS
OXIDISING AGENT COLOUR CHANGE

Potassium Iodide Colourless to yellow-brown
REDUCING AGENT COLOUR CHANGE

Acidified Potassium Manganite Purple to Colourless
Acidified Potassium Dichromate Orange to green

32
METALS
REACTIVITY SERIES
K, Na, Mg, Al, *C, Zn, Fe, Pb, *H, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt
Decreasing Reactivity→
*Non-metals are included for convenience.
Ag, Au, Pt-Do not react with oxygen.
USES OF METALS AND ALLOYS
Brass-made of Cu and Zn, used to make jewellery, furniture, machine bearings.
Bronze-Made of Cu and Tin used to make castings and machine parts.
Cupro-nickel-Copper and nickel-used to make turbine blades
Duralumin-made of Al, Cu, Mg, Mn, Fe-it is used to make aircraft parts, bicycle parts
Pewter-Lead, Tin, Antimony, used to make plates, ornaments, drinking mugs, electrical wires.
Cast iron-Fe, C, Si, P, S, used to make railings, hot water pipes, Bunsen burner, melts at lower
temperatures.
Wrought Iron-Used to make iron nails, sheeting, horseshoes, agriculture implements, it has
high melting point, it is malleable.
Steel- Fe, C-it is hard and strong hence it is used to make automobile bodies, wire mesh,
stainless steel cutlery.
EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM THEIR ORES
ORE- a rock that contains an element as a compound or a “free metal”
METHODS OF EXTRACTION

33
ELEMENT METHOD OF EXTRACTION

K, Na, Cu, Mg The anhydrous Cl- it is melted and electrolysed.
Al The anhydrous oxide is melted and electrolysed
Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu , they are found as sulphates and oxides. The sulphates
are reacted to give oxides. The oxides are reduced with
carbon.
Ag, Au, Pt - Found „native‟ as free metals.
EXTRACTION OF IRON: BLAST FURNACE
Haematite- Fe2O3, is the common ore of iron.
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1) C+ O2 → CaO + CO2
Coke burns producing huge amounts of heat.
2) CaCO3 →CaO + CO2
Limestone is decomposed
3) CO2 + C → 2CO
Higher up the furnace the oxygen has been used up and CO2 is reduced to carbon
monoxide.
4) Fe2O3 (s) + 3CO (g) → 2Fe (l) + 3CO2 (g)
Carbon monoxide reduces the Fe2O3 to iron which flows down to the bottom of the
furnace.
5) CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (sand)
Waste gases-can be recycled in the furnace or used for industrial heating.
Slag-(CaSiO3)-it is used for road surfacing.
MOLTEN IRON
The iron form blast furnace has some impurities mostly carbon. It is called cast iron. The
excess carbon is removed by basic oxygen furnace.
C (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
Carbon dioxide then escapes as a gas.

34
ELECTROLYSIS
Electrolysis- The process of passing an electric current through a substance and bringing
about a chemical reaction.
Electrolyte-It is substance that conducts an electric current when molten or dissolved in

water.
Weak electrolyte-it is poor conductor of electricity because it is only partially ionised- many
molecules and fewer ions.
Electrodes- Pieces of metal or carbon through which the current enters and leaves the
electrolyte. Positively charged electrodes are called anode and negatively charged electrode
are called cathode.
ELECTROLYSIS CURCUIT
1) Electrons flow from battery /power source to the cathode.
2) Positive ions in the electrolyte are attracted to the negative electrode.
3) The positive ions accept electrons from the cathode and metals or hydrogen are formed at
the cathode.
4) Electrons flow from the anode to the battery /power supply.
5) Negative ions (non-metals except hydrogen) are attracted to the positive electrode.
6) When the anode is inert (carbon/graphite or platinum) the negative ions lose electrons to
the anode.
When the anode is not inert (Ag, Cu, more reactive metals) the metal atoms of the anode lose
electrons and form positive ions. The anode will dissolve and decrease.
All aqueous solutions contain OH- and H+ in addition to ions from the electrolyte.
DISCHARGE OF IONS
The lower in each of the series will be discharged. The order for positive ions is very similar
to the reactivity series of metals.

