Oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd jpdrokmjgds
Dgbjqud cd oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs

Covmc B. @uÿjz Gdnrûg

 

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds
Dgbjqud cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs
Covmc B. @uÿjz Gdnrûg

Oustrohmo • Arosmh • Kjrdo • Dspoÿo • Dstocjs Tgmcjs • Fopûg • @íxmkj • Qdmgj Tgmcj • [mgnopur

 Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds.
 Dgbjqud cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd prjkdsjs
cd gdnjkmjs
Covmc B. @uÿjz Gdnrûg
Yrdsmcdgtd cd Kdgnond Hdorgmgn
Hotmgjo`írmko6
 Fovmdr @. Ordhhogj Nutmírrdz
Cmrdktjr dcmtjrmoh Hotmgjo`írmko6
 Fjsí Sj`ïs Yírdz Ajgmhho
Cmrdktjr cd prjcukkmûg6
Qoöh C. Vdgcdfos Dspdfdh
Dcmtjr sdgmjr6
 Fovmdr Qdyds
Qdyds @ortàgdz
Dcmtjr cd prjcukkmûg6
Sm`jtdj Dhmjso Norkào
Kj`pjsmkmûg tmpjnrï󿬏ko6
M`ondg Dcmtjrmoh
Yjrtoco6
Ogsmohoa
© C.Q. 199= pjr Kdgnond Hdorgmgn Dcmtjrds,
[.O. cd K.R., ugo Kj`poÿào cd Kdgnond
Hdorgmgn, Mgk.
Kjrpjrotmvj [ogto Bd
Ov. [ogto Bd gö`. 494, pmsj ?1
Kjh. Kruz @ogko, [ogto Bd
K.Y. 94;3=, @íxmkj, C.B.
Kdgnond Hdorgmgn℡ ds ugo `orko rdnmstroco
usoco aofj pdr`msj.
CDQDKEJ[ QD[DQR
QD[DQROCJ[.
OCJ[. Gmgnugo
portd cd dstd troaofj o`porocj pjr ho
Hdy Bdcdroh cdh Cdrdkej cd Outjr, pjcrï
sdr rdprjcukmco, trogs`mtmco, oh`okdgoco
j utmhmzoco dg kuohqumdr bjr`o j pjr
kuohqumdr `dcmj, yo sdo nrï󿬏kj, dhdktrûgmkj
j `dkïgmkj, mgkhuydgcj, pdrj smg hm`mtorsd
o hj smnumdgtd6 bjtjkjpmocj, rdprjcukkmûg,
dskogdj, cmnmtohmzokmûg, nroaokmûg dg oucmj,
cmstrmaukmûg dg Mgtdrgdt, cmstrmaukmûg dg
rdcds cd mgbjr`okmûg j oh`okdgo`mdgtj y
rdkjpmhokmûg
dxkdpkmûg cddg hj smstd`os
pdr`mtmcjcddgmgbjr`okmûg
dh Kopàtuhj oMMM,
Ortàkuhj 1> cd ho Hdy Bdcdroh cdh Cdrdkej cd
Outjr, smg dh kjgsdgtm`mdgtj pjr dskrmtj cd ho
Dcmtjrmoh.
Cotjs poro kotohjnokmûg amahmjnrï󿬏ko6
@uÿjz Gdnrûg, Covmc B.
 Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds.
 Dgbjqud cd oc`mgmstrokmûg
oc`mgm strokmûg cd prjkdsjs
cd gdnjkmjs
M[AG-?;6 =>5-29>-35?-;44-4
M[AG-?96 29>-35?-;44-5
Rmsmtd gudstrj smtmj wda dg6
www.kdgnond.kj`.`x
 

 O Hmo Norcdgmo, Covmc Njgzohj y Cmdnj Bdrgogcj.

Ohnugos pdrsjgos krdd`js qud ho kmdgkmo y dh ortd outígtmkjs

tmdgdg ohnj cd prjbítmkj, kj`j qud to`amíg dxmstd ohnj
cd kmdgkmo y ortd dg ho prjbdkào vdrcocdro.
 

Kjgtdgmcj

Mgtrjcukkmûg xm

Onrocdkm`mdgtjs xmmm

YOQSD M D[SQOSDNMO,
D[SQOSDNMO, KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] SDKGJHJNÀO

Kopàtuhj ? MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ?

Hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg ?
Dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg 1< @ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs 1< º_uí
º_uí ds ho
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds: ;
Emstjrmo cd hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg 4
Ho Qdvjhukmûg
Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh
Mgcustrmoh 2< Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
oc`mgmstrokmûg kmdgtà󿬏ko
kmdgtà󿬏ko 2<
Dh `jvm`mdgtj pjr
pjr hjs rdkursjs eu`ogjs >< Ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds kjg
 aosd dg `jcdhjs 5
Ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc =
Gudvjs oktjrds dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh
`ugcmoh =< Kj`pdtdgkmo nhjaoh
nhjaoh ??
??<<
Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs dg hjs oÿjs sdtdgto
y jkedgto ?3
Ho dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj ?>
Hjs sdktjrds oktmvjs dg ho gudvo dkjgj`ào ?>< Qdtjs
Qdtjs jpdrotmvjs cd ho
dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj ?5
DFDQKMKMJ[ 19

Kopàtuhj 1 KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO

CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ 1;
Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y dstrotdnmo 1;
Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y vdgtofo
vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo 1;< Dgbjquds cd `drkocj y cd
d󿬏kmdgkmo 14< Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc
Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd hos d`prdsos dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj 12<
Yjsmkmjgds
Yjsmkmjgds cd vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo
kj`pdtmtmvo 15
Yhogdokmûg dstrotínmko cd hos jpdrokmjgds ;?
Dgbjqud y kopokmcocds jpdrokmjgohds ;?< Bjr`uhokmûg
Bjr`uhokmûg cd ugo
dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds ;;
v
 

vm  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds cd d`prdsos dxmtjsos ;4

Dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds cd ^oh-@ort
^oh-@ort y [jutewdst ;4< Dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds cd [ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh ;>< [mstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg
mgbjr`okmûg
dstrotínmkjs ;5
DFDQKMKMJ[ 3?

Kopàtuhj ; SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 3;

Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds 3;
Ho dstrukturo `uhtmtmdrs  33< Qdtjs cdh cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos nhjaohds 34
Sdkgjhjnào
dkgjhjnàoss cd prjcuktj, prjkdsj d mgbjr`okmûg 3>
Sdkgjhjnàos `jcdrgos poro ho prjcukkmûg 3>< Sdkgjhjnàos
Sdkgjhjnàos cd
mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds 43
Yrjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj 42
Dh kjgkdptj fustj o tmd`pj 4>< Kj`pjgdgtds
Kj`pjgdgtds cdh fustj o tmd`pj 45
Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
Ydrsjgohmzokm ûg dg `oso 23
Dstrotdnmos poro ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso 24< Yjspjgdr
Yjspjgdr ho
cmbdrdgkmokmûg cdh prjcuktj 22
DFDQKMKMJ[ 2>

YOQSD MM CMQDKKMÛG CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[

Kopàtuhj 3 MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 2=

Rmsmûg cd prjkdsj cd hos jrnogmzokmjgds 2=
Rdgtofos cd ho vmsmûg cd prjkdsj 2=< Dhd`dgtjs cd ug prjkdsj cd
gdnjkmjs >?
@dcmkmûg cdh cdsd`pdÿj >3
@dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj
󿬁ufj >3< Ho rdnho cd Hmtthd
Hmtthd >>
Ogïhmsms cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs >5
Kj`porokmûg cd cmsdÿjs ohtdrgjs >=< Ogïhmsms
Ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj pjr
oktmvmcocds 59< Ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj kjg cmbdrdgtds
cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs cd
dgtmcocds 5;
DFDQKMKMJ[ 5>

Kopàtuhj 4 KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[S

QD[YTD[SOO =;
Ho m`pjrtogkmo
m`pjrtogkmo cdh tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd rdspudsto =;
Bhufj cdh prjkdsj y dstrotdnmo cd vdgtos =;< M`pjrtogkmo cdh tmd`pj
cd 󿬁ufj =4
Ogïhmsms cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd fiufj =2
@ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko =>< Smd`pj
Smd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj kjg rdprjkdsj ==<
Smd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg dgtmcocds cd cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs ?9 ?9?<
?< @dfjro cdh
tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj ?9;
Ogïhmsms cdh tmd`pj cd fiufj kjg dspdros ?92
Dstm`okmûg cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg dspdros ?9
?9><
>< @dfjro cdh tmd`pj
prj`dcmj cd dspdro ?9=
DFDQKMKMJ[ ??4
 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ vmm

Kopàtuhj 2 OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOY

KOYOKMCOC
OKMCOC ?1?
Yrmgkmpmjs
Yrmgkmpmjs aïsmkjs
aïsmkjs poro ogohmzor ho kopokmcoc ?1?
Boktjrds qud obdktog ho kopokmcoc ?11< Jrnogmzokmûg cd hjs
rdkursjs ?11
@dcmkmûg cd ho kopokmcoc ?14
Kopokmcoc tdûrmko y kopokmcoc dbdktmvo ?12< Kopokmcocds kjg cmbdrdgtds
cmbdrdgtds
to`oÿjs cd dgtmcocds ?1=
@dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc ?;?
@dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko ?;
?;?<
?< @dfjro cd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj ?;;
DFDQKMKMJ[ ?39

Kopàtuhj > OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGS

MGRDGSOQMJ[
OQMJ[ ?34
Kjgkdptjs aïsmkjs ?32
Smpjs cd mgvdgtormjs ?32
?32<< Bugkmjgds cd hjs mgvdgtormjs ?35
?35<< Dgbjquds
poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs ?35< Khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK ?49
Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdg
cdpdgcmdgtd
td ?43
Yhogdokmûg cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds
`otdrmohds ?43< [mstd`os
[mstd`os logaog  ?4=
Ohnugjs `jcdhjs poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs
mgvdgtormjs ?2?
Kjstj cd hjs mgvdgtormjs ?2?< Dh
Dh `jcdhj DJ_ ?21
?21<< @jcdhj cdh to`oÿj
dkjgû`mkj cd oc`mgmstror
Síkgmkos poro hjtd ?2
?24<
4< @jcdhj DJ_ kjg
mgvdgtormjs kjgpdcmcjs
cd`ogcopdgcmdgtds
cmgï`mko ?2
?2><
><=
?2=
?2
DFDQKMKMJ[ ?>3

Kopàtuhj 5 OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGS

MGRDGSOQMJ[
OQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?5?
Mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor ?5?
@dkogms`js cd kjgtrjh poro prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor ?5 ?5?<
?<
Yjhàtmko
Yjhàtmko cd mgvdgtormjs kjg rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo ?5;
?5;<< Yjhàtmko cd
mgvdgtormjs kjg rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko ?52
Onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj y dkjgj`àos cd dskoho ?5>
Onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj ?5
?5><
>< Onrdnokmûg cd pdcmcjs ?=9< Cdskudgtjs
Cdskudgtjs pjr
to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj ?=1
Mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco ?=;
Ho pjhàtmko (s, [) ?=3< Dh prjahd`o cdh vjkdocjr ?=2< Kjgtrotjs cd
su`mgmstrj ?=>< Dqumhmarmjs y ûptm`js nhjaohds 19?
DFDQKMKMJ[ 19;

YOQSD MMM YHOGDOKMÛG CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[

Kopàtuhj = CM[DßJ CDH [M[SD@O CD YQJCTKKMÛG 19>

Yhogdokmûg cd ug dstucmj
dstucmj cd cmsdÿj cd hos mgstohokmjgds
mgstohokmjgds 19>
@dtos cdh cmsdÿj cd phogto 195< Soso
Soso cd sohmco (terjuneput ) 195<
Mgvdgtormj cd `otdrmoh dg dspdro (womtmgn mgvdgtjry ) 195< Mgvdgtormj cd
`otdrmoh dg prjkdsj (wjrl mg prjkdss) 19=< Smd`pj
Smd`pj cd 󿬁ufj ( 󿬁jw
 󿬁jw tm`d ,
kykhd tm`d) 19=< Yosjs cd ug dstucmj cd cmsdÿj
cmsdÿj cd phogto 1?1?99
Rmsmûg cd ho tdkgjhjnào cd prjkdsj 1?1
Kû`j dgbjkor ho tdkgjhjnào
tdkgjhjnào cd prjkdsj 1?
1?;<
;< Kjgsmcdrokmjgds poro ho
tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds
cdkmsmjgds 1?
1?33
 

vmmm  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Koroktdrmzokmûg cd hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg 1?4

Yrjcukkmûg cd okudrcj oh smstd`o cd vdgtos
vdgtos 1?
1?4<
4< Yrjcukkmûg cd
okudrcj oh prjkdsj 1?
1?4<
4< Ho `otrmz
`otrmz prjcuktj-prjkdsj 1?>
Ogïhmsms cdh prjkdsj
prjkdsj y cdh dqumpj 119
Yosjs poro dh ogïhmsms cdh prjkdsj 119< Dhd`dgtjs cd ug ogïhmsms
ogïhmsms
tíkgmkj 111
Yrjkdsjs cd boarmkokmûg 11>
Yrjkdsjs cd bjr`ocj
bjr`ocj 11>< Yrjkdsjs cd boarmkokmûg 115< Yrjkdsjs
cd ugmûg 115<
troto`mdgtj Yrjkdsjs 11=
Yrjkdsjs
supdr󿬏kmoh cd troto`mdgtj tír`mkj 11=< Yrjkdsjs cd
DFDQKMKMJ[ 1;9

Kopàtuhj ?9 HJKOHMVOKMÛG CD YHOGS

YHOGSO[,
O[, KDGSQJ[ CD CM[SQMATKMÛG ] [DQRMKMJ[ 1;?
Yrjahd`os cd hjkohmzokmûg 1;1
Hjkohmzokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs kjg cd`ogco oamdrto 1;1
Hjkohmzokmûg cd phogtos y kdgtrjs
kdgtrjs cd cmstrmauk
cmstrmaukmûg
mûg 1;3
Yosjs cd ug dstucmj cd hjkohmzokmûg
hjkohmzokmûg 1;3< Boktjrds m`pjrtogtds
m`pjrtogtds poro
ho hjkohmzokmûg 1;2< Síkgmkos poro ho dxphjrokmûg ndjnrï󿬏ko 1;5<
Dh `jcdhj cd hjkohmzokmûg
hjkohmzokmûg cd phogto 13>
Hjkohmzokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs
sdrvmkmjs kjg
kjg cd`ogco
cd`ogco uamkoco
uamkoco 141

Hjkohmzokmûg cd
mgstohokmjgds ugoHjkohmzokmûg
143< sjho mgstohokmûg 14;< mgstohokmjgds
cd vormos Hjkohmzokmûg cd
kjgvormos
kjstjs
󿬏fjs 142
DFDQKMKMJ[ 12?

Kopàtuhj ?? CM[YJ[MKMÛG CD HO[ MG[S

MG[SOHOKMJGD[
OHOKMJGD[ 12=
Dsqud`os poro ho cmspjsmkmûg cd hos mgstohokmjgds 12=
Cmspjsmkmûg cd okudrcj oh prjcuktj 1> 1>9<
9< Cmspjsmkmûg cd okudrcj oh
prjkdsj 1>?
1>?<< Cmspjsmkmûg kdhuhor
kdhuhor 1>
1>1<
1< Cmspjsmkmûg cd pjsmkmûg 󿬏fo 1>
1>;<
;<
Cmspjsmkmûg cd mgstohokmjgds dg sdrvmkmjs 1>
1>;;
Síkgmkos poro dh cmsdÿj cd ho cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto 1>3
Aohogkdj cd hàgdos 1>
1>3<
3< Dvohuokmûg cd kjstjs pjr trogspjrtd cd
`otdrmohds 15?< Jrnogmzokmûg
Jrnogmzokmûg cd kíhuhos cd `ogubokturo
`ogubokturo 152
DFDQKMKMJ[ 1=4

YOQSD MR KJGSQJH CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[

Kopàtuhj ?1 YHOGDOKMÛG CD HO YQJCTKKMÛG ] CD HJ[ QDKTQ[J[ 1==

Yhogdokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs cd ho d`prdso ;99
Oktmvmcocds cd ho phogdokmûg
phogdokmûg cd rdkursjs ;99< Kjgkdptjs dstrotínmkjs
dg phogdokmûg cd ho kopokmcoc ;9?< Dstrotdnmos poro phogdor ho
kopokmcoc ;93< Yhogdokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs ;9>
Yhogdokmûg
Yhogdokmû g cd ho prjcukkmûg ;?9
Yhogdokmûg onrdnoco cd ho prjcukkmûg ;?
;?9<
9< Yhogdokmûg onrdnoco pjr
`dcmj cd eduràstmkos ;?1< Yhogdokmûg
Yhogdokmûg onrdnoco `dcmogtd prjnro`okmûg
hmgdoh ;?>
Yrjnro`o `odstrj cd prjcukkmûg ;1;
DFDQKMKMJ[ ;1>
 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ mx

Kopàtuhj ?; YQJNQO@OKMÛG ] KJGSQJH CD HO[ OKSMRMCOCD[ YQJCTKSMRO[ ;;;

Kjgtrjh cd pmsj ;;3
Yrjnro`okmûg cd ho korno ;;3< @jgmtjrdj
@jgmtjrdj cdh prjkdsj ;;>
[dkudgkmokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds ;;=
[dkudgkmokmûg dg ugo dstokmûg cd troaofj
troaofj ;39< @dgjr tmd`pj cd
prjkdsj (@SY) ;3;< Bdkeo
Bdkeo cd vdgkm`mdgtj
vdgkm`mdgtj `ïs td`progo (BR@S) ;3;<
Kjstj sjard dh ejrmzjgtd (K[E) ;33< @oyjr
@oyjr pdgohmcoc ugmtormo
(@YT) ;34<;4?
cd troaofj @SYY ;34< @KK ;32< [dkudgkmokmûg dg vormos dstokmjgds
[dkudgkmokmûg dg phogtos ;44
Dh prjahd`o cdh pogocdrj ;42
[dkudgkmokmûg dg tohhdrds ;45
Qdnhos poro ho prmjrmzokmûg
prmjrmzokmûg cd ûrcdgds ;4=
DFDQKMKMJ[ ;21

Kopàtuhj ?3 EOAMHMCOC, KJGBMOAMHMCOC, @OGSDGM@MDGSJ

] QDGJR
QDGJROKMÛG
OKMÛG ;2>
Kjstj y eoamhmcoc cdh smstd`o ;2>
Eoamhmcoc cdh prjkdsj ;25< Ogïhmsms cd kjstj-rdgcm`mdgtj ;>
;>99
Kjg﬏oamhmcoc y bohho cd dqumpjs ;>3
Kjg󿬏oamhmcoc
Kjg󿬏oamhm coc ;>4< Soso cd bohhos ;>5< Smd`pj jpdrotm
jpdrotmvj
vj smg bohhos ;59
@ogtdgm`mdgtj y rdgjvokmûg cd dqumpjs ;53
@ogtdgm`mdgtj prdvdgtmvj ;54< Qdgjvokmûg cd dqumpjs ;5>
DFDQKMKMJ[ ;=?

YOQSD R OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD HO KOHMCOC

Kopàtuhj ?4 OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD HO KOHMCOC ;=>

Dvjhukmûg cd ho oc`mgmstrokmû
oc`mgmstrokmûg
g cd ho kohmcoc
kohmcoc ;=>
Dvjhukmûg emstûrmko ;=>< Kjgkdptj cd kohmcoc ;==
Bmhjsjbàoss sjard ho kohmcoc 39?
Bmhjsjbào
Ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd Cd`mgn 391< Ho 󿬏hjsjbào
󿬏hjsjbào cd Furog 395< Ho 󿬏hjsjbào
󿬏hjsjbào cd
Krjsay 39=< Oc`mgmstrokmûg
Oc`mgmstrokmûg poro ho kohmcoc tjtoh
tjtoh 39=< [mstd`os cd
kdrtm󿬏kokmûg M[J =999 3??
Ho bugkmûg
bugkmûg cdh kjgtrjh
kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc dg ho d`prdso
d`prdso 3?3
Jafdtmvjs cdh kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc 3?3?3<
3< Qdspjgsoamhmcocds poro dh
kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc 3?
3?3<
3< Dh smstd`o cd kjgtrjh 3?
3?2<
2< Mgspdkkmûg
cd ho kohmcoc 3?
3?><
>< Qdspjgsoahds cd ho mgspdkkmûg 3?3?5<
5< Kjgtrjh cd
prjvddcjrds
prjvddcjr ds 3?5< Kousos cd ho vormoam
vormoamhmcoc
hmcoc 3?
3?55
DFDQKMKMJ[ 319

Kopàtuhj ?2 KJGSQJH ] O[DNTQO@MDGSJ CD HO KOHMCOC 31?

Mgspdkkmûg cd prjvddcjrds y cdh prjcuktj ﬏goh 31?

@udstrdj cd okdptokmûg
cd okdptokmûg 31?<
pjr otrmautj Qmdsnjs
Qmdsnjs
31;< cdhcd`udstrdj
@dfjro phogds cd311< @udstrdj
`udstrdj 315<
@udstrdj cd okdptokmûg pjr vormoahd
vormoahd 3;?
 

x  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Kjgtrjh dstocàstmkj cdh prjkdsj 3;3

Kortos cd kjgtrjh 3;4< Cmonro`os cd kouso-dbdktj 33?< Kortos
cd Yordtj 33;< Emstjnro`os cd brdkudgkmo 332<
Cmonro`os cd dstrotm󿬏kokmûg
dstrotm󿬏kokmûg 33=< Nrï󿬏ko cd kjrrdhokmûg 34
34?<
?<
Hmstos cd vdrm󿬏kokmûg 34;
DFDQKMKMJ[ 343

Kopàtuhj ?> MGNDGMDQÀO CD HO KOHMCOC 34=

Yhogdokmûg cd ho kohmcoc dg dh cmsdÿj 34=
Dh prjkdsj cd cmsdÿj 329< Cmsdÿj poro ho `ogubokturo 32
32?<
?< Cmsdÿj
poro cdsor`or 32
32?<
?< Mgndgmdrào
Mgndgmdrào cd ho kohmcoc 321
Cmsdÿj cd dxpdrm`dgtjs phogdocjs 32;
Cmsdÿj kj`phdto`dgtd oh ozor 322< Cmsdÿj dg ahjqud kj`phdtj
kj`phdtj
oh ozor 32=< Orrdnhjs boktjrmohds
boktjrmohds 3>?
3>?<< Orrdnhjs boktjrmohds
boktjrmohds
brokkmjgocjs 3>
3>3<
3< Boktjrmohds brokkmjgocjs
brokkmjgocjs cd ho sdrmd 1l-?  3>4<
 

Ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd Sonukem
Sonukem 3>=
DFDQKMKMJ[ 354

OYÍGCMKD[

Opígcmkd ? MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO D[S

D[SOCÀ[SMKO
OCÀ[SMKO ] HO[ YQJAOAMHMCOCD[ 35=
Mgtrjcukkmûg
Mgtrjcukkmûg o hos prjaoamhmcoc
prjaoamhmcocds
ds 3=9
Rormoahds ohdotjrmos 3=;

Opígcmkd 1 YQMGKMY
YQMGKMYOHD[
OHD[ CM[SQMATKMJGD[ CD RO
ROQMOAHD[
QMOAHD[ OHDO
OHDOSJQMO[
SJQMO[ 3==
Cmstrmaukmûg cd Adrgjumhhm 3==
Cmstrmaukmûg amgj`moh 49?
Cmstrmaukmûg amgj`moh gdnotmvo 49?
Cmstrmaukmûg cd Yjmssjg 491
Cmstrmaukmûg ugmbjr`d 491
Cmstrmaukmûg trmognuhor 493
Cmstrmaukmûg
Cmstrmaukmûg gjr`oh 493
Cmstrmaukmûg
Cmstrmaukmûg dxpjgdgkmoh 494
Cmstrmaukmûg cd ^dmauhh 492
Cmstrmaukmûg no`o 492
Cmstrmaukmûg
Cmstrmaukmûg t-[tucdgt 49>

Opígcmkd ; MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO D[S

D[SOCÀ[SMKO
OCÀ[SMKO CD[KQMYSMRO 49=
Cdskrmpkmûg cd cotjs gj onrupocjs 49=
Onrupo`mdgtj cd cotjs 4?1
Mgtrjcukkmûg
Mgtrjcukkmûg o ho dstocàstmko mgbdr
mgbdrdgkmoh
dgkmoh 4?4
DFDQKMKMJ[ 4?=
 

Mgtrjcukkmûg

D sto jaro ds prjcuktj cd `m dsbudrzj okocí`mkj y prjbdsmjgoh, cd hos öhtm`os

cjs cíkocos dg tjrgj o hjs td`os qud ophmkj dg hos `otdrmos cd Oc`mgmstrok
Oc`mgmstrokmûg
ho tdkgjhjnào poro hos `odstràos dg Oc`mgmstrokmûg y tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg
y Oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh Mgstmtutj Sdkgjhûnmkj Outûgj`j cd @íxmkj (MSO@).
mûg
cd jpdrokmjgds M y MM, o gmvdh hmkdgkmoturo, y dg Cmrdkkmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds y

Ho mgkhusmûg cd hos `otdrmos cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg y cd oc`m-

gmstrokmûg
cd ohkogzorcdho jpdrokmjgds dg cd
kj`pdtmtmvmcoc hjssus
poàsds cd eoaho
d`prdsos emspogo jadcdkd
prjcuktjros o ho gdkdsmcoc
cd `ogubokturos y sdr-
vmkmjs, ogtd ho nhjaohmzokmûg cd hjs `drkocjs, y ds dsto `ms`o dxmndgkmo ho qud `d
m`puhsû o prdsdgtor ugo jaro qud smgtdtmzo `m dxpdrmdgkmo dg dh ïrdo, kjg dspdkmoh
ígbosms dg hjs ospdktjs cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds.
  Yudstj qud dg hos öhtm`os cíkocos eoy ugo khoro tdgcdgkmo eokmo ho nhjaohm-
zokmûg cd hos dkjgj`àos, hos d`prdsos prjvddcjros cd `drkocjs hjkohds tmdgdg qud
kj`pdtmr pjr sus `drkocjs kjg d`prdsos sm`mhords cd jtrjs poàsds. Ydrj ocd`ïs,
dg dstd kjgtdxtj, hos d`prdsos trosgokmjgohds auskog `dfjror su kj`pdtmtmvmcoc
suakjgtrotogcj `ukeos cd sus oktmvmcocds cd prjcukkmûg o jtros d`prdsos (cd
`dgjr to`oÿj) prjvddcjros cd amdgds y sdrvmkmjs. O`aos tdgcdgkmos kjgvdrndg
dg ho mgtdnrokmûg cd hos d`prdsos hjkohds dg hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg y cmstrmau-
kmûg `ugcmohds, j oh `dgjs rdnmjgohds (dsqud`os cd okudrcjs kj`drkmohds kj`j
ho Kj`ugmcoc Dkjgû`mko Durjpdo, dh @drkjsur j dh Srotocj cd Hmard Kj`drkmj cd
O`írmko cdh Gjrtd). Tgorocmkohds
sjg hos trogsbjr`okmjgds kjgsdkudgkmo cd dstjs ko`amjs
qud dxpdrm`dgto dg cd
dh ï`amtj ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh
kj`pdtdgkmo cd hos
d`prdsos6 cd kj`pdtmr dg o`amdgtds kjg ohtj gmvdh cd kjgtrjhds y prjtdkkmjgms`j
pjr portd cdh Dstocj, oejro hj eokdg dg ug dgtjrgj kjg ohtj nrocj cd opdrturo.
Ho dxpdrmdgkmo rdkmdgtd `udstro qud hos d`prdsos madrjo`drmkogos, dg dspd-
kmoh hos pdqudÿos y `dcmogos, dgkudgtrog qud su mgtdnrokmûg dg hjs smstd`os cd
prjcukkmûg y cmstrmaukmûg cd kjadrturo `ugcmoh, dxmnd ko`amjs (kjg brdkudgkmo ro-
cmkohds) dg sus `ítjcjs cd jpdrokmûg. Ydrj dh cdskjgjkm`mdgtj cd hjs `ítjcjs cd
jpdrokmûg y cd hos tíkgmkos cmspjgmahds poro `dfjror su kj`pdtmtmvmcoc, y d`pord-
forhos kjg sus sm`mhords dxtrogfdros, ds ug m`pdcm`dgtj poro qud gudstros d`prdsos
mgtrjcuzkog hjs ko`amjs rdqudrmcjs dg dstd gudvj o`amdgtd cd kj`pdtdgkmo.
Dsto krdkmdgtd dxmndgkmo cd `dfjro dg hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg ds ho prmg-
kmpoh `jtmvokmûg poro puahmkor dsto jaro. Dh hmarj sd cmrmnd o hos ugmvdrsmcocds cd
eoaho emspogo qud m`portdg prjnro`os cd dstucmjs sjard ho prjcukkmûg cd `o-
gubokturos
dspdkmoh, y sdrvmkmjs
o hjs poro bjr`or
prjbdsmjgohds qud ejyo hjs buturjs ndrdgtds
sd cdsd`pdÿog cdd`prdsos
dg hos jpdrokmjgds pdrj, dg
cd poàsds cd
eoaho emspogo (dg portmkuhor hos pdqudÿos y `dcmogos), qud auskog hos edrro`mdg-
edr ro`mdg-
tos poro mgmkmor prjy
pr jydktjs
dktjs qud hds pdr`mtog `dfjror su kj`pdtmtmvmcoc d mgtdnrorsd
o hos kocdgos nhjaohds cd cmstrmaukmûg y prjcukkmûg. xm
 

xmm  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  Oquà kjgvmdgd rdsohtor ho m`pjrtogkmo cd dsto jaro dg su prm`dro dcmkmûg, yo

qud cdamcj o ho bohto cd puahmkokmjgds dspdkmohmzocos
dspdkmohmzocos dg mcmj`o dspoÿjh, dg gudstrjs
càos ho `oyjrào cd `otdrmos sjard oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds qud sd jbrdkdg dg
hos ugmvdrsmcocds cd eoaho emspogo sd vdg bjrzocos o utmhmzor amahmjnrobào dg mcmj-
`o mgnhís, kjg dh kjgsmnumdgtd cdskjgjkm`mdgtj cdh ï`amtj rdoh oh qud sd ophmkog
hos tíkgmkos cd `dfjro`mdgtj cd ho prjcukkmûg, togtj dg sdrvmkmjs kj`j dg `ogu-
bokturo. Ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cdh mcmj`o, pjr dgbotmzor dg hos gdkdsmcocds cd ho rdnmûg,
eokd cd dsto jaro ug rdkursj vohmjsj poro hos ugmvdrsmcocds cd eoaho emspogo.
Hjs kopàtuhjs sd onrupog dg kmgkj portds6
  Yortd M (kopàtuhjs ? oh ;)6  Dstrotdnmo, kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y tdkgjhjnào
  Yortd MM (kopàtuhjs 3 oh 5)6  Cmrdkkmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds
  Yortd MMM (kopàtuh
(kopàtuhjs
js = oh ??)6 Yhogdokmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds
  Yortd MR (kopàtuh
(kopàtuhjs
js ?1 oh ?3)6 Kjgtrjh cd hos jpdrokmjgds
  Yortd R (kopàtuh
(kopàtuhjs
js ?4 oh ?>)6 Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho kohmcoc
k ohmcoc

  Ho vdrsotmhmcoc cd ho jaro pdr`mtd qud koco ugo cd hos portds sd pudco oajr-
cor pjr sdporocj poro su dstucmj dg cmbdrdgtds `otdrmos. Yjr dfd`phj, hos cjs prm-
`dros portds (kopàtuhjs ? o 5) kjgstmtuydg dh `otdrmoh aïsmkj poro ugo `otdrmo cd
cmrdkkmûg cd jpdrokmjgds dg ugo `odstrào dg oc`mgmstrokmûg. Dg ko`amj, poro dh
kursj cd hmkdgkmoturo sd rdkj`mdgco onrupor hjs kopàtuhjs cd ho portd M (kopàtu-
hjs ? o ;), cd ho portd MMM (kopàtuhjs = o ??) y hjs kopàtuhjs ?4 y ?2 dg ug prm`dr
kursj
tuhjs 3cdo 5)
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds,
y ho portd MR (kopàtuhjs y cdfor
?1 o ?3) poro hjs
ug kopàtuhjs cd ho portd
sdnugcj kursj. MM (kopà-
Yjr jtrj hocj,
kuohqumdro cd hjs kopàtuhjs cd dstd hmarj bugkmjgo kj`j `otdrmoh cd kjgsuhto, pjr
dfd`phj, dg `otdrmos kj`j mgndgmdrào y kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc, phogdokmûg y kjgtrjh
cd ho prjcukkmûg, cmsdÿj cd mgstohokmjgds y sdrvmkmjs, j dstrotdnmo tdkgjhûnmko y cd
jpdrokmjgds.
  Osm`ms`j, ugo koroktdràstmko qud cmstmgnud o dsto jaro cd sus sm`mhords, ds-
krmtos dg dspoÿjh j dg mgnhís, ds qud pjgd o cmspjsmkmûg cd sus hdktjrds ug sjbtword 
dxprdso`dgtd cdsorrjhhocj poro opjyor ho m`phogtokmûg cd hos tíkgmkos cdskrmtos
dg dh hmarj, mgtdgsmvos dg kû`putjs gu`írmkjs. Dh sjbtword   dstï cmspjgmahd dg dh
smtmj wda cdh hmarj y utmhmzo mgtdrbokds cd Dxkdh poro mhustror hjs dfd`phjs cdh tdxtj,
ougqud ho ndgdrohmcoc cd su kjgstrukkmûg y su mgtdrboz o`mnoahd pdr`mtd su ophm-
kokmûg poro rdsjhvdr ocd`ïs hjs dfdrkmkmjs prjpudstjs pjr dh mgstruktjr j prjahd`os
cd ophmkokmûg rdohds.
 

