Acid - a substance that produces H+ ions when dissolved in water, they are also proton

(hydrogen ion) donors

Alkali - a substance that produces OH- ions when dissolved in water (are soluble unlike bases),
they are also proton (hydrogen ion) acceptors

Indicator Acid Neutral Alkali

Blue Litmus Turns Red Stays Blue Stays Blue

Red Litmus Stays Red Stays Red Turns Blue

Methyl Orange Red Orange Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink

Universal Indicator Red/Yellow Green Blue/Purple

Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Metal + steam → metal oxide + hydrogen
Metal (oxide) + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Metal oxide + acid → salt + water
Metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water
Metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water

Carbonates and magnesium doesn’t have to react with acid that is warmed, while other
substances do (although to make crystals it has to be warmed)

If the salt has potassium ammonium or sodium, use titration

If the salt is soluble, heat it with acid
If the salt is insoluble, use a precipitation reaction
 nitrate chloride sulfate carbonate hydroxide

ammonium

potassium

sodium

barium

calcium

magnesium

aluminium

zinc

iron

lead

copper

silver

Soluble = Partially = insoluble =

● Sodium, Potassium, Ammonium all soluble

● Nitrates all soluble
● Only lead and silver chloride insoluble
● Lead, silver, barium, calcium sulfate are insoluble
● All carbonates insoluble
● All hydroxides are insoluble except barium

SO4, NO3, CO3, NH3, NH4

Electrolysis

cathode

anode

With metals above hydrogen, you get hydrogen at the cathode

With metals below hydrogen, you get the metal at the cathode
With solutions of halides, you get the halide at the anode
With other common anions (sulfate, nitrate, hydroxide), you get oxygen at the cathode

Magnesium burns with bright white flame, magnesium oxide is white and not so soluble
Copper is pink-brown, copper oxide is black, copper carbonate is green, copper sulfate is blue
Sulfur burns with blue flame, sulfur dioxide is colourless gas
Hydrogen burns with pale blue flame, forming water
Zinc oxide yellow when hot, white on cooling
Tri-iron tetroxide slightly darker grey (heating iron with steam)
Hydrated iron (III) oxide Fe2O3⋅xH2O

composition uses properties

Mild steel 0.25% carbon Car bodies, ship Rusts

building, bridges Malleable
dense

High-carbon steel 0.6-1.2% carbon + little Cutting tools, Resistant

manganese masonry nails brittle

Stainless steel Chromium and often Sink, utensil, dairy Strong oxide layer
nickel production expensive

Tests
Hydrogen hold a lighted splint over the mouth of the tube, hear a squeaky pop

Oxygen hold a glowing splint in the tube, it will relight

Carbon dioxide bubbled through limewater, turns from colourless to cloudy

Chlorine gas hold a damp piece of litmus or universal indicator paper, it will get
bleached and turn white, if blue paper used, it will turn red first then white

Ammonia gas Hold a damp piece of red litmus or universal indicator paper, turns blue

pure/unpure water Put the water/(solution) in anhydrous copper(II) sulfate crystals to add
water of crystallisation. Turns from white to blue

Pure water Measure the boiling and melting point of the water, should be 0 and 100
exactly. If its impure, usually the melting point will be lower and the
boiling point will be higher, and will have a range of values

A platinum or nichrome wire is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid and

then into the salt to be tested, having some stick on the end. Hold it just within
a roaring Bunsen burner flame and observe the colour

Lithium ion red

Sodium ion yellow

Potassium ion lilac

Calcium ion orange-red / brick-red

Copper(II) ion blue-green

Sodium (and potassium and ammonium) hydroxides can dissolve into water
well. Add sodium hydroxide to a solution of the salt you want to test. The salt
will react and form the metal hydroxide and observe the colour of its cloudy
precipitate/ammonia gas

copper(II) ion Blue precipitate

iron(III) ion Orange-brown precipitate

iron(II) ion Green precipitate

Ammonium ion Smell ammonia gas or use the damp red litmus/universal
indicator paper test
 Carbonate Add dilute hydrochloric acid and see fizzing, if there is
fizzing bubble the gas through limewater and see if it turns
cloudy