35
ANION REACTIVITY SERIES
SO42-, NO3-, OH-, Cl-, Br-, I-

When the anode is not inert, it will lose electrons and form positive ions in preference to the
discharge of a negative ion.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTROLYSIS
ELECTROLYSIS MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE

Electrode Inert carbon/graphite
Ions present Na+ and Cl-
Reaction with anode Cl- - 2e → Cl2
Reaction with cathode Na+ + e → Na
Overall reaction 2Cl- + 2Na+ → Cl2 + 2Na
Conclusion sodium chloride has decomposed to form Cl2 gas and metal sodium.
ELECTRO-PLATING
This is used to place one metal on another.
The metals that are commonly used to electroplate are copper, chromium, nickel, tin, gold
and silver.
Reasons for electroplating are for appearance, protection from corrosion and abrasion.
PRINCIPLES
1. The object that is being electroplated form the cathode.

2. The metal used for plating is the anode.
3. The electrolyte-solution of metal used to plate.
Example-plating a kitchen folk with Tin
Reaction at the Anode

Sn (s) – 2e → Sn2+ (aq)
Reaction at the Cathode

Sn2+ (aq) + 2e → Sn (s)
REFINING
Metals can be refined or purified by electrolysis. The impure metal forms the anode, the
cathode is a small piece of pure metal and the electrolyte is an aqueous metal salt.
Example
Copper refining
At the cathode: Cu2+ + 2e →Cu (s)

At the anode: Cu - 2e →Cu2+ (s)

36
EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM FROM ITS ORE
i. The main ore of aluminium is bauxite which is changed into pure aluminium
oxide, Al2O3.
ii. Both cathode and anode are carbon (graphite).
iii. The electrolyte is a molten mixture of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite,
Na3AlF6.
Cryolite lowers the melting point of the electrolyte-this saves energy and reduces
costs.
iv. Reaction at the cathode
Al3+ (aq) + 3e → Al (s)
v. Reaction at the anode
2O2- (g) + 4e → O2 (g)
vi. The carbon anode burn in the oxygen so they have to be replaced periodically.
vii. The cryolite lowers the temperature from over 2 C melting point of aluminium
oxide to about C. ow temperature improves electrical conductivity of the
electrolyte.
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM AND ITS USES
PROPERTIES
Conducts heat and electricity.
It has a low density as compared to other metals.
It does not corrode.
Reacts with air to form its oxides and nitrides.
Reacts with acid slowly and liberates hydrogen rapidly.
USES PROPERTIES ENABLING

Making electrical cables Ductile
Making cooking pots Malleable
Aeroplane bodies Low densities
Cooking pots and foil High melting point
ELECTROLYSIS CALCULATIONS
Faraday‟s first law of electrolysis states
The mass of a substance liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is proportional to the

quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte.
QUANTITY OF ELECTRICITY
FARADAY‟S CONSTANT
It is the amount of electricity carried by 1 mol of electrons, that is 1 mole of electrons carry
an electrical charge of 96 500C.
96 5 C is Faraday‟s constant
1 mol: 96 500C

37
1. Define the term dynamic equilibrium.

……………………………………………………………………………..……………
……………………………………………………………...………………………. [2]
2. State and explain two conditions that would favour the;
i) Endothermic reaction
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………...… [2]
ii) Exothermic reaction
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
3. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 *H-92kj/mol

True or False
i) The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of reverse reaction.
…………………………………………………………………………..…. [1]
ii) The amount of reactants is equal to the amount of products.
……………………………………………………………………………… [1]
iii) What can be done to increase the amount of ammonia formed?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………...……………. [2]
iv) State the 4 conditions that can be altered so that equilibrium shifts.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………..….. [4]
v) What is meant by a reversible reaction?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
4. Name one iron ore and write its formula.

……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
a. Which substance acts as a reducing agent in the reaction with iron oxide in the
blast furnace?
…………………………………………………………………………………..….. [1]
b. What is the chemical name of slag?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

38
c. Why is molten iron extracted at the bottom in the blast furnace?

……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. Calculate the relative atomic mass of iron oxide Fe2O3.
i) Calculate the percentage by mass of iron that could be extracted

from 1000kg of iron oxide.
[3]
e. In the blast furnace limestone decomposes into 2 products namely

CaCO3 (s) → ……………………..…… + ………………………………… [2]
f. Reduction of Fe2O3 by carbon monoxide forms iron, balance the equation below.
___ Fe2 O3(s) +__ CO (g) → __Fe (l) + __CO2 (g)
g. Complete the table below by matching the metal with its ore.
Metal Ore
Magnetite
Zinc
Bauxite
Copper
h. Match the metal with method of extraction.
METAL METHOD OF EXTRACTION