Onrocdkm`mdgtjs

Y oro ho dhoajrokmûg cd dsto jaro onrocdzkj ho vohmjso kjhoajrokmûg cd `ms osms-

tdgtds cdh Kdgtrj cd Dstucmjs cd Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc, qumdgds gj sûhj oyucorjg
dg ho rdvmsmûg cd hjs kopàtuhjs smgj to`amíg dg dh cdsorrjhhj cd hos edrro-
`mdgtos cd opjyj, dgtrd qumdgds `drdkdg `dgkmûg dspdkmoh (dg jrcdg krjgjhûnmkj
cd portmkmpokmûg)6
por tmkmpokmûg)6 [drnmj Norzo ^jhhdgstdmg,
^jhhdgstdmg, @ourmkmj Oronûg [or`mdgtj, @mkedhhd
Hogcnrovd @ïrqudz, Fjsuí Qjfos @jgtdrj, Covmc @uÿjz @dcmgo, Adtsoaí Hmkjgo
[ïgkedz
  y Cmdnj
So`amíg @uÿjz
cdsdj @dcmgo.
dxprdsor `m `ïs prjbugcj onrocdkm`mdgtj o hjs dstucmog-
tds cd hos `otdrmos cd Cmrdkkmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, Cmrdkkmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds y
ho tdkgjhjnào, Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds M y MM, kjg qumdgds tuvd dh prmvmhdnmj
cd cmskutmr hjs td`os qud sd oajrcog dg dstd hmarj, osà kj`j oh MSO@, sus bugkmj-
gormjs y kjhdnos, pjr ho kjg󿬏ogzo cdpjsmtoco y ho jpjrtugmcoc cd cdsorrjhhj qud
`d jbrdkmdrjg dg dsto m`pjrtogtd ïrdo cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg y hos
jpdrokmjgds.
  Ho dcmkmûg 󿬏goh cd dsto jaro sd eo vmstj dgrmqudkmco pjr hos vohmjsos sundrdg-
kmos y jpmgmjgds cd `ms kjhdnos, o qumdgds onrocdzkj smgkdro`dgtd, y dg portmkuhor
o Cdgms Adgovdgtd Qmvdrjs cd ho Tgmvdrsmcoc Ohos Ydruogos, Càcm`j Cdwor Rohcd-
ho`or cdh Sdkgjhûnmkj cd @jgtdrrdy, [oöh Jvmcmj Yohj`ords cd ho Dskudho [updrmjr
cd Dkjgj`ào y Gdnjkmjs cd Dh [ohvocjr, Dcnor Qo`js Yohj`mgj cd ho Tgmvdrsmcoc
Ydruogo cd Kmdgkmos Ophmkocos, Nuocohupd Curïg y Ogtjgmj Kostrj @ortàgdz cd
ho Bokuhtoc cd
Tgmvdrsmcoc Mgndgmdrào
Gokmjgo
Gokmjgoh y cd hocd
h Outûgj`o Bokuhtoc
@íxmkj,cd Kjgtocurào y Oc`mgmstrokmûg
r dspdktmvo`dgtd,
rdspdktmvo`dgtd cd ho
, qumdgds portmkmporjg
cmrdkto`dgtd dg ho rdvmsmûg cd hjs kopàtuhjs.

xmmm
 

KOYÀSTHJ ?

Mgtrjcukkmûg o ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd jpdrokmjgds
• Hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg
• Emstjrmo cd hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg
• Ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc
• Ho dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj

D
g dstd prm`dr kopàtuhj sd prdsdgto ugo mgtrjcukkmûg oh jafdtj cd dstucmj cd
ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, osà kj`j ho dvjhukmûg emstûrmko cd hjs `í-
tjcjs cd prjcukkmûg. Dg ho prm`dro sdkkmûg sd ogohmzog hjs kjgkdptjs bug-
co`dgtohds sjard jpdrokmjgds y smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg. Dg ho sdnugco sd hhdvo o
koaj ugo ardvd rdsdÿo emstûrmko cd hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg, cdscd ho Qdvjhukmûg
Mgcustrmoh eosto ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto cdh smnhj 󰁕󰁕. Dg ho tdrkdro sd rdvmso dh
m`poktj cd hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg qud sd ndgdrorjg curogtd ho rdvjhukmûg pjr
ho kohmcoc, qud pdr`mtmû ug m`pjrtogtd cdsorrjhhj cd ho mgcustrmo o gmvdh `ugcmoh.
Yjr öhtm`j, dg ho kuorto sdkkmûg, sd ogohmzo dh m`poktj dg hjs smstd`os cd prjcuk-
kmûg cd ho hho`oco dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj, qud koroktdrmzo dh dgtjrgj
kj`pdtmtmvj oktuoh cd hos d`prdsos prjcuktjros cd `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs.

  HJ[ [M[SD@O[ CD YQJCTKKMÛG

Hos d`prdsos prjcuktjros cd `ogubokturos j sdrvmkmjs cdsorrjhhog prjkdsjs cd
gdnjkmjs kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd jpdror kjg d󿬏kmdgkmo y sotmsbokdr o sus khmdgtds. Dstjs
prjkdsjs tmdgdg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd prjcukmr amdgds (`ogubokturos y/j sdrvmkmjs) qud
otmdgcdg o hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs khmdgtds y ndgdrog ug adgd󿬏kmj (dkjgû`mkj) poro
ho d`prdso< cd dstd `jcj, ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cd hjs prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs sd rdhokmjgo
togtj kjg ho kohmcoc cd hjs amdgds prjcukmcjs, kj`j kjg dh kjstj cd prjcukkmûg
dg qud sd mgkurrd. Cdamcj o qud ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cd hjs prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs ds dh
jafdtj cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, ísto cdad dstucmor dh prjkdsj cd prj-
cukkmûg cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd su cdsd`pdÿj, poro hj kuoh ds kjgvdgmdgtd
kjgkdamr o cmkej prjkdsj kj`j ugj cd trogsbjr`okmûg, pjr `dcmj cdh kuoh, yo sdo
dh khmdgtd j ug kjgfugtj cd mgsu`js (`otdrmo prm`o) sd trogsbjr`o poro ndgdror
prjcuktjs (`ogubokturos y/j sdrvmkmjs)< kjgkdptj qud rdsuhto ocdkuocj poro cd-
󿬏gmr `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj rdhokmjgocos kjg ho ropmcdz, dh kjstj y ho kjgndstmûg,
dgtrd jtros koroktdràstmkos cd d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh prjkdsj cd trogsbjr`okmûg. Kjg dstd
`orkj, o kjgtmguokmûg, sd prdsdgto ug ardvd ogïhmsms cd ho tdr`mgjhjnào y hjs kjg-
kdptjs qud sd utmhmzog poro eokdr rdbdrdgkmo o hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg cd `o-
gubokturos y sdrvmkmjs. ?
 

1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg
Kjg dh tír`mgj prjcukkmûg sd eokd rdbdrdgkmo o kuohqumdr prjkdsj (j `dkogms`j)
pjr `dcmj cdh kuoh, dh khmdgtd y/j kmdrtjs mgsu`js (`otdrmo prm`o) sd kjgvmdrtdg
j trogsbjr`og poro ndgdror amdgds (j prjcuktjs) poro dh kjgsu`j cd hjs khmdgtds
qud cd`ogcog dstjs amdgds. Kj`j sd mhustro kjg ho 󿬏nuro ?.?, dsto cd󿬏gmkmûg m`-
phmko qud dg ug prjkdsj prjcuktmvj dxmstd smd`prd ugo dgtroco (khmdgtd y/j `o-
tdrmos prm`os), ugo sohmco (hjs amdgds prjcukmcjs), y ug `dkogms`j j prjkdsj cd
trogsbjr`okmûg qudDstd
y budrzo hoajroh). sd hhdvo o koaj
kjgkdptj cd`dcmogtd hjs gj
prjcukkmûg
rdkursjs  cd ho d`prdso (kopmtoh
sd hm`mto o ho prjcukkmûg cd
 amdgds tognmahds (kjgkdptj qud sd rd󿬏drd o hos `ogubokturos), smgj to`amíg o ho
prjcukkmûg cd sdrvmkmjs (amdgds mgtognmahds qud sd kjgsu`dg dg dh `j`dgtj cd
sdr prjcukmcjs), cd `ogdro qud dg ístd y dg hjs smnumdgtds kopàtuhjs, sd prdsdgtog
y ogohmzog tdkgjhjnàos rdhdvogtds poro prjcukmr kjg d󿬏kmdgkmo, togtj `ogubokturos
(portds cd outj`ûvmhds, kjgsdrvos ohm`dgtmkmos, ortàkuhjs cd phïstmkj), kj`j sdrvmkmjs
(kjgsuhtjrào, mgbjr`okmûg, sdrvmkmjs 󿬏gogkmdrjs, kumcocj cd ho sohuc).
Yjr hj ndgdroh, ho prjcukkmûg d󿬏kmdgtd cd ug amdg rdqumdrd cd `ukeos oktm-
vmcocds qud sd prjnro`og y dfdkutog dg hjs smstd`os prjcuktmvjs. Yjr dfd`phj, ho
prjcukkmûg d󿬏kmdgtd cd kjgsdrvos ohm`dgtmkmos gj sûhj rdqumdrd cd hos tàpmkos oktm-
vmcocds cd `ogubokturo (dskohcocj, pdhocj, kjrtd, kjkmcj, dtk.), smgj qud, poro qud
ho d`prdso sdo kj`pdtmtmvo, sd cdadrïg oc`mgmstror kjg prjpmdcoc hjs mgvdgtormjs
togtj cd ho `otdrmo prm`o kj`j cdh prjcuktj 󿬏goh< ho d`prdso y sus prjvddcjrds
cdadrïg tdgdr ugo kjjrcmgokmûg d󿬏kmdgtd kjg dh prjpûsmtj cd cmspjgdr cd ho `o-
tdrmo prm`o ocdkuoco poro mgmkmor ho prjcukkmûg cd koco hjtd< y oug ogtds cd dstos
oktmvmcocds, cdad eoadr ugo phogdokmûg ocdkuoco cd ho hjkohmzokmûg cd ho phogto,
ho tdkgjhjnào cd mgbjr`okmûg y cd prjkdsj, dh gmvdh cd outj`otmzokmûg y ho cmspj-
smkmûg cd hos mgstohokmjgds cdgtrj cd ho phogto, dgtrd jtros oktmvmcocds. Dh tír`mgj
jpdrokmûg sd ophmko o tjcos y koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds gdkdsormos poro prjcukmr
d󿬏kmdgtd`dgtd `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs. Hjs dgkornocjs cd ho jrnogmzokmûg, cmrdk-
kmûg, phogdokmûg y kjgtrjh cd hos jpdrokmjgds cd ugo d`prdso sjg, pjr hj ndgdroh,
hjs ndrdgtds j cmrdktjrds cd jpdrokmjgds< y hos jpdrokmjgds o hos qud sd rd󿬏drd dh
tír`mgj oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds sjg, fusto`dgtd, hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktm-
vos qud rdkmíg sd mcdgtm󿬏korjg.

@ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs
Ds kjgvdgmdgtd mgcmkor qud oquà sd kjhjko o ho prjcukkmûg cd sdrvmkmjs cdgtrj
cdh `ms`j `orkj (󿬏nuro ?.?) qud o ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos. Ougqud dstd

‶ Bmnuro ?.?
Ho prjcukkmûg kj`j ug prjkdsj • Budrzo hoajroh
cd trogsbjr`okmûg. • @oqumgormo
QDKTQ[J[ • Qdc cd prjvddcjrds
• Mgstohokmjgds

YQJKD[J [OHMCO
DGSQOCO (Jpdrokmjgds) (Yrjcuktjs)

• Khmdgtds
• @otdrmos prm`os •• @ogubokturo
Srogspjrtd •• Amdgds `ogubokturocjs
`ogubokturoc
[drvmkmjs js
• Kj`drkmohmzokmûg • [otmsbokkmûg cdh khmdgtd
• Mgbjr`okmûg
 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ;

`orkj rdsuhto `ïs khorj poro ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos, sd eokd dxtdgsmvj oh

kosj cd hjs sdrvmkmjs. Yjr dfd`phj, dg ho prjcukkmûg cd outj`ûvmhds ds bïkmh mcdg-
tm󿬏kor hos `otdrmos prm`os (hï`mgo cd okdrj, portds y kj`pjgdgtds, dgdrnào, dtk.),
hjs rdkursjs (jpdrormjs, `ïqumgos, rjajts, dtk.), hos jpdrokmjgds cd `ogubokturo
(dsto`pocj, sjhcocuro, dgso`ahd, pmgtocj, dtk.) y dh prjcuktj `ogubokturocj
(outj`ûvmh). Cd `ogdro sd`dfogtd, poro ho prjcukkmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj, pjr dfd`-
phj, dh kumcocj cd ho sohuc dg ug ejspmtoh, sd mcdgtm󿬏ko oh khmdgtd (pokmdgtd) y o hos
`otdrmos prm`os (`dcmko`dgtjs, `otdrmoh cd hm`pmdzo, dtk.), hjs rdkursjs (ko`os d
mgstohokmjgds, `ícmkjs, dgbdr`dros, dqumpj khàgmkj, dtk.), hos jpdrokmjgds (kjgsuh-
tos, cmongûstmkjs, ophmkokmûg cd `dcmko`dgtjs, dtk.) y oh prjcuktj 󿬏goh (ho sohuc y
 amdgdstor cdh pokmdgtd).
  [mg d`aornj, to`amíg sd cdad mgcmkor qud ho prjcukkmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj tmdgd
ohnugjs dhd`dgtjs cmbdrdgtds o ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos. O kjgtmguokmûg sd
cdstokog ohnugjs cd hjs dhd`dgtjs `ïs m`pjrtogtds6
• Ho vohjrokmûg
vohjrokmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj pjr portd cdh khmdgtd mgvjhukro prdbdrdgkmos
prdbdrdgkmos sua-
fdtmvos, prjpmos cd koco khmdgtd< pjr dstj sd kjgcukd cd `ogdro mgcmrdkto, o
portmr cd dgkudstos cd jpmgmûg, cjgcd sd rdkjpmhog hos sundrdgkmos y prdbd-
rdgkmos cd hjs khmdgtds. Dg ko`amj, ho kohmcoc cd hos `ogubokturos o `dgucj
sd pdrkmad cd `ogdro cmrdkto, o portmr cd ho `dcmkmûg cdh cdsd`pdÿj cdh prj-
cuktj y cd su kjgbjr`mcoc kjg hos dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds cd cmsdÿj. Ho kohmcoc cd
ugo `ogubokturo sd prdcmkd kjg aosd dg hjs dstïgcords cdh gudvj cmsdÿj, y
dh prjkdsj cdsdprjcukkmûg
prjcukmcjs sd dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds
ofustdg o hos kjgtrjho poro qudcdhos koroktdràstmkos cd hjs amdgds
cmsdÿj.
  • Ho mgtdrokkmûg kjg dh khmdgtd
khmdgtd ds `ukej `ïs mgtdgsmvo qud dg ho prjcukkmûg
cd `ogubokturos, yo qud qumdg kj`pro ugo `ogubokturo, roro vdz tmdgd ho
jpjrtugmcoc cd vmsmtor ugo phogto y dgtdrorsd cd hjs prjkdsjs gdkdsormjs
poro prjcukmr dh prjcuktj qud kj`pro< hjs qud mgtdroktöog kjg dh prjcuktj
curogtd dh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj `ïs amdg sjg `ïqumgos y jpdrormjs. Dg ko`-
 amj, dh pdrsjgoh (j dh dqumpj dg dh kosj cd sdrvmkmjs outj`ïtmkjs) qud prdsto
ug sdrvmkmj tmdgd ugo ohto mgtdrokkmûg kjg dh khmdgtd oh `j`dgtj cd prdstor dh
sdrvmkmj, pjr hj qud ho `jtmvokmûg cdh pdrsjgoh y ho kjgndstmûg dg dh smstd`o
fudnog ug popdh `uy m`pjrtogtd poro rdtdgdr o hjs khmdgtds qud cd`ogcog
hjs sdrvmkmjs.
  • Ho prjcukkmûg cdh sdrvmkmj ds sm`uhtïgdo oh kjgsu`j
kjgsu`j cdh `ms`j, rozûg pjr
ho kuoh gj sd pudcdg `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs (kj`j dg ho `ogubokturo) poro
otdgcdr hjs pdcmcjs. Dg ho `ogubokturo, pjr dfd`phj, dg pdrmjcjs cd aofo cd-
`ogco, sd `ogtmdgdg mgvdgtormjs poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco cd hjs pdrmjcjs
pmkj< sd mgvmdrtd dg ugo kopokmcoc `dcmogo cd prjcukkmûg poro oprjvdkeor
hos 󿬁uktuokmjgds cd ho cd`ogco y hjs mgvdgtormjs poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco
pmkj. Dg ko`amj, dg ho prdstokmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg
cdad dstor cmspjgmahd dg hjs pdrmjcjs cd cd`ogco pmkj, yo qud cd jtro bjr`o
sd pdrcdràog khmdgtds.
  • Ho prjcukkmûg
prjcukkmûg cd sdrvmkmjs,
sdrvmkmjs, o `dgucj, gdkdsmto ocdkuorsd
ocdkuorsd oh khmdgtd dg dh
`ms`j `j`dgtj dg qud sd prdsto dh sdrvmkmj, cd `jcj qud ds prdbdrmahd qud
dh d`phdocj cmspjgno cd `oyjr rdspjgsoamhmcoc y outjgj`ào poro cdkmcmr ho
`dfjr `ogdro cd prdstor dh sdrvmkmj, o cmbdrdgkmo cd ho `ogubokturo, cjgcd
dxmstdg jpdrokmjgds qud rdqumdrdg `ïs amdg cd ug dstrmktj ku`phm`mdgtj cd
hos mgstrukkmjgds pjr portd cd hjs jpdrormjs.

º_uí ds ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds:

Kj`j pudcd mgtumr pjr dh mgmkmj cd dsto sdkkmûg, ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmj-
gds ds ho cmskmphmgo qud dstucmo ho  phogdokmûg, jrnogmzokmû
jrnogmzokmûg,
g, cmrdkkmûg y kjgtrjh cd
 

3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho ?.? @ O G T BO K S T Q O [ [ D QR M K M J [ C MB DQD G KM O

Koroktdràstmkos cmstmgtmvos cd hos
`ogubokturos y hjs sdrvmkmjs.  
 
Rohjrokmûg `ïs jafdtmvo
Yjko mgtdrokkmûg kjg khmdgtds
[d `ogtmdgdg mgvdgtormjs
O `dgucj dstogcormzoco
Rohjrokmûg `ïs suafdtmvo
Rohjrokmûg
Mgtdrokkmûg kjg khmdgtds
[d prdsto oh mgstogtd
O `dgucj pdrsjgohmzoco
Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho kohmcoc
@jtmvokmûg cdh pdrsjgoh
Kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg
Bhdxmamhmcoc gdkdsormo

hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos, cjgcd sd dgtmdgcd qud hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos

sjg hos oktmvmcocds gdkdsormos poro prjcukmr hjs amdgds y sdrvmkmjs qud jbrdkdg
hos d`prdsos y hos jrnogmzokmjgds cdcmkocos o ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos y
sdrvmkmjs.
Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds ds ugo cmskmphmgo `uy rmko dg prjahd`os
y td`os cd mgvdstmnokmûg, y sus ïrdos cd dstucmj tj`og dh gj`ard cdh prjahd`o
dspdkà󿬏kj qud sd troto cd rdsjhvdr. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro ?.1, ohnugos ïrdos
cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds tmdgdg `ïs rdhokmûg kjg ho jrnogmzokmûg y cm-
rdkkmûg (pjr dfd`phj, ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds, dh cmsdÿj cd mgstohokmjgds, j ho
hjkohmzokmûg cd phogtos y oh`okdgds), y jtros ho tmdgdg kjg ho phogdokmûg y dh kjgtrjh
(pjr dfd`phj, ho phogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg j ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs).
Ougqud dg kopàtuhjs pjstdrmjrds sd ogohmzog kjg `oyjr cdtohhd hos ïrdos `ïs m`-
pjrtogtds cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud hjs
td`os cd oktuohmcoc
prjbdsmjgohds cd dstosdgïrdos,
kocopjr
ugodfd`phj,
cd dstoscjs
ïrdos hjs trotogm`pjrtogtds
sjkmdcocds hos jrnogmzokmjgds cd
sjg ho  Yrj-
cuktmjg ogc Jpdrotmjgs @ogond`dgt [jkmdty  (YJ@[)
  (YJ@[) qud pudcd kjgsuhtorsd dg ho
cmrdkkmûg ettp6//www.pj`s.jrn/,
ettp6//www.pj`s.jrn/, y dh  Mgstmtutd bjr Jpdrotmjgs Qdsdorke ogc ted @o-
gond`dgt [kmdgkds (MGBJQ@[) qud pudcd kjgsuhtorsd dg ho cmrdkkmûg ettp6//www.
mgbjr`s.jrn/.
  Yjr jtrj hocj, ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud kj`j cmskmphmgo kmdgtà󿬏ko, ho
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds ophmko `dtjcjhjnàos jafdtmvos y eokd usj cd `jcd-
hjs `otd`ïtmkjs qud eog smcj jafdtj cd dstucmj cd jtros cmskmphmgos. Dg portmkuhor,
cjs cmskmphmgos qud tmdgdg `ukeo rdhokmûg kjg ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds
sjg ho mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds y ho mgndgmdrào oc`mgmstrotmvo.

‶ Bmnuro ?.1
 Ohnugos ïrdos cd ho Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds Yhogdokmûg cd ho kopokmcoc
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds.

Jrnogmzokmûg
 y cmrdkkmûg
Hjkohmzokmûg cd phogtos y oh`okdgds Cmsdÿj cd mgstohokmjgds

Cmsdÿj cd ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs Yhogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg

Yhogdokmûg
 y kjgtrjh

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho kohmcoc Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd `otdrmohds

 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ 4

  Ho mgndgmdrào oc`mgmstrotmvo (cdh mgnhís @ogond`dgt [kmdgkd ogc Dgnmgddrmgn )

ds ho cmskmphmgo qud dstucmo ho bjr`uhokmûg cd prjahd`os cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds
o portmr cd ug dgbjqud rokmjgoh sustdgtocj dg `jcdhjs `otd`ïtmkjs (dh prjahd`o
cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds sd dxprdso kj`j ug `jcdhj `otd`ïtmkj cd jptm`mzokmûg),
`mdgtros qud ho mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds (cdh mgnhís Jpdrotmjgs Qdsdorke) ds
ho cmskmphmgo qud dstucmo hos `dtjcjhjnàos (pjr dfd`phj ohnjrmt`js) qud pdr`mtdg
dgkjgtror ho sjhukmûg cd hjs `jcdhjs `otd`ïtmkjs qud sd utmhmzog poro rdsjhvdr
prjahd`os cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds.

  EM[SJQMO CD HJ[ @ÍSJCJ[ CD YQJCTKKMÛG

Ogtds cd dgtror oh td`o cd ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y cd hos dstrotdnmos poro ho `ogubok-
turo (kopàtuhj 1), ds kjgvdgmdgtd prdsdgtor ug ardvd rdsu`dg cd hjs emtjs emstûrmkjs
cd ho prjcukkmûg cd amdgds< ho mcdo ds qud dh rdsu`dg smrvo poro dgtdgcdr `dfjr dh
ï`amtj oktuoh y oprjvdkeor hos hdkkmjgds m`pjrtogtds qud smd`prd co ho emstjrmo.
Ougqud dh ej`ard eo prjcukmcj amdgds poro su kjgsu`j cdscd eokd `ukej
tmd`pj, cd `ogdro ortdsogoh dg sus mgmkmjs, sd kjgsmcdro o ho prjcukkmûg mgcustrmoh
kj`j ho aosd cd hjs smstd`os oktuohds cd prjcukkmûg, ho kuoh kj`mdgzo kjg ho Qd-
vjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh, qud dvjhukmjgo eosto hhdnor dg ho oktuohmcoc o hj qud cmvdrsjs
outjrds cdgj`mgog ho dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj, y poso pjr ho rd-
vjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc cd hjs oÿjs jkedgto y prmgkmpmjs cd hjs gjvdgto cdh smnhj

posocj.hoEosto
 amdgds ogtds cd
cj`mgoaog hoshougmjgds
Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh,
cd ortdsogjs
or tdsogjs y hjsho`drkocjs
prjcukkmûg y cmstrmaukmûg
cj`ístmkjs (Ejppcdy
[pdor`og, 199?). Hjs cmbdrdgtds posjs cd ug prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo gj dstoaog
mgtdnrocjs dg ugo bïarmko, kj`j jkurrd dg ho oktuohmcoc, cmstmgtjs ortdsogjs rdo-
hmzoaog koco posj cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo, cdspuís cd kj`pror y vdgcdr sus
prjcuktjs dg hjs `drkocjs cj`ístmkjs. Yjr dfd`phj, poro ho prjcukkmûg cd prdgcos
cd vdstmr, eoaào ortdsogjs qud sd dgkornoaog cd prjcukmr dh emhj o portmr cd ho 󿬏aro
goturoh, jtrjs kj`proaog dh emhj y prjcukàog ho tdho, ugjs `ïs kj`proaog ho tdho
y sd dgkornoaog cd tdÿmrho, y osà sukdsmvo`dgtd eosto hhdnor o ho prdgco cd vdstmr<
hjs ortdsogjs qud portmkmpoaog dg koco ugj cd dstjs posjs kj`proaog hjs mgsu`js
rdqudrmcjs y jbrdkàog sus prjcuktjs dg hjs `drkocjs cj`ístmkjs.
  Dg ho trogsmkmûg cdscd ho Qdvjhukmû
Qdvjhukmûgg Mgcustrmoh eosto ho dkjgj`ào aosoco dg
dh kjgjkm`mdgtj, sd mcdgtm󿬏kog vormos dtopos, koco ugo cd hos kuohds sd koroktdrmzo
pjr dh cdsorrjhhj cd tíkgmkos y 󿬏hjsjbàos prdcj`mgogtds. Hos dtopos `ïs m`pjrtog-
tds dg dh cdsorrjhhj cd hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg sjg hos smnumdgtds6
  • Ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh (o portmr
portmr cd ?>
?>2=
2= eokmo 󿬏gds cdh smnhj
smnhj 󰁕󰁍󰁕).
  • Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg kmdgtà󿬏ko (cd 󿬏gds cdh smnhj 󰁕󰁍󰁕 eokmo `dcmocjs
`dcmocjs cd ho cí-
cí-
koco cd hjs oÿjs trdmgto cdh smnhj 󰁕󰁕).
  • Dh `jvm`mdgtj
`jvm`mdgtj pjr hjs rdkursjs
rdkursjs eu`ogjs (cd `dcmocjs
`dcmocjs cd hjs oÿjs
oÿjs trdmgto
trdmgto
eokmo 󿬏gds cd ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs kmgkudgto).
  • Ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds kjg aosd dg `jcdhjs
`jcdhjs (cd prmgkmpmjs
prmgkmpmjs cd hjs oÿjs sdsdgto
eokmo prmgkmpmjs cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto).
  • Ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc (cd prmgkmpmjs cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto eosto `dcmo-
cjs cd hjs gjvdgto).
  • Ho dkjgj`ào
dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh dh kjgjkm`mdgtj
kjgjkm`mdgtj (cd `dcmocjs cd ho cíkoco
cíkoco cd hjs
gjvdgto eosto dh cào cd ejy).
  O kjgtmguokmûg sd prdsdgto ug rdsu`dg cd hjs dvdgtjs `ïs sjardsohmdgtds qud
jkurrdg dg dstos
y tdgcdgkmos dtopos, osà
kj`drkmohds qudkj`j ug ardvd ogïhmsms
koroktdrmzorjg cd hjsprm`dros
o hos kuotrj `ítjcjsdtopos.
cd prjcukkmûg
Hjs dhd-
`dgtjs `ïs m`pjrtogtds cd hos öhtm`os cjs dtopos pjcrïg oprdkmorsd kjg `oyjr
cdtohhd dg hos smnumdgtds sdkkmjgds.
 

2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh
Ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh mgmkmo kjg ho mgvdgkmûg cd ho `ïqumgo cd vopjr pjr dh
mgnhís Fo`ds ^ott, dg ?>2=, qud sd mgstoho pjr prm`dro vdz dg hos `ogubokturos cd
emdrrj cd Fjeg ^mhlmgsjg dg ?>>2<
?>>2< ougqud ds kjgvdgmdgtd rd`orkor qud ugo vormd-
coc cd dvdgtjs ogtdrmjrds, kj`j ho opdrturo cd kogohds poro ho govdnokmûg 󿬁uvmoh,
dh kdrkocj cd tmdrros y ho oku`uhokmûg cd jtrjs mgvdgtjs, pjsmamhmtorjg ho Qdvjhu-
kmûg Mgcustrmoh. Ho `ïqumgo cd vopjr pdr`mtd rdd`phozor dh troaofj ortdsogoh (dh
kuoh utmhmzoao
onuo, sûhj cd
kj`j budgtd edrro`mdgtos)
dgdrnào, qudpjr ho ho
tdgào `ïqumgo, y rdd`phozo
cdsvdgtofo o hocdpjtdgkmo
cd cdpdgcdr cdh
hos budgtds
goturohds cd koàco cd onuo. O portmr cd su prm`dro ophmkokmûg, dh usj cd ho `ïqum-
go cd vopjr d`pmdzo o ndgdrohmzorsd dg bïarmkos (dg ho mgcustrmo tdxtmh), dg aorkjs,
trdgds y dg ho dxphjtokmûg cd `mgdrohds.
  Dh sdnugcj nrog cdskuarm`mdgtj ds ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj, qud dgugkmû Oco`
[`mte dg su hmarj  Qmqudzo cd hos gokmjgds, dg dh qud dxpjgd hjs prmgkmpmjs cdh ko-
pmtohms`j y dxphmko kû`j ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj pdr`mtmrï ugo prjcukkmûg `ïs
rïpmco y dkjgû`mko qud ho ortdsogoh. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd mgcmkor, smg d`aornj, qud sm
 amdg dh Qdmgj Tgmcj d`pmdzo o cj`mgor ho prjcukkmûg mgcustrmoh, kjg aosd dg ho
utmhmzokmûg cd `ïqumgos, oh prmgkmpmj cd ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh (prmgkmpoh`dg-
td pjr su pjcdrjso mgcustrmo tdxtmh), sdnög ohnugjs outjrds (pjr dfd`phj, Ejpp y
[pdor`og, 199?) ho mgcustrmo mgnhdso `ogtmdgd pjr ohnög tmd`pj dh vmdfj smstd`o
cd `drkocjs cj`ístmkjs, ds cdkmr, hos bïarmkos gj sd mgtdnrog. Oh pordkdr qumdgds
d`pmdzog o oprjvdkeor hos vdgtofos cd ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj sjg hjs mgcustrmohds
cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs, cjgcd eokdg su opormkmûg hos prm`dros bïarmkos mgtdnrocos.
  Dh tdrkdr cdskuarm`mdgtj ds dh prmgkmpmj cd mgtdrko`amj cd hos portds6 hos portds
cd cmbdrdgtds dfd`phords cdh `ms`j prjcuktj sjg mgtdrko`amoahds, smg ohtdror dh
bugkmjgo`mdgtj cdh prjcuktj sm rdspdtog hos dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds cd cmsdÿj. [m amdg dg
?>54
?> 54 dh brogkís Ejgjrí HdAhogk bud dh prm`drj dg `jstror dstd prmgkmpmj o Sej`os
 Fdbbdrsjg, oh mgtdrko`amor hos portds cd cjs `jsqudtds, dstd prmgkmpmj gj sd ocjptû
dg Durjpo, cjgcd sd prd󿬏rmû kjgtmguor kjg dh ogtmnuj `ítjcj ortdsogoh. Gj bud smgj
eosto ?59? kuogcj Dhm ^mtegdy y [m`djg Gjrte prjaorjg ho boktmamhmcoc cdh `ítj-
cj, `dcmogtd ho kdhdarokmûg cd ug kjgtrotj poro prjcukmr ?9 999 `jsqudtds
`jsqudtds poro dh
njamdrgj cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs, dh öhtm`j `jsqudtd cd ho jrcdg hj dgtrdnorjg dg ?59 ?59==.
  [m amdg ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh d`pmdzo dg dh Qdmgj Tgmcj kjg dh oprj-
vdkeo`mdgtj cd ho `ïqumgo cd vopjr, eokmo 󿬏gohds cd dstd pdrmjcj (mgmkmjs cdh
smnhj 󰁕󰁕), ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs osu`d dh hmcdroznj sjard hos mgcustrmos
cd jtros gokmjgds, dh mgkdgtmvj bud ug o`phmj `drkocj hjkoh dg dxpogsmûg, y ugo
khoro dstrotdnmo cd prjcukkmûg dg `oso y cd aofj kjstj.
  Dg kj`porokmûg kjg hos prïktmkos kj`drkmohds cd hjs smnhjs 󰁕󰁒󰁍󰁍󰁍 y 󰁕󰁍󰁕, ho opo-
rmkmûg cd d`prdsos mgcustrmohds okdhdrû dh kj`drkmj cd Durjpo (dg dspdkmoh cdh
Qdmgj Tgmcj) kjg jtrjs poàsds< ougqud dstd kj`drkmj sd kjgkdgtrû dg ho m`pjrto-
kmûg cd prjcuktjs prm`ormjs (`mgdrohds y prjcuktjs onràkjhos) cdscd hos kjhjgmos
y hjs poàsds cd rdkmdgtd mgcdpdgcdgkmo. Yjr jtrj hocj, hos mgvdrsmjgds durjpdos dg
jtrjs poàsds tdgàog pjr 󿬏gohmcoc ho kjgsjhmcokmûg cd ugo rdc kj`drkmoh poro ho
m`pjrtokmûg cd `otdrmos prm`os. Ho mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro dg `ogubokturo kosm gj
dxmstd eokmo 󿬏gds cdh smnhj 󰁕󰁍󰁕, sohvj dh kosj dg qud ho hjkohmcoc prdsdgtoro khoros
vdgtofos poro ho prjcukkmûg, pjr dfd`phj, dg rozûg cd ho dxkhusmvmcoc cd ho `otdrmo
prm`o (Bhoedrty, ?==2).

Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg kmdgtàbmko
O mgmkmjs cdh
d`prdsos smnhj 󰁕󰁕 ho
mgtdnrocos, Qdvjhukmûg
kjg Mgcustrmoh
ho gdkdsmcoc pdr`mtddghodstrukturos
cd jrnogmzorsd opormkmûg cd
cdhos prm`dros
oc`mgmstro-
kmûg fdrïrqumko y cd cdsorrjhhor smstd`os cd kjgtoamhmcoc. Dstjs prm`drjs smstd`os
cd jrnogmzokmûg budrjg dh pugtj cd portmco poro prjpjgdr qud ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ >

cdadrào kjgstmtumrsd dg ugo cmskmphmgo, kjg prmgkmpmjs y tíkgmkos sustdgtocjs dg dh

`ítjcj kmdgtà󿬏kj.
  O Brdcdrmkl ^. Soyhjr (?542-?
(?542-?=?4)
=?4) sd hd kjgsmcdro dh pocrd cd ho oc`mgms
oc`mgmstro-
tro-
kmûg kmdgtà󿬏ko. O íh sd hd rdkjgjkd dh hjnrj cd ndgdror, pjr prm`dro vdz, ug `orkj
smstd`ïtmkj poro prjkho`or o ho oc`mgmstrokmûg kj`j ugo cmskmphmgo. Soyhjr
Soyhjr sd nro-
cuû cd mgndgmdrj `dkïgmkj y curogtd su korrdro jatuvj cmvdrsos potdgtds, dgtrd
hos qud sd kudgto dh okdrj cd ohto vdhjkmcoc (ötmh poro boarmkor edrro`mdgtos poro
kjrtd dg kohmdgtd). [mg d`aornj, ho `oyjr kjgtrmaukmûg cd Soyhjr o ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg
`dfjrobudhohod󿬏kmdgkmo
smstd`otmzokmûg cdh prmgkmpmj
cd ug smstd`o cd ho cmvmsmûg
cd prjcukkmûg sm sdcdh troaofj6 dstoahdkmû
dstogcormzo koco ugj qud sd
cd hjs
posjs cd ug prjkdsj prjcuktmvj, poro hj qud ds gdkdsormj dstucmor kmdgtà󿬏ko`dgtd
ho `dfjr `ogdro cd hhdvor o koaj koco ugj cd dstjs posjs. Soyhjr dro cd ho mcdo
cd qud dh cmsdÿj cd hjs dstïgcords y `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg hj cdadràog cdsorrj-
hhor hjs oc`mgmstrocjrds d mgndgmdrjs cd `oyjr gmvdh, cd `ogdro qud hjs jpdrormjs
y tíkgmkjs kjgcufdrog sus tordos aofj dstïgcords y `ítjcjs dspdkà󿬏kjs6 ho `oyjr
d󿬏kmdgkmo sd hjnro kjg dh dstrmktj ku`phm`mdgtj cd hos gjr`os. Cd dsto `ogdro, dh
troaofj cd prjcukkmûg sd cdhdno o pdrsjgoh kjg gdkdsmcoc cd dgtrdgo`mdgtj, pdrj
gj cd dstucmjs dspdkmohmzocjs. [m amdg dstd kjgkdptj pdr`mtmû dh cdsphmdnud cd sms-
td`os cd prjcukkmûg ohto`dgtd prjcuktmvjs (y cd aofj kjstj), eo smcj kudstmjgocj
pjr hjs `ítjcjs qud prjpjgd ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc (kj`j sd corï kudgto dg
ho smnumdgtd sdkkmûg). Soyhjr cdsorrjhhû sus prmgkmpmjs dg su hmarj Sed Yrmgkmphds jb
[kmdgtm󿬏k @ogond`dgt (Soyhjr, ?=??).