Sulfate Mix a solution of the sulfate with dilute hydrochloric acid (to
get rid of other anions, like carbonates) and then add some
barium chloride solution, look for a white precipitate of
barium sulfate

Mix a solution of your halide with dilute nitric acid (enough to be acidic, to remove
other anions like hydroxides and carbonates), then add silver nitrate and observe
the colour of the precipitate

Chloride white

Bromide cream

Iodide yellow

Organic chemistry

As molecules of a hydrocarbon get bigger (stronger intermolecular forces):

● Boiling point increase
● Liquids become less volatile (evaporate less easily)
● Liquids become less viscous
● Liquids become darker in colour
● Harder to burn

Homologous series:
● Same functional group
● Same general formula
● Similar chemical properties
● Trend in physical properties (e.g. melting/boiling point)
● Differs by a -CH2- unit

Refinery Gases (methane-butane) used as LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) for domestic
heating and cooking

Gasoline fuel for cars

Kerosene aircraft fuel, domestic heating oil, paraffin for heaters and lamps
 Diesel fuel for buses, lorries, some cars and some railway engines. Often cracked
to form things like petrol

Fuel oil fuel for ships and industrial heating

Bitumen melted and mixed with small pieces of rocks to make the top surface of
roads

Catalytic Cracking - the hydrocarbon is heated to give a gas and then passed over a catalyst of
silicon dioxide and aluminium oxide (silica and alumina) at temperatures between 600-700 °C

Oxidising ethanol into ethanoic acid - mix the ethanol with the oxidising agent, potassium
dichromate(VI) and dilute sulfuric acid. Heat with a water bath or under reflux and the solution
will turn from orange to green

Hydration reaction, turning an alkene into alcohol - put the alkene with steam at 300 °C and
60-70 atm with the catalyst phosphoric acid. A small proportion reacts, so the unused alkene
gets recycled.

Fermentation, creating ethanol - yeast is added to a starch solution and left in warm (~30 °C) for
several days without air. Enzymes from the yeast convert the sugar into ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Max 15% alcohol solution as the yeast will die above this, separated using fractional
distillation.

Ammonia creation - mix hydrogen with nitrogen at 150-250 (200) atm and 350-550 (450) °C and
iron catalyst
alcohol to alkene, dehydration reaction, alcohol --> alkene + h2o, idk

Esterification - mix (equal) amounts of carboxylic acid and alcohol in a test tube and add a few
drops of concentrated sulfuric acid (catalyst). Heated, not using a bunsen burner as the
contents are flammable, but a water bath at 80 °C for 5 minutes. Mix into a half-full beaker of 0.5
mol/dm3 sodium carbonate solution to react with the excess acid that would mask the smell of
the ester. The ester will float on top of the water as it’s insoluble. Smell by wafting the odour, not
putting the beaker under the nose.

Uses of: (prob not needed)

● LDPE (low density poly(ethene)) - plastic bags, flexible but not so strong
● HDPE (high density poly(ethene)) - plastic bottles, bit stronger
● Poly(propene) - ropes and crates, bit more strong
● Poly(chloroethene) - water pipes or replacement windows, can be made flexible by
adding plasticisers, making sheet floor coverings and clothes. bad conducter electricity.
● Poly(tetrafluoroethene) - non-stick coating and corrosive container’s lining, unreactive

Biopolyesters - polyesters made from lactic acid (obtained from corn starch) to make
biodegradable (able to be decomposed by microorganisms) polymers, used also in internal
stitches.
Titration

Crude oil fractionating description

Experiment to find out which solids are catalysts

describe transfer and electronic configuration of 2 ions
process of titration and crystal