Sodium Usually found as pure
Lead Anhydrous oxide is melted and
electrolysed
Silver Sulphide is roasted to give oxide and
then reduced with carbon
Aluminium Anhydrous chloride is melted and
electrolysed
i. Action of heat on metal nitrates, complete equations below.
a) ___Zn(NO3)2 (s) → ___ ZnO (s) + ____+ O2 (g) [2]
b) 2Cu(NO3)2 (s) → ___________ + ___________ [2]

39
j. What is an alloy?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
5. Define the following terms.

a. Electrolysis
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..……………………………………………………………..… [2]
b. Electroplating
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
c. Electrode
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
d. Electrolyte
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
6. Draw a set up to show how a plastic key can electroplated with zinc and describe
brief what will happen.
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [6]
7. State 2 reasons for electroplating

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
8. In an electrolysis experiment, current of 19.1 A was passed through the cell for 1
minute 30 seconds.
i) How many coulombs were passed?
[3]

40
ii) Calculate the number of Faradays
1 Faraday = 96500 C
[2]
iii) Calculate number of moles produced.
[2]
9. Electrolysis of the cathode and anode: complete the following;
i. Electrolyte: aqueous copper (II) sulphate

Electrode: carbon
a. Ions present: ……………………………………………………… [2]
b. Reaction at cathode: ……………………………………………… [2]
c. Reaction at anode: ………………………………………………... [2]
d. Overall reaction: ………………………………………………….. [1]
10. A blacksmith coats a watch with silver by using it as an electrode in an electrolysis

experiment. The electrolyte was a solution of silver salt. Current of 0.5A flowed for
30 minutes.
a) Name the electrode formed by the watch.

……………………………………………………………………. [1]
b) Calculate total charge in coulombs.
[2]
c) Use the answer above to calculate moles of electrons that passed
through the circuit.
[2]
d) How many moles of silver were deposited ; Ag +
[2]
e) What mass of silver was deposited? [1]

41
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
EXAM TIPS:
You should,
Be able to state the general characteristics of a homologous series.

Name and draw the structures of unbranched alkanes, alkenes, alkanols, and alkanoic
acids up to five carbon atoms.
Be able to identify alkanes, alkenes, alkanols, and alkanoic acids when given their
structural formulas.
Draw isomers up to five alkanes.
State and describe the reactions of alkanes.
Name the source of alkanes
Name each fraction and its use.
Describe properties of alkenes in terms of burning, polymerisation, addition reactions
with bromine, hydrogen and steam.
Distinguish unsaturated hydrocarbons e.g. alkenes from saturated hydrocarbons e.g.
alkanes by molecular structures and by using aqueous bromine.
Describe the formation of poly(ethene) as an example of addition polymerisation of
monomer units, list some uses of poly(ethene) e.g. plastic bags.
describe the fermentation of simple sugars to produce ethanol (and carbon dioxide)
and its importance in brewing and baking
Prepare ethanol by fermentation; describe formation of ethanol by catalytic addition
of steam to ethene.
List some uses of alcohols as solvents, as fuels and as constituents of alcoholic
beverages.
Describe the formation of alkanoic acids [exemplified by the formation of Ethanoic
acid by the oxidation of ethanol by atmospheric oxygen and by acidified potassium
chromate (VI)/potassium manganate (VII)]
explain properties of ethanoic acid as a typical weak acid
name some commonly occurring alkanoic acids, their sources and uses e.g. tartaric
acid, Ethanoic acid, ascorbic acid, citric acid
describe the reaction of ethanoic acid with ethanol to give an ester (ethyl ethanoate)
Be aware of macromolecules as large molecules built from small units.
be aware of the formation of synthetic polymers and their impact in everyday life
list some typical uses of condensation polymers and link their properties to uses
Describe the pollution problems caused by non-biodegradable polymers e.g. plastics,
nylon. List some typical uses of man-made fibres
Advantages and disadvantages of synthetic and natural fibres
describe uses of different macromolecules as related to their general structure and
properties e.g. PVC, Polystyrene, Polypropene
interpret polymerisation reactions in terms of simple graphical formulae

42
describe the formation of nylon and terylene using simplified structure

understand the impact of natural macromolecules in our daily life
name proteins, fats and carbohydrates as the main constituent of food
describe the hydrolysis of proteins to amino acids
prepare soap by hydrolysis of fats
describe complex carbohydrates as macromolecules formed by the condensation
polymerisation of smaller carbohydrate units called sugars
describe the hydrolysis of complex carbohydrates (e.g. starch) to give simple sugars
describe proteins as possessing the same linkage (amide) as nylon but with different
units
describe fats as esters possessing the same linkage as Terylene but with different
units
demonstrate how chromatography techniques can be applied to colourless
substances by exposing chromatograms to substances called locating agents (refer
to Rf factor) or UV light describe, in outline, the usefulness of chromatography in
separating and identifying the products of hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins.
Note: Points written in bold are for pure sciences only.