  Dsto mcdocmbdrdgtds
cdsorrjhhorjg cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
tíkgmkos qud kmdgtà󿬏ko tuvj
eosto dh cào cd `ukejs sdnumcjrds,
ejy sustdgtog qumdgds
dh cmsdÿj y ho
phogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg. Dgtrd dstjs sdnumcjrds 󿬏nurog Edgry Nogtt (?52?-
?=?=), qumdg prjpusj ho ‘Korto cd Nogtt‐ poro ho prjnro`okmûg cd oktmvmcocds, y
hjs dspjsjs Brogl y Hmhhmog Nmhardte, qumdgds prjpusmdrjg hjs ‘dstucmjs cd tmd`pjs
y `jvm`mdgtjs‐ (cdh mgnhís `jtmjg stucy )6)6 qud rdqumdrdg dh dxo`dg kjg cdtohhd cd
hjs tmd`pjs y `jvm`mdgtjs cd hjs jpdrormjs, poro prjpjgdr hjs prjkdcm`mdgtjs `ïs
d󿬏kmdgtds cd prjcukkmûg.
  Curogtd dsto dtopo opordkdg hjs prm`drjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg dg `oso.
Tgj cd hjs ej`ards cd gdnjkmjs qud `dfjr oprjvdkeo hos mcdos cd ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg kmdgtà󿬏ko ds Edgry Bjrc (?52;-?=3>), qumdg m`phogto pjr prm`dro vdz ugo
hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg dg `oso cd ohto vdhjkmcoc poro dh `jcdhj S, dg su phogto cd
 Emnehogc Yorl dg ?=?;. Ho mggjvokmûg prmgkmpoh cd dsto hàgdo kjgsmstmû dg ho mgtrj-
cukkmûg cdh trogspjrtocjr `ûvmh, cd `ogdro qud yo gj dro gdkdsormj qud dh jard-
rj sd troshocoro o auskor dh troaofj, smgj qud dh troaofj hhdnoao oh jardrj, eosto su
dstokmûg cd troaofj. Dsto mggjvokmûg hd pdr`mtmû o Bjrc rdcukmr crïstmko`dgtd hjs
prdkmjs cd sus outj`ûvmhds, hhdnogcj o kopturor 29% cdh `drkocj cd outj`ûvmhds
cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs dg ?=19 (Ejpp y [pdor`og, 199?).
  Kj`j kjgsdkudgkmo cd ho opormkmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg dg `oso y cd hos d`-
prdsos mgtdnrocos, oprjxm`oco`dgtd dgtrd ?5>4 y ?=?3, surndg hos prm`dros d`-
prdsos trosgokmjgohds, dgtrd hos qud cdstokog hos d`prdsos dstocjugmcdgsds Jtms,
_uoldr Jots, Kjko-Kjho, Edmgz, Or`jur y [mgndr, y hos durjpdos Yemhmps, [md`dgs,
Kmao-Ndmny, AO[B, Ejdkest y Aoydr. Osà qud dg ?=?3 ho mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro cmrdk-
to, kj`j pjrkdgtofd cdh prjcuktj mgtdrgj arutj, ohkogzo su pmkj emstûrmkj, y ds dh
Qdmgj Tgmcj ho prmgkmpoh budgtd cd mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro, sdnumcj pjr Dstocjs Tgm-
cjs, Brogkmo y Ohd`ogmo (Bhoedrty, ?==2).

Dh `jvm`mdgtj pjr hjs rdkursjs eu`ogjs

Hjs prmgkmpmjs cd ho
ug m`prdsmjgogtd oc`mgmstrokmûg
m`puhsj kmdgtà󿬏kocd
poro dh cdsorrjhhj dstoahdkmcjs pjr Soyhjr
tíkgmkos y `ítjcjs cd smngm󿬏korjg
prjcukkmûg
qud pdr`mtmdrjg ho opormkmûg cd d`prdsos mgtdnrocos y ohto`dgtd prjcuktmvos, qud
oprjvdkeorjg hos vdgtofos cd ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj y cd hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho.
 

5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Dstos mcdos, smg d`aornj, gj tj`orjg dg kudgto qud ho prjcuktmvmcoc cd hjs troao-
focjrds gj sûhj cdpdgcd cd hjs `ítjcjs y dstïgcords qud sd hds dstoahdkmdrjg poro
ho dfdkukmûg cd sus tordos, smgj to`amíg cd ho `jtmvokmûg poro rdohmzor su troaofj.
[d rdkjgjkd o Eunj @ugstdradrn (?52;-?=?2), dh eoadr smcj dh prm`drj dg
ophmkor ho psmkjhjnào oh dstucmj cd ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cd hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg mg-
custrmoh. @ugstdradrn cmrmnmû hjs prm`drjs dstucmjs cd psmkjhjnào mgcustrmoh dg su
hoajrotjrmj cd ho Tgmvdrsmcoc cd Eorvorc, qud kuh`mgorjg dg ho puahmkokmûg cd
su hmarj  Ysykejhjny ogc Mgcustrmoh Db󿬏kmdgky   dg ?=?;, dg dh qud pjr prm`dro vdz
 Ysykejhjny
sd tjkorjg
kmjgds td`os kj`j
cd troaofj, ho sdhdkkmûgcdh
y ho `jtmvokmûg cdtroaofocjr
d`phdocjs,poro
dh dgtrdgo`mdgtj y hos kjgcm-
dh hjnrj cd hos `dtos cd ho
d`prdso. [mg d`aornj, dh emtj emstûrmkj cd `oyjr m`pjrtogkmo poro dh `jvm`mdgtj
pjr hjs rdkursjs eu`ogjs, bud ho sdrmd cd dstucmjs qud sd rdohmzorjg dg ho phogto
Eowtejrgd cd ho ^dstdrg Dhdktrmk, dgtrd ?=13 y ?=;1, o hjs qud sd kjgjkd kjg dh
gj`ard cd ‘dstucmjs Eowtejrgd‐. Dg cmkejs dstucmjs sd mgvdstmnû d`pàrmko`dg-
td dh dbdktj cd ho mhu`mgokmûg cd ho phogto dg ho prjcuktmvmcoc cd hjs troaofocj-
rds. Hjs prm`drjs rdsuhtocjs mgcmkorjg qud oh ou`dgtor ho mgtdgsmcoc cd ho huz, ho
prjcuktmvmcoc ou`dgtoao< smg d`aornj, o ho pjstrd cdskuarmdrjg qud to`amíg dh
edkej cd cms`mgumr ho mgtdgsmcoc tdgào dbdktjs pjsmtmvjs dg ho prjcuktmvmcoc cd
hjs troaofocjrds. Mgkopokds cd dxphmkor tohds rdsuhtocjs, hjs `md`arjs cdh prm`dr
dqumpj cd troaofj oaogcjgorjg dsjs dstucmjs. Hudnj cd mgvmtor o cmvdrsjs mgvdstmno-
cjrds poro ogohmzor hjs rdsuhtocjs dgkjgtrocjs, bud Dhtjg @oyj qumdg prjpjrkmjgû
ugo tdjrào sotmsboktjrmo oh rdspdktj. @oyj mgcmkû qud dh ko`amj cd prjcuktmvmcoc
sd cdaào o ugo `oyjr otdgkmûg dg su troaofj, bdgû`dgj qud rdkmamû dh gj`ard
cd ‘dbdktj Eowtejrgd‐. Smd`pj cdspuís @oyj jbrdkd ugo vdrsmûg `ïs dhoajroco cd
sus kjgkhusmjgds, cjgcd mgcmko qud dh troaofj ds ugo oktmvmcoc nrupoh, qud gj ds
sm`phd`dgtd dh adgd󿬏kmj `jgdtormj hj qud `udvd o rdohmzor amdg ug troaofj, smgj
qud dxmstdg cmvdrsjs mgkdgtmvjs qud `jtmvog o hjs troaofocjrds o hjnror mgkrd`dg-
tjs m`pjrtogtds dg ho prjcuktmvmcoc. O portmr cd cmkejs dstucmjs, d`pmdzo o krdkdr
dh mgtdrís pjr ho `jtmvokmûg cdh troaofocjr poro dh dstoahdkm`mdgtj cd smstd`os cd
prjcukkmûg `ïs d󿬏kmdgtds, y opordkdg cmvdrsos tdjràos sjard ho `jtmvokmûg, kj`j
hos cd Oaroeo` @oshjw dg hjs oÿjs kuordgto, Brdcdrmkl Edrtzadrn dg hjs oÿjs kmg-
kudgto y Cjunhos @kNrdnjr dg hjs sdsdgto.

Ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds kjg aosd dg `jcdhjs

Tgo cd hos nrogcds kjgtrmaukmjgds eokmo dh ko`mgj cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg kjg aosd
dg `ítjcjs kmdgtà󿬏kjs prjvmdgd cd ho mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, ïrdo qud dg
sus mgmkmjs opordkd poro rdsjhvdr prjahd`os cd hjnàstmko y oaostdkm`mdgtj cd hos
jpdrokmjgds `mhmtords curogtd ho [dnugco Nudrro @ugcmoh. DhD h ïrdo sd jkupû, cdscd
sus mgmkmjs, cdh cdsorrjhhj y sjhukmûg cd `jcdhjs `otd`ïtmkjs qud pdr`mtmdrjg rd-
sjhvdr prjahd`os cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds, `ukejs cd dhhjs kjg ophmkokmûg cmrdkto o
ho sjhukmûg cd prjahd`os cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds (cmstrmaukmûg y hj-
nàstmko). Dstos tíkgmkos budrjg rïpmco`dgtd oprjvdkeocos poro bokmhmtor ho tj`o cd
cdkmsmjgds dg hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg, hj qud cd`jstrû ho utmhmcoc cd hjs `j-
cdhjs `otd`ïtmkjs poro rdprdsdgtor prjahd`os oc`mgmstrotmvjs y, hj qud ds `ïs
m`pjrtogtd, poro sustdgtor dh prjkdsj cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds.
Cdscd ho opormkmûg cdh prm`dr `jcdhj cd mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, ho
 prjnro`okmûg hmgdoh dhoajroco pjr Ndjrnd Cogtzmn poro ho budrzo oírdo cd Dstocjs
Tgmcjs curogtd ho [dnugco Nudrro @ugcmoh, sd eog ndgdrocj cmvdrsjs `jcdhjs
qud ejy smrvdg kj`j edrro`mdgtos cd opjyj oh prjkdsj cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds.
@ukeos cd hos tíkgmkos cdsorrjhhocos pjr ho kj`ugmcoc kmdgtà󿬏ko sjg mgtdgsmvos
dg hjs
cd kïhkuhjs gu`írmkjs,
`jcdhjs cd oeà qud
dg hjs smstd`os ho opormkmûg cd ho kj`putocjro bokmhmtoro dh usj
cd prjcukkmûg.
Dg ho oktuohmcoc hjs `jcdhjs poro ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds sjg cd o`phmo utmhm-
zokmûg dg kosm tjcos hos ïrdos cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds< dstj rdkjgjkd
 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ =

‶ Bmnuro ?.;
Ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds kjg aosd
Ogïhmsms dg `jcdhjs.
kuohmtotmvj
(Dxpdrmdgkmo)

Yrjahd`os
cd oc`mgmstrokmûg Dvohuokmûg Cdkmsmûg
cd jpdrokmjgds

Ogïhmsms
kuogtmtotmvj
(@jcdhjs)

qud ug prjkdsj cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds sd kjgcukd `dfjr sm sd kuogtm󿬏kog sus dhd-

`dgtjs, y qud hos `dfjrds cdkmsmjgds sjg hos qud sd tj`og rokmjgoh`dgtd y kjg dh
ouxmhmj cd ho `dfjr mgbjr`okmûg jafdtmvo cmspjgmahd (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ?.;).
Dg ho 󿬏nuro ?.3 sd mhustrog ohnugos cd hos ïrdos qud ejy kjgstmtuydg ho mgvds-
tmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, y qud smrvdg kj`j edrro`mdgtos poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
kmdgtà󿬏ko.

  HO QDRJHTKMÛG
QDRJHTKMÛG YJQ HO KOHMCOC
KOHMCOC
Cocjs hjs ko`amjs smngm󿬏kotmvjs qud jkurrmdrjg dg dh dgtjrgj kj`pdtmtmvj y dg hjs
`ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg cdscd ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto eosto `dcmocjs cd
hjs gjvdgto, sd cdcmko dsto sdkkmûg o ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc.

Gudvjs oktjrds dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh

Kj`j yo sd sdÿohû, cdscd ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh eosto ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs sd-
sdgto, ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs osu`d dh hmcdroznj dg ho prjcukkmûg cd amd-

‶ Bmnuro ?.3
Ogïhmsms dstocàstmkj @jcdhjs cd trogspjrtd  Ohnugos ïrdos cd mgvdstmn
mgvdstmnokmûg
okmûg
cd jpdrokmjgds/mgndgmdrào
oc`mgmstrotmvo.

Yrjnro`okmûg hmgdoh

@jcdhjs cd mgvdgtormjs Yrjnro`okmûg hmgdoh dgtdro

Mgvdstmnokmûg
cd jpdrokmjgds
Sdjrào cd cdsmkmjgds
@jcdhjs cd jptm`mzokmûg dg rdcds

Yrjaoamhmcoc ophmkoco
Mgndgmdrào
Yrjnro`okmûg
Yrjnro`okmûg gj hmgdoh oc`mgmstrotmvo
Sdjrào cd smstd`os cd dspdro

[m`uhokmûg cd smstd`os

 
 ?9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro ?.4
Brokkmûg cdh tjtoh cd
?=>;
`uhtmgokmjgohds pjr rdnmûg
dg ?=>;.
9.34
Budgtd6 Bjrtugd, ?=>3.
9.3
9.;4
9.;
9.14
9.1 DT

9.?4  FOYÛG
BQOG., NA., OHD.
9.?
9.94
9
   [    [  .    [    H
   O    J    O    C
   J    D    K    D    K    D    O
   H    M    H    M    G    H
   M    S
   S    O    G    M 
   G    S    @
    À     Û    R    J
   D    D    T    Q     Û    J     Û    S
   S    Q    Y
   M
   @
   M    @    _    D    S    @
   H    Y    T    J
   K    _
   O    D    S
   H    D    T
   D    O

gds y sdrvmkmjs. [mg d`aornj, o portmr cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto y jkedgto, dsd hmcdroznj
tmdgd budrtds kj`pdtmcjrds pjr ho opormkmûg pouhotmgo pdrj krdkmdgtd, dg cmvdrsjs
sdktjrds cd ho mgcustrmo, cd jtros gokmjgds, dgtrd hos qud sjardsohdg Fopûg, Ohd-
`ogmo y gudvjs poàsds mgcustrmohmzocjs cdh Osmo. O portmr cd dgtjgkds sd jasdrvo
ugo onrdsmvo pdgdtrokmûg cd hjs prjcuktjs qud sd `ogubokturog dg Osmo, hjs qud
hjnrog ugo o`phmo okdptokmûg y sd vdgcdg o prdkmjs `uy kj`pdtmtmvjs< oh `ms`j
tmd`pj, togtj ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs kj`j ho cd Durjpo rdspjgcdg o dstd
gudvj rdtj, kjg ho krdokmûg cd ug o`amdgtd `uy kj`pdtmtmvj, y kjg tdgcdgkmo o
ho nhjaohmzokmûg cd hjs `drkocjs.
O portmr cd ho mgbjr`okmûg
m gbjr`okmûg cd hos 󿬏nuros ?.4 o ?.> sd pudcd kj`poror ho m`pjr-
togkmo cd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds cd hjs trds prmgkmpohds ahjquds mgcustrmohds, dg ?=>;,
?==; y 1994 rdspdktmvo`dgtd. Kj`j sd oprdkmo, ds gjtoahd ho opormkmûg cd Fopûg,
kj`j pjtdgkmo dg hos prmgkmpohds ro`os cd ho oktmvmcoc mgcustrmoh< dsto prdsdgkmo sd
osjkmo kjg ug `oyjr amdgdstor cd su dkjgj`ào, kj`j hj `udstro ho dvjhukmûg cd

‶ Bmnuro ?.2
Brokkmûg cdh tjtoh cd
`uhtmgokmjgohds pjr rdnmûg ?==;
dg ?==;.
9.34
Budgtd6 Bjrtugd, ?==3.
9.3
9.;4
9.;
9.14
9.1 DT
 FOYÛG
9.?4 BQOG., NA., OHD.
9.?
9.94
9
   [    [    O    O  .    [    H
   D    J    C    D    O
   J    H    K
   M    D    K
   M    H
   S    H    G
   M    M    S
   O    @    G      R    J
   G    S     À     Û
   D    D    T    Q     Û    J     Û    S
   S    Q    Y
   M
   @
   M
   H    @    _    D
   Y    S
   K    T    @
   J
   O    D    _    S
   H    D    T
   D    O

 
 MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ??

‶ Bmnuro ?.>
1994 Brokkmûg cdh tjtoh cd
`uhtmgokmjgohds pjr rdnmûg dg
9.4 1994.
9.34 Budgtd6 Bjrtugd, 1992.
9.3
9.;4
9.;
9.14 DT

9.1  FOYÛG
BQOG., NA., OHD.
9.?4
9.?
9.94
9
   [    [    O    O  .    [    H
   D    J    C    D    O
   J    H    K
   M    D    K
   M    H
   S    H    G
   M    M    S
   O    @    G      R    J
   G    S     À     Û
   D    D    T    Q     Û    J     Û    S
   S    Q    Y
   M
   @
   M    @    _    D    S    @
   H    Y    T    J
   K    _
   O    D    S
   H    D    T
   D    O

su mgnrdsj pdr-kïpmto, 󿬏nuro ?.5. Dg dsto 󿬏nuro sd oprdkmo ho dvjhukmûg bovjroahd

bovjroahd gj
sûhj cdh Fopûg, smgj to`amíg cd Ohd`ogmo y cd jtrjs poàsds, qud budrjg hho`ocjs
gudvjs poàsds mgcustrmohmzocjs (GYM), qud opjstorjg kjg íxmtj oh cdsorrjhhj mgcus-
trmoh kj`j `jtjr cdh amdgdstor dkjgû`mkj. Ho prdsdgkmo cd dstjs gudvjs oktjrds
dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh krdo ugo gudvo jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh, qud cdskogso dg
ho kjgstrukkmûg cd ug dsqud`o cd kjjpdrokmûg dgtrd d`prdsos (pdqudÿos y `d-
cmogos) prjvddcjros y d`prdsos (nrogcds) cd hos mgcustrmos tdr`mgohds.

Kj`pdtdgkmo nhjaoh
Kj`j okoao cd vdr, curogtd ho rdvjhukmûg pjr ho kohmcoc opordkdg gudvjs oktjrds
(GYM) dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh, qud opudstog oh cdsorrjhhj mgcustrmoh kj`j `jtjr

‶ Bmnuro ?.5
49999 Dvjhukmûg cdh mgnrdsj rdoh
pdr-kïpmto (T.[.$) dg ohnugjs
34999
poàsds.
Budgtd6 ^jrhc Aogl , ?==4.
39999

;4999
Ohd`ogmo

Ejgn Ljgn
;9999
 Fopûg

[mgnopur
14999
Dstocjs Tgmcjs

19999 Qdp. cd Kjrdo

@ugcmoh

?4999

?9999

4999

9
   ?    1    ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1    ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1    ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1
   >    >    >    >    >    >    >    >    >    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    9    9    9
   =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    9    9    9
   ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    1    1    1

 
 ?1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cd sus dkjgj`àos. Oh `ms`j

`m s`j tmd`pj, ug gudvj dsqud`o cd jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh
kjg aosd dg ho kjjpdrokmûg dgtrd d`prdsos nrogcds, prjcuktjros cd amdgds cd kjg-
su`j 󿬏goh, y d`prdsos, prjvddcjros,
prjvddcjros, `dcmogos y pdqudÿos pdr`mtd m`phogtor ugo
dstrotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo 󿬏gkoco dg ho mggjvokmûg y ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc (vdo ho prm`dro
sdkkmûg cdh kopàtuhj 1). Yjr jtrj hocj, tros ho koàco cd hjs njamdrgjs kj`ugmstos cd
Durjpo cdh Dstd, oh kj`dgzor ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs gjvdgto, mrru`pd dg O`írmko
Hotmgo ugo jho cd njamdrgjs cd`jkrïtmkjs, kjgvdgkmcjs cd qud dh cdsorrjhhj cd ho
rdnmûg sûhj ds pjsmahd kjg ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd sus dkjgj`àos o ug `orkj cd kj`-
 pdtdgkmo nhjaoh
hjkohds. Dstd , qud trostjko
gudvj kjgkdptjcrïstmko`dgtd
poro hjs poàsdsdhhotmgjo`drmkogjs
dgtjrgj kj`pdtmtmvj cd ohoshosd`prdsos
jahmnû d`prd -
sos hjkohds o rdvmsor sus dstrotdnmos kj`pdtmtmvos, poro jrmdgtor su tdkgjhjnào y jpd-
rokmjgds dg kjgkjrcogkmo kjg dh gudvj dgtjrgj kj`pdtmtmvj o dskoho nhjaoh.
Yudstj qud dh kjgkdptj cd kj`pdtdgkmo nhjaoh ds cd troskdgcdgtoh m`pjrtog-
kmo oktuoh poro hos d`prdsos hotmgjo`drmkogos, o kjgtmguokmûg sd sdÿohog hos prmg-
kmpohds koroktdràstmkos cd dstd dgtjrgj kj`pdtmtmvj.
  Ko`amjs dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh. Ocd`ïs cd ho prdsdgkmo cd hjs GYM, ho
dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh dxpdrm`dgtû ko`amjs m`pjrtogtds dg ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs
gjvdgto, dgtrd hjs qud sd kudgtog dh rïpmcj krdkm`mdgtj cd ho mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfd-
ro cmrdkto (MDC) y cdh kj`drkmj mgtdrgokmjgoh. Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg hjs cotjs cd ho
toaho ?.1, ho MDC tmdgd kj`j prmgkmpoh jafdtmvj ho pdgdtrokmûg cd `drkocjs, yo qud
dh `oyjr pjrkdgtofd cd ho `ms`o sd cdstmgû o hos dkjgj`àos cdsorrjhhocos. [mg d`-
 aornj, kj`j `dgkmjgo Bhoedrty (?==2), ho MDC eokmo poàsds dg cdsorrjhhj, qud tro-
cmkmjgoh`dgtd eoaào auskocj ho koptokmûg cd `otdrmos prm`os eokmo hos dkjgj`àos
cdsorrjhhocos, d`pmdzo o auskor prjvddcjrds cd amdgds kjg ug vohjr onrdnocj, qud
m`prm`og ug `oyjr cmgo`ms`j o ho mgcustrmo
m gcustrmo cd hjs poàsds ovogzocjs, pjr dfd`phj,
o hjs ‘Kuotrj Smnrds‐ (Kjrdo cdh [ur, Ejgn Ljgn, [mgnopur y Somwïg) kjrrdspjgcmû
?% cd hos dxpjrtokmjgds `ugcmohds dg ?=2;, `mdgtros qud su portmkmpokmûg supdrû
oh >% dg ?==9, cdstoko dh edkej cd qud ho `oy
`oyjrjr portd cd cmkeos dxpjrtokmjgds bud-
rjg `ogubokturos. Yjr jtrj hocj, ho MDC kjg ho `mro pudsto dg dh cdsdgvjhvm`mdgtj
cd `drkocjs, tuvj ug krdkm`mdgtj sjstdgmcj dg Osmo y dg Hotmgjo`írmko cdscd hjs
mgmkmjs cd ho cíkoco cd hjs oÿjs gjvdgto, dh mgkdgtmvj budrjg hjs prjkdsjs cd prm-
votmzokmûg dg dsto öhtm`o rdnmûg. Dg kuogtj oh kj`drkmj mgtdrgokmjgoh, dh m`puhsj

‶ Soaho ?.1 YOÀ[D[ YOÀ[D[

Mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro cmrdkto CD[OQQJ- DG CD[O- O@ÍQMKO
oku`uhoco pjr poàs y rdnmûg HHO CJ [ D.T .O . N .A. O H D@ O G M O B Q O G K M O F OY ÛG QQJHHJ H OS M G O O [MO SJ SO H
eosto ?==9. ?=?3* ?3.3 1.2 2.4 ?.4 ?.5 .9; gdn g.c. g.c. ?3.2
4.1 ?.4 .1 g.c. g.c. .9; 5.= 3.2 ;.9 ?3.?
?=;5* 12.; >.; ?9.4 .;4 1.4 .>4 gdn g.c. g.c. 12.3
5.; ?.5 .> g.c. g.c. .? ?2.9 >.4 2.? 13.;
?=29** 21.= ;?.= ?9.5 .5 3.? .4 > g.c. g.c. 22.?
;2.> >.2 4.9 g.c. g.c. .? ?>.2 5.4 3.? 43.4
?=>?** ?25.? 51.5 1;.> >.3 >.; 3.3 39 g.c. g.c. ?>1.?
?95.3 ?;.= ?;.3 g.c. g.c. 1.4 4?.3 1=.2 >.5 ?22.;
?=>5** ;59.; ?21.> 49.> 15.2 ?3.= 12.5 ?1.4 g.c. g.c. ;=1.5
14?.> 31.3 (;1.4) g.c. g.c. 2.9 ?99.3 41.4 14.1 ;2?.2
?=54** 253.> 14?.9 ?9?.1 4=.= 19.; 5;.2 4.3 ?.5 1.? 2=9.1
949=.> ?53.2 21.2 ;2.= ?=.1 2.3
2.3 ?>4.2 29.1 24.3 254.;
?==
==9*
9** ?29
291
1 31;.1 133.> ?44.? >3.5 ;?9.59 ?9.5 ;.? 2.? ?2?;
?1;9 39;.> 194.2 =;.4 4?.? ?5.3 124.= =>.? ?19.= ?3=2
* @mhhjgds cd cûhords.
** @mhds cd `mhhjgds cd cûhords.
Dh rdgnhûg supdrmjr mgcmko dh 󿬁ufj cd mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro cmrdkto qud prjvmdgd cd ho rdnmûg, dh rdgnhûg mgbdrmjr mgcmko
dh 󿬁ufj cd mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro cmrdkto eokmo ho rdnmûg j poàs.
Budgtd6 Bhoedrty , ?==2.

 
 MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ?;

cd su krdkm`mdgtj sd cdamû o hjs okudrcjs qud rdcukdg hos aorrdros orogkdhormos,

kj`j ho Kj`ugmcoc Dkjgû`mko Durjpdo, dh Srotocj cd Hmard Kj`drkmj cd O`í-
rmko cdh Gjrtd, ho Qjgco Trunuoyo cdh NOSS (Okudrcj Ndgdroh sjard Orogkdhds y
Kj`drkmj) y dh @drkjsur.
Kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd `uhtmgokmjgohds. Dg ?==1 dxmstàog oprjxm`oco`dgtd
;> 999 kjrpjrokmjgds `uhtmgokmjgohds, hos kuohds, sdnög dstm`okmjgds cd ho Jrnogm-
zokmûg cd hos Gokmjgds Tgmcos (vdo TGKSOC, ?==;),
?==;), sjg rdspjgsoahds cdh >4% cdh
kj`drkmj cd `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs, y cdh 59% cd ho trogsbdrdgkmo cd tdkgjhjnào
kj`drkmoh,
d mgkhusj sukmbros qud `udstrog
mgkrd`dgtj ho pdrsmstdgkmo
dg hjs oÿjs cdh d`aornj,
gjvdgto. [mg cj`mgmj cd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds,
kj`j pudcd jasdrvor
dg hos 󿬏nuros ?.4 y ?.2, dh prdcj`mgmj cd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs
cms`mguyd pjr ho prdsdgkmo cd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds fopjgdsos, edkej qud ndgdro
ugo `oyjr kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds.
[dnög Ldgmkem Je`od (?=54), kjgsuhtjr cd @kLmgsdy, yo qud hos dkjgj`àos
cd hos trds rdnmjgds dxemadg gmvdhds 󿬏gogkmdrjs y tdkgjhûnmkjs sm`mhords, sus d`-
prdsos kj`pmtdg pjr khmdgtds, prjvddcjrds y ohmocjs o portmr cd sus jpdrokmjgds
dg koco `drkocj, tmdgdg okkdsj o prjvddcjrds dg cmvdrsos portds cdh `ugcj y gj
pdr`mtdg qud sus kj`pdtmcjrds pudcog jatdgdr nogogkmos hmards cd kj`pdtdgkmo, o
ho vdz qud okucdg o sus rdcds cd mgbjr`okmûg poro `dfjror tog rïpmco`dgtd kj`j
sus kj`pdtmcjrds.
Kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd dkjgj`àos mgcustrmohmzocos. O portmr cd hjs cotjs cd
ho 󿬏nuros ?.= y ?.?9, sd jasdrvo qud hos cmbdrdgkmos dg ho kjadrturo dcukokmjgoh dg
hjs cmstmgtjs poàsds mgcustrmohmzocjs tmdgcdg o kdrrorsd, hj qud mhustro dh edkej cd
qud hjs rdkursjs tdkgjhûnmkjs y eu`ogjs cd hjs poàsds mgcustrmohmzocjs tmdgcdg o
sdr sm`mhords. Dg dstd sdgtmcj, ds gjtoahd dh kosj cdh Fopûg qud, yo cdscd ho cíkoco
cd hjs oÿjs sdtdgto (vdo Bhoedrty, ?==2) dxemad ug gö`drj cd kmdgtà󿬏kjs d mgnd-
gmdrjs (pjr koco ? 999 eoa.) dg oktmvmcocds cd mgvdstmnokmûg y cdsorrjhhj `oyjr
qud Dstocjs Tgmcjs. Ougqud ho mgtdgsmcoc cd ho kj`pdtdgkmo ds cmbàkmh cd `dcmr,
sd jasdrvo qud hos vdgtos dg dh dxtrogfdrj krdkdg kjg ho mgvdrsmûg dg oktmvjs dg
dh dxtrogfdrj. Dg dh kosj cd prjcuktjs mgtdgsmvjs dg prjponogco (prjcuktjs cd
`orko), hos `uhtmgokmjgohds kogocmdgsds y durjpdos tmdgcdg o tdgdr ugo brokkmûg
`ïs ohto cd mgvdrsmjgds qud cd vdgtos dg dh dxtrogfdrj, hj qud rd󿬁dfo su dstrotdnmo
cd pdgdtrokmûg cdh `drkocj dg Dstocjs Tgmcjs. Dg dh kosj cd hos trosgokmjgohds

‶ Bmnuro ?.=
?99 Yjrkdgtofds cd `otràkuho
dg dcukokmûg sdkugcormo.
Budgtd6 ^jrhc Aogl , ?==4.
=9

Ohd`ogmo

59 Ejgn Ljgn

 Fopûg

[mgnopur
>9
Dstocjs Tgmcjs

Qdp. cd Kjrdo

29

49

39
   9    ?    1    ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1    ;
   5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    =    =    =    =
   =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =
   ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?

 
 ?3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro ?.?9
Kmdgtà󿬏kjs d mgndgmdrjs
d`phdocjs dg M&C Gö`. cd kmdgtàbmkjs pjr koco `mh pdrsjgos
(pjr koco ? 999 eoamtogtds)
Budgtd6 Tgmtdc Gotmjgs >

 [totmstmkoh ]dorajjl 
2

Ohd`ogmo
3  Fopûg

Dstocjs Tgmcjs

; Qdp. cd Kjrdo

[mgnopur
1

9
   ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1    ;    3    4    2    >    5    =    9    ?    1
   >    >    >    >    >    >    >    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    5    =    =    =
   =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =    =
   ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?    ?

cd outj`ûvmhds, hos d`prdsos fopjgdsos to`amíg tmdgcdg o tdgdr ugo brokkmûg `ïs
ohto cd mgvdrsmjgds qud cd vdgtos dg dh dxtrogfdrj, pdrj dstj pordkd sdr `ïs amdg
rd󿬁dfj cd su dstrotdnmo cd cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds dg dh dxtdrmjr.
  Kj`pdtdgkmo dg hjs GYM. Hjs GYM dxpdrm`dgtorjg, dg hjs oÿjs gjvdgto, ug
cdsorrjhhj mgcustrmoh okdhdrocj qud tuvj dh opjyj cd nrogcds nrupjs mgcustrmohds y
cd sus rdspdktmvjs njamdrgjs. [dnög Ohmkd O`scdg (?=5=), hjs GYM d`pdzorjg kjg
prjcuktjs qud rdqudràog ug gmvdh `dcmj cd tdkgjhjnào, y dgbjkorjg sus dsbudrzjs
dg ho `ogubokturo cd cmkejs prjcuktjs, kjg ho `ms`o kohmcoc, pdrj o `dgjr kjstj
qud dg hjs poàsds mgcustrmohmzocjs. Dh rdgcm`mdgtj cd ho mgvdrsmûg dg dstjs prj-
cuktjs gj bud ohtj oh mgmkmj, pjr hj qud sd rdqumrmû cdh opjyj nuadrgo`dgtoh poro
`ogtdgdr sus d`prdsos. [mg d`aornj, dg dh `dcmogj phozj kjgsmnumdrjg `dfjror
ho kohmcoc y kj`phdfmcoc tdkgjhûnmko cd sus `ogubokturos, y kjg dhhj kj`pmtmdrjg
kjg íxmtjTgmcjs,
Dstocjs dg hjs cdscd
`drkocjs mgtdrgokmjgohds.
hos suasmcmormos Yjr dfd`phj,
dstocjugmcdgsds dghos
hjs dxpjrtokmjgds eokmo
‘Kuotrj Smnrds‐, ou-
`dgtorjg cd ?9% cd hos vdgtos dg ?=22 o 1>% cd hos vdgtos dg ?=>>. Cdscd ho cí-
koco cd hjs gjvdgto jtros dkjgj`àos smnudg hjs posjs cd hjs ‘Kuotrj Smnrds‐. Dgtrd
dhhos sd kudgtog Arosmh, Kemhd y @íxmkj, dg Hotmgjo`írmko, Kemgo, Mgcmo, Bmhmpmgos y
Somhogcmo, dg Osmo, d Mrhogco, Yjrtunoh, Yjhjgmo y Dspoÿo, dg Durjpo.

Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs dg hjs

oÿjs sdtdgto y jkedgto
Ho opormkmûg cd gudvjs oktjrds dg ho dkjgj`ào `ugcmoh, hjs qud ophmkorjg ugo ds-
trotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo aosoco dg ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc cd sus `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg y
dg su prdjkupokmûg pjr ho kohmcoc y dh sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd (vdo ho toaho ?.;), cdamhmtû
dh prdcj`mgmj cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs.
Hjs ogïhmsms qud kjgsmcdrog o hjs dhd`dgtjs kuhturohds kj`j ho budgtd cdh íxmtj
cd ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso tmdgdg pjkj sdgtmcj, kj`j kj`prjaorjg hjs kosjs cd vormos
phogtos qud jpdrog dg Dstocjs Tgmcjs, y qud budrjg kopokds cd m`phogtor `ítjcjs
cd prjcukkmûg `ïs kj`pdtmtmvjs cdgtrj cd su dgtjrgj. Dstos dxpdrmdgkmos mgcmkog,

 
 MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ?4

@ O Q K O C D O T S J @ ÛR M H D [ BO H H O [ D G H J [ 5 Y Q M @ D Q J [ @ D [ D [ D G K O C O ? 9 9 R D E À K T H J [ ‶ Soaho ?.;
Kohmcoc cd prjcuktjs fopjgdsds
Keryshdr 154  y dstocjugmcdgsds dg hjs oÿjs
Ndgdroh @jtjrs 142 sdtdgto y jkedgto.
Bjrc 1?3
Fopjgís (prj`dcmj) ?;1
Sjyjto 44
MGCM
MG CMKK OCJ
OCJQQ CD KOH
KOHMC
MCOC
OC CD
CD [D@M
[D@MKK JGC
JGCTK
TKSS JQD
JQD[[ @OQK
@O QKO[
O[ CD
CD D[S
D[SOC
OCJ[
J[ TGM
TGMCJ
CJ[[ @O
@OQK
QKO[
O[ FOY
FOYJG
JGD[
D[O[
O[
Cdbdktujsjs o ho dgtrdno ?2% 9%
Bohhorjg ogtds cd ? 999 ejros ?3% ?%
MGCMKOCJQ CD KOHMCOC DG OYOQOSJ[
YO Q O O M Q D O K J G C M K M J G O C J @ O Q K O [ C D D [ SO C J [ T G M C J [ @ O Q K O [ F O Y J G D [ O [
Cdbdktujsjs pjr `ogubokturo 3.3% `dgjs cdh 9.?%
Cdbdktujsjs pjr dgso`ahd 2;.4% 9.=%
[jhmkmtorjg sdrvmkmj ?9.4% 9.2%
Kjstj pjr norogtào (kj`j % cd vdgtos) 1.1% 9.2%

M G C M K O C J Q CD
CD KO
KO H M C O C CD
CD S R O K J H J Q @ O Q K O [ CD
CD D[
D[ SO C J [ TG
TG M C J [ @ O Q K O [ FO
FO Y J G D [ O [
Cdbdktjs cd dgso`ah
dgso`ahdd pjr oporotj ?.3-1.9
3-1.9 9.9?-9.9;
[jhmkmtucds cd sdrvmkmj pjr oporotj ?.9-1.9
?.9-1.9 9.9=-9.12
Budgtd6 Qussdh y Soyhjr , ?==4, p. 5.

oh `ms`j tmd`pj, ugo rdkupdrokmûg cd ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs

Tgmcjs dg dh prdsdgtd `mhdgmj. Tgj cd hjs prm`drjs kosjs ds dh cd ho kj`pro dbdk-
tuoco pjr @otsusemto cd ugo phogto cd tdhdvmsjrds dg Kemkonj, qud dro prjpmdcoc
cd @jtjrjho, y qud tdgào prjahd`os cd jpdrokmûg. Hudnj cd cjs oÿjs, kjg dh `ms`j
gö`drj cd troaofocjrds, ho `mtoc cdh phogtdh cd oc`mgmstrocjrds y kjg kosm gmg-
nugo mgvdrsmûg ocmkmjgoh, @otsusemto cjahû ho prjcukkmûg, rdcufj hos kj`pjsturos
pjr bohhos cd dgso`ahd cd ?;9% o 2%, y rdcufj hjs kjstjs pjr norogtàos cd T.[.$?2
`mhhjgds oh oÿj o sûhj T.[.$1 `mhhjgds. Tgo prm`dro kjgkhusmûg qud sd cdsprdgcd
cd dstd kosj, ds qud dh cdkhmvd cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs ds kjgsdkudgkmo
cmrdkto cd ugo cmbdrdgtd kjgkdpkmûg cd hos dstrotdnmos y prïktmkos cd `ogubokturo
cd hos d`prdsos, edkej qud mgkdgtmvû dh dstucmj cd hos dstrotdnmos y `ítjcjs qud
ophmko ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso. Dg dsto cmrdkkmûg, ho Kj`msmûg sjard Yrjcuktmvmcoc
Mgcustrmoh cdhkj`phdtjs
dstucmjs `ïs Mgstmtutj Sdkgjhûnmkj cd hos
poro mcdgtm󿬏kor @ossokeussdts (@MS),cdrdohmzû
prmgkmpohds kousos ugj cd hjs
hjs prjahd`os cd
hos d`prdsos `ogubokturdros cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs dg jkej sdktjrds cd ho mgcustrmo.
Ougqud gj sd kjgjkdg dstucmjs sm`mhords dg hjs poàsds cd eoaho emspogo, sd opdho
oh audg krmtdrmj cdh hdktjr poro cdcukmr sm ohnugo cd dstos cd󿬏kmdgkmos, j su tjtohm-
coc, sd ophmkog to`amíg dg hos d`prdsos cd O`írmko Hotmgo, tj`d dg kudgto, sjard
tjcj, qud ho mgcustrmo hotmgjo`drmkogo sd eo cdsorrjhhocj dg dstrdkeo vmgkuhokmûg
kjg ho mgcustrmo dstocjugmcdgsd. [d rdsu`dg hjs kmgkj pugtjs m`pjrtogtds qud sd
prdsdgtog o kjgtmguokmûg6
  • Jrmdgtokmûg 󿬏gogkmdro cd kjrtj phozj. Tgo tíkgmko `uy cmbugcmco poro
cdkmcmr sjard ho kjgvdgmdgkmo j gj cd mgmkmor ug prjydktj ds kohkuhor ho SMQ
(toso mgtdrgo cd rdtjrgj) cdh `ms`j, su rdgcm`mdgtj dg tír`mgjs 󿬏gogkmdrjs.
Dstd mgcmkocjr eo cj`mgocj dh dskdgormj cd ho tj`o cdkmsmjgds dg dh o`amdgtd
d`prdsormoh cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs, y ougqud ds gdkdsormj kjgjkdr dh rdgcm`mdg-
tj cd ugo mgvdrsmûg, ogtds cd d`aorkorsd dg dhho, sd cdad rdkjgjkdr qud ho
utmhmcoc 󿬏gogkmdro gj ds dh ögmkj boktjr dg ug prjydktj, qud pjcrào kjgsu`mr
ugo nrog vormdcoc cd rdkursjs (gj sûhj 󿬏gogkmdrjs). Tgo cd hos cmbdrdgkmos

 
 ?2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

dgtrd mgvdrsmjgmstos fopjgdsds (j ohd`ogds) y dstocjugmcdgsds, ds qud poro

hjs prm`drjs ho portmkmpokmûg dg dh `drkocj ds `ïs m`pjrtogtd qud ho SMQ dg
ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds cd ug prjydktj cd mgvdrsmûg. Dg ug sdgtmcj `ïs o`-
phmj, ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cd ug prjydktj `ukeos vdkds gj sd `mcd dg tír`mgjs
kuogtmtotmvjs< pjr dfd`phj, oh dvohuor ug prjydktj, sdrï cmbàkmh `dcmr kuogtm-
totmvo`dgtd hos eoamhmcocds qud cdsorrjhhorï dh pdrsjgoh poro kjgsdnumr hjs
jafdtmvjs dstrotínmkjs cd ho d`prdso. Dg portmkuhor, ho emstjrmo prdsdgto kosjs
dg hjs qud dh íxmtj cd prjydktjs dg d`prdsos fopjgdsos sûhj sd ohkogzû hudnj
cd vormjs
sos fopjgdsos,
mgtdgtjs<
qud budrjg
y to`amíg
cdskortocjs
dxmstdg kosjs
mgmkmoh`dgtd
cd prjydktjs
dg d`prdsos
dxmtjsjs cd
dg Dstocjs
d`prd-
Tgmcjs, pjr sdr pjkj otroktmvjs cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto 󿬏gogkmdrj (vdo, pjr
dfd`phj, Eoyds y Ymsogj, ?==3). Dstjs íxmtjs gj euamdrog jkurrmcj sm ho cm-
rdkkmûg cd hos d`prdsos fopjgdsos euamdro tdgmcj ugo jrmdgtokmûg 󿬏gogkmdro
cd kjrtj phozj.
• Bohto cd kjjpdrokmûg. Ho gokmûg dstocjugmcdgsd sd kjgstruyû, cdscd sus
mgmkmjs, kjg aosd dg dh mgcmvmcuohms`j y ho kj`pdtdgkmo, prmgkmpmjs qud, sm
 amdg eog edkej qud sus `md`arjs cdcmqudg
cdcmqudg dh `oyjr
`oyjr dsbudrzj
dsbudrzj oh hjnrj cd sus
`dtos pdrsjgohds, to`amíg ndgdrorjg ho bohto cd kjjpdrokmûg dgtrd hjs kmuco-
cogjs d mgstmtukmjgds cd ho sjkmdcoc dstocjugmcdgsd. Dg jpmgmûg cd Qussdh y
Soyhjr (?==4), dsto bohto cd kjjpdrokmûg eokd qud cmbdrdgtds cdporto`dgtjs
cd ho `ms`o d`prdso tj`dg cdkmsmjgds omshocos y kjgbjr`d o jafdtmvjs dg
kjg󿬁mktj< qud dh Dstocj sdo vmstj kj`j ug jastïkuhj (qud korno m`pudstjs
y dstoahdkd rdnuhokmjgds) y gj kj`j ug prj`jtjr< qud hjs prjvddcjrds gj
sd ohàdg smgj kj`pmtog pjr hos nogogkmos, y qud hos d`prdsos gj dstíg cms-
pudstos o kj`portmr mgbjr`okmûg gm sdrvmkmjs poro su `utuj adgd󿬏kmj. Jtrjs
dstucmjs (@k@mhhog ?==9), cd`udstrog qud dgtrd hjs boktjrds krukmohds cd ho
nrog cmgï`mko cd ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso cdstokog fusto`dgtd hjs prmgkmpmjs cd
kjjpdrokmûg y kjg󿬏ogzo dg qud sd aosog hos rdhokmjgds dgtrd sus d`prdsos.
Ho kjjpdrokmûg pdr`mtd qud d`prdsos cd cmvdrsjs to`oÿjs y sdktjrds (pjr
dfd`phj, prjvddcjrds y kj`procjrds) sd kj`prj`dtog dg ho dfdkukmûg cd
prjydktjs qud sdrïg adgd󿬏kmjsjs poro koco ugo cd hos portds, y ho kjg󿬏ogzo
sd bjrtohdkd o trovís cd ho mgtdrokkmûg dg rdhokmjgds rdpdtmcos y cd hornj phozj
qud sd dstoahdkdg dgtrd hos cmvdrsos d`prdsos, y sd trocukdg dg kjgtrotjs dg
hjs qud koco ugo cd hos portds jatmdgd adgd󿬏kmjs.
• Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs eu`ogjs. Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd rdkursjs
eu`ogjs dg hos d`prdsos cd Dstocjs
D stocjs Tgmcjs, cdscd sus mgmkmjs, tuvj ugo budr-
td mg󿬁udgkmo pjr hos mcdos cdh toyhjrms`j. Dstos mcdos sunmdrdg ho krdokmûg cd
gmvdhds
ÿor fdrïrqumkjs
hos hoajrds oc`mgmstrotmvjs,
cd hjs cjgcdcd
`ogcjs fdrïrqumkjs hjs`dgjr
`ïs ohtjs sd Dh
gmvdh. dgkornog
dxkdsmvjcdopdnj
cmsd-
o dstjs hmgdo`mdgtjs, smg d`aornj, eo troàcj kj`j kjgsdkudgkmo ho krdokmûg
cd jrnogmzokmjgds kjg cd`osmocjs gmvdhds fdrïrqumkjs, cjgcd dh prjkdsj cd
tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds ds hdgtj y aurjkrïtmkj, hj qud rdtroso ho mggjvokmûg y ho
cmgï`mko cd ho d`prdso. Yjr jtrj hocj, hjs troaofocjrds cd `ogcjs fdrïrqum-
kjs mgbdrmjrds tmdgdg dskosjs mgkdgtmvjs poro `dfjror su troaofj, yo qud dg
hos jrnogmzokmjgds vdrtmkohds sus jpmgmjgds tmdgdg `uy pjkos prjaoamhmcocds
cd tdgdr dkj. Dsto tdgcdgkmo dg ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd rdkursjs eu`ogjs eo
krdocj d`prdsos kjg ohto rjtokmûg cd pdrsjgoh, dg hos kuohds o hjs tíkgmkjs y
jpdrormjs sd hds kjgsmcdro ug boktjr cd prjcukkmûg `ïs, o qumdgds smd`prd sd
hds kjgtroto oh `dgjr sohormj y kuyo kopokmtokmûg ds rdspjgsoamhmcoc cd dhhjs
`ms`js. Hos gudvos 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg qud mgtrjcufj ho rdvjhukmûg pjr
ho kohmcoc cdskuarmdrjg qud dh rdkursj eu`ogj ds dh oktmvj `ïs vohmjsj cd ugo
d`prdso, yo qud dg sus eoamhmcocds rocmko ho kopokmcoc cd ho d`prdso poro ho
`dfjro kjgstogtd cd ho kohmcoc cd hjs prjcuktjs qud jbrdkd. Osà sd phogtdo
ho gdkdsmcoc cd mgkdgtmvor dh cdsorrjhhj cdh pdrsjgoh o trovís cd prjnro`os cd
dgtrdgo`mdgtj, cd krdor jrnogmzokmjgds `ïs ejrmzjgtohds, cjgcd ho jpmgmûg

 
 MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ?>

cd hjs `ogcjs mgbdrmjrds smd`prd ds vohmjso y cd bj`dgtor ho bjr`okmûg cd

dqumpjs poro ho rdsjhukmûg cd prjahd`os.
• Yrïktmkos tdkgjhûnmkos.  Eosto eokd pjkj tmd`pj, ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs
Tgmcjs kjgkdgtro sus dsbudrzjs cd mggjvokmûg dg dh cdsorrjhhj cd prjcuktjs,
kjg hj qud oprjvdkeo ho tdkgjhjnào qud ndgdrog sus hoajrotjrmjs cd mgvdstmno-
kmûg, y dg ndgdroh, su o`phmj smstd`o cd mgvdstmnokmûg y cdsorrjhhj. [mg d`aor-
nj, cdskumcorjg dh cdsdgvjhvm`mdgtj cd ho tdkgjhjnào cd prjkdsj, ïrdo dg ho
qud Fopûg y Ohd`ogmo eog kjgkdgtrocj sus dsbudrzjs cd mgvdstmnokmûg. Dg
ho oktuohmcoc, ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd tdkgjhjnàos ovogzocos dg hjs prjkdsjs cd
prjcukkmûg (td`o cdh smnumdgtd kopàtuhj), ds ug kj`pjgdgtd m`pjrtogtd,
togtj poro kjgtrjhor kjg d󿬏kmdgkmo ho kohmcoc cd hjs prjcuktjs qud sd jbrd-
kdg, kj`j poro rdcukmr hjs tmd`pjs cd hogzo`mdgtj cd gudvjs prjcuktjs oh
`drkocj, y hjnror ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc (aofj kjstj) qud koco cào sd dxmnd `ïs cd hjs
smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg. Rohd ho pdgo kj`dgtor qud ho tdkgjhjnào cd prjcuk-
tj sd pudcd kjpmor kjg `oyjr bokmhmcoc qud ho tdkgjhjnào cd prjkdsj, ho kuoh
cdpdgcd `ïs cdh dgtjrgj (prjvddcjrds, `drkocjs, jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh,
dtk.) dg dh kuoh jpdro ho d`prdso.
• Cdamhmcoc dstrotínmko. Dh öhtm`j pugtj (ougqud gj dh `dgjs m`pjrtogtd)
qud sdÿoho dh dqumpj cdh @MS, ds qud ho mgcustrmo dstocjugmcdgsd, qud sd kjg-
kdgtro dg ugo dstrotdnmo cd prdkmjs, kjg aosd dg hos vdgtofos cd ho prjcukkmûg
dg `oso (bugco`dgtoh`dgtd dkjgj`àos cd dskoho), bud supdroco pjr ugo ds-
trotdnmo cd prjcukkmûg qud kj`amgo kjg d󿬏kmdgkmo prjcukkmûg dg `oso y vd-
hjkmcoc, kjg 󿬁dxmamhmcoc poro mggjvor y ocoptorsd o hjs gudvjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs
cd dgtjrgjs kjg budrtd kj`pdtdgkmo. Dg `drkocjs cd budrtd kj`pdtdgkmo, sd
jasdrvo ugo prjhmbdrokmûg cd prjcuktjs, ugo sdn`dgtokmûg cd hjs `drkocjs y
kmkhjs cd vmco cd prjcuktjs `ïs kjrtjs, hj qud ndgdro ho gdkdsmcoc cd rdcukmr
hjs tmd`pjs cd mgtrjcukkmûg cd gudvjs cmsdÿjs, y cd oprjvdkeor ho mggjvokmûg
tdkgjhûnmko poro cdsorrjhhor `dfjrds prjcuktjs. Tgo dstrotdnmo cd prjcukkmûg
 aosoco ögmko`dgtd dg ho prjcukkmûg pjr vjhu`dg, tmdgd pjko kopokmcoc poro
ocoptorsd o hjs ko`amjs qud dxmndg hjs `drkocjs cd ohto kj`pdtdgkmo.

HO DKJGJ@ÀO AO[OCO DG DH KJGJKM@MDGSJ

Dg ho öhtm`o cíkoco cdh smnhj 󰁕󰁕 sukdcmû ugo opdrturo dkjgû`mko smg prdkdcdgtds
dg ho emstjrmo, qud ougoco oh rïpmcj ovogkd cd hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y
kj`ugmkokmjgds, pjsmamhmtû ho kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd d`prdsos cd cmvdrsos portds cdh
`ugcj dg hjs
kmûg cd hjs `drkocjs
`drkocjs. cj`ístmkjs,
[m amdg bdgû`dgj
ho nhjaohmzokmûg qud sdhjskjgjkd
kjgtrjho kj`jcdhoutmhmcoc
`ïrndgds nhjaohmzo-
cd
hos d`prdsos dg hjs prmgkmpohds sdktjrds cd ho mgcustrmo cd `ogubokturos, ds kmdr-
tj qud kmdrtjs sdktjrds (dg su `oyjrào cd sdrvmkmjs) dxpdrm`dgtog utmhmcocds smg
prdkdcdgtds< dstd íxmtj prjvmdgd cd ho vdgto cd prjcuktjs kjg ug ohtj kjgtdgmcj
tdkgjhûnmkj, cd mgbjr`okmûg j ‘kjgjkm`mdgtj‐, pjr hj qud o `dcmocjs cd hjs oÿjs
gjvdgto sd d`pdzû o utmhmzor dh tír`mgj ‘dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj‐
poro eokdr rdbdrdgkmo o hjs sdktjrds `ïs cmgï`mkjs cd ho dkjgj`ào. Dg dsto sdkkmûg
sd ogohmzog ardvd`dgtd hos koroktdràstmkos kj`ugds cd dstjs sdktjrds, osà kj`j hjs
gudvjs porocmn`os j rdtjs qud mgtrjcukdg cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd ho oc`mgms-
trokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds.

Hjs sdktjrds oktmvjs dg ho gudvo dkjgj`ào

Dgtrd hjs sdktjrds `ïs oktmvjs cd ho öhtm`o cíkoco cdstokog hos mgcustrmos cd cd-
sorrjhhj cd sjbtword, sdrvmkmjs cd dgtrdtdgm`mdgtj y gjtmkmos, tdhdkj`ugmkokmjgds,
sdrvmkmjs pjr Mgtdrgdt, kmrkumtjs dhdktrûgmkjs, kj`putocjros, fudnjs cd vmcdj, amj-
tdkgjhjnào y bor`okíutmkjs. Dstjs sdktjrds dxphmkorjg ho tdrkdro portd cdh krdkm-

 
 ?5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

`mdgtj cdh YMA y ho `mtoc cdh mgkrd`dgtj dg prjcuktmvmcoc dgtrd ?==4 y 1999 dg
Dstocjs Tgmcjs, osà kj`j dh 49% cdh krdkm`mdgtj cdh àgcmkd Gmlldm dgtrd ?==5 y
1999 (Eoyds, 1991).
  [mg cuco cmkejs sdktjrds tmdgdg dg kj`ög dh jbrdkm`mdgtj cd prjcuktjs mggj-
vocjrds, kuyj rïpmcj cdsorrjhhj y hogzo`mdgtj oh `drkocj kjgstmtuydg ho khovd cd su
íxmtj, y ds pjr dsto rozûg qud dgbrdgtog ugo kj`pdtdgkmo dg tmd`pj cd rdspudsto
(cdh mgnhís tm`d-aosdc kj`pdtmtmjg, vdo [tohl, ?==9). Tg porocmn`o cd hos d`prdsos
cd ho gudvo dkjgj`ào ds qud sus kjstjs cj`mgogtds sjg hjs kjstjs mgmkmohds pjr dh
cdsorrjhhj cdh prjcuktj y ho krdokmûg cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg y cmstrmaukmûg, yo
qud hjs kjstjs `ornmgohds cd prjcukkmûg y cmstrmaukmûg sjg rdhotmvo`dgtd aofjs (y
dg ohnugjs kosjs mgcdpdgcmdgtds cd ho cmstogkmo oh kjgsu`mcjr), jasdrvd ohnugjs
cd hjs dfd`phjs qud sustdgtog dsto jasdrvokmûg6
  • Dh cdsorrjhhj
cdsorrjhhj cd
cd Jb󿬏kd
Jb󿬏kd 1999 rdqumrmû cd ohrdcdcjr cd ? 999999 cdsorrjhhocjrds
curogtd 1 oÿjs kjgsdkutmvjs.
  • Tgo phogto cd kmrkumtjs mgtdnrocjs kudsto ohrdcdcjr cd 1 999 `mhhjgds cd cûhords
(>9% cdh kjstj cdh prjcuktj sd dxphmko pjr cdprdkmokmûg y `ogtdgm`mdgtj).
  • Ho oprjaokmûg cd ug `dcmko`dgtj tj`o ohrdcdcjr cd 4 oÿjs y 499 `mhhjgds
cd cûhords cd mgvdrsmûg dg prj`dcmj.
Cdamcj oh ohtj kjstj mgmkmoh cdh cdsorrjhhj y hogzo`mdgtj oh `drkocj, hos d`prd-
sos cd ho gudvo dkjgj`ào cdadg m`phogtor dstrotdnmos onrdsmvos cd pdgdtrokmûg
cd `drkocj, pjr hj qud o `dgucj mgkjrpjrog jtrjs sdrvmkmjs cd vohjr onrdnocj
o sus prjcuktjs (pjr dfd`phj, mgbjr`okmûg pjr Mgtdrgdt, norogtàos, oktuohmzokmj-
gds y/j rdporokmjgds), j amdg sd mgkjrpjrog o kocdgos (j rdcds) cd prjvddcjrds
rdkjgjkmcjs. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, ohnugos `orkos cd adamcos, ohm`dgtjs j cd rjpo cd
`jco kjgsmstdg cd ugo dxtdgso rdc cd pdqudÿos d`prdsos qud `ogubokturog hjs
prjcuktjs, y ho d`prdso `otrmz dgbrdgto dh rdtj cd kjjrcmgor ho kocdgo cd prjvdd-
cjrds poro norogtmzor ho prjcukkmûg y cmstrmaukmûg cd prjcuktjs cd kohmcoc, qud
pdr`mtog `ogtdgdr ho rdputokmûg cd ho `orko. Yjr jtrj hocj, ohnugos d`prdsos
qud prdstog sdrvmkmjs cd kjgsuhtjrào (pjr dfd`phj, Qjklwdhh, DC[ j MA@) tmdgdg
ugo vormdcoc cd ophmkokmjgds dspdkmohmzocos qud hds pdr`mtdg prdstor sdrvmkmjs cd
kjgsuhtjrào mgtdnrohds, y dg dstd kosj portmkuhor cd hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg,
ho kj`potmamhmcoc cdh cdsorrjhhj kjg jtros ophmkokmjgds y/j smstd`os jpdrotmvjs ds
`uy m`pjrtogtd, yo qud cdtdr`mgo ho kopokmcoc cd mgkjrpjrorsd j gj o ugo rdc
cd usuormjs. Yjr tohds `jtmvjs, ho gudvo dkjgj`ào dgbrdgto hjs rdtjs cd ho kj`pd-
tdgkmo dg tmd`pj y ropmcdz, ho kjjrcmgokmûg cd nrogcds kocdgos cd su`mgmstrj, y
ho mgkjrpjrokmûg
kjgfugtj cdh prjcuktj
cd sdrvmkmjs cd `oyjrovohjr
ugo rdc cd prjvddcjrds qud pdr`mto jbrdkdr ug
onrdnocj.

Qdtjs jpdrotmvjs cd ho dkjgj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj

Dh emtj `ïs m`pjrtogtd dg ho prjcukkmûg cd amdgds y sdrvmkmjs dg dh smnhj 󰁕󰁕󰁍 ds dh
ound cd sdktjrds cd ho gudvo dkjgj`ào, mgtdgsmvjs dg mgbjr`okmûg, tdkgjhjnào y kj-
gjkm`mdgtj, y ougqud gj sd sunmdrd qud ohnugos cd hos tdgcdgkmos jasdrvocos dg
dsto öhtm`o cíkoco sd kjgsjhmcdg j ndgdrohmkdg dg dh buturj, ds kjgvdgmdgtd eokdr
ugo dgu`drokmûg ardvd cd hos tdgcdgkmos y rdtjs qud dxpdrm`dgto ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg cd jpdrokmjgds dg dsto gudvo dkjgj`ào6
  ?.  Dgbjqud dg ho rdc cd ho d`prdso6 ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds sd dg-
bjkû trocmkmjgoh`dgtd dg ho `dfjro cd `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj cd ho ugmcoc
jpdrotmvo (kj`pros, cmsdÿj, trogspjrtd, `ogubokturo, dtk.). [mg d`aornj, dh
cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos cd su`mgmstrj eo pdr`mtmcj corsd kudgto cd qud ho kj-
hoajrokmûg dgtrd hos cmstmgtos ugmcocds cd ho d`prdso y dgtrd cmbdrdgtds d`-
prdsos cdgtrj cd ho kocdgo j rdc cd ohmocjs, kjgcukd o smtuokmjgds dg qud hjs

 
 MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ ?=

‶ Bmnuro ?.??
Qdtjs jpdrotmvjs cd ho gudvo
dkjgj`ào.
Dgbjqud Kj`pdtdgkmo
dg ho rdc dg tmd`pj
cd ho d`prdso y ropmcdz

[drvmkmjs
Mgkjrpjrokmûg cd `dfjro
cd sdrvmkmjs Qdtjs cdh prjcuktj
dg `ogubokturo cd ho Gudvo
dkjgj`ào

Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
Qdcds o nrog dskoho
cd prjvddcjrds

Kj`pdtdgkmo
y kjhoajrokmûg
dgtrd d`prdsos

cmvdrsjs oktjrds jatmdgdg `oyjrds nogogkmos qud su oktuokmûg mgcmvmcuoh. Dh

rdtj kjgsmstd dg hjnror ugo kjjrcmgokmûg cd hos cmbdrdgtds ugmcocds y d`prd-
sos cd ho rdc poro hjnror okudrcjs dg hos qud tjcjs hjs oktjrds mgcmvmcuohds
jatdgnog adgd󿬏kmjs ocmkmjgohds.
  1.  Kj`pdtdgkmo dg tmd`pj y ropmcdz6
ropmcdz6 kuogcj sd prjcukdg amdgds kjg tdkgj-
hjnào cd prjcukkmûg `ocuro, ds prdbdrmahd m`phogtor prjkdsjs cd prjcukkmûg
dstoahds, ohto`dgtd dstogcormzocjs y kjg phogds cd prjcukkmûg pjkj 󿬁dxmahds,
ds pjr dhhj qud dg oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds sd utmhmzog `dcmcos cd cds-
d`pdÿj cd dstocj dstoahd. Dg ho gudvo dkjgj`ào, smg d`aornj, sd mgtrjcukdg
prjcuktjs y sd m`phogtog gudvjs prjkdsjs dg pdrmjcjs kjrtjs, pjr hj qud sd
cdad `dcmr dh cdsd`pdÿj cd hjs smstd`os prjcuktmvjs dg pdrmjcjs kjrtjs, cu-
rogtd
ug hjs kuohds
dstocj dh ysmstd`o
dstoahd dxpdrm`dgto
rdqumdrd ugo
cd ugo nrog n rog cmgï`mko,
nrog
󿬁dxmamhmcoc dstï `uy hdfjs
poro m`phogtor gudvjscd
prjkdsjs dg hopsjs kjrtjs. Dg ug o`amdgtd sufdtj o kjgstogtds ko`amjs, ho
kohmcoc y prdporokmûg cdh rdkursj eu`ogj ds ug dhd`dgtj khovd cdh íxmtj.
  ;.  Mgkjrpjrokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs
sdrvmkmjs cd `dfjro
`dfjro cdh prjcuktj6 poro kmdrtjs prjcuktjs
cdh prjcuktj6
(tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg), ho prdsmûg pjr ho prjgto mgtrjcukkmûg cdh gudvj
cdsorrjhhj, eokd qud sd hogkd dh prjcuktj smg eoadr m`phogtocj y/j prjaocj
ohnugos bugkmjgds m`pjrtogtds cdh gudvj cdsorrjhhj. Dh hogzo`mdgtj td`progj
cd dstjs gudvjs prjcuktjs eokd qud ho d`prdso cdao `ogtdgdr prjkdsjs cd
sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd, qud rdkjndg mgbjr`okmûg cd hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs khmdgtds,
poro bokmhmtor ho `dfjro y/j mgkjrpjrokmûg cd gudvos bugkmjgds oh prjcuktj,
j poro sjhukmjgor prjahd`os qud prdsdgtog hos prm`dros vdrsmjgds.
  3.  Yd rsjgohmzokmûg o nrog dskoho6 sm amdg ho nhjaohmzokmûg pdr`mtmû qud hos d`-
Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
prdsos `ïs d󿬏kmdgtds rdcufdrog sus kjstjs oh oprjvdkeor dkjgj`àos cd dskoho
(cdamcj o ugo `oy
`oyjr jr cd`ogco), `ukeos d`prdsos nhjaohds cdamdrjg rdkjgj-
kdr qud koco `drkocj tmdgd sus prdbdrdgkmos, y sd vmdrjg bjrzocos o cjtor oh
prjcuktj cd hos koroktdràstmkos portmkuhords (d`poqud, `otdrmohds, kogohds cd
cmstrmaukmûg, dtk.) qud dh `drkocj rdnmjgoh dxmnd, hj qud krdû dh porocmn`o

 
 19  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cd ho portmkuhormzokmûg o nrog dskoho (cdh mgnhís `oss kustj`mzotmjg), ds cdkmr,

ho gdkdsmcoc cd prjcukmr prjcuktjs dg `oso, pdrj kjg ho kopokmcoc cd qud dh
dgso`ahd 󿬏goh sd `jcm󿬏qud cd okudrcj kjg hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs khmdgtds.
[mg cuco, ho khovd cd ho portmkuhormzokmûg o nrog dskoho rocmko dg ho 󿬁dxmamhm-
coc cdh cmsdÿj.
  4.  Kj`pdtdgkmo y kjhoajrokmûg6 o `dgucj ho kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd hos d`prdsos
pdr`mtd qud koco d`prdso cdsorrjhhd sus `dfjrds kopokmcocds poro `ogtdgdr
ho prdbdrdgkmo cd sus khmdgtds. [mg d`aornj, dh surnm`mdgtj cd hos kocdgos cd
prjvddcjrds y cd hos rdcds cd d`prdsos qud prjpjrkmjgog sdrvmkmjs mgtdnro-
cjs, eo pdr`mtmcj oprdkmor qud ho kjhoajrokmûg dgtrd d`prdsos to`amíg ds
m`pjrtogtd poro oprjvdkeor smgdrnmos. Dg ho oktuohmcoc hos d`prdsos cdadg
cdhmgdor dstrotdnmos khoros poro mcdgtm󿬏kor dg quí ospdktjs kj`pmtdg kjg jtros
d`prdsos, y dg quí ospdktjs ds prdbdrmahd kjhoajror kjg jtros, smtuokmûg qud
eo cocj hunor o ho mgtrjcukkmûg cdh tír`mgj mgnhís kj`pdtmtmjg.
  2.  Kjgsjhmco kmûg cd rdcds cd prjvddcjrds6 ugo vdz qud hos kocdgos cd prj-
Kjgsjhmcokmûg
vddcjrds sd bjr`og, dh smnumdgtd rdtj ds dh cd kjhoajror poro qud hjs `md`-
 arjs cd ho rdc dstoahdzkog su dstïgcor dg hjs kjgsu`mcjrds. Ejy hos nrogcds
n rogcds
kjrpjrokmjgds sjg hos qud kj`pmtdg poro kjgsjhmcor sus dstïgcords (smstd`os
jpdrotmvjs, prjcuktjs cd `jco, tdkgjhjnào cd kj`ugmkokmjgds), y o cmbdrdg-
kmo cdh posocj, kuogcj dh kjgtrjh cd ho tdkgjhjnào dstoao dg `ogjs cd hos
kjrpjrokmjgds, oktuoh`dgtd cdadg kjjrcmgor o ugo nrog rdc cd prjvddcjrds
poro `jvdrsd dg ho cmrdkkmûg `ïs kjgvdgmdgtd poro tjcjs hjs `md`arjs cd
ho rdc.
  >.  Mgkjrpjrokmûg sdrvmkmjs dg `ogubokturos6 ho nhjaohmzokmûg ds ho kouso
cd sdrvmkmjs
cd qud `ukeos d`prdsos cdcmkocos o ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos dxpd-
rm`dgtdg ugo cms`mgukmûg cd sus utmhmcocds, dg ko`amj, dh krdkm`mdgtj cd
hjs sdrvmkmjs eo smcj gjtoahd dg hos öhtm`os cíkocos. Yjr dfd`phj, dgtrd ?=29
y 1999, ho portmkmpokmûg cd hjs sdrvmkmjs dg dh YMA krdkmû cd 1>% o 39% dg Ds-
tocjs Tgmcjs, `mdgtros qud hos `ogubokturos cms`mguydrjg su portmkmpokmûg
cd 1>% o ?>%. Yudstj qud hos d`prdsos cd `ogubokturo tmdgdg dh `dfjr kj-
gjkm`mdgtj cd hos kopokmcocds cd sus prjcuktjs, sjg hos `ïs optos poro mgtd-
nrorsd eokmo cdhogtd, y dh rdtj oktuoh cd dstos d`prdsos kjgsmstd dg mgkjrpjror
dg sus `ogubokturos hjs sdrvmkmjs (mgbjr`okmûg, cmstrmaukmûg, vdgto, sdrvmkmj
oh khmdgtd) qud hds pdr`mtog tdgdr ugo `oyjr portmkmpokmûg cd hos utmhmcocds
(^msd y Aou`nortgdr, ?===).