43

a. Homologous series
………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………….... [2]
b. Hydrocarbon
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.……………………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
c. Isomers
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
.……………………………………………………………………………………………. [2]
d. Structural formula
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………...………………………………………………………………………….… [2]
e. Polymerisation
……….…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
2. a. Draw and name the isomers of butane C4H10. [4]
b. State two properties of a homologous series.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
c. State the uses of the following; [4]
i. Petrol fraction
………...……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
ii. Kerosene………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
iii. Bitumen…………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
iv. Diesel oil………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
d. State the two reactions of alkanes.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]

44
2. a. Bromine reacts with ethene to change colour. State the colour changes.
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
b. Name two methods which are used to obtain ethanol.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………..……………..… [2]
c. What are the conditions needed for hydration of ethene to ethanol.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [3]
d. Name the two products formed when ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
3. a. State four groups in the homologous series.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………….. [4]
4. Name any five macromolecules.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………… [5]
5. What products are formed from the combustion of an alkane?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
6. What is meant by cracking?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
7. Complete the equation to show 2 compounds that may be formed when pentane is
cracked.
C5H12 → __________ + __________ [2]

45
8. Nylon is a synthetic condensation polymer.
a) Name the linkage in nylon.

…………………………………………………………………………….... [1]
b) Name one natural macromolecule similar in the structure to nylon.
……………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c) Name one environmental problem that can be caused by the use of nylon,
explain your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………… [2]
9. a) Butane is used as a fuel for cooking. Why would it be dangerous to burn butane in
a limited supply of oxygen?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
b) To which homologous series does the structure belong to?
……………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
c) State 2 chemical properties of all the substances in the homologous series.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
10. Proteins are natural macromolecules made up of amino acids monomers, by

condensation polymerization. The monomers are joined together by amide linkages
which can be broken down by hydrolysis.
Define the following terms;
i. Macromolecule
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………..… [2]
ii. Hydrolysis
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
11. Why is concentrated H2SO4 used in the process of esterification?

…………………………………………………………………………………….... [1]
12. a. What is saponification?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
b. Name any two products formed from saponification.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]

46
NON METALS
EXAM TIPS:
Describe the preparation of chlorine from concentrated hydrochloric acid using an
oxidising agent
State the test for chlorine
State the uses of chlorine (sterilising water, manufacturing plastics, making domestic
bleaches etc.
Describe properties of chlorine
Describe the bleaching action of chlorine
Understand the uses of some important compounds of chlorine and its manufacture
Name some sources of sodium chloride e.g. sea water, salt pans (give examples of
some places in Botswana)
Describe the importance of sodium chloride as a source for chlorine, sodium
hydroxide and common salt
Describe extraction of sodium chloride from soda ash (focus on local process at
Botswana Ash in Sowa Town)
Acquire knowledge of sources and uses of sulphur and properties of its important
compounds
List the sources of sulphur, describe the preparation of sulphur dioxide, state the
important uses of sulphur dioxide (bleach in the manufacture of wood pulp, food
preservative by killing bacteria)
Describe the manufacture of sulphuric acid from sulphur by Contact process
(conditions and reactions)
Describe the properties of dilute sulphuric acid, state the important uses of
sulphuric acid (in the manufacture of detergent and fertilisers, car batteries and as
a dehydrating agent)
Know the different forms of carbon; state diamond and graphite as allotropes of
carbon
Relate the structures of diamond and graphite to their uses
Describe the processes involved in the extraction and refining of diamond in
Botswana
Compare the structure of graphite, diamond and silica [silicon (IV) oxide]
Describe the similarity in structure of diamond and silica [silicon (IV) oxide] and of
their properties related to their structures.
Acquire knowledge of formation and uses of important carbonates
List the uses of sodium carbonate and calcium carbonate
Describe the manufacture of sodium carbonate by Solvay process
Acquire knowledge of sources and uses of nitrogen
Name the sources of nitrogen and hydrogen in making ammonia
State the uses of ammonia
Describe the essential conditions for making ammonia by the Haber process
Describe the essential conditions for making nitric acid by the Ostwald process