DFDQKMKMJ[
?. @dgkmjgd ugo d`prdso cd `ogubokturo j sdrvmkmjs (cd
prdbdrdgkmo ho d`prdso cjgcd ustdc hoajro), d mcdgtm󿬏qud
dxphàkmto`dgtd sus prmgkmpohds kj`pjgdgtds (mgsu`js,
jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos y amdgds prjcukmcjs), kjgsmcí-
rdho kj`j ug smstd`o cd trogsbjr`okmûg.
1. Mgcmqud hos rozjgds pjr hos kuohds dh cmrdktjr cd jpdro-
kmjgds cd cmkeo d`prdso, cdad mgtdroktuor kjg hjs jtrjs
cdporto`dgtjs cd ho d`prdso.
;. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hjs dvdgtjs (j cdskuarm`mdgtjs) cd hos dto-
pos cdgj`mgocos Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh y oc`mgmstro-
kmûg kmdgtà󿬏ko, kjg `oyjr m`poktj dg ho prjcukkmûg cd
 amdgds y sdrvmkmjs.
3. Cdskrmao ardvd`dgtd hj qud sd dgtmdgcd pjr ‘dbdktj
Eowtejrgd‐.
4. Mgcmqud pjr hj `dgjs kmgkj cd hjs `jcdhjs cdsorrjhhocjs
pjr ho mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, qud sd utmhmzog dg
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds poro opjyor dh prjkdsj
cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds.
2. Ohnugjs cdbdgsjrds cd hos dkjgj`àos aosocos dg ho prds-
tokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs osdnurog qud (kj`j sd jasdrvo dg
ohnugjs poàsds cdsorrjhhocjs), ho prdstokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs
mrï dg ou`dgtj y cdsphozorï o ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubok-
turos, toh kj`j jkurrmû kuogcj hjs troaofjs dg onrmkuhturo
budrjg oasjramcjs pjr ho mgcustrmo. Mcdgtm󿬏qud ohnugos
rozjgds pjr hos qud dsto empûtdsms gj pudcd (j pudcd)
ophmkorsd dg tjcjs hjs poàsds (dg portmkuhor dh suyj).
>. Kj`dgtd ardvd`dgtd sjard hjs pjsmahds drrjrds (j okmdrtjs)
dg qud pudcd mgkurrmr dh cmrdktjr ndgdroh cd ugo d`prd-
so, sm sus cdkmsmjgds sd aosog sûhj dg dh rdgcm`mdgtj cd
ho mgvdrsmûg, y/j dg ospdktjs 󿬏gogkmdrjs cd kjrtj phozj.
5. Kj`dgtd hos prmgkmpohds kousos cd ho pírcmco cd kj`-
pdtmtmvmcoc cd ho mgcustrmo `ogubokturdro cd Dstocjs

 
MGSQJCTKKMÛG O HO OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[ 1?

Tgmcjs, qud sd dvmcdgkmû o portmr cd ho cíkoco cd hjs  
oÿjs sdtdgto.
=. Kj`dgtd ardvd`dgtd dh smngm󿬏kocj cdh tír`mgj ‘dkj-
gj`ào aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj‐ y sjard hjs sdktjrds  
`ïs oktmvjs cd dsto gudvo dkjgj`ào.
 ?9. Mgcmqud pjr quí ho Mgtdrgdt eo bokmhmtocj (j gj) ho bjr-
`okmûg cd rdcds cd d`prdsos qud prdstog sdrvmkmjs
rdhokmjgocjs.  
 ??. Tg kosj `uy kj`dgtocj bud dh cd ugo prjcuktjro cd
kmgd qud rdcufj dh prdkmj cd sus kmgtos o ugo kocdgo
cd rdgto cd vmcdjs, o ko`amj cd ugo portmkmpokmûg dg
hos utmhmcocds pjr ho rdgto cd vmcdjs. Dxphmqud pjr quí
o`aos d`prdsos pucmdrjg pdrkmamr `dfjrds nogogkmos
kjg aosd dg ug okudrcj cd kjjpdrokmûg.
 ?1. Mcdgtm󿬏qud trds `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj ötmhds poro `dcmr
dh íxmtj (j brokosj) dg dh hogzo`mdgtj cd ug gudvj prj-
cuktj oh `drkocj.
?;. Yoro ho `ogubokturo cd su prdbdrdgkmo mcdgtm󿬏qud ho
kocdgo cd prjvddcjrds cdscd ho prjcukkmûg cd `otdrmo
prm`o eosto dh kjgsu`mcjr 󿬏goh.
?3. Yoro ho `ogubokturo j sdrvmkmj cd su prdbdrdgkmo (`dfjr
sm ds cd su prjpmo d`prdso), mcdgtm󿬏qud o kuïhds d`prd-
sos kjgsmcdro ohmocos y o kuïhds kjgsmcdro kj`pdtmcjros
poro hjnror dh íxmtj cd cmkeo `ogubokturo j sdrvmkmj.
?4. Yoro ho `ogubokturo cd su prdbdrdgkmo (`dfjr sm ds cd
su prjpmo d`prdso), mcdgtm󿬏qud pjr hj `dgjs trds sdr-
vmkmjs ocmkmjgohds qud sd pudcdg jbrdkdr poro ou`dgtor
dh vohjr onrdnocj cdh prjcuktj.
?2. Yoro ho `ogubokturo cd su prdbdrdgkmo (`dfjr sm ds cd su
prjpmo d`prdso), mcdgtm󿬏qud cjs `drkocjs dg hjs qud dh
prjcuktj cdad tdgdr kmdrtos cmbdrdgkmos, y kû`j hjnrorào
prjcukmr dg `oso hjs prjcuktjs, pdrj o ho vdz jbrdkdr
dh prjcuktj 󿬏goh kjg hos koroktdràstmkos portmkuhords dg
koco `drkocj.

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. O`scdg, O. E. (?=5=), Osmo”s Gdxt Nmogt6
Nmogt6 [jute Ljrdo ogc
ogc  ?1.
?1. Ejpp, ^.^. F. y @. H.H . [pdor`og
[pdor` og (1999),
(1999 ),  Boktjry Yeysmks6
 Hotd Mgcustrmohmzotmjg, Jxbjrc Tgmvdrsmty Yrdss, Gudvo  Bjugcotmjgs jb @ogubokturmgn @ogond`dgt   (;o. Dc.),
 ]jrl.
 ]jrl. @kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl.
  1. Keogchdr, O. C. Fr. (?=>>), Sed Rmsmahd Eogc6 Sed @ogond-  ?;.
?;. @k@mhhog
@k@mhhog,, F. (?==9),
(?==9), @ogonmgn
@ogonmg n supphmdrs6 mgkdgtmvd
mgk dgtmvd sys-
rmoh Qdvjhutmjg mg O`drmkog Ausmgdss, Eorvorc Tgmvdrsmty td`s mg fopogdsd ogc T.[. mgcustry, Kohmbjrgmo @ogond-
Yrdss, Ko`armcnd. `dgt Qdvmdw, ;?(;), ;5-44.
  ;. Keogchdr, O. C. Fr. (?=53), ‘Sed d`drndgkd jb `ogond-  ?3.
?3. Je`od, L. (?=54), Srmoc Yjwdr, Sed Brdd Yrdss, Gudvo ]jrl.
]jrl.
rmoh kopmtohms`‐,  Ausmgdss Emstjry Qdvmdw , 45, 3>;-49;,  ?4.
?4. Qussdhh
Qussdhh,, Q. y A. ^. Soyhjr
Soyhjr MMM (?==4),  Yrjcuktmjg ogc Jp-
Eorvorc Ausmgdss [kejjh Yrdss, Ajstjg. drotmjgs @ogond`dgt Bjkusmgn jg _uohmty ogc Kj`pdtm-
  3. Keogchdr, O. C. Fr. (?=52), ‘Sed dvjhutmjg jb ted `jcdrg tmvdgdss, Yrdgtmkd Eohh, Gudvo Fdrsdy.
nhjaoh kjrpjrotmjg‐, dg Kj`pdtmtmjg mg Nhjaoh Mgcustrmds, @.  ?2.
?2. [tohl, N. Fr. (?==9), Kj`pdtmgn Onomgst Sm`d6 Ejw Sm`d-
D. Yjrtdr (dc.). Eorvorc Ausmgdss [kejjh Yrdss, Ajstjg.  Aosdc Kj`pdtmtmjg ms Qdseopmgn Nhjaoh @orldts, Sed Brdd
  4. Cuggmgn, F. E. (?==;), @uhtmgotmjgoh Dgtdrprmsds ogc ted Yrdss, Gudvo ]jrl.
Nhjaoh Dkjgj`y , Occmsjg ^dshdy, Qdocmgn.  ?>
?>.. Soyhjr, B. ^.
^. (?=??),
(?= ??), Sed Yrmgkmphds jb [kmdgtm󿬏k @ogond-
  2. Bhoedrty, @. S. (?==2), Nhjaoh Jpdrotmjgs @ogond`dgt , `dgt , Eorpdr & Qjw, Gudvo ]jrl.
@kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl. ?5. TGKSOC (?==;), Sed ^jrhc Mgvdst`dgt Qdpjrt ?==;6
  >. Bjrtugd
Bjrt ugd (?=>3),  Bjrtugd 499, bdardrj cd ?=>3. Srogsgotmjgoh Kjrpjrotmjgs ogc Mgtdnrotdc Mgtdrgotmjgoh
5. Bjrtugd (?==3),  Bjrtugd 499, bdardrj cd ?==3. Yrjcuktmjg. Yrjnro`o cd ho TGKS
TGKSOC OC sjard kjrpjrokmj-
 ?9.
=. Bjrtugd
Eoyds, Q(1992),
(1991), Bjrtugd nds, bdardrj
‘Keohhdg499
‘Keohhdgnds pjsdc tjcdJpdrotmj
1992. gs @og-
Jpdrotmjgs ?=.. gds
 ?= trogsgokmjgohds.
^msd, Q. y Y.
Y. Aou`nortgdr
Aou`nortg dr (?===), ‘Nj cjwgstrdo` ted
t ed
ond`dgt ay ted ―gdw dkjgj`y” ‐, Yrjcuktmjg ogc Jpdro- gdw prj󿬏t m`pdrotmvd mg `ogubokturmgn‐, Eorvorc Ausm-
tmjgs @ogond`dgt  ??(1),
  ??(1), 1?-;1. gdss Qdvmdw >>(4), ?;;-?3?.
 ??.
??. Eoyds, Q. E. y N. Ymsogj (?==3), ‘Adyjgc wjhc khoss6
kh oss6 ted  19. ^jrhc Aogl (?==4), ^jrhc Soahds, Sed Fjeg Ejplmgs Tgm-
19.
gdw `ogubokturmgn strotdny‐,  Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw  vdrsmty Yrdss, Aohtm`jrd.
>1(?), >>-52.
 
 KOYÀSTHJ 1

Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y phogdokmûg
dstrotínmko cd hos jpdrokmjgds

• Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y dstrotdnmo
• Yhogdokmûg dstrotínmko cd hos jpdrokmjgds
• Dstrotdn
Dstrotdnmos
mos cd jpdrokmjgds cd d`prdsos dxmtjsos

D
hhmgdor
prjpûsmtj
ugo cd dstd kopàtuhj
dstrotdnmo ds smstd`o
poro dh prdsdgtorcdugprjcukkmûg/jpdrokmjgds
`orkj ndgdroh qud pdr`mto
qud cd-
sdo
kjgnrudgtd kjg hjs jafdtmvjs cd ho d`prdso y kjg ug dgbjqud oh hjnrj cd hos
`dtos y jafdtmvjs dstrotínmkjs. Dg prm`dr hunor,
hunor, sd ogohmzog hjs kjgkdptjs cd kj`pd-
tmtmvmcoc y phogdokmûg dstrotínmko dg su sdgtmcj `ïs o`phmj, y o portmr cd cmbdrdgtds
dgbjquds, kjg dspdkmoh otdgkmûg o hjs dgbjquds cd oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos (Yjrtdr,
?==2) y cd kopokmcocds cmgï`mkos (Sddkd dt oh., ?==>). Dg ho sdnugco sdkkmûg sd
sdÿohog hos prmgkmpohds cm`dgsmjgds dg hos kuohds ho d`prdso pudcd jatdgdr khoros
vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos o portmr cd ho m`phogtokmûg cd su dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
y, pjstdrmjr`dgtd, sd prjpjgd ug `orkj poro bjr`uhor ugo dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmj-
gds kjgnrudgtd kjg ho dstrotdnmo cd ho d`prdso. Yjr öhtm`j, dg ho tdrkdro sdkkmûg
sd prdsdgtog o cdaotd hos dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds cd ohnugos d`prdsos qud eog
cdstokocj pjr ho dxkdhdgkmo dg su jpdrokmûg.

  KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] D[SQO
D[SQOSDNMO
SDNMO
ºKû`j hjnro kj`pdtmr dxmtjso`dgtd ugo jrnogmzokmûg ogtd ho nhjaohmzokmûg y ho dkj-
gj`ào cdh kjgjkm`mdgtj: J cmkej cd jtro `ogdro6 ºkû`j ohkogzo ugo jrnogmzokmûg
ugo pjsmkmûg cd vdgtofo sjstdgmahd poro sus `ogubokturos j sdrvmkmjs dg ug dgtjr -
gj cd ohto kj`pdtdgkmo: Ho rdspudsto o dstos prdnugtos m`phmko dgtdgcdr hjs kjgkdp-
tjs cd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc, vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo y dstrotdnmo,  prjpmjs cd dsto sdkkmûg.

Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc y vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo

Dh tír`mgj kj`pdtmtmvmcoc sd ophmko o ho kopokmcoc poro kj`pdtmr,
kj`pdtmr, y supjgd ho dxms-
tdgkmo cd hjs portmkmpogtds y cd hjs boktjrds qud cdtdr`mgog dh íxmtj. Dg dh ï`amtj
cd hjs gdnjkmjs ds ho kopokmcoc poro tdgdr íxmtj dg ho prjcukkmûg cd amdgds y sdr-
vmkmjs, y dg ho hmtdroturo sjard kj`pdtmtmvmcoc dg hjs gdnjkmjs (Gdhsjg, ?==1), sd
ophmko dh tír`mgj pjr hj `dgjs dg ; kjgtdxtjs6 (o) kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd d`prdsos, (a)
kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd poàsds dg ug `ms`j sdktjr mgcustrmoh, y (k) kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd
poàsds pjr ho prjcukkmûg cd amdgds y sdrvmkmjs dg ndgdroh. 1;

 
 13  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 1.?
Kj`pjgdgtds cdh àgcmkd
cd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cdh ^jrhc
Dkjgj`mk Bjru`. • Mgstmtukmjgds Ydsj6
• Mgbrodstrukturo Qdqudrm`mdgtjs 49% poàsds dg bosd cd boktjrds
• @okrjdkjgj`ào aïsmkjs 39% poàsds
poàsds dg bosd cd dbmkmdgkmo
• [ohuc y dcukokmûg aïsmko ;9% poàsds dg bosd cd mggjvokmûg

Ydsj6
39% poàsds dg bosd cd boktjrds
49%
39% poàsds
poàsds dg bosd cd dbmkmdgkmo
mggjvokmûg
• Kopokmtokmûg y dcukokmûg
supdrmjr  Kotohmzocjrds Àgcmkd cd
• D󿬏kmdgkmo cd `drkocjs cd d󿬏kmdgkmo kj`pdtmtmvmcoc nhjaoh
kj`pdtmtmvmcoc
(hoajroh, 󿬏gogkmdrj, amdgds)
• Yrdporokmûg tdkgjhûnmko

• [j󿬏stmkokmûg Mggjvokmûg
cd hjs gdnjkmjs y boktjrds Ydsj6
• Mggjvokmûg cd ocdhogtj ?9% poàsds dg bosd cd boktjrds
?9% poàsds dg bosd cd dbmkmdgkmo
;9% poàsds dg bosd cd mggjvokmûg

  Ougqud dh kjgtdxtj prjpmj cd dstd tdxtj ds ho kj`pdtdgkmo dgtrd d`prdsos,

ds kjgvdgmdgtd rd`orkor qud gj jastogtd ho kj`phdfmcoc cdh td`o cd ho kj`pd-
tdgkmo dgtrd poàsds, dxmstdg jrnogmzokmjgds qud prjpjgdg ugo vormdcoc cd àgcmkds
poro dxphmkor dh íxmtj cd ístjs dg ho kj`pdtdgkmo pjr ho prjcukkmûg cd amdgds y
sdrvmkmjs. Yjr dfd`phj, cdscd su öhtm`j rdpjrtd cd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc 1992-199> (vdo
Hûpdz-Khorjs, 1992), dh ^jrhc Dkjgj`mk Bjru` (^DB) utmhmzo dh àgcmkd cd kj`pd-
tmtmvmcoc nhjaoh (NKM, nhjaoh kj`pdtmtmvdgdss mgcdx), dhoajrocj pjr Uovmdr [oho-m-
@ortmg, poro dstoahdkdr ho pjsmkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo cd koco poàs. Dh NKM sd kjgstruyd
o portmr cd trds kj`pjgdgtds6 rdqudrm`mdgtjs aïsmkjs, kotohmzocjrds cd d󿬏kmdgkmo,
d mggjvokmûg y boktjrds cd ocdhogtj, koco ugj kjg cmbdrdgtds pmhords (vdo ho 󿬏nuro
1.?). Kjg ho sohvdcoc cd qud koco kj`pjgdgtd ocqumdrd ugo m`pjrtogkmo cmbdrdg-
td dg koco poàs, dh ^DB kohkuho dh NKM ophmkogcj pdsjs cmbdrdgtds, cd okudrcj oh
dstocj cd cdsorrjhhj dg qud sd dgkudgtro dh poàs. Dh ^DB kjgsmcdro trds dstocjs
cd cdsorrjhhj6 poàsds dg bosd cd boktjrds, poàsds dg bosd cd d󿬏kmdgkmo, y poàsds dg
bosd cd mggjvokmûg, hjs pdsjs kjrrdspjgcmdgtds sd `udstrog dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.?, pjr
dfd`phj, dh NKM poro hjs poàsds dg bosd cd d󿬏kmdgkmo sd kjgstruyd kjg ho osmn-
gokmûg cd ug pdsj cd 39% o rdqudrm`mdgtjs aïsmkjs, cd 49% o kotohmzocjrds cd
d󿬏kmdgkmo y cd ?9% o mggjvokmûg y boktjrds cd ocdhogtj. Dh krmtdrmj utmhmzocj poro
kohm󿬏kor o ug poàs dg ohnugo cd hos bosds ds dh mgnrdsj pdr-kïpmto. Dg su rdpjrtd
1992-199>, dh ^DB uamko o ho `oyjrào cd hjs poàsds hotmgjo`drmkogjs (Orndgtm-
go, Arosmh, Kemhd, Kjsto Qmko, @íxmkj, Yogo`ï, Qdpöahmko Cj`mgmkogo, Trunuoy y
Rdgdzudho) dg ho bosd cd d󿬏kmdgkmo, `mdgtros qud Ajhmvmo, Nuotd`oho, Ejgcuros,
Gmkoronuo y Yoronuoy dstïg dg ho bosd cd boktjrds, Kjhj`amo, Dkuocjr, Dh [ohvo-
cjr y Ydrö dg trogsmkmûg cd ho bosd cd boktjrds o ho bosd cd d󿬏kmdgkmo. Cmkej dg
pjkos pohoaros, y cd okudrcj kjg Jppdgedm`dr (1992), dh íxmtj cd ug poàs dg ho
kj`pdtdgkmo pjr hokdrtmcu`ard
kmcoc poro jtjrnor prjcukkmûg ocdhoamdgds y sdrvmkmjs
mgvdrsmûg dstï
gdkdsormo `uy
poro hmnocjd`prdsos
ndgdror o su kopo-y
d`phdj prjcuktmvjs.

 
 KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ 14

  Ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc dgtrd hos d`prdsos, dg ko`amj, sd hm`mto oh kjgkdptj cd

vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo. Tgo d`prdso tmdgd ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo, kuogcj jatmdgd
 adgd󿬏kmjs supdrmjrds oh prj`dcmj cd su mgcustrmo, j cmkej cd jtrj `jcj, poro qud
ugo d`prdso kj`pmto kjg íxmtj cdad cdsorrjhhor vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds.
Dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj eokdr hj `ms`j qud hjs kj`pdtmcjrds pdrj cd `dfjr `ogdro gj
gdkdsormo`dgtd armgco ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd, pjrqud dvdgtuoh`dgtd
dhhjs sdrïg `ïs d󿬏kmdgtds. Yoro hjnror ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd sd cdad
eokdr ohnj cmbdrdgtd ogtd hjs jfjs cd hjs khmdgtds, kj`j sd dxphmko `ïs ocdhogtd dg
dsto sdkkmûg.

Dgbjquds cd `drkocj y cd dbmkmdgkmo

Dh td`o cd mgvdstmnokmûg bugco`dgtoh cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg dstrotínmko ds ho dxphm-
kokmûg cd kû`j hos d`prdsos hjnrog vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds,
sjstdgmahds, y ugo dstro-
tdnmo sd kjgkmad kj`j ug kjgfugtj cd cdkmsmjgds qud ugo jrnogmzokmûg j mgcmvmcuj
tj`o poro ohkogzor vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds (Yjrtdr
(Yjrtdr,, ?==2).
  Cd okudrcj kjg Sddkd dt oh. (?==>), dxmstdg cjs dgbjquds poro dxphmkor kû`j hos
d`prdsos hjnrog y sjstmdgdg sus vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos6 dh dgbjqud cd `drkocj y dh
dgbjqud cd d󿬏kmdgkmo. Hjs `jcdhjs `ïs rdkjgjkmcjs cdh dgbjqud cd `drkocj,
sjg dh cd budrzos kj`pdtmtmvos cd Yjrtdr bjr`uhocj dg hjs oÿjs jkedgto (Yjrtdr,
?=54), y dh `jcdhj cd kjg󿬁mktj dstrotínmkj phogtdocj pjr [eopmrj dg hjs oÿjs gj-
vdgto ([eopmrj, ?=5=).
  Hjs `jcdhjs kjg dgbjqud cd `drkocj osu`dg qud hjs mgnrdsjs cd ho d`-
prdso sd hjnrog
jstdgtog oh pjsmkmjgorsd
prmvmhdnmjs dg ug `ogtdgdr
qud hd pdr`mtdg sdn`dgtj ugo
cd `drkocj cjgcd sus
audgo pjsmkmûg. Yjrprjcuktjs
dfd`phj,
dh `jcdhj cd budrzos kj`pdtmtmvos cd Yjrtdr phogtdo qud dxmstdg kmgkj budrzos dg
kuohqumdr sdktjr mgcustrmoh (aorrdros cd dgtroco, o`dgozo cd sustmtutjs, pjcdr cd
hjs kj`procjrds, pjcdr cd hjs prjvddcjrds y rmvohmcoc dg ho mgcustrmo), y dg dstd
kjgtdxtj ugo d`prdso cdsorrjhho ugo dstrotdnmo kj`pdtmtmvo (kjg dh ogïhmsms cd sus
budrzos y cdamhmcocds) poro `ogtdgdr ugo pjsmkmûg qud hd pdr`mto cdbdgcdrsd cd
dstos budrzos j m`pjgdr kjgcmkmjgds bovjroahds dg dh `drkocj.
  Dh dgbjqud cd d󿬏kmdgkmo, dg ko`amj, sunmdrd qud hos d`prdsos tmdgdg íxmtj gj
pjrqud portmkmpog dg mgvdrsmjgds qud m`pmcdg ho okkmûg cd hos budrzos cdh `drko-
cj, smgj pjrqud tmdgdg kopokmcocds qud hds pdr`mtdg jbrdkdr prjcuktjs y sdrvmkmjs
kjg `orkoco supdrmjrmcoc sjard ho kj`pdtdgkmo. Dstd dgbjqud tmdgd sus roàkds dg
ho tdjrào cd Qmkorcj, qud sjstdgào ho dxmstdgkmo cd ‘vdgtofos kj`porotmvos‐ (dg hjs
cmbdrdgtds poàsds j rdnmjgds) dg kuogtj o ho dskosdz y kjstj cd hjs rdkursjs, y kjg-
khuào qud hjs cmbdrdgtds poàsds sd dspdkmohmzoràog dg ho prjcukkmûg cd hjs amdgds
poro hjs kuohds tmdgdg `dfjrds vdgtofos kj`porotmvos< ougqud dg ho oktuohmcoc hos
d`prdsos jatmdgdg vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos gj sûhj pjr dh `dgjr kjstj cd sus prj-
cuktjs, smgj to`amíg dg jtros cm`dgsmjgds (pjr dfd`phj, mggjvokmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc)
kj`j sd `udstro `ïs ocdhogtd dg dsto sdkkmûg.
  Jtrj `jcdhj `uy rdkjgjkmcj cdgtrj cdh dgbjqud cd d󿬏kmdgkmo, dh `jcdhj cd
kopokmcocds cmgï`mkos (S (Sddkd
ddkd dt oh., ?==>), sjstmdgd qud hos vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos
cd hos d`prdsos cdskogsog dg dh cdsorrjhhj cd kopokmcocds y rdkursjs cmbàkmhds cd
m`mtor pjr ho kj`pdtdgkmo, `ïs qud dg su kopokmcoc poro `ogmpuhor dh `drkocj,
dstd dgbjqud ds dh `ïs oprjpmocj poro dxphmkor ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc dg hjs sdktjrds
sufdtjs o ko`amjs d mggjvokmûg kjgstogtds.
  Ds gdkdsormj rdkjgjkdr qud dh `jcdhj cd kopokmcocds cmgï`mkos gj troto cd
gdnor dh dgbjqud cd `drkocj (kj`j hj mgcmkog sus `ms`js outjrds), yo qud gj
pudcd gdnorsd ho dxmstdgkmo cd hos budrzos cdh `drkocj y ho kopokmcoc cmbdrdgtd
qud tmdgdg hos d`prdsos poro `ogmpuhorhj. [mg d`aornj, ho emstjrmo rdkmdgtd `or-
koco pjr ho nhjaohmzokmûg
kj`pdtdgkmo, y hocdgudvo
dh cdsorrjhhj dkjgj`ào,
kopokmcocds kjg󿬏r`odsqud
cmgï`mkos dg o`amdgtds
gdkdsormj cd ohto
poro osdnuror
ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd hos d`prdsos. Yjr jtrj hocj, dh cdsorrjhhj cd ug smstd`o cd

 
 12  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

prjcukkmûg/jpdrokmjgds d󿬏kmdgtd sûhj tmdgd sdgtmcj aofj ug dgbjqud cd d󿬏kmdgkmo,

prjcukkmûg/jpdrokmjgds
y ds pjr dhhj qud sundrm`js ho ocjpkmûg cd ug dgbjqud kjg aosd dg dh cdsorrjhhj
cd kopokmcocds poro bjr`uhor ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds cd ugo d`prdso.

Kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd hos d`prdsos dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj

Dh 󿬏goh cdh `mhdgmj posocj bud tdstmnj cd ug ovogkd tdkgjhûnmkj m`prdsmjgogtd y
trofj ugo kjgsjhmcokmûg cd gudvjs kjgkdptjs oc`mgmstrotmvjs kj`j ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
poro ho kohmcoc tjtoh, hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj y ho rdmgndgmdrào cd
prjkdsjs, dgtrd jtrjs. Dsto ovohogkeo cd gudvo tdkgjhjnào y kjgkdptjs oc`mgmstro-
tmvjs prjcufdrjg `dfjros m`prdsmjgogtds dg d󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh (kjgkdptj qud sd
cdtohho dg ho smnumdgtd sdkkmûg). Yjr jtrj hocj, kj`j amdg sdÿohog ohnugjs outjrds
(Eoyds y Ymsogj, ?==3 y Yjrtdr, ?==2), cdamcj o ho mgtdgsmcoc cd ho kj`pdtdgkmo, ho
`dfjr d󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh gj eo rdsuhtocj gdkdsormo`dgtd dg dh íxmtj dspdrocj, yo
qud `ukeos d`prdsos dxpdrm`dgtog ugo cms`mgukmûg cd sus utmhmcocds. Ho `dfjro
kjgtmguo ds ugo gdkdsmcoc dg hos `dgtds cd hjs cmrdktjrds cd d`prdsos (KDJ, kemdb
dxdkutmvd jb󿬏kdr), pdrj sus edrro`mdgtos eog hhdvocj o hos d`prdsos o ho m`mtokmûg
y o ho ej`jndgdmcoc. Ohnugjs KDJ eog kjgbugcmcj ho d󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh kjg ho
dstrotdnmo, y dh rdsuhtocj sjg nogogkmos dstïtmkos (j cdkrdkmdgtds) y prdsmûg sjard
hjs kjstjs mgtdrgjs, y dg `ukeos jkosmjgds dh sokrm󿬏kmj cd `md`arjs cd ho rdc cd
ohmocjs (prjvddcjrds y/j cmstrmaumcjrds). Dstos kjgsmcdrokmjgds jahmnog o rdphogtdor
dh kjgkdptj cd dstrotdnmo dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj.
Hos vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj cdadg sustdgtorsd dg ho krdo-
kmûg cd ugo cmbdrdgtds
oktmvmcocds pjsmkmûg vohmjso y ögmko, qud
y kjgsmstdgtds. mgvjhukro
Ho dsdgkmo cd ho
ugkrdokmûg cd ug kjgfugtj
pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj cd
dstrotínm-
kj dstï dg ho dhdkkmûg cd oktmvmcocds cmbdrdgtds o hos cd hjs kj`pdtmcjrds. Osà pjr
dfd`phj, hos 󿬏nuros 1.1 y 1.; sjg cmonro`os cd hos oktmvmcocds qud sustdgtog hjs
pjsmkmjgo`mdgtjs dstrotínmkjs cd cjs cd hos d`prdsos kjg `ïs íxmtj oh 󿬏goh cdh
smnhj 󰁕󰁕, ^oh-@ort y [jutewdst Omrhmgds.
^oh-@ort ds ho d`prdso krdoco pjr ho bo`mhmo ^ohtjg, cdcmkoco o ho vdgto cd
prjcuktjs poro dh ejnor,
ejnor, kj`dstmahds y cd kjgsu`j cmormj qud rdpjrto hos utmhmcocds
`ïs ohtos cd su mgcustrmo (344 cûhords dstocjugmcdgsds pjr pmd kuocrocj dg 1991,
dh cjahd cdh prj`dcmj dg su mgcustrmo), dh krdkm`mdgtj `ïs okdhdrocj dg Dstocjs
Tgmcjs (cd 19% dg ?=5> o 3>% dg ?==4 y 2;% dg 1991), y ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgto-
rmjs `ïs m`prdsmjgogtd cd su sdktjr (kuotrj vdkds dh prj`dcmj dg su mgcustrmo). Ho
dstrotdnmo cd ^oh-@ort cdskogso dg ho vdgto cd prjcuktjs cd ohtj kjgsu`j o aofj
prdkmj kjg ho koroktdràstmko cd tdgdr dh prjcuktj ocdkuocj dg dh `j`dgtj y hunor
jpjrtugj. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.1, ^oh-@ort hjnro cjs jafdtmvjs dg opo-
rmdgkmo kjgtrocmktjrmjs –ohto cmspjgmamhmcoc y prdkmjs aofjs– cdamcj o qud phogtdo
jafdtmvjs kj`phd`dgtormjs kj`j sjg ho ohto rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, dh `ogtdgm-
`mdgtj cd aofjs gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj, ho vdgto cd prjcuktjs cd ohto cd`ogco y
`uy aofjs kjstjs cd cmstrmaukmûg y rdsurtmcj.
Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos cd ^oh-@ort,
hjs jafdtmvjs prjpudstjs sd kj`phd`dgtog dgtrd sà, ocd`ïs cd qud cdskogsog dg ug
kjgfugtj cd oktmvmcocds qud opjyog sm`uhtïgdo`dgtd dh hjnrj cd vormjs jafdtmvjs, hj
qud ndgdro ug kjgfugtj cd oktmvmcocds dspdkmoh`dgtd cmsdÿocos y `uy cmbàkmhds cd
m`mtor. Tgo cd dhhos ds su m`prdsmjgogtd smstd`o cd cmstrmaukmûg kjg 󿬁jtmhho prjpmo
cd trogspjrtd, qud utmhmzo tíkgmkos cd trosajrcj dg pugtjs dstrotínmkjs, kjg opjy
opjyjj cd
ug smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg oprjpmoco (sotíhmtd, mgtdrko`amj dhdktrûgmkj cd cotjs,
mcdgtm󿬏kocjrds cd rocmjbrdkudgkmo, smstd`o cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs).
  Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.;, ho prjpudsto cd vohjr cd [jutewdst sd cmrmnd
o khmdgtds sdgsmahds oh prdkmj y o ho jpjrtugmcoc. Kjg `mros o rdcukmr dh prdkmj cd
hjs ajhdtjs
pudrtjs y dh tmd`pj
pdqudÿjs cd dspdro
dg rutos cd ohtjdgvjhu`dg
ho soho, ho d`prdso
y hm`mto vudhosdrvmkmjs
ohnugjs sjho`dgtdqudcdtmdgdg
odrj-
ug m`poktj gdnotmvj dg hjs kjstjs6 hjs ajhdtjs sd vdgcdg dg cdspokeocjrds outj-

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ 1>

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.1
Dkjgj`àos cd dskoho Cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds
kjg [o`s dstrotínmkos cd ^oh-@ort.
y [updr Kdgtdr  Yrdkmjs
aofjs
Srosajrcj
Audgo hjkohmzokmûg (Krjss Cjklmgn)

[mstd`o mgbjr`ïtmkj
poro oc`mgmstrokmûg
Ohto rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtorm
mgvdgtormjs
js Aofjs gmvdhds
cd mgvdgtormj
mgvdgtormjss cd mgvdgtormj

Srogsbdrdgkmo
cd mgbjr`okmûg Yrjcuktjs
vào sotíhmtd cd ohto Aofjs kjstjs
cd`ogco cd rdsurtmcj

Mcdgtm󿬏kocjrds
cd rocmj
Mgtdrko`amj brdkudgkmos
dhdktrûgmkj Cmspjgmamhmcoc (QBMC)
cd cotjs Kj`ugmkokmûg cd prjcuktjs Okkmjgds y ajgjs
(DCM) vào dgtrd tmdgcos poro hjs d`phdocjs
sotíhmtd
Qdugmjgds sd`ogohds
sjard cd`ogco Bhjtmhho cd trogspjrtd
cd prjcuktjs Mgbjr`okmûg cd vdgto prjpmo
o prjvddcjrds (R@M)

`ïtmkjs poro dvmtor dh ponj cd kj`msmjgds o hjs ondgtds, gj sd pdr`mtd rdnmstror

dqumpofd y gj sd jbrdkd sdrvmkmj cd kj`mco dg hjs vudhjs. Dg kjgtropjsmkmûg o dstos
hm`mtokmjgds, hjs posofdrjs pudcdg hhdnor kjg `dgjs cd `dcmo ejro o oajrcor sus
vudhjs y dh kjstj cdh ajhdtj ds `uy mgbdrmjr. Ocd`ïs jtjrno ugo `oyjr utmhmzokmûg
o su 󿬁jto pjr kjgtor kjg ug sjhj tmpj cd ovmûg y pjr vjhor o odrjpudrtjs pdqud-
ÿjs `dgjs kjgndstmjgocjs, hj qud emzj cd ho d`prdso ugo cd hos pjkos odrjhàgdos
rdgtoahds.
  Dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos cd ho 󿬏nuro 1.; pdr`mtd oprdkmor kû`j
hjs jafdtmvjs dstrotínmkjs cd [jutewdst sd kj`phd`dgtog, y kû`j hos oktmvmcocds
dstrotínmkos opjyog o cmbdrdgtds jafdtmvjs o ho vdz, hj qud krdo ugo rdc cd oktmvm-
cocds `uy cmbàkmh cd m`mtor pjr ho kj`pdtdgkmo. [m ugo odrjhàgdo cdsdo pjsmkmjgor-
sd kjg íxmtj dg dh `ms`j sdn`dgtj, gj hd aostorï m`mtor ohnugos cd hos oktmvmco-
cds cd [jutewdst Omrhmgds, smgj qud cdadrï cd m`mtor ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds dg su
kjgfugtj. Kjgsmcdrd dh kosj cd Kjgtmgdgtoh Omrhmgds qud eokd ohnugjs oÿjs qumsj
kj`pdtmr kjg [jutewdst Omrhmgds y krdû ugo gudvo odrjhàgdo, Kjgtmgdgtoh Hmtd.
Ho m`phd`dgtokmûg cd dsto mcdo kordkmû cdh bjkj ocdkuocj poro pjcdr eokdr ugo
rdohmcoc su prjpudsto cd vohjr. Yoro dvmtorsd prjahd`os kjg hjs ondgtds cd vmofds,
Kjgtmgdgtoh cdkmcmû `ogtdgdr ho vdgto cd ajhdtjs dg dstd kogoh, hj qud mgkrd`dgtû
dh kjstj pjr dh ponj cd kj`msmjgds. Osm`ms`j, poro krdor smgdrnmos kjg dh rdstj cd
ho jrnogmzokmûg, ho d`prdso cdkmcmû qud Kjgtmgdgtoh Hmtd vjhorào o hjs odrjpudrtjs
kjg
zû o hjs qud yo tdgào
mgku`phmr okudrcjs
ho prj`dso kj`drkmohds.
cd `dgjr tmd`pjDhcdrdsuhtocj budhoqud
dspdro dg sohohoy d`prdso d`pd-
o pdrcdr cmgdrj
pjr gj eoadr edkej `ïs d󿬏kmdgtds sus prjkdsjs cd jpdrokmûg.

15  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.;
Cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds [mg kj`mcos
dstrotínmkos cd [jutewdst [mg trogsbdr
trogsbdrdgkmo
dgkmo
 Omrhmgds (Budgtd6 Yjrtdr , ?==2). Smd`pjs cd dqumpofd
cd otdgkmûg
rdcukmcjs
[mg osmngokmûg [mg kjgdxmjgds kjg
cd osmdgtjs jtros odrjhàgdos

Cd`jro dg
prdporokmûg Tsj hm`mtocj
ondgkmos cd
cd vmofd Bhjto dstïgcor 
Rudhjs cd ovmjgds cd ovmjgds >;> [drvmkmj
kjgtmgujs cd ?4 cmrdktj dgtrd
y kjg󿬏oahds `mgutjs odrjpudrtjs
pdqudÿjs
@ïqumgos
cd outjsdrvmkmj poro
d`msmûg cd ajhdtjs
Ajgjs poro
hjs d`phdocjs Ohto Ajhdtjs
prjcuktmvmcoc o prdkmjs
cdh pdrsjgoh `uy aofjs

Kjgtrotjs smgcmkohds
Kjgtrotjs
󿬁dxmahds Ohto
utmhmzokmûg
Ohtj gmvdh cd kj`pro cd hjs ‘[jutewdst ho odrjhàgdo
cd okkmjgds pjr portd
cd d`phdocjs ovmjgds kjg tormbos aofos‐

  Hjs kosjs cd d`prdsos dxmtjsos cdh gudvj `mhdgmj `udstrog ho gdkdsmcoc cd

rdcd󿬏gmr dh kjgkdptj cd dstrotdnmo. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.3, yo gj ds pjsmahd
hm`mtorsd o auskor ugo pjsmkmûg mcdoh –`ïs gj sjstdgmahd– dg ho mgcustrmo, oejro
sd cdad dstoahdkdr ugo pjsmkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo ögmko, cmbàkmh cd m`mtor pjr ho kj`pd-
tdgkmo. Osm`ms`j, dg hunor cd auskor ugo `dfjr d󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh o trovís cd ho
sm`phd m`phogtokmûg cd `dfjrds prïktmkos, rdsuhto gdkdsormj cdhmgdor ugo rdc cd
oktmvmcocds kjgsmstdgtds y kj`phd`dgtormos, qud hd pdr`mto o ho d`prdso cdsorrj-
hhor vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds, `uy cmbàkmhds cd m`mtor. Ds dg dstd kjgtdx-
kjgtdx -
tj prdkmso`dgtd, dg dh qud sd hd sunmdrd oprdkmor ho m`pjrtogkmo cd hos jpdrokmjgds
dg ugo d`prdso, gj pjrqud ho kj`pdtdgkmo j pjrqud jtros d`prdsos m`phogtdg j
gj ugo cdtdr`mgoco tdkgjhjnào, smgj pjrqud eokdg usj cd ho tdkgjhjnào poro opjyor
oktmvmcocds dstrotínmko`dgtd cmsdÿocos qud hds hhdvog o hjnror ugo pjsmkmûg ögmko
y sjstdgmahd dg ug pdrmjcj rozjgoahd.

Yjsmkmjgds cd vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo

Oejro qud sd eo vmstj kû`j hos d`prdsos cdsorrjhhog ugo dstrotdnmo kjg `mros o
dstoahdkdr ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd, ds kjgvdgmdgtd ogohmzor hos cmbdrdgtds
pjsturos aofj hos kuohds sd dstoahdkdg vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho
󿬏nuro 1.4, sd kjgkmadg trds pjsmkmjgds cd vdgtofo (Srdoky
(Srdoky y ^mdrsd`og, ?==>) pjr hos
kuohds pudcd jptor ugo d`prdso oh jbrdkdr o sus khmdgtds su prjpudsto cd vohjr6

  ?. Mgtm`mcoc khmdgtds. Kuogcj ugo d`prdso kj`pmtd kjg dsto pjsm-

kjg hjs khmdgtds.
kmûg cd vdgtofo, su jafdtmvj ds jbrdkdr oh khmdgtd hj qud pmcd y hjnror ugopjsm
ko--
pokmcoc cd rdspudsto eokmo sus cd`ogcos qud gmgnög jtrj kj`pdtmcjr pudco

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ 1=

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.3
Dstrotdnmo dg dh posocj Dstrotdnmo dg dh gudvj `mhdgmj Qdcd󿬏gmkmûg cdh kjgkdptj
cd dstrotdnmo dg dh gudvj
`mhdgmj.
Yjsmkmûg mcdoh dg ho mgcustrmo Yjsmkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo ögmko

M`phogtor `dfjrds prïktmkos Oktmvmcocds ohmgdocos kjg ho dstrotdnmo

Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds y ohmocjs Ohmocjs dgbjkocjs o ho dstrotdnmo

Dgbjqud dg boktjrds y rdkursjs khovds Dgbjqud dg ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds

Bhdxmamhmcoc y rdspudsto oh `drkocj D󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh dgbjkoco

jbrdkdr. Yudstj qud sus `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs sjg ögmkjs poro koco ugj cd
jbrdkdr.
sus khmdgtds, sus prjkdsjs jpdrotmvjs sjg 󿬁dxmahds y bokmhmtog `öhtmphds `jcjs
cd ndgdror y dgtrdnor `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs cd okudrcj kjg hos koroktdràs-
tmkos cd koco
gdkdsormos khmdgtd.
poro tj`orDhcdkmsmjgds
pdrsjgoh qud
kjgotmdgcd
aosd dgo hjs khmdgtds tmdgd
mgbjr`okmûg hos bokuhtocds
cdtohhoco cd kjg-
su`mcjrds y kogohds. Dh jafdtmvj ds dgtdgcdr tog amdg o koco khmdgtd qud sd
kjgstmtuyo dg ug ‘sjkmj‐, hj qud krdo ugo aorrdro cd dgtroco poro jtrjs kj`-
pdtmcjrds. @ukeos d`prdsos kjgsuhtjros kj`j @kLmgsdy, Cdhjmttd j LY@N,
qud tmdgdg kj`j jafdtmvj opjyor o sus khmdgtds o rdsjhvdr prjahd`os j `dfjror
prjkdsjs poro krdor vohjr,
vohjr, kj`pmtdg cd dsto bjr`o. [mg d`aornj, gj sûhj dstos
d`prdsos sjg kopokds cd kj`pdtmr dg dsto pjsmkmûg cd vdgtofo< ugo d`prdso
prjcuktjro cd pdno`dgtjs dspdkmohmzocjs poro pdnor hos ohos cd hjs ovmjgds
to`amíg kj`pdtmrào cd dsto `ogdro, yo qud sus prjcuktjs sd boarmkoràog poro
kuarmr hos gdkdsmcocds cd Ajdmgn dg bugkmûg cd hos koroktdràstmkos portmkuhords
cd sus gudvjs ovmjgds. Hj `ms`j jkurrd kjg d`prdsos kj`j Hutrjg Dhdktrj-

‶ Bmnuro 1.4cd vdgtofo

Yjsmkmjgds
• ‘@dfjr prdkmj, tmd`pj cd dgtrdno, kj`pdtmtmvo.
Dxkdhdgkmo vormdcoc j cdsd`pdÿj‐
dg ho jpdrokmûg • ‘[drvmkmj aïsmkj smg prjahd`os‐
• ‘Dxkdhdgtd vohjr pjr `m cmgdrj‐

Hmcdroznj Mgtm`mcoc
dg prjcuktjs kjg dh khmdgtd
 y sdrvmkmjs

• ‘[md`prd ocdhogtd‐ • ‘Qdoh`dgtd dgtmdgcd `m gdnjkmj‐

• ‘Yrdkmj ohtj, pdrj vohd
‘Ydr`ogdgtd`dgtd ho pdgo‐
mggjvogcj‐ • ‘Dxokto`dgtd hj qud gdkdsmtj‐
‘[jkmj cd gdnjkmj‐

;9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 gmks, qud prjpjrkmjgo dqumpjs poro mgstohokmjgds dhíktrmkos kjg koroktdràstmkos
portmkuhords dg koco pdcmcj cd sus khmdgtds.
  1. Hmcdroznj dg `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs.
sdrvmkmjs. Kuogcj ugo d`prdso ausko ho
supdrmjrmcoc dg cdsd`pdÿj, su jafdtmvj ds pjsmkmjgorsd dg ho `dgtd cd sus
khmdgtds kj`j dh prjvddcjr qud vo ocdhogtd cd sus kj`pdtmcjrds dg kuogtj o
ho bugkmjgohmcoc j koroktdràstmkos cd sus `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs. Yjr dhhj sd
`ogtmdgdg dg mggjvokmûg pdr`ogdgtd y sjg hjs prm`drjs dg dgtror oh `drko-
cj kjg gudvjs sdrvmkmjs y `ogubokturos cd ugo bugkmjgohmcoc supdrmjr. Yoro
hjnrorhj, su dstrukturo jrnogmzokmjgoh ds 󿬁dxmahd y dg su kuhturo cd troaofj
sd
sjsprj`udvd dh troaofj
khovds dgbotmzog dg dqumpj y dhcdhmgtdrís
dh kjgjkm`mdgtj pjr dxpdrm`dgtor.
`drkocj, ho mggjvokmûg yHjs prjkd-
ho rdcuk-
kmûg cdh kmkhj cd cdsorrjhhj, cdscd ho ndgdrokmûg cd mcdos eosto su mgsdrkmûg
dg dh `drkocj. Nmhhdttd, pjr dfd`phj, mgvmrtmû kmdgtjs cd `mhhjgds cd cûhords dg
dh cdsorrjhhj cd hjs kortukejs cd su `jcdhj @oke ;, hjs kuohds, sm amdg sjg
`ïs korjs qud jtrjs prjcuktjs cd ho kj`pdtdgkmo, jbrdkdg ug cdsd`pdÿj su-
pdrmjr poro dh kjgsu`mcjr. Jtros d`prdsos qud sd cmstmgnudg dg dsto pjsmkmûg
sjg Gmld, ;@ y [jgy.
  ;. Dxkdhdgkmo dg ho jpdrokmûg.
jpdrokmûg. Tgo d`prdso jatmdgd vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sm
cdsorrjhho prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs supdrmjrds o hjs cd su kj`pdtdgkmo dg ugo
j `ïs cd hos smnumdgtds kuotrj cm`dgsmjgds (kj`j sd cdtohho dg ho smnumdgtd
sdkkmûg)6 kjstj, tmd`pj cd rdspudsto, 󿬁dxmamhmcoc y kohmcoc. Dh kjstj sd rd󿬏drd
oh kjstj tjtoh dg qud mgkurrd ho d`prdso oh prjcukmr y dgtrdnor su `ogubok-
turo j sdrvmkmj, dh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto ds hj qud cd`jro ho prjcukkmûg cd
ho `ogubokturo j sdrvmkmj, ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds su
kopokmcoc poro prjcukmr ugo `oyjr vormdcoc cd `ogubokturos j sdrvmkmjs y,
pjr öhtm`j, ho kohmcoc cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds ho kopokmcoc poro prj-
cukmr `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs qud ku`phdg hjs dstïgcords dstoahdkmcjs. Yoro
hjnror dxkdhdgkmo dg ho jpdrokmûg, hjs prjkdsjs cd ho d`prdso o `dgucj`dgucj sd
dgbjkog dg dh cdsorrjhhj cd ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd dg ohnugo cd
dstos kuotrj cm`dgsmjgds. Osà, poro jbrdkdr ug prjcuktj qud sdo hàcdr dg kjs-
tjs, ho d`prdso cdadrï cdsorrjhhor ug smstd`o prjcuktmvj qud mgkurro dg ug
 aofj kjstj cd prjcukkmûg, pjr dfd`phj, o trovís cd ho m`phogtokmûg cd prj-
kdsjs dstogcormzocjs, ohto`dgtd outj`otmzocjs d mgtdnrocjs o trovís cd hos
brjgtdros cd ho jrnogmzokmûg. @kCjgohc”s mhustro ho kj`pdtdgkmo pjr kjstj, yo
qud ho d`prdso vdgcd ugo no`o cd prjcuktjs hm`mtocjs, dstïgcor y cd aofj
kjstj. Yoro hjnrorhj, dstoahdkd okudrcjs kj`drkmohds cd ohtj vjhu`dg kjg ug
`ms`j kjgfugtj cd prjvddcjrds qud surtdg hjs mgsu`js o tjcos hjs pugtjs cd
vdgto cd ho d`prdso. Hjs prjkdsjs cd jpdrokmûg dstïg khoro`dgtd cd󿬏gmcjs y
outj`otmzocjs kjg hos `ms`os `ïqumgos (pjr dfd`phj, hos qud sd usog poro
sdrvmr hjs rdbrdskjs j poro prdporor hos popos brmtos) kjg `mros o norogtmzor
qud dg tjcjs hjs hjkohds tdgnog kjgsmstdgkmo dg hj qud jbrdkdg. Jtros d`prd-
sos qud sjg rdkjgjkmcos pjr kj`pdtmr pjr kjstjs sjg ^oh-@ort, [jutewdst
Omrhmgds, y Bdcdroh Dxprdss.
  Oejro amdg, ºugo d`prdso pudcd jptor pjr kj`pdtmr dg `ïs cd ugo cd hos trds
pjsmkmjgds cd vdgtofo: Dg tír`mgjs ndgdrohds, hj ocdkuocj ds dgbjkorsd dg sdr dh
`dfjr cd ho mgcustrmo dg ohnugo cd hos pjsmkmjgds sdÿohocos y hjnror pormcoc kjg
dh prj`dcmj cd hjs kj`pdtmcjrds dg hos cjs rdstogtds. Ho rozûg ds qud hos trds pjsm-
kmjgds tmdgdg dhd`dgtjs mgkj`potmahds. Tgo jrnogmzokmûg gj pudcd tdgdr oh `ms`j
tmd`pj prjkdsjs 󿬁dxmahds y ocoptoahds poro jbrdkdr prjcuktjs pdrsjgohmzocjs, y o ho
vdz rànmcjs y outj`otmzocjs qud hd pdr`mtog rdcukmr kjstjs. Ocmkmjgoh`dgtd,
Ocmkmjgoh`dgtd, dh íxmtj
cd ugo jrnogmzokmûg cdpdgcd cd qud sus
su s khmdgtds tdgnog ugo khoro prjpudsto
prj pudsto cd vohjr.
Ds kjgvdgmdgtd
jpdrokmjgds kuogcj sdrd`orkor
kj`pmtdqud
aofjsmhoamdg ds javmo
pjsturo ho m`pjrtogkmo
cd dxkdhdgkmo cdh smstd`oísto
dg ho jpdrokmûg, cd
gj ds `dgjr kuogcj sd kj`pmtd aofj hos jtros pjsturos, yo qud dg kuohqumdr kosj ugo

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ ;?

  audgo dstrotdnmo cdad
cdad opjyorsd
opjyorsd dg ug smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds kjgsmstdgtd
kjgsmstdgtd y dgbjko-
dgbjko-
cj dg hos oktmvmcocds qud pdr`mtdg sjstdgdr ho pjsmkmûg cd vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo.

YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[

Dg ho prdsdgtd sdkkmûg sd ogohmzog hos kjgsmcdrokmjgds m`pjrtogtds poro cdsorrj-
hhor ugo dstrotdnmo poro dh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds y, dg portmkuhor, pjr quí ds kjg-
vdgmdgtd qud cmkeo dstrotdnmo sd dgbjqud dg dh sjstdgm`mdgtj cd hos pjsmkmjgds cd
vdgtofo qud cmkto ho dstrotdnmo kj`pdtmtmvo cd ho d`prdso.
Dgbjqud y kopokmcocds jpdrokmjgohds
Cdscd eokd ohnög tmd`pj ^. [lmggdr (?=>3) –dg su pmjgdrj ortàkuhj opordkmcj
dg phdgj ound cd ho `ogubokturo fopjgdso– emzj gjtor qud dh cdsd`pdÿj cd ug
smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg sd `mcd dg cmbdrdgtds cm`dgsmjgds (gj sûhj dg kjstj cd
prjcukkmûg), y qud auskor ho d󿬏kokmo dg ohnugo cm`dgsmûg pudcd smngm󿬏kor dh cd-
tdrmjrj dg jtro. Kjg dh jafdtj cd o`phmor dstd kjgkdptj sd `dgkmjgog hos kuotrj
cm`dgsmjgds aïsmkos (vdo toaho 1.?) dg hos qud ugo d`prdso pudcd dgbjkor su sms-
td`o cd prjcukkmûg.
  • Aofjs kjstjs cd prjcukkmûg. Ho kj`pdtdgkmo pjr aofjs kjstjs cd prjcukkmûg
ds, cdscd hjs mgmkmjs cd ho Qdv
Qdvjhukmûg
jhukmûg Mgcustrmoh, ugo cm`dgsmûg cd kj`pdtd
kj`pdtdgkmo
gkmo
kuyo m`pjrtogkmo ds m`pjsmahd sjshoyor. Hjs `dcmjs trocmkmjgohds poro hjnror
dsto vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo eog smcj ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj, ho dstogcormzokmûg
cd hos jpdrokmjgds y ho outj`otmzokmûg poro osdnuror ho kjgtmgumcoc y ropmcdz

D GB J_ T D J YD QO K MJ G O H K JG K D YSJ @D CM J [ ‶ Soaho 1.?

Cm`dgsmjgds cd kj`pdtdgkmo
 Outj`otmzokmûg cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg.
@jcdrgmzokmûg cd phogtos y dqumpjs
Qdcukkmûg cdh cdspdrcmkmj
Aofjs kjstjs Hjnror hjs `dgjrds kjstjs
[mstd`os poro jptm`mzor dh usj cd hjs rdkursjs
cd prjcukkmûg ugmtormjs cd prjcukkmûg
Qdcukkmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
Mgkdgtmvjs oh cdsd`pdÿj pjr prjcuktmvmcoc
Dstogcormzokmûg cd hjs prjkdsjs
Qdcukkmûg cd hjs kmkhjs cd `ogubokturo
Gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj oprjpmocjs
Hjnror ho dgtrdno
[mstd`os cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj y cmstrmaukmûg
@dfjrds
cd dgtrdnotmd`pjs cd pdcmcjs
 y/j hjnror hoo`ïs
tmd`pj
prjgto [mstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg
Sdkgjhjnào poro dh kjgtrjh cd ho prjcukkmûg
otdgkmûg
Sdkgjhjnào poro dh prjkdso`mdgtj cd pdcmcjs
Sdkgjhjnào poro dh `ogdfj cd `otdrmohds y dgvàjs
[mstd`os poro dh kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc
Kopokmtokmûg d mgkdgtmvjs oh pdrsjgoh
Hjnror ho `dfjr Norogtàos y sdrvmkmjs cd pjsvdgto
@dfjr kohmcoc
pdrkdpkmûg cdh khmdgtd @dfjro cd ho kohmcoc o trovís cdh cmsdÿj
cd hos `ogubokturos
sjard ho dxkdhdgkmo [mstd`os poro ho `dcmkmûg y rdpjrtd cdh
 y sdrvmkmjs
cd hjs prjcuktjs cdsd`pdÿj
Dqumpjs poro ho sjhukmûg cd prjahd`os
Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds
[mstd`os KOC/KO@
Hjnror ug smstd`o cd Kíhuhos cd `ogubokturo
prjcukkmûg kjg ugo nrog  Outj`otmzokmûg cd aofj kjstj
Mggjvokmûg
kopokmcoc poro ofustorsd Cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto
 y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc
ocdgudvjs cmsdÿjs y tosos
prjcukkmûg Cdsorrjhhj
[mstd`os cdcdprjcukkmûg
dqumpj tmpj ‘puhh‐
Cmsdÿj `jcuhor

;1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 cdh prjkdsj. Oktuoh`dgtd, hos d`prdsos qud sd cmstmgnudg pjr aofjs kjstjs cd
prjcukkmûg cdadg, ocd`ïs, dhm`mgor hos budgtds cd cdspdrcmkmj, `dcmogtd ho
phogdokmûg, dstrmktj kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc, ocdkuoco cmspjsmkmûg cd hos mgsto-
hokmjgds, `dfjrds tdkgjhjnàos poro dh `ogdfj cd `otdrmohds, y aösqudco cd
`dfjrds `otdrmohds y tdkgjhjnàos cd prjkdsj. Kj`j ds cd dspdror, ho kj`pd-
tdgkmo pjr kjstj dxmnd oktuoh`dgtd ugo mgvdrsmûg kjgstogtd dg tdkgjhjnào d
mgvdstmnokmûg y cdsorrjhhj.
  • @dfjrds tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno. Dh rïpmcj cdsorrjhhj cd hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mg-
bjr`okmûg, ho kj`pdtdgkmo nhjaoh y dh surnm`mdgtj cd nrogcds kocdgos cd
su`mgmstrj eo pdr`mtmcj
dg hos d`prdsos ho opormkmûgkjg
`ogubokturdros, cd dsto cm`dgsmûg cd cd
ho mgtrjcukkmûg kj`pdtdgkmo. Gj prj-
󿬏hjsjbàos cd sûhj
cukkmûg kj`j dh fustj o tmd`pj (vdo dh smnumdgtd kopàtuhj), ds pdrkdptmahd
ho m`pjrtogkmo pjr sotmsbokdr hjs pdcmcjs kjg prjgtmtuc, smgj to`amíg dg hos
mgcustrmos cd sdrvmkmjs kj`j aogko, vdgto oh `dgucdj, `dgsofdrào y kj`mco
rïpmco, dgtrd jtros. Ho dxkdhdgkmo dg hjs tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno sd hjnro cd cmvdr-
sos `ogdros, cd hos kuohds ho `ïs kjstjso (y rmdsnjso) ds dh `ogtdgm`mdgtj cd
ohtjs gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj.
• Mggjv okmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc. Tgo audgo dstrotdnmo poro kopturor gudvjs `dr-
Mggjvokmûg
kocjs ds ho mgtrjcukkmûg cd gudvjs cmsdÿjs (`dfjrds y/j aorotjs). Dsto ds-
trotdnmo kj`pdtmtmvo, smg d`aornj, dxmnd ug audg cdsd`pdÿj cdh smstd`o cd
prjcukkmûg dg kuogtj o cjs koroktdràstmkos bugco`dgtohds6 ho kopokmcoc poro
cdsorrjhhor gudvjs prjcuktjs dg kjrtj tmd`pj (mggjvokmûg), y ho kopokmcoc
poro prjcukmr hjs gudvjs cmsdÿjs dkjgû`mko`dgtd (󿬁dxmamhmcoc cdh smstd-
`o prjcuktmvj). Kuogcj sd smnud dsto dstrotdnmo cd cmbdrdgkmokmûg, dh smstd`o
cd prjcukkmûg cdad sdr kopoz cd rdspjgcdr d󿬏kmdgtd`dgtd o hjs ko`amjs,
togtj dg dh cmsdÿj cd hjs gudvjs prjcuktjs, kj`j dg hos tosos cd prjcukkmûg
qud sd dxmnmrïg poro koco cmsdÿj, yo qud hjs kmkhjs cd vmco cd hjs prjcuktjs
sd rdcukdg, y gj ds kjgvdgmdgtd poro dh smstd`o dh dspdkmohmzorsd dg ho prj-
cukkmûg cd ug ögmkj cmsdÿj. Hos tdkgjhjnàos cd prjcukkmûg oktuohds pdr`m-
tdg ho mgtrjcukkmûg cd smstd`os 󿬁dxmahds cd `ogubokturo, qud oprjvdkeog hos
vdgtofos cd ug cmsdÿj `jcuhor poro jbrdkdr oh khmdgtd ugo nrog vormdcoc cd
cmsdÿjs, o ho vdz qud pudcdg prjcukmrsd o ug kjstj rdhotmvo`dgtd aofj.
  • @dfjr kohmcoc cd hos `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs. Tgo dstrotdnmo kj`pdtmtm-
vo cd nrog d󿬏kokmo dg hjs öhtm`js oÿjs ds ho kj`pdtdgkmo kjg aosd dg ho kohm-
coc cd hjs prjcuktjs y sdrvmkmjs qud sd jbrdkdg. Yoro hjnror ho dxkdhdgkmo dg
kohmcoc, dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cdad rdkmamr `uy audgo mgbjr`okmûg sjard
hos dxmndgkmos cdh `drkocj, yo qud ho kohmcoc ds ho kopokmcoc qud pjsddg hjs
 amdgds j sdrvmkmjs cd sotmsbokdr o hjs kjgsu`mcjrds
kjgsu`mcjrds y,y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo,
kjgsdkudgkmo, hjs kjg-
kjg-
su`mcjrds `ms`js
koroktdràstmkos sjg qumdgds
cdh prjcuktj cd󿬏gdgqud
j sdrvmkmj ho kohmcoc. Tgo vdzpjr
sjg oprdkmocos cdtdr`mgocos hos,
dh kjgsu`mcjr
kjgsu`mcjr,
hos dxpdktotmvos cdh khmdgtd cdadg trocukmrsd dg dstïgcords, poro pdr`mtmr dh
kjgtrjh y ho `dfjro cd hjs `ms`js. Tg audg smstd`o poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd ho kohmcoc sd aoso dg dh kjgtmguj `jgmtjrdj cdh cdsd`pdÿj cdh smstd`o cd
prjcukkmûg (`dcmogtd rdpjrtds), dg ho `dfjro cd ho kohmcoc o portmr cdh cmsd-
ÿj cd hjs prjcuktjs y cd hjs prjkdsjs, y dg mgkdgtmvjs qud hjnrdg ho portmkm-
pokmûg cd tjcjs hjs gmvdhds cd ho jrnogmzokmûg poro ho `dfjro kjgtmguo. Ho
dxpdrmdgkmo cd hos d`prdsos qud m`phogtog `ítjcjs poro ho `dfjro cd ho ko-
hmcoc sdÿoho qud, kj`j kjgsdkudgkmo cd `dfjror ho kohmcoc cd ho prjcukkmûg,
to`amíg sd ndgdrog mgkrd`dgtjs dg ho prjcuktmvmcoc, yo qud oh tdgdr prj-
cuktjs okdptoahds sd rdcukdg hjs cdspdrcmkmjs pjr dh jahmnocj prjkdso`mdgtj
cd ortàkuhjs cdbdktujsjs, o ho vdz qud sd rdcukdg hos cdvjhukmjgds pjr mgkjg-
bjr`mcoc y hjs kjstjs pjr norogtàos sjard dh cdsd`pdÿj.
Ho d󿬏kokmo jpdrokmjgoh cd ugo d`prdso cdpdgcd cd su cdsd`pdÿj dg hos kuo-
trj cm`dgsmjgds `dgkmjgocos y kjg dh rdkjgjkm`mdgtj cd qud gj sd pudcd jatdgdr

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ ;;

 dh `dfjr cdsd`pdÿj dg tjcos hos cm`dgsmjgds o ho vdz. Yjr dfd`phj, o `dgucj ug
prjcuktj cd `uy aofj kjstj tmdgd pjards otrmautjs cd kohmcoc, j ho otdgkmûg mg`d-
cmoto cd ug pdcmcj sûhj sd hjnro kjg kmdrto mgvdrsmûg dg mgvdgtormj. Yjr dsto rozûg
sûhj ds pjsmahd o󿬏r`or qud ug smstd`o jpdrokmjgoh ds `ïs d󿬏koz qud jtrj kuogcj
hj supdro dg hos kuotrj cm`dgsmjgds, cd jtro bjr`o eoarï qud okdptor qud hjs cjs
smstd`os sûhj tmdgdg ug cmbdrdgtd pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj.
  Dg ho toaho 1.? sd mhustro kû`j hjs `dcmjs qud utmhmzo ugo d`prdso poro dg-
bjkorsd dg koco ugo cd hos kuotrj cm`dgsmjgds cd kj`pdtdgkmo pudcdg sdr `uy
cmbdrdgtds, hj qud dgbotmzo pjr quí dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cdad dgbjkorsd dg
`ogtdgdr ugo pjsmkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo kjgnrudgtd kjg su dstrotdnmo.
Bjr`uhokmûg cd ugo dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
Ho dstrotdnmo cd ugo d`prdso –kû`j dstoahdkdr vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds–
m`phmko ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds dg trds ospdktjs6 o) dh `drkocj `dto, a) hjs rdkursjs
cmspjgmahds y k) dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, y ds pjr dsto rozûg qud ug phog dstrotí-
nmkj sd kj`pjgd cd dstrotdnmos bugkmjgohds poro koco ugj cd dstjs ospdktjs6
  • Ho dstrotdnmo cd `orldtmgn dstoahdkd hos koroktdràstmkos cdh `drkocj `dto
y hos `ogubokturos y/j sdrvmkmjs qud sd jbrdkdg.
  • Ho dstrotdnmo cd 󿬏gogzos cdtdr`mgo hjs rdkursjs cmspjgmahds y hjs `dcmjs
qud pdr`mtmrïg dh okkdsj o dhhjs.
  • Ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds  dstoahdkd y cmsdÿo hjs prjkdsjs qud cdadg
m`phd`dgtorsd poro sotmsbokdr hos gdkdsmcocds cdh `drkocj `dto.
  Tg phog dstrotínmkj kjgsmcdro ospdktjs cd `drkocj y/j cd d󿬏kmdgkmo (kopo-
kmcocds) poro dstoahdkdr dh `drkocj `dto, y ho dstrotdnmo cd `orldtmgn cdad mcdg-
tm󿬏kor dstd `drkocj `dto cd ho `ogdro `ïs prdkmso pjsmahd, dg tír`mgjs cd hos
koroktdràstmkos cd hjs khmdgtds pjtdgkmohds. Yjr dfd`phj, ho dstrotdnmo cd `drkocj cd
ug ejtdh gj pudcd rdstrmgnmrsd o ‘prjpjrkmjgor sdrvmkmjs cd ohjfo`mdgtj‐, smgj qud
sd cdad dstoahdkdr, kjg dh `oyjr cdtohhd pjsmahd, hos koroktdràstmkos cd hjs khmdgtds
qud sd cdsdo otrodr, yo sdo sm auskog aofj kjstj j kohmcoc dg dh sdrvmkmj, ohjfo`mdgtj
pjr turms`j j pjr rozjgds cd troaofj, turms`j dkjhûnmkj j cd kmucoc. Ho mcdgtm󿬏-
kokmûg cd hos koroktdràstmkos cd hjs khmdgtds pjtdgkmohds ds ugo tordo khovd gj sûhj
poro dgbjkor hjs prjcuktjs qud rdqumdrdg smgj to`amíg poro cdtdr`mgor jtrjs
ospdktjs m`pjrtogtds kj`j hjs kogohds cd prjponogco, dh to`oÿj cdh `drkocj y
su pjtdgkmoh cd krdkm`mdgtj.
Tgo vdz qud sd sdhdkkmjgo dh `drkocj `dto, ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds cdad
cmsdÿor hjs prjcuktjs
cdh `drkocj y hjs
(vdo 󿬏nuro prjkdsjs
1.2), y ds pjrprjcuktmvjs qud ho
dsto rozûg qud sd dstrotdnmo
ofustog o hos gdkdsmcocds
cd jpdrokmjgds
ds cd ohmgdo`mdgtj  kjg hos dstrotdnmos cd `orldtmgn y 󿬏gogzos. Cmkej cd jtro
bjr`o, hos gdkdsmcocds cdh `drkocj `dto cdtdr`mgog dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj jpdro-
kmjgoh (gmvdhds cd kjstj, tmd`pj cd rdspudsto, 󿬁dxmamhmcoc y kohmcoc), y ugo audgo
dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds cdad auskor ho dxkdhdgkmo jpdrokmjgoh kjgnrudgtd kjg dh
pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj.
  Dg kjgkjrcogkmo kjg hos dstrotdnmos cd `orldtmgn y 󿬏gogzos, ugo dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds cdad kjgsmcdror togtj dh cmsdÿj cd hjs prjcuktjs y prjkdsjs, kj`j
ho m`phogtokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds qud sustdgtog dh cdsorrjhhj y/j ocqumsmkmûg cd
hos kopokmcocds rdqudrmcos poro `ogtdgdr dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj dstrotínmkj, y dg ho
󿬏nuro 1.> opordkdg trds posjs o sdnumr dg dh prjkdsj cd bjr`uhokmûg cd ugo dstro-
tdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds6

?.  Yhog cd pjr

d`pmdzo kj`pdtdgkmo.   Hokoroktdràstmkos
dstoahdkdr hos bjr`uhokmûg cd cd ugo dstrotdnmo qud
hjs prjcuktjs cd jpdrokmjgds
rdqumdrd dh
`drkocj `dto y, dg portmkuhor, dg kû`j cmstmgnumrhjs cd ho kj`pdtdgkmo. [mg

;3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.2
Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds y
dstrotdnmo cdh gdnjkmj. [dn`dgtj
cd `drkocj, @msmûg y vmsmûg Yopdh cd ho d`prdso
cmbdrdgkmokmûg,
kjjpdrokmûg,
kj`potmamhmcoc

Dgtjrgj Dstrotdnmos Budrzos

cd `orldtmgn  y cdamhmcocds
kj`pdtmtmvj  y 󿬏gogzos jpdrokmjgohds

Yrjcuktjs, prjkdsjs
y kopokmcocds Dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds

d`aornj, qud dh prjcuktj sd cmstmgno cd ho kj`pdtdgkmo gj osdnuro dh íxmtj<

pjr dfd`phj, cd goco smrvd tdgdr ug prjcuktj kjg `uy ohtjs dstïgcords cd
kohmcoc, sm ds dxtrd`oco`dgtd korj y gocmd dstï cmspudstj o kj`prorhj. Dg
kjgsdkudgkmo, dh phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo cdad mcdgtm󿬏kor, prm`drj, hos koroktd-
ràstmkos qud rdqumdrdg hjs prjcuktjs poro qud pudcog sdr kjgsmcdrocjs kj`j
ugo ohtdrgotmvo poro hjs kjgsu`mcjrds (‘quí ds gdkdsormj poro kj`pdtmr‐), y
dg sdnugcj hunor (ougqud gj `dgjs m`pjrtogtd), mcdgtm󿬏kor hos koroktdràstmkos
qud eorïg qud dh kjgsu`mcjr sdhdkkmjgd dh prjcuktj (‘quí sd rdqumdrd poro
nogor‐). Dg ug phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo sd dstoahdkd m`phàkmto`dgtd ug pjsmkmj-
go`mdgtj jpdrokmjgoh, dg dh qud sd dstoahdkdg hos cm`dgsmjgds (kjstj, tmd`pj

‶ Bmnuro 1.>
Bjr`uhokmûg cd ugo dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds.