47
1. Describe the test for chlorine.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….. [3]
2. State four uses of chlorine.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [4]
3. Give two chemical properties of chlorine.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
4. State two uses of sulphur dioxide.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
5. Explain why graphite is a good conductor of electricity.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
6. State two uses of calcium carbonate.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………...…. [2]
7. State two uses of sodium carbonate.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………... [2]
8. State the source of nitrogen and hydrogen in making ammonia.
Nitrogen …………………………………………………………………………… [1]
Hydrogen ………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
9. State three properties of silicon IV oxide.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………….... [3]
10. State two conditions necessary for the Haber process.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
11. State two conditions necessary for the Contact process.
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………...…. [2]

48
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIROMENT
EXAM TIPS:
Acquire knowledge about the physical and chemical properties of water
Investigate physical properties of pure water, carry out a chemical test for water
Explain the following terms hydration, hydrolysis, drying, dehydration deliquescence,
efflorescence and hygroscopic
Understand water of crystallisation
Appreciate the effect of dissolving property of water in producing hard water and
pollution
Describe the process that results in hard water (name salts causing hard water)
Distinguish temporary hardness of water and permanent hardness of water
Measure the hardness of water
Describe physical and chemical process of softening hard water
Describe how a detergent works
Describe pollution of water in terms of dissolved substances, accumulation of toxic
substances and effect of detergents
Investigate effects of pollutants in water
Explain the consequence of water pollution
Describe pollution of water in terms of biological oxygen demand (BOD
Appreciate the delicate balance of air in volume and quality
State the proportions of different components of clean air by percentage volume
Describe the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air by fractional distillation
Explain the effect of increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere
Name the uses of oxygen in health and in industry
State the importance of the ozone layer
Name the common pollutants in the air as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, oxides
of nitrogen and lead compounds
State the source of each of the common pollutants
Explain why it is dangerous to run a petrol engine in a closed garage or use a coal fire
in a closed room
Explain the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car exhausts
Explain the problems caused by burning coal
Describe the adverse effects (include chemical reactions) of common pollutants on
buildings, health, vegetation, ozone layer, etc.
Describe methods controlling pollution such as acid rain, toxic waste, etc.
State uses of catalytic converters and unleaded petrol in reducing pollution from
car exhausts
State the role of recycling in conservation of natural resources and reducing the
problem of pollution
Describe some of the problems caused by the chemistry industry
Explain the importance of recycling, identify methods of recycling of various
substances (e.g. paper, metals, glass, water)
Find out advantages of using recyclable materials
Be aware of the chemical processes taking place when fuels are burned
State that fuel releases energy when it is burnt
State that fuel burning is an exothermic reactions
State that energy released was stored in the bonds of the fuel molecules

49
State that carbon monoxide is produced when carbon-containing fuels burn in a

limited supply of oxygen
Describe how charcoal can be made from wood
Explain the need to find alternative sources of energy
Explain energy conservation methods used in the home
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various energy sources
Describe one use of plants in producing a fuel
Describe the use of plant and animal waste in producing fuel
Relate the structure of silicon to its ability to trap solar energy

50
1. (a) Temporary hardness of water is caused by the presence of calcium hydrogen

carbonate, Ca(HCO3)2.
i. How can temporary hard water be softened, without adding a chemical?
…………………………………………………………………………… [1]
ii. When a sample of temporary hard water is softened, a solid is formed. Name
this solid.
…………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Permanent hardness of water can be caused by the presence of calcium
sulphate and magnesium sulphate.
(i) Complete the equation which shows how hard water is made soft by washing
soda, Na2CO3. Include the state symbols.
Na2CO3 ( ) + CaSO4( ) → ……………… ( ) + …………… ( )
(ii) Use the state symbols to explain that the hard water has been softened by the
washing soda.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………… [3]
BGCSE 2000
2. Pollutants gases such as carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen are produced by a
car engine are emitted through the exhaust pipe.
(a) Describe how oxides of nitrogen are formed in car engines.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(b) Explain how carbon monoxide affects human health.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………….. [2]
(c) What is the purpose of catalytic converters in car exhausts?
………………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
(d) Suggest why catalytic converters contain a network of fine holes.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….………. [2]
(e) Carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen are all present in clean air.
i. State the proportion of oxygen in clean air.
………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
ii. Name the process used to separate oxygen and nitrogen from air.
………………………………………………………………………….. [1]
BEC 2012