CM[DßJ CDH YQJCTKSJ

Otrmautjs cdh prjcuktj kjg aosd dg prmjrmcocds,
Otrmautjs
`dtos, kopokmcocds y rdkursjs cmspjgmahds

YHOG CD
KJ@YDSDGKMO
Yjsmkmjgo`mdgtj
jpdrokmjgoh6
Kû`j sd kj`pmtd
y kû`j sd nogo
CM[DßJ CDH YQJKD[J
Oktmvmcocds, prjkdsjs, rdkursjs y cdsorrjhhj
cd kopokmcocds kjgnrudgtds kjg dh phog
cd kj`pdtdgkmo

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ ;4

 cd rdspudsto, 󿬁dxmamhmcoc y kohmcoc) qud auskog okdptokmûg cdh `drkocj y hos
qud auskog ho dxkdhdgkmo.
  1.  Cmsdÿj cdh prjcuktj. Dh phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo cdad trocukmrsd dg otrmautjs
dspdkà󿬏kjs cdh prjcuktj6 dg hos `ogubokturos hjs cdtdr`mgog hos koroktdràs-
tmkos cdh cmsdÿj (dgso`ahd, `otdrmohds y kj`pjgdgtds)< dg dh kosj cd hjs sdr-
vmkmjs sd eokdg dvmcdgtds o portmr cd hos oktmvmcocds cd vohjr onrdnocj cd hos
oktmvmcocds qud pdrkmad dh khmdgtd oh rdkmamr dh sdrvmkmj.
  ;.  Cmsdÿj cdh prjkdsj. Kjg aosd dg dh cmsdÿj cdh prjcuktj y hos kopokmcocds
cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, sd cmsdÿog hjs prjkdsjs cd `ogubokturo y/j sdr-
vmkmj qud tdgmdgcj
cdsdocj, sjg `ïs kjgvdgmdgtds
dg kudgto qudporo
hjs hjnror dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj
otrmautjs jpdrokmjgoh
cdh prjkdsj cdtdr`mgog dg
nrog `dcmco hjs otrmautjs cdh prjcuktj (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 1.5). Dg dstd posj ds
m`pjrtogtd tj`or dg kudgto hos kopokmcocds qud sd cdadg `ogtdgdr y/j cd-
sorrjhhor dg dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, kjg aosd dg dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj.
Kjg rdspdktj cdh dgbjqud y dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj jpdrokmjgoh cdad tdgdr dg
kudgto qud dg cmvdrsos ïrdos cdh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds sd tj`og cdkmsmjgds qud
tmdgdg dbdktjs cd hornj phozj y sjg cmbàkmhds cd ko`amor (vdo ho toaho 1.1). Tgo audgo
dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds cdad sdrvmr poro jrmdgtor dstd tmpj cd cdkmsmjgds, dvmtor
drrjrds qud pudcdg sdr `uy kjstjsjs poro ho d`prdso, rd`orkor ho gdkdsmcoc cd
qud dstos cdkmsmjgds sdog kjgnrudgtds kjg ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds y cd qud
ísto, o su vdz, sd ohmgdd kjg hos dstrotdnmos cd `orldtmgn y 󿬏gogzos.

  D[SQO
D[SQOSDNMO[
SDNMO[ CD JYDQOKMJGD[ CD D@YQD[O[ DUMSJ[O[
Kjg dh 󿬏g cd mhustror dh `orkj poro bjr`uhor hos dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds, o
kjgtmguokmûg sd ogohmzo kû`j hos dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds cd ohnugos d`prdsos
rdkjgjkmcos pjr ho dxkdhdgkmo cd su smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg sd cdskrmadg aofj dh
`orkj mhustrocj dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.>. Osm`ms`j, coco ho m`pjrtogkmo cd hos tíkgmkos cd
ho mgndgmdrào oc`mgmstrotmvo d mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds (MO/MJ) qud sd utmhmzog
poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, oh 󿬏goh cd dsto sdkkmûg sd ogohmzo dh m`poktj
dstrotínmkj cd dstos tdkgjhjnàos.

Dstrotdnmos cd jpdrokmjgds cd ^oh-@ort y [jutewdst 

Kj`j ds o`phmo`dgtd rdkjgjkmcj (Arochdy y Ned`owot, 1999), dh `drkocj `dto
cd ^oh-@ort jtjrno prmjrmcoc o ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cdh prjcuktj y o ho jpjrtugmcoc

‶ Bmnuro 1.5
Otrmautjs cdh prjcuktj Otrmautjs cdh prjkdsj  Otrmautjs cdh prjcuktj
 y cdh prjkdsj.

Kjstjs cd prjcukkmûg Kjstjs cdh prjkdsj

Kohmcoc cdh prjcukt

prjcuktjj Kohmcoc cdh prjkdsj

Rormdcoc cdh prjcuktj Bhdxmamhmcoc cdh prjkdsj

Smd`pj cd dgtrdno Smd`pj cd 󿬁ufj

;2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 ‶ Soaho 1.1 Ï Q D O JY
JY D Q O K M J G O H C D K M [ M J G D [ D[
D[ S Q OS Í N M K O [
Cdkmsmjgds dstrotínmkos qud
obdktog dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj Kopo
Kopokm
kmco
coc
c cd
cd prj
prjcu
cukk
kkmû
mûgg Kopokm
Kopo kmco
cocd
cdss qud
qud cd
cdad
adgg o`p
o`phmhmor
orsd
sd,, su
su tmp
tmpj
j y dh `j
`j`d
`dgtgtj
j
jpdrokmjgoh oprjpmocj.
Mgstohokmjgds Qdqudrm`mdgtjs cd dxpogsmûg, hjkohmzokmûg, cmspjsmkmûg y
dspdkmohmzokmûg cd hos mgstohokmjgds.
Sdkgjh
dkgjhjnào
jnào y dqump
dqumpjj cd pr
prjkdsj
jkdsj Bhdxm
Bhdxmamhmc
amhmcoc
oc cdh dqump
dqumpj.
j.
Dkjgj`àos cd dskoho y cd ohkogkd.
Yjhàtmkos cd rdgjvokmûg y `ogtdgm`mdgtj cd dqumpjs.
 Rdhjkmcoc cd prjcukkmûg.
Mgttdn
Mg dnrrok
okmmûg vdrt
rtmk
mkoh
oh Cdk
dkms
msmj
mjgd
gdss sja
jarrd cd
cdssor
orrj
rjhhho
horr pr
prj
jvddc
dcjr
jrdds j pr
prjc
jcuk
ukmr
mr dg ho `m
`mss`o
d`prdso.
Mgtdnrokmûg eokmo orrmao j eokmo oaofj.
Budrzo cd vdgtos Jrnogmzokmûg y vjhu`dg cd ho budrzo cd vdgtos.
Mgkdgtmvjs y nrocj cd cdskdgtrohmzokmûg cd ho `ms`o.
Mggj
Mggjvvok
okmû
mûgg cd
cd cm
cmsd
sdÿj
ÿjss Mgm
gmkm
kmj
j cd
cd hjs
hjs pr
prj
jydk
dkttjs y soh
sohmmco cd hj
hjss gud
gudvvjs cm
cmssdÿ
dÿjs
js..
Kopokmcocds y tdkgjhjnào poro ho mggjvokmûg cd prjcuktjs.
Qdk
dkur
urssjs eu
eu`o
`ogj
gjss Yjh
jhàt
àtmk
mkos
os po
poro
ro ho sd
sdhd
hdkk
kkmmûg
ûg,, dg
dgtr
trdg
dgo`
o`mmdg
dgttj, pr
prj`
j`jkjkmû
mûg,
g, mg
mgkd
kdgt
gtmmvj
 y sdnurmcoc cdh pdrsjgoh.
 Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho kohmcoc Dstïgcords cd kohmcoc.
Jrnogmzokmûg y rdspjgsoamhmcocds poro ho `dfjro kjgtmguo.
Gmvdh cd outj`otmzokmûg poro dh kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc.
[mstd`os Jrnogmzokmûg y `ítjcjs poro dh kjgtrjh cd hos oktmvmcocds
prjcuktmvos y poro dh prjkdso`mdgtj cd hjs pdcmcjs.
Sdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg.

cd ocqumrmrhj o aofj kjstj, y dg kjgnrudgkmo kjg hos gdkdsmcocds cd dstd `drkocj, dh

phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo cd ^oh-@ort kjgsmstd dg jbrdkdr prjcuktjs cd ohtj kjgsu`j o
prdkmjs aofjs. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.=, hjs prmgkmpohds otrmautjs cdh sdrvmkmj
(cmsdÿj cdh prjcuktj) mgkhuydg jafdtmvjs opordgtd`dgtd kjgtrocmktjrmjs
kjgtrocmktjrm js kj`j dh aofj
prdkmj y ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cdh prjcuktj, pdrj sd pudcdg hjnror o trovís cd prjkdsjs
qud tmdgdg ug m`poktj pjsmtmvj dg o`aos cm`dgsmjgds cd kj`pdtdgkmo, kj`j dh
usj cd smstd`o cd trogspjrtd prjpmj, dh trosajrcj dg kdgtrjs cd cmstrmaukmûg y hos
tdkgjhjnàos poro ugo d󿬏kmdgtd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs. Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, dh
pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj jpdrokmjgoh cd ^oh-@ort
^oh-@ort gj prdtdgcd supdror o ho kj`pdtdgkmo dg
kuogtj o ho vormdcoc y dh cdsd`pdÿj cd hjs prjcuktjs qud jbrdkd pdrj, dg ko`amj,
sd dgbjko dg dh tmd`pj cd dgtrdno (cmspjgmamhmcoc) y dg dh aofj kjstj.
Dg dh cd
rdqumdrdg kosj cd [jutewdst
sdrvmkmj Omrhmgds,ysurdqumdrdg
cd kjgdxmjgds, `drkocj cmspjgmamhmcoc
`dto sd hm`mto ocdhjsvudhjs
khmdgtds qud
o aofj
kjstj. Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, dh phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo cd [jutewdst kjgsmstd dg prjpjrkmj-
gor sdrvmkmj cd kjgdxmjgds cd aofj kjstj, jpjrtugj y brdkudgtd (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 1.?9).
Dh cmsdÿj cdh sdrvmkmj cd [jutewdst ds kjgnrudgtd kjg su phog cd kj`pdtdgkmo,
dgbotmzo ho gdkdsmcoc cd rdcukmr kjstjs dg ug `drkocj tog kj`pdtmcj kj`j dh cd
hjs sdrvmkmjs cd vudhj, pjr hj qud sd phogtdo otrmautjs kjgnrudgtds kjg ho rdcuk-
kmûg cd kjstjs6 ohto utmhmzokmûg cd hjs ovmjgds, rdcukkmûg cd tmd`pjs cd otdgkmûg y
sdrvmkmj cmrdktj dgtrd odrjpudrtjs pdqudÿjs. Kj`j yo sd kj`dgtû dg ho prm`dro
sdkkmûg cd dstd kopàtuhj, hjs prjkdsjs qud m`phogto [jutewdst hd pdr`mtdg dgbjkor
sus kopokmcocds dg ho rdcukkmûg cd kjstj, ropmcdz y cmspjgmamhmcoc cd sdrvmkmjs cd
vudhj, y dhm`mgo jtrjs sdrvmkmjs (ohm`dgtjs, rdsdrvokmjgds, osmngokmûg cd osmdgtjs,
trogsbdrdgkmo cd dqumpofd) qud sm amdg pjcràog `dfjror ho kohmcoc cdh sdrvmkmj, tmd-
gdg ug dbdktj gdnotmvj dg dh kjstj y ho ropmcdz cdh sdrvmkmj. Dh pjsmkmjgo`mdgtj
cdh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds cd [jutewdst (oh mnuoh qud ^oh-@ort) sd uamko dg ho
kj`pdtdgkmo pjr cmspjgmamhmcoc y aofj kjstj, smg dgbotmzor dg ho vormdcoc j pdrsj-
gohmzokmûg cdh sdrvmkmj.

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ ;>

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.=
Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
cd ^oh-@ort.
CM[DßJ CDH YQJCTKSJ
Yrdkmjs aofjs
Ohto rjtokmûg
Aofjs gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj
Aofj kjstj cd rdsurtmcj
Yrjcuktjs cd ohto cd`ogco
YHOG CD Cmspjgmamhmcoc cd prjcuktjs
KJ@YDSDGKMO
Yjgdr o cmspjsmkmûg
cd hjs khmdgtds, prjcuktjs
cd ohtj kjgsu`j o prdkmjs
aofjs, kuogcj y cjgcd
dhhjs hjs gdkdsmtdg
  CM[DßJ CDH YQJKD[J
Mgbjr`okmûg cd pugtjs cd vdgto vào DCM, usj cd sotíhmtd
Bhjtmhho ko`mjgdro, trosajr
trosajrcj
cj mg`dcmotj
Audgo hjkohmzokmûg y kj`ugmkokmûg dgtrd tmdgcos y prjv
prjvddcjrds
ddcjrds
QBMC, oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs

Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds cd [ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh

Jtrj kosj qud eo hho`ocj ho otdgkmûg cd ho kj`ugmcoc okocí`mko pjr ho dxkdhdg-
kmo dg su smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds ds dh cd [ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh (Edsldtt, 1993). Dstd
ejspmtoh sd uamko dg Kogocï y otmdgcd sûhj kosjs cd kmrunào cd edrgmo oacj`mgoh
dxtdrgo. Ougqud 31% cd sus pokmdgtds prjvmdgd cdh Kogocï y Dstocjs Tgmcjs, dh
ïrdo cd mg󿬁udgkmo cdh ejspmtoh ds `uy o`phmo, yo qud su `ítjcj cd otdgkmûg sd
rdkjgjkd kj`j dh `dfjr poro dstd tmpj cd cjhdgkmos, pjr hj qud dxpdrm`dgto ugo
ohto cd`ogco pjr dh sdrvmkmj.
  Cd okudrcj kjg dgtrdvmstos ophmkocos o hjs pokmdgtds, hos prmgkmpohds rozjgds
poro eoadrsd otdgcmcj dg [ejuhcmkd (dg jrcdg cd m`pjrtogkmo) sjg6 (o) dh prjkdcm-
`mdgtj jpdrotjrmj, (a) dh prjkdcm`mdgtj pjsjpdrotjrmj, (k) dh trotj cd hjs `ícmkjs
y dgbdr`dros y (c) dh o`amdgtd onrocoahd cd sdrvmkmj. Dstos jpmgmjgds dstoahdkdg
khoro`dgtd qud dh `drkocj `dto cd [ejuhcmkd jtjrno ugo ohto prmjrmcoc o ho ko-
hmcoc dg dh dxtdrgo),
oacj`mgoh sdrvmkmj. Yjr jtrj hocj,
prjpjgd coco
ug phog cdhokj`pdtdgkmo
ohto dspdkmohmzokmûg
sustdgtocj cd dg
sdrvmkmj (edrgmo
ho kohmcoc cdh
sdrvmkmj y dg ho rdcukkmûg cd kjstjs (vdo 󿬏nuro 1.??). Dg kjgnrudgkmo kjg dh phog
cd kj`pdtdgkmo, [ejuhcmkd jbrdkd ug sdrvmkmj cd ohto kohmcoc (rdkupdrokmûg
( rdkupdrokmûg rïpmco,
 aofo toso cd rdkurrdgkmo, dxpdrmdgkmo onrocoahd),
on rocoahd), o ho vdz qud mgkurrd dg aofjs kjs-
tjs jpdrotmvjs y,
y, kj`j sd dxphmko o kjgtmguokmûg, ho khov
khovdd poro hjnror dstjs jafdtmvjs
opordgtd`dgtd kjgtrocmktjrmjs
kjgtrocmktjrmjs (ohto kohmcoc y aofj kjstj) dstï dg ho dspdkmohmzokmûg
(dgbjqud) cdh sdrvmkmj.
  Yoro hjnror ugo aofo toso cd rdkurrdgkmo, [ejuhcmkd m`phogto prjkdcm`mdgtjs
sdgkmhhjs y dstogcormzocjs. Yjr dfd`phj, dg ho bosd prdjpdrotjrmo gj sd okdptog po-
kmdgtds kjg sjardpdsj j edrgmos mgtdrgos, y dg ho bosd pjsjpdrotjrmo hjs pokmdgtds
portmkmpog oktmvo`dgtd dg ho rdkupdrokmûg, yo sdo ko`mgogcj, rdohmzogcj dfdrkmkmjs
cd rdeoamhmtokmûg j ‘dgtrdgogcj‐ o hjs gudvjs pokmdgtds. Dg ndgdroh, dh ejspmtoh
prj`udvd ugo ohto portmkmpokmûg cd sus pokmdgtds, qumdgds sjg rdspjgsoahds cd
hhdgor sus bjr`uhormjs poro dh outjcmongûstmkj, portmkmpog dg ho prdporokmûg poro
ho jpdrokmûg y otmdgcdg sus sdrvmkmjs cd dgtrdtdgm`mdgtj (pjr dfd`phj, SR) y cd
kj`mco (outjsdrvmkmj).

;5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

 ‶ Bmnuro 1.?9
Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
cd [jutewdst.
  CM[DßJ CDH YQJCTKSJ
[drvmkmj cmrdktj dgtrd odrjpudrtjs pdqudÿjs
Rudhjs brdkudgtds
brdkudgtds y kjg󿬏oahds
Yrdkmjs aofjs
Ohto utmhmzokmûg cd ovmjgds
Smd`pjs cd otdgkmûg rdcukmcjs
YHOG CD Rudhjs kjgtmgujs y kjgbmoahds
KJ@YDSDGKMO
Yrjpjrkmjgor sdrvmkmj
Yrjpjrkmjgor
cd kjgdxmjgds
cd aofj kjstj,
jpjrtugj y brdkudgtd
  CM[DßJ CDH YQJKD[J
Ovmjgds pdqudÿjs, pjkj tmd`pj dg tmdrro
[mg rdsdrvokmjgds, ohm`dgtjs, osmngokmûg cd osmdgtjs
j trogsbdrdgkmo cd dqumpofd
D`phdocjs bhdxmahds
Odrjpudrtjs
Odrjpudrt js smg kjgndstmûg

  Ho khovd cdh íxmtj cd [ejuhcmkd rocmko dg ho m`phogtokmûg cd prïktmkos qud

hd pdr`mtdg rdcukmr kjstjs o ho vdz qud norogtmzor ugo ohto kohmcoc cdh sdrvmkmj.
Dfd`phjs cd dstos prïktmkos sjg dh usj cd ogdstdsmo hjkoh y ho ohto dspdkmohmzokmûg
cd hjs `ícmkjs y dgbdr`dros. Ho portmkmpokmûg cd hjs pokmdgtds dg `ukeos oktmvm-
cocds pdr`mtd `ogtdgdr ug pdqudÿj gö`drj cd dgbdr`dros, rdcukmdgcj kjstjs y, y,
pjr jtrj hocj, ho ohto utmhmzokmûg cd `ícmkjs (ohrdcdcjr cd 299 jpdrokmjgds oh oÿj)
pdr`mtd tdgdr `ícmkjs amdg rd`ugdrocjs smg mgkurrmr dg kjstjs ocmkmjgohds poro
dh ejspmtoh. Dh dgbjqud cdh sdrvmkmj to`amíg pdr`mtd ho m`phogtokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs
kj`portmcjs pjr hjs `ícmkjs (ogdstdsmo, dqumpj y dgbdr`dros), kjg jtro budgtd cd
oejrrj dg kjstjs.
  Yjr öhtm`j, hos mgstohokmjgds cdh ejspmtoh kjg forcmgds, ohbj`aros, sohos cd
dgtrdtdgm`mdgtj y dskohdros poro bokmhmtor ho rdkupdrokmûg cd pokmdgtds, sjg kjg-
nrudgtds kjg ho gdkdsmcoc cd prjpjrkmjgor ug o`amdgtd bo`mhmor y onrocoahd. Dh
kosj cd [ejuhcmkd kjgstmtuyd ug audg dfd`phj cd kû`j dh dgbjqud y ho dspdkmohm-
zokmûg cdh sdrvmkmj pdr`mtdg dh hjnrj cd jafdtmvjs opordgtd`dgtd kjgtrocmktjrmjs6
ohto kohmcoc y aofj kjstj.
[mstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg dstrotínmkjs
Cdspuís cdh ogïhmsms cd hjs kjgkdptjs cd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc, vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo y ds-
trotdnmo, ds pjsmahd dgtdgcdr `dfjr pjr quí ohnugjs gdnjkmjs sjg dxmtjsjs y jtrjs
gj, y cdamcj o ho m`pjrtogkmo qud tmdgdg dg dstd kjgtdxtj hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr-
`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds (SMK), o kjgtmguokmûg sd `udstro su m`poktj cmrdktj oh
kjgstmtumrsd dg oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos.
  Ho m`pjrtogkmo cd hos SMK poro dxphmkor dh hjnrj cd vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos
sjstdgmahds eo smcj o`phmo`dgtd rdkjgjkmco, cdscd ho puahmkokmûg pmjgdro cd Yor-
sjgs (?=5;) y dh ortàkuhj
or tàkuhj o`phmo`dgtd cmbugcmcj cd Yjrtdr y @mhhor (?=54). Dg dstd
öhtm`j sd cd󿬏gd o hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg kj`j ‘... ho mgbjr`okmûg qud sd
krdo y uso dg hjs gdnjkmjs osà kj`j ug o`phmj dspdktrj cd... tdkgjhjnàos poro dh
prjkdso`mdgtj cd ho mgbjr`okmûg‐. Cd okudrcj kjg dstd kjgkdptj, hos SMK mgkhuydg
togtj o hjs smstd`os qud pdr`mtdg rdkjpmhor, oh`okdgor y trogs`mtmr ho mgbjr`okmûg,
kj`j o hos tíkgmkos cdsorrjhhocos pjr ïrdos kj`j ho mgndgmdrào oc`mgmstrotmvo y ho

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ ;=

‶ Bmnuro 1.??
 Dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
  CM[DßJ CDH YQJCTKSJ cd [ejuhcmkd.

Dspdkmohmzokmûg (edrgmo oacj`mgoh)

@àgm`j cd mgkj`mcoc
Qïpmco rdkupdr
rdkupdrokmûg
okmûg
Dxpdrmdgkmo onrocoahd
Aofo toso cd rdkurrdgkmo
YHOG CD Aofj kjstj
KJ@YDSDGKMO
Yrjpjrkmjgor ohto kohmcoc
y aofj kjstj dg ho otdgkmûg
qumrörnmko, ogtds y cdspuís
cd ho jpdrokmûg
  CM[DßJ CDH YQJKD[J
Yrjkdcm`mdgtjs sdgkmhhjs y dstogcormzocjs
Yrjkdcm`mdgtjs
@ícmkjs dspdkmohmzocjs y kjg dxpdrmdgkmo
O`amdgtd bo`mhmor y onrocoahd
Yortmkmpokmûg cdh pokmdgtd dg ho prdporokmûg

mgndgmdrào cd jpdrokmjgds (MO/MJ), qud sd jkupog cdh dstucmj d m`phogtokmûg cd

hjs `jcdhjs qud pdr`mtdg prjkdsor ho mgbjr`okmûg y cdsorrjhhor smstd`os cd opjyj
o ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds.
  Dg prm`dr hunor
hunor,, cdad rdkjgjkdr qud dh gmvdh cd m`pjrtogkmo qud ocqumdrdg
hos SMK dg koco d`prdso ds cmbdrdgtd, y ugo SMK ds dstrotínmko sm pdr`mtd jatdgdr
ugo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd, pjr hj qud ug mgcmkocjr cd ho m`pjrtogkmo cd hos
SMK dg ugo d`prdso ds su portmkmpokmûg dg dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos
cd ho d`prdso. Yjr dfd`phj, dg ho 󿬏nuro 1.; sd oprdkmo qud ho ögmko oktmvmcoc dstro-
tínmko dg [jutewdst Omrhmgds qud tmdgd ug ohtj kjgtdgmcj cd SMK ds dh smstd`o cd
outjsdrvmkmj poro ho d`msmûg cd ajhdtjs. Dg ko`amj, dg dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds
cd ^oh-@ort (󿬏nuro 1.1) sd oprdkmog oh `dgjs kmgkj oktmvmcocds kjg ug ohtj kjgtd-
gmcj cd SMK6 kj`ugmkokmûg dgtrd tmdgcos, smstd`o mgbjr`ïtmkj poro ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, trogsbdrdgkmo cd mgbjr`okmûg (DCM, dhdktrjgmk coto mgtdrkeognd)
vào sotíhmtd, mgbjr`okmûg cd vdgto o prjvddcjrds (R@M, vdgcjr `ogondr mgvdgtjry ), ),
kemps poro mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg cd rocmj brdkudgkmo (QBMC, rocmj brdqudgky mcdgtm󿬏kotmjg).
 m`poktj
@ukejs dfd`phjs
dstrotínmkj quddgeohotdgmcj
hmtdroturo cd hjs smstd`os
ho m`phogtokmûg cdcd mgbjr`okmûg
ugo dgbotmzogYjr
SMK cdtdr`mgoco. dh
dfd`phj, @osjg dt oh. (?==2) kjgkhuydg qud ‘BdcDx ds ug orqudtmpj cd ugo d`-
prdso qud eo tdgmcj íxmtj dg ho ophmkokmûg cdh `ítjcj kmdgtà󿬏kj o sus jpdrokmjgds.
Dh ogïhmsms kjg aosd dg `jcdhjs eo mgbjr`ocj `ukejs cd sus prjkdsjs krukmohds
cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds‐, osm`ms`j Hjvd`dg y Addr (?==?) kj`dgtog qud ‘... ug
smstd`o cd rdsdrvokmûg, kjg kopokmcoc poro m`phogtor ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh rdg-
cm`mdgtj ( ymdhc `ogond`dgt ), ), sd pudcd sustdgtor kj`j dh oktmvj dstrotínmkj `ïs
m`pjrtogtd cd ugo odrjhàgdo‐.
  Ds kjgvdgmdgtd rd`orkor qud gj tjcjs hjs smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg tmdgdg gd-
kdsormo`dgtd ug ohtj m`poktj kj`pdtmtmvj y, pjr jtrj hocj, dh íxmtj cd ugo dstrotd-
nmo sûhj sd pudcd kj`prjaor hudnj cd vormjs oÿjs cd m`phogtoco. Dg dstd sdgtmcj,
Ldttmgndr dt oh. (?==3) dxo`mgorjg dh cdsd`pdÿj, curogtd ?4 oÿjs, cd ;9 d`prdsos
rdkjgjkmcos pjr eoadr cdsorrjhhocj ug smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg dstrotínmkj6 cd dstos
;9 d`prdsos sd dgkjgtrû qud sûhj = cd dhhos (vdo ho toaho 1.;) hjnrorjg togtj ug
mgkrd`dgtj cdh pjrkdgtofd cd utmhmcocds kj`j ug mgkrd`dgtj dg ho pdgdtrokmûg
cd `drkocj< osm`ms`j, cd hos 1? rdstogtds, ohnugos `dfjrorjg sûhj dg utmhmcocds

39  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho 1.;
 D @Y QD [O [ M [ S D @ O C D M G B J Q @ O K M Û G D [ S Q OS Í N M K J
[mstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg cd ohtj
m`poktj dstrotínmkj.  Omr Yrjcukts ogc Ked`mkohs Yrjnro`okmûg y rutdj cd vdeàkuhjs
 O`drmkog Omrhmgds Yrdkmjs y rdsdrvokmjgds
Adrndg Arugswmn Yrjkdso`mdgtj cd torfdtos cd krícmtj
Cmnmtoh Dqump`dgt Kjrpjrotmj g [mstd`o dxpdrtj UKJG  
Bdcdroh Dxprdss Yrjnro`okmûg y rostrdj cd dgvàjs
Sjys ―Q” Ts Qostrdj cd mgvdgtormjs dg pugtjs cd vdgto
@kLdssjg Kopturo cd pdcmcjs
Aoxtdr Mgtdrgotmjgoh Kopturo cd pdcmcjs
Jwdgs-Kjrgmgn Bmadrn ho
hoss [dhdkkmûg outj`ïtmko cd `otdrmohds

j sûhj dg pdgdtrokmûg cd `drkocj, d mgkhusmvd ohnugos d`pdjrorjg cdscd o`ajs

pugtjs cd vmsto.
Dg jtrj dstucmj Adhh y Ogcdrsjg (?==2) mgvdstmnorjg dh usj cd `jcdhjs cd
MO/MJ poro ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds dg hos ;9 d`prdsos kjgsmcdrocos pjr Ldttmgndr
dt oh. (?==3), y dgkjgtrorjg qud ?9 cd hjs ;9 smstd`os kjgsmcdrocjs tdgàog ug ohtj
kjgtdgmcj dg tíkgmkos cd MO/MJ, cd hos kuohds > kjrrdspjgcàog o ohnugo cd hos =
d`prdsos rdpjrtocos kj`j dxmtjsos, kjg󿬏r`ogcj ho m`pjrtogkmo dstrotínmko cd dstos
edrro`mdgtos, pjr hj cmbàkmh qud sjg cd m`mtor, yo qud o `dgucj dstos tíkgmkos sd
cmsdÿog dxprdso`dgtd poro dh kosj cd ophmkokmûg portmkuhor y sjg cmbàkmhds cd rd-
phmkor dg jtros d`prdsos. O kjgtmguokmûg sd `dgkmjgog kj`dgtormjs rdhokmjgocjs
kjg ohnugjs cd hjs kosjs rdpjrtocjs pjr Adhh y Ogcdrsjg (?==2)6
  • Yoro Omr Yrjcukts ogc Ked`mkohs, ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd nosds
mgcustrmohds sd mgtdnro kjg ho prjnro`okmûg y cdspokej cd vdeàkuhjs. [u ovog-
zocj smstd`o cd opjyj o ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds mgkhuyd prjgûstmkjs, dgtroco
cd cotjs dg hàgdo, prjgûstmkjs poro hjs usuormjs, rdcds cd tmd`pjs y cmstogkmos
kjg ohnjrmt`js cd ruto `ïs kjrto poro jptm`mzor vmofds.
  • O`drmkog Omrhmgds d`pdzû o utmhmzor cotjs cd rdsdrvokmjgds poro o󿬏gor sus
jpdrokmjgds y dgbjkor sus dstrotdnmos cd `drkocj. Dstd mgvdgtormj prdkmsj cd
posofdrjs pdr`mtd kjgtrjhor dh aofj kupj y dh sjardkupj poro aohogkdor hjs
gmvdhds cd sdrvmkmj kjg hjs boktjrds cd korno.
  • Dh smstd`o
smstd`o O[OY cd Aoxtdr Mgtdrgotmjgoh ou`dgto ho prjcuktmvmcoc y dh gmvdh
gmvdh
cd mgbjr`okmûg o ho vdz qud oyuco o kjgtrjhor hjs kjstjs cd mgvdgtormj, prj-
pjrkmjgogcj ugo sjhukmûg mgtdnroh o ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj.
  • cmbdrdgtds
Tgo mgstohokmûg cd Ndgdroh Dhdktrmk pudcd boarmkor outj`ïtmko`dgtd ?9 tmpjs
cd `jtjr.
  • Dh smstd`o cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj y rdkupdrokmûg outj`ïtmko cd @kLdssjg dstï
tjtoh`dgtd mgtdnrocj. Hos ûrcdgds prjcukdg ug `opo cdh oh`okíg qud `uds-
tro o hjs d`phdocjs cûgcd dstïg hjs prjcuktjs y kû`j rdkupdrorhjs poro `m-
gm`mzor dh tmd`pj cd vmofd.
So`amíg eoy kosjs cd smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg dstrotínmkjs m`phogtocjs dg @íxm-
kj kj`j6
  • Nrupj Kjgcu`dx cdsorrjhhû ug smstd`o cd jptm`mzokmûg cdh cmsdÿj cd orgdsds
dhíktrmkjs outj`jtrmkds cdgj`mgocj JYSOQ,
JYSOQ, dh kuoh gj sjho`dgtd hd pdr`mtmû
jatdgdr ho kotdnjrào cd prjvddc
prjvddcjr
jr cd sdrvmkmjs kj`phdtjs ( buhh
 buhh sdrvmkd supphmdr)
smgj to`amíg rdcukmr kjstjs m`pjrtogtds dg ho `ogubokturo cd dstjs prjcuktjs.
  • Jtrj dfd`phj ds ug smstd`o cd jptm`mzokmûg cdh prjkdsj dhdktrjhàtmkj utmhmzocj
pjr Mgcustrmos Ydÿjhds dg su prjkdsj cd rd󿬏gokmûg cd ams`utj qud hd oyucû
o hjnror dh prd`mj gokmjgoh pjr oejrrj cd dgdrnào.

KJ@YDSMSMRMCOC ] YHOGDOKMÛG D[SQOSÍNMKO CD HO[ JYDQOKMJGD[ 3?

 cd mgbjr`okmûg dfdkutmvo cdgj`mgocj dkjgû`dtrj qud, `dcmogtd ug ogïhmsms
cd ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs y ug prjgûstmkj sjard hjs `dsds dg qud cmkejs
mgvdgtormjs sd kjgsu`mràog, opjyo dh cmsdÿj cd ko`poÿos poro ho vdgto cd
sus prjcuktjs.
  • Dh Mgstmtutj
Mgstmtutj poro dh Cdpûsmtj
Cdpûsmtj cd Rohjrds ([. C. Mgcdvoh) cdsorrjhhû ug smstd`o
cd mgbjr`okmûg qud uso ug `jcdhj cd prjnro`okmûg `mxto qud hd pdr`mtd
hmqumcor pjr kj`pdgsokmûg y dg tmd`pj rdoh, ug kjgfugtj cd trogsokkmjgds cd
vohjrds pdgcmdgtds, qud cd jtro gj euamdrog pjcmcj hmqumcorsd ugo pjr ugo,
hjnrogcj cms`mgumr cd bjr`o smngm󿬏kotmvo dh tmd`pj rdqudrmcj poro hmqumcor
hos trogsokkmjgds cdh `drkocj cd vohjrds.