51
ABOUT WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS
MISSION
We exist to help students excel in all subject areas by providing them with effective learning
techniques and principles that will empower them with life transforming skills and attitudes
that value education.
VISION
Our vision is to equip students with the necessary tools and measures for academic excellence
as well as developing them into being responsible citizens who are industrially oriented for
the future.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Word Crackers Tutorials was established in February 2011 as a program giving back to the
community. The aim was to make tuition affordable and therefore accessible to everyone.
The success that was achieved in the first year challenged the pioneers of the program to
transform it into a business and it was legally registered on the 4th day of April 2014.
SERVICES
Word Crackers Tutorials offers tuition for BGCSE, IGCSE, JCE, PSLE, AAT, Bachelor of
Science, Statistics, ICT, Accounting, Management, Marketing and Economics.
LOCATION
We are located at plot no. 10411, White City, Gaborone opposite Standard Chartered Bank
along old Lobatse road.
Another branch is located at KB Mall (inside KB Medical Clinic), Gaborone Bus rank.
CONTACTS
Tel: 3104726
Cell: 71705458
Email: wordcrackers@gmail.com
Facebook: You can like our page Word Crackers-Botswana
or join our group Stars of Word Crackers Tutorials.

52
OUR RESULTS SPEAK FOR US
2011 WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS TOP THREE STUDENTS

NAME ENG MAT BIO CHE PHY D/A BEST 6 PNTS
1. Lethabo Kgakatsi - - - A * - 2*, 2As, 2Bs 46
2. Khumo Mazunga - B A A A - 4As, 3Bs 46
3. Naomi Toise - C - - - AA 3As, 2Bs, 1C 44

NAME ENG MAT BIO CHE PHY D/A BEST 6 PNTS
1. Genious Nkwe - B B A A - 4As, 2Bs 46
2. Bontle Bornwell - B A A A - 4As, 3Bs 44
3. Noleen Moepeng - B - - - AA 2As, 3Bs, 1C 43

NAME ENG MAT BIO CHE PHY SDA BEST 6 PNTS
1. Kabo Majwabe A A A A A - 1*, 7As 48
2. Maitseo Setlhoka C A - - - AA 3As, 3Bs 45
3. Same Baeti B B - - - ** 2*s, 3Bs, 1C 43

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WORD CRACKERS TUTORIALS

Freedom Books Publishers

©Word Crackers Tutorials

Freedom Books Publishers

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Tel: (+267) 3104726

© 2014 By Word Crackers Tutorials

Freedom Books Publishers

Writer: Moemedi Senwelo

Cover design by: Olerile Garekwe

©Word Crackers Tutorials

©Word Crackers Tutorials

1. Solute-A substance that dissolves in a solvent.

STATE ARRANGEMENT MOVEMENT FORCES

©Word Crackers Tutorials

THE KINETIC PARTICLE THEORY OF MATTER

The movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region of low

Proton-it is a positively charged particle of an atom. It is found in the nucleus of an atom.

Neutron-it is an uncharged particle of an atom. It is found in the nucleus of an atom.

Atom-this is the smallest particle of an element.

Element-a substance made of atoms of one kind.

©Word Crackers Tutorials

PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL A.M.U

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (R.A.M)

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Properties of alkali metals

They are soft metals, can be cut with a knife.

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This is a block between group 2 and group 3.

Properties of transition metals

They and their compounds can be used as catalysts.

They are diatomic-exists as two atoms.

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Properties of noble gases

They are non-metals.

Uses of noble gases

Helium is used to fill balloons.

Properties of covalent bonds

They are not soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.

Difference between inter and intra molecular forces

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Properties of ionic bonds

It is a positively charged ion. This results from atoms losing electrons.

It is a negatively charged ion. This results from atoms gaining electrons.

Ions made up of more than one atom, e.g. NH4+.

©Word Crackers Tutorials

1. Complete the table below; [9]

State of matter Movement of Arrangement of Forces of

2. State the Kinetic Particle Theory of Matter.

4. Explain why ammonia diffuses faster than hydrogen chloride gas.

5. Define the following terms;

©Word Crackers Tutorials

5. (a.) Draw an atom of sodium. [2]

b. Complete the table below; [6]

PARTICLE CHARGE SYMBOL A.M.U

7. a. State how elements are arranged in the periodic table.

c. Describe the change in character across period III in terms of;

©Word Crackers Tutorials

iii. Boiling point

8. State two properties of the following;

9. State the uses of the following;

10. Name the method used to separate the following;