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. Dstoahdzko ho rdhokmûg dgtrd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc d`prdsormoh
d`prdsormoh  
y vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo sjstdgmahd.
  1. Cd okudrcj kjg Sddkd dt oh. (?==>), kj`dgtd sjard hos
cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd dh dgbjqud dstrotínmkj kjg aosd dg dh  
pjcdr cd `drkocj y dh dgbjqud dstrotínmkj kjg aosd dg
ho d󿬏kmdgkmo.  
  ;. Cdaoto pjr quí hos d`prdsos cd su poàs cdadg (j gj
cdadg) kjgsmcdror dgbjquds aosocjs dg kopokmcocds poro
dstoahdkdr ug phog dstrotínmkj qud hds osdnurd vdgtofos  
kj`pdtmtmvos sjstdgmahds.
  3. Cdaoto pjr quí hos d`prdsos cd su poàs cdadg (j gj  
cdadg) kjgsmcdror dgbjquds cd `drkocj poro dstoahdkdr
ug phog dstrotínmkj qud hds osdnurd vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos  
sjstdgmahds.
  4. Kjg aosd dg ho cdskrmpkmûg cd ho dstrotdnmo cd jpdro-
kmjgds cd [ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh, dhoajrd ug cmonro`o cd
oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos (kj`j hjs cd hos 󿬏nuros 1.1 y
1.;) poro [ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh.  
  2. Kjgstruyo ug cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds dstrotínmkos poro
ho d`prdso cd su prdbdrdgkmo (`dfjr sm ds ugo d`prdso
prjpmo), mcdgtm󿬏qud kuïhds cd hos oktmvmcocds tmdgdg ug
ohtj kjgtdgmcj cd SMK.
  >. Mgcmqud quí kopokmcocds jpdrotmvos y prjkdsjs cdadrào
prmjrmzor ugo d`prdso qud eo cdkmcmcj kj`pdtmr kjg
 aosd dg ho ‘mgtm`mcoc kjg hjs khmdgtds‐.
5. Mgcmqud quí kopokmcocds jpdrotmvos y prjkdsjs cdadrào
prmjrmzor ugo d`prdso qud eo cdkmcmcj kj`pdtmr kjg
 aosd dg dh ‘hmcdroznj dg `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs‐.
=. Dgu`drd y cdskrmao koco ugj cd hjs posjs qud sd sunmdrd
sdnumr poro dstoahdkdr ugo dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds.
?9. Cdskrmao hos prmgkmpohds koroktdràstmkos cd ho dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds cd hos d`prdsos fopjgdsos cd `ogubok-
turos.
??. Mgcmqud ho cmbdrdgkmo dgtrd cmstmgkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo y ‘hj
qud ds gdkdsormj poro kj`pdtmr‐.
?1. Mcdgtm󿬏qud y dxphmqud oh `dgjs kuotrj cm`dgsmjgds dg
hos qud ugo d`prdso pudcd kj`pdtmr.
?;. Cd okudrcj kjg Eoyds y Ymsogj (?==3), mgcmqud ho cmbd-
rdgkmo dgtrd ugo dstrotdnmo y sus `dcmjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud oh
`dgjs kuotrj tmpjs cmbdrdgtds cd ‘cmstmgkmûg kj`pdtmtm-
vo‐, sdÿohd hjs `dcmjs qud uso ugo d`prdso poro opjyor
koco ugo cd dstos cmstmgkmjgds kj`pdtmtmvos.
?3. Mcdgtm󿬏qud dh `drkocj `dto y ho dstrotdnmo cd `orldtmgn
poro ho d`prdso cd su prdbdrdgkmo (`dfjr sm ds ugo d`-
prdso prjpmo) y kjg aosd dg dhhjs bjr`uhd ho dstrotdnmo
cd jpdrokmjgds (󿬏nuro 1.>).

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Adhh Y.Y. K. y K. L. Ogcdrsjg (1991), ‘Mg sdorke jb strotdnmk  
Jpdrotmjgs Qdsdorke/@ogond`dgt [kmdgkd‐,  Mgtdrbokds
;1(1), 15-39.
  1. Arochdy [. Y. y Y. Ned`owot (1999), ‘^oh*@ort [tjrds  
Mgk.‐, dg Ho dstrotdnmo dg dh pogjro`o cdh gdnjkmj, Y. Ned-
`owot (dcs.), Ydorsjg Dcukokmûg, @íxmkj.  
  ;. Edsldtt F.F. H. (1993), ‘[ejuhcmkd Ejspmtoh Hm`mtdc‐, EA[
Kosd # 594991.
 3. Eoyds Q. y N. Ymsogj (?==3), ‘Adyjgc wjrhc khoss6 ted  
gdw `ogubokturmgn strotdny‐,  Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw  hogc (?==2), ‘Oasjhutdhy, pjsmtmvdhy jpdrotmjgs rdsdorke6
>1(?), >>-52.
4. Ldttmgndr ^.^. F., R. Nrjadr, [. Nueo y O. E. [dnors (?==3),
(?==3),
‘[trotdnmk mgbjr`otmjg systd`s rdvmsmtdc‐, @M[ _uort.
?5(?), ;?-44.
2. Hûpdz-Khorjs O. (dc.) (1992), Sed Nhjaoh Kj`pdtmtmvdgdss
 Qdpjrt 1992-199> , Yohnrovd @ok`mhhog, Gudvo ]jrl.
>. Hjvd`dg N. @., y @. Addr (?==?),(?==?), ‘Ydjphd Dxprdss Omr-
hmgds6 Qmsd ogc cdkhmgd6 Sdokemgn gjtd‐, Eorvorc Ausmgdss
[kejjh Kosd =-3=9-9?1, Ko`armcnd.
5. @osjg Q. J., F. H. @kLdggdy,
@kLdggdy, ^.^. Korhsjg y C. K. Kjpd-
Sed Bdcdroh Dxprdss stjry‐,  Mgtdrbokds 1>(1), ?>-;2.

31  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  =. Gdhsjg Q. (?==1), ‘Qdkdgt wrmtmg

wrmtmgns
ns jg kj`pdtmtm
kj`pdtmtmvdgdss6
vdgdss6  ?3.
?3. Yjrtdr @. (?==2), ‘^eot ms [trotdny:‐,
[trotdny:‐ , Eorvorc Ausmgdss
  ajxmgn ted kj`poss , Kohmbjrgmo @ogond`dgt Qdvmdw  Qdvmdw >3(2), 2?->5.
;3(1), ?1>-?;>.  ?4.
?4. [eopmrj K. (?=5=), ‘Sed tedjry jb ausmgdss strotdny‐,
 ?9.
?9. Jppdgedm`dr O. (1992), Kudgtjs kemgjs. Dh dgnoÿj cd  QOGC Fjurgoh jb Dkjgj`mks 19(?), ?14-?;>.
^osemgntjg, ho `dgtmro pjpuhmsto y ho dspdrogzo cd O`írmko
O`írm ko  ?2.
?2. [lmggdr ^. (?=>(?=>3),
3), ‘Sed bjkusdc
bjk usdc boktjry‐,
boktjr y‐,  Eorvorc Ausm-
 Hotmgo, 5o dc., Dcmtjrmoh [uco`drmkogo, Audgjs Omrds. gdss Qdvmdw 41(;), ??;-?1?.
??. Yorsjgs N. H. (?=5;), ‘Mgbjr`otmjg tdkegjhjny6 O gdw  ?>>. Sddkd C. F., N. Ymsogj y O. [eudg (?==>), ‘Cygo`mk
 ? ‘ Cygo`mk ko-
ko -
kj`pdtmtmvd wdopjg‐, Kohmbjrgmo @ogond`dgt Qdvmdw poamhmtmds ogc strotdnmk `ogond`d
`ogond`dgt‐,gt‐, [trotdnmk @ogond-
13(;), ;-?3. `dgt Fjurgoh ?5(>), 49=-4;;.
 ?1.
?1. Yjrtdr @. D. (?=54), Kj`pdtmtmvd Ocvogtond, Sed Brdd  ?5.
?5. Srdoky @. y B. B. ^mdrsd`o (?==;), ‘Kustj`dr mgtm`oky
mg tm`oky ogc
Yrdss, Gudvo ]jrl. jtedr vohud cmskmphmgds‐, Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw >?(?),
 ?;.
?;. Yjrtdr @., y R.
R. D. @mhhor (?=54),
( ?=54), ‘Ejw mgbjr`otmjg
mgbjr `otmjg nmvds
nm vds 53-=;.
yju kj`pdtmtmvd ocvogtond‐,  Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw 
2;(3), ?3=-?29.

KOYÀSTHJ ;
 Sdkgjhjnào ovogzoco
y jtros tdgcdgkmos
dg prjcukkmûg
• Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds
• Sdkgjhjnàos cd prjcuktj, prjkdsj d mgbjr`okmûg
• Yrjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj
• Ydrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso

j`j cdfog dg khorj hjs kopàtuhjs prdkdcdgtds, ho mgtdgsmcoc cd ho kj`pdtdg-

K
kmo, ougoco o ho opormkmûg
ug rdphogtdo`mdgtj cd dstrotdnmos
cd `ukeos kj`pdtmtmvos
cd hos tíkgmkos gjvdcjsos,
qud, dg `otdrmo jahmnû o
cd `ítjcjs
cd prjcukkmûg, sd vdgàog cdsorrjhhogcj. Dg portmkuhor dg hjs ï`amtjs okocí`mkj y
d`prdsormoh sd eog cmbugcmcj cmvdrsos 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg qud prjpjgdg sj-
hukmjgds gjvdcjsos o hjs prjahd`os qud dgbrdgtog hos d`prdsos.
  Dg dstd kopàtuhj sd ogohmzog tdgcdgkmos y 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg, osà kj`j
jtrjs `dcmjs (tdkgjhjnào ovogzoco y outj`otmzokmûg), qud prjcukdg ug m`poktj
kjgsmcdroahd dg ho prjcukkmûg oktuoh cd amdgds y sdrvmkmjs. Dg ho prm`dro sdkkmûg
sd cmskurrd ardvd`dgtd pjr ho tdgcdgkmo eokmo dh cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds, `mdg-
tros qud dg ho sdnugco sd prdsdgtog hos tdgcdgkmos `ïs smngm󿬏kotmvos dg kuogtj o
tdkgjhjnàos cd prjcuktj, prjkdsj d mgbjr`okmûg. Dg ho tdrkdro sdkkmûg sd cdskrmadg
hjs prmgkmpohds kj`pjgdgtds cd ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj, kjgkdptj
qud cdsorrjhhû dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cd Sjyjto @jtjr Kj`pogy, y qud eo smcj
o`phmo`dgtd dstucmocj dg hjs ï`amtjs d`prdsormoh y okocí`mkj dg hjs öhtm`js
oÿjs.
dg Dg (cdh
`oso ho öhtm`o
mgnhíssdkkmûg sd ogohmzo ho),tdgcdgkmo
`oss kustj`mzotmjg kjgkdptj oktuoh eokmo ho
qud ohnugos pdrsjgohmzokmûg
d`prdsos cd khosd
`ugcmoh eog m`pudstj dg sus smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg poro sotmsbokdr `dfjr hos gd-
kdsmcocds cd sus khmdgtds mgkurrmdgcj dg kjstjs aofjs.
  Ogtds cd mgmkmor ho dxphjrokmûg cd hjs td`os cd dstd kopàtuhj, koad `dgkmj-
gor qud, cd okudrcj kjg Eoyds y Ymsogj (?==3), cmkeos 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg gj
cdadg sdr phogtdocos kj`j ugo ‘sjhukmûg `ïnmko‐ o hjs prjahd`os cd kj`pdtmtmvmc
kj`pdtmtmvmcoc
oc
cd ugo d`prdso, smgj kj`j `dcmjs poro m`phogtor ugo dstrotdnmo cd jpdrokmjgds
kjgnrudgtd kjg ho dstrotdnmo kj`pdtmtmvo. Yjr dhhj, sd rdkj`mdgco oh hdktjr qud,
ogtds cd m`phogtor ugo gudvo 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg, dgtmdgco kjg khormcoc sus
jafdtmvjs, prmgkmpmjs y `dkogms`js, poro cdkmcmr sm ds okjrcd kjg ho dstrotdnmo.

  CD[OQQJHHJ CD YQJRDDCJQD[
Kj`j sd pugtuohmzû dg dh kopàtuhj prdkdcdgtd, ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs sd
uamkû kj`j hàcdr `ugcmoh, cdscd hjs mgmkmjs cd ho Qdvjhuk
Qdvjhukmûg
mûg Mgcustrmoh, bugco`dg- 3;

33  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

toh`dgtd pjrqud bud ho prm`dro dg cdsorrjhhor d`prdsos mgtdnrocos, dg hos qud sd

 dfdkutog tjcos hos jpdrokmjgds cd `ogubokturo dg ho `ms`o phogto y dg cjgcd,
pjr prm`dro vdz, sd oprjvdkeog hos vdgtofos cd ho cmvmsmûg cdh troaofj y cd hos dkj-
gj`àos cd dskoho y ohkogkd. Eokd ohnugos cíkocos ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs
sd d`pdzû o mgtdnror, kjg ho krdokmûg cd nrogcds nrupjs mgcustrmohds, y jrmdgtû su
dstrotdnmo eokmo ugo prjcukkmûg cd ohtj vjhu`dg y aofj kjstj. Dsto tdgcdgkmo, smg
d`aornj, sd eo rdvdrtmcj dg hos öhtm`os cjs cíkocos, gj sûhj dg Dstocjs Tgmcjs,
smgj o gmvdh nhjaoh< ho tdgcdgkmo oktuoh cd hos `uhtmgokmjgohds ds cdsorrjhhor kocd-
gos nhjaohds cd prjvddcjrds. Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd mhustro toh tdgcdgkmo kjg ho prd-
sdgtokmûg cd ho dstrukturo cd `uhtmtmdrs, cdsorrjhhoco dg Fopûg, y pjstdrmjr`dgtd
kjg dh ogïhmsms cd hjs prmgkmpohds rdtjs qud dgbrdgto dh cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos cd
prjvddcjrds
prjvddcj rds nhjaohds.

Ho dstrukturo `uhtmtmdrs 
Ho dstrukturo cd ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso cd ho pjsnudrro cdsorrjhhû ugo jrnogmzokmûg
mgcustrmoh `uy cmbdrdgtd o ho jasdrvoco cdscd hjs mgmkmjs cd ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcus-
trmoh. Aofj dsto dstrukturo, qud rdkmad dh gj`ard cd `uhtmtmdrs (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.?),
dh prjcuktj sd cmvmcd dg sus kj`pjgdgtds prmgkmpohds y sd cdhdno ho prjcukkmûg
cd koco kj`pjgdgtd o ug prjvddcjr (prjvddcjrds cd prm`dr gmvdh)< hjs qud, o su
vdz, pudcdg cmvmcmr ho prjcukkmûg cdh kj`pjgdgtd dg cmbdrdgtds portds, qud sjg
boarmkocos pjr jtrjs prjvddcjrds
prjvddcjrds (cd sdnugcj gmvdh) y osà sukdsmvo`dgtd, `mdgtros
sdo kjgvdgmdgtd. Dh to`oÿj y ho kj`phdfmcoc cd dsto fdrorquào hj mhustro dh kosj cd
Sjyjto, qud yo dg ?=59 tdgào ?25 d`prdsos prjvddcjros cd prm`dr gmvdh, 3 >99
cd sdnugcj gmvdh
kdgtrohmzoco y ;? 299 cd
cd prjcukkmûg tdrkdr gmvdh (@k@mhhog,
hd prjpjrkmjgû ?==9).
o ho mgcustrmo Dsto vdgtofos
fopjgdso dstrukturo cds-
m`pjr-
togtds, dgtrd hos kuohds sjardsohd ugo nrog kopokmcoc cd mggjvokmûg, yo qud dg hos
pdqudÿos y `dcmogos d`prdsos prjvddcjros, ho mggjvokmûg ds `ïs bïkmh, dg togtj
qud ho `ogubokturo cd ug gudvj cmsdÿj gj rdprdsdgto ko`amjs rocmkohds (j kjstj-
sjs) dg ho phogto gm dg hjs prjkdsjs cd `ogubokturo. Yjr jtrj hocj, dsto dstrukturo
m`phmko qud dh kjgjkm`mdgtj tdkgjhûnmkj cdskogso dg ugo o`phmo aosd cd d`prdsos
`dcmogos y pdqudÿos, hj qud bokmhmto ho trogsbdrdgkmo y ho mggjvokmûg tdkgjhûnmko
dg cmbdrdgtds sdn`dgtjs cd ho mgcustrmo, yo qud ugo d`prdso prjvddcjro pudcd
otdgcdr o vormos d`prdsos kj`procjros cd cmbdrdgtds sdktjrds, y ho tdkgjhjnào cdfo
cd sdr ug `jgjpjhmj cd hjs nrogcds nrupjs mgtdnrocjs.
  Ds kjgvdgmdgtd sdÿohor qud gj sd sunmdrd qud hos mgcustrmos cd jtros rdnmj-
gds cdaog cmrmnmrsd gdkdsormo`dgtd eokmo ug dsqud`o cd prjvddcjrds kj`j dh cd

‶ Bmnuro ;.?
Cmonro`o cd ugo dstrukturo
cd `uhtmtmdrs. Srogsgokmjgoh

Yrjvddcjrds
cd prm`dr gmvdh Yrjvddcjr • • • Yrjvddcjr
(Bmrst tmdrs)

Yrjvddcjrds
cd sdnugcj gmvdh Yr. • • • Yr. Yr. • • • Yr.
([dkjgc tmdrs)
• • •
• • •
• • •

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 34

`uhtmtmdrs fopjgís, yo qud dxmstdg jtrjs dsqud`os cd kjjpdrokmûg dxmtjsjs, kj`j dh

 osjkmokmjgms`j dgtrd d`prdsos pdqudÿos (pjr dfd`phj, dg dh gjrtd cd Mtohmo j dg ho
rdnmûg vosko). Dh sdgtmcj cd hjs kj`dgtormjs oquà vdrtmcjs ds mhustror kû`j hos d`-
prdsos pdqudÿos y `dcmogos eog cd`jstrocj ugo nrog eoamhmcoc poro cdsorrjhhor
ho kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd hjs sdktjrds mgcustrmohds, y suaroyor qud su prdsdgkmo dxmtjso
sd bugco`dgto dg prmgkmpmjs cd kjjpdrokmûg< hjs `dkogms`js dspdkà󿬏kjs pudcdg
cdsorrjhhorsd kjg aosd dg hos kjgcmkmjgds portmkuhords cd koco rdnmûg.
  Dg dstd kjgtdxtj ho prdnugto pdrtmgdgtd ds ºkû`j hjnro ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso
ug ohtj gmvdh cd kjjrcmgokmûg dgtrd prjvddcjrds y kj`procjrds, rdqumsmtj mgcms-
pdgsoahd dg su dstrotdnmo cd mggjvokmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc: Oh rdspdktj, @k@mhhog cd-
`udstro qud gj ds dh boktjr kuhturoh dh ospdktj `ïs m`pjrtogtd cd dsto rdhokmûg,
smgj qud ísto cdskogso dg ug kjgfugtj cd mgkdgtmvjs qud pjsmamhmtog dh hjnrj cd
dqumhmarmjs kjjpdrotmvjs dgtrd kj`procjrds y prjvddcjrds. Ohnugos kjgkhusmjgds
mgtdrdsogtds cd @k@mhhog, qud dxphmkog pjr quí dg ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso sd cdhdnû
kjg íxmtj ho `ogubokturo y dh cmsdÿj o d`prdsos prjvddcjros, sjg hos smnumdgtds6
• Ds ug `mtj qud hos d`prdsos
d`prdsos prjvddcj
prjvddcjros
ros dg Fopûg
Fopûg cdpdgcog cd hos d`prdsos
d`prdsos
kj`procjros oh pugtj cd gj pjcdr rdkeozor kjgtrotjs. Hos d`prdsos kjg ?
o ; troaofocjrds tmdgdg dg prj`dcmj kjgtrotjs kjg ; 󿬏r`os cmbdrdgtds< poro
d`prdsos kjg 19 o 1= troaofocjrds, dh prj`dcmj cd kj`procjrds cmbdrdgtds
ds cd 2, y poro d`prdsos kjg 199 o ;99 troaofocjrds ds cd ??. Yjr jtrj hocj,
hos d`prdsos kj`procjros to`pjkj tmdgdg ug sjhj prjvddcjr poro koco kj`-
pjgdgtd, smgj qud hos rdhokmjgds dgtrd prjvddcjrds y kj`procjrds sd cog dg
ug `orkj cd dstrmkto kj`pdtdgkmo.
  • Hos rdhokmjgds dgtrd
cd kjjpdrokmûg, y ho prjvdd
prjvddcjrds
cjrdssd ykjgsjhmco
kjg󿬏ogzo kj`procjrds sd sustdgtog
o portmr dg prmgkmpmjs
cd rdhokmjgds cd hornj
phozj y cd ho rdpdtmkmûg cd hos `ms`os, hj qud osdnuro dh hjnrj cd dqumhmarmjs
kjjpdrotmvjs.
  • Hjs okkmjgmstos cd hos kjrpjrokmjgds cd ho mgcustrmo tdr`mgoh to`amíg pjsddg
okkmjgds dg d`prdsos prjvddcjros, y ístos gj tmdgdg rdporj dg otdgcdr pjr
mnuoh o ho kj`pdtdgkmo.
  • Hos nrogcds kjrpjrokmjgds kj`procjros gj tmdgdg ugo pjsmkmûg ocvdrso oh
rmdsnj, pjr hj qud dstïg cmspudstos o cms`mgumr dh rmdsnj cd hos d`prdsos prj-
vddcjros oh osdnurorhds kj`pros y oh corhds opjyj 󿬏gogkmdrj, o ko`amj ja-
tmdgdg gudvjs cmsdÿjs, prdkmjs kj`pdtmtmvjs y ug audg sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd.
• Ho dstrukturo cd `uhtmtmdrs bokmhmto ho hoajr cd oaostdkm`mdgtj y ho rdhokmûg kjg
prjvddcjrds.
prjvddc jrds. Yjr dfd`phj, dg ?=52, Ndgdroh @jtjrs prjcufj 2 `mhhjgds cd ou-
tj`ûvmhds kjg `ïs cd 2 999 d`phdocjs dg kj`pros, `mdgtros qud Sjyjto, poro
prjcukmr ohrdcdcjr cd ;.2 `mhhjgds cd outj`ûvmhds, d`phdû sjho`dgtd ;39.
Hjs cotjs qud sd prdsdgtog dg dsto sdkkmûg mhustrog kû`j ho mgcustrmo `ugcmoh
hjnrû ug ï`amtj cd kj`pdtdgkmo dg dh qud ho mggjvokmûg y ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc budrjg
or`os pjcdrjsos poro nogor portmkmpokmûg dg hjs `drkocjs, o ho vdz qud hos d`-
prdsos pdqudÿos y `dcmogos `jstrorjg ugo `oyjr kopokmcoc poro sustdgtor dsto
dstrotdnmo kj`pdtmtmvo. Ds fusto`dgtd ug o`amdgtd cd kjjpdrokmûg dgtrd d`prdsos
nrogcds y pdqudÿos dh qud ndgdro dh hmcdroznj dg sdktjrds mgcustrmohds ohto`dgtd
kj`pdtmtmvjs.

Qdtjs cdh cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos nhjaohds

Dh cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos nhjaohds cd prjvddcjrds ds ugo dstrotdnmo kjgsjhmcoco dg
hos d`prdsos `uhtmgokmjgohds, dg kjgtropjsmkmûg o ho ogtmnuo dstrotdnmo cd mgtdnro-
kmûg, dstj sd dvmcdgkmo pjr dh m`prdsmjgogtd mgkrd`dgtj cd ho mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro
cmrdkto dg hjs öhtm`js oÿjs (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.1). Ho prm`dro mgtdrrjnogtd qud pudcd
ugj phogtdorsd oh jasdrvor dsto gudvo dstrotdnmo ds sm ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg,

32  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro ;.1
Dvjhukmûg cd ho mgvdrsmûg
 dxtrogfdro cmrdkto. ?.2D+?1

?.3D+?1

?.1D+?1 Yoàsds cdsorrjhhocjs

?D+?1 Yoàsds dg cdsorrjhhj

Mgvdrsmûg dxtrogfdro tjtoh

5D+??

2D+??

3D+??

1D+??

9
  9   3   5    1   2   9   3   5    1
   >    >    >   5   5   =   =   =   9
  =   =   =   =   =   =   =   =   9
  ?   ?   ?   ?   ?   ?   ?   ?    1

nhjaoh`dgtd cmstrmaumcj, tmdgd vdgtofos sjard ug smstd`o mgtdnrocj y kdgtrohmzocj,

y sm tmdgd sdgtmcj dkjgû`mkj, cocj qud ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg nhjaoh`dgtd
cmstrmaumcj mgkurrd dg gdkdsormjs kjstjs (ºocmkmjgohds:) cd cmstrmaukmûg y kjjrcm-
gokmûg.
cm`dgsmûgDs dvmcdgtd
cd kjstjsqud
smgj,ho `ïs
dkjgj`ào cd dstd
amdg, pjr ugogudvj
gudvosmstd`o gj sd
cm`dgsmûg cdfustm󿬏ko pjr ho
kj`pdtdgkmo,
qud ds ho kopokmcoc cd mggjvokmûg y ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg. Dg
dbdktj, hos kocdgos nhjaohds cd prjvddcjrds tmdgdg `dfjr kopokmcoc poro ofustorsd
o hos cd`ogcos ko`amogtds, rdspjgcdr o ho gdkdsmcoc cd mggjvor y cmsdÿor gudvjs
prjcuktjs, osà kj`j poro osm`mhor `ïs rïpmco`dgtd hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs `drko-
cjs cmstrmaumcjs dg tjcj dh `ugcj.
  Dh cdsorrjhhj cd kocdgos nhjaohds cd prjvddc
prjvddcjrds,
jrds, smg d`aornj, oard gudvjs
rdtjs poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, yo qud dh smstd`o cmstrmaumcj tmdgd
ugo kj`phdfmcoc `oyjr qud dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg mgtdnrocj. O kjgtmguokmûg sd
`dgkmjgog ohnugjs cd hjs rdtjs qud prjpjgd dstd dsqud`o cd jrnogmzokmûg
mgcustrmoh.
mg custrmoh.
  • Hjkohmzokmûg cd phogtos y sdrvmkmjs. Cocj qud hjs prjvddcjrds cd portds y
kj`pjgdgtds sd cmstrmauydg
cmstrmauydg o gmvdh nhjaoh, cdadg dvmtorsd kjstjs cd trogspjrtd
mggdkdsormjs. Dh prjahd`o o rdsjhvdr ds hjkohmzor ug gö`drj gj cdtdr`mgocj
cd phogtos (y sus kopokmcocds), cd `ogdro qud sd `mgm`mkdg hjs kjstjs 󿬏fjs
(dg qud mgkurrd koco phogto), `ïs hjs kjstjs vormoahds cd prjcukkmûg, cmstrm-
 aukmûg y oh`okdgo`mdgtj (vdo Rdrtdr y Cmgkdr
Cmgkdr,, ?==1).
  • Kjjrcmgokmûg cd ho kocdgo cd prjvddcjrds. Tg dsqud`o nhjaoh cd prjcuk-
kmûg sd sustdgto dg ho `dfjr kopokmcoc poro rdspjgcdr o hos gdkdsmcocds cd
hjs cmbdrdgtds `drkocjs, utmhmzogcj o ho vdz kopokmcocds cmstrmaumcos o gmvdh
`ugcmoh. [mg d`aornj, o portmr cdh dvmcdgtd jafdtmvj cd hjnror d󿬏kmdgkmos dg
dh smstd`o, sd prdsdgto dh prjahd`o cd auskor ugo audgo osmngokmûg cd oktm-
vmcocds poro hos cmbdrdgtds mgstohokmjgds, poro dhhj sd cdadg eokdr dkjgj`àos
o trovís cdh `ogdfj cd m`pudstjs, kjstjs cd cmstrmaukmûg, oramtrofd 󿬏gogkmdrj
y rdcukkmûg cd rmdsnjs, dgtrd jtrjs boktjrds.
  • Hjnàstmko y cmstrmaukmûg. Dh pugtj cíamh cd ugo kocdgo nhjaoh cd prjvddcj-
rds, dg kj`porokmûg kjg ug smstd`o mgtdnrocj, ds su `oyjr kjstj pjr cmstrm-
 aukmûg y oaostdkm`mdgtj.
kuohqumdr Dg dstd
d`prdso qud mgtdgtd sdgtmcj, ugo
cdsorrjhhor dh prm`dr
kocdgoprjahd`o
nhjaoh cdoprjvddcjrds,
oajrcor pjr,
prjvddcjrds

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 3>

ds dh cd oaotmr oh `àgm`j hjs kjstjs cd cmstrmaukmûg. Yjr bjrtugo, hos tdkgjhj-

nàos cd mgbjr`okmûg mgtrjcukmcos dg hos öhtm`os cíkocos pdr`mtdg qud dstd
 rdtj sd supdrd `dcmogtd dh usj cd ho tdkgjhjnào `jcdrgo. Osà, pjr dfd`phj,
hjs smstd`os DCM ( Dhdktrjgmk Coto Mgtdrkeogn d)
d) tmdgdg pjr 󿬏gohmcoc osdnuror
dh 󿬁ufj cd mgbjr`okmûg oprjpmocj dgtrd prjvddcjrds y kj`procjrds, jahmno-
tjrmj poro dvmtor mgvdgtormjs mggdkdsormjs j ugo hdgto rdspudsto oh `drkocj
pjr bohto cd mgsu`js.
  • Dsqud`o cd mgkdgtmvjs. Kj`j ds o`phmo`dgtd rdkjgjkmcj, ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cd
hos kocdgos nhjaohds cd prjvddcjrds cdskogso dg prmgkmpmjs kjjpdrotmvjs< ds
cdkmr, hjs prjvddcjrds sd kj`prj`dtdg o jbrdkdr audgjs prdkmjs y kopokmcoc
cd cmsdÿj d mggjvokmûg, smd`prd y kuogcj pudcdg jatdgdr jtros vdgtofos pjr
portd cd hjs kj`procjrds. [m amdg sd eog dstucmocj hjs mgkdgtmvjs qud bug-
kmjgog dg ohnugos rdnmjgds (@k@mhhog, ?==9), sd cdad rdkjgjkdr qud gj gd-
kdsormo`dgtd hjs `ms`js dsqud`os pudcdg sdr dxtropjhocjs o hjs cmbdrdgtds
poàsds j rdnmjgds, dg kuogtj oh rdkjgjkm`mdgtj cd hjs dsqud`o cd mgkdgtmvjs
qud sjg `ïs oprjpmocjs poro cmbdrdgtds poàsds y/j rdnmjgds dxmstd ug o`phmj
ko`pj cd mgvdstmnokmûg.

  SDKGJHJNÀO[ CD YQJCTKSJ,
YQJCTKSJ, YQJKD[J D MGBJQ@OKMÛG
Dg hos öhtm`os cíkocos ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs dxpdrm`dgtû
ugo kjgsmcdroahd mgkjrpjrokmûg cd tdkgjhjnàos `jcdrgos, qud ausko cdsorrjhhor
vdgtofos kj`pdtmtmvos dg hos d`prdsos oh opjyor d󿬏kmdgtd`dgtd sus dstrotdnmos cd
kj`pdtdgkmo. O kjgtmguokmûg
qud dstïg kousogcj ug nrog sd jbrdkd
n rog m`poktj dgug rdsu`dgsdktjrds
cmbdrdgtds cd hjs cdsorrjhhjs tdkgjhûnmkjs
prjcuktmvjs. Dg prm`dr
hunor sd prdsdgto ug `orkj rdsu`dg cd hos ïrdos cjgcd hos cmbdrdgtds tdkgjhjnàos
tmdgdg ohnj smngm󿬏kotmvj qud opjrtor
opjrt or,, mgkhusj hos 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg y kjgkdp-
tjs oc`mgmstrotmvjs cdsorrjhhocjs poro `dfjror ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds
cd ho d`prdso< dgsdnumco sd dxo`mgog hjs prmgkmpohds kjgkdptjs qud sd rdhokmjgog
kjg ho outj`otmzokmûg y ho tdkgjhjnào ovogzoco y, poro 󿬏gohmzor, sd prdsdgtog hos
prmgkmpohds tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmûg qud sd dstïg mgkjrpjrogcj
o hos jrnogmzokmjgds prjcuktjros cd `ogubokturos y sdrvmkmjs.

Sdkgjhjnàos `jcdrgos poro ho prjcukkmûg

Ougqud gj pordkd ugo tordo sdgkmhho prdsdgtor ho cmvdrsmcoc y ohkogkd cd hjs
ocdhogtjs tdkgjhûnmkjs qud eog surnmcj dg `otdrmo cd prjcukkmûg dg hjs öhtm`js
oÿjs, dg ho 󿬏nuro ;.; sd rdsu`dg hjs prmgkmpohds kjgkdptjs qud eog m`poktocj ho
prjcukkmûg cd amdgds y sdrvmkmjs, to`amíg sd sdÿoho dh ïrdo cd ho d`prdso dg qud
mgkmcmû koco kjgkdptj.
  Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg ho 󿬏nuro ;.;, ugo cd hos ïrdos kjg dh `oy`oyjrjr gö`drj
cd kjgkdptjs gudvjs ds ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, bugco`dgtoh`dgtd pjr
ho opormkmûg cd gudvos dstrotdnmos cd kj`pdtdgkmo (kj`j sd opugtû dg dh kopàtuhj
ogtdrmjr)< ugj cd hjs rdsuhtocjs ds dh cdsorrjhhj cd gudvos 󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg
(kuyjs prmgkmpmjs sd prdsdgtog dg hos smnumdgtds sdkkmjgds), kj`j dh fustj o tmd`pj,
ho kohmcoc tjtoh y ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso, dgtrd jtros< osà kj`j gudvos edrro-
`mdgtos poro bj`dgtor ho d󿬏kmdgkmo jpdrotmvo, dgtrd dhhos ho rdmgndgmdrào cd prjkdsjs
y hjs smstd`os cd mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd suaroyor qud `ukejs
cd dstjs kjgkdptjs sd cmbugcdg dg hos dskudhos cd gdnjkmjs, pdrj prm`drj budrjg
m`phogtocjs dg hos d`prdsos poro sustdgtor sus dstrotdnmos cd kj`pdtdgkmo.
  Ho outj`otmzokmûg d mgtrjcukkmûg cd tdkgjhjnào ovogzoc
ovogzocoo dg hjs prjkdsjs
prjcuktmvjs to`amíg ds ug mgnrdcmdgtd m`pjrtogtd qud m`poktû o ho d`prdso dg
`ukeos ïrdos,
prjcuktmvjs. bokmhmtû
Dgtrd dstjshosmstd`os
mggjvokmûg cddhprjcuktjs
dstïg y ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc
cmsdÿj `jcuhor, dg hjs @jcdhmgn
dh T@H ( Tgm󿬏dc prjkdsjs

35  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro ;.;
M`poktj cd ho tdkgjhjnào • [mstd`o cd mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko
ovogzoco. Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds • Kohmcoc tjtoh
    G • Fustj o tmd`pj
    Û • Ydrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso
   M
• Mgvdgtormjs oc`mgmstrocjs pjr
   K
dh prjv
prjvddcjr 
ddcjr 
   O
   @
• Cmsdÿj `jcuhor 
• T@H Cmsdÿj @oqumgormo
• Gudvjs `otdrmohds y prjkdsjs
   Q
• [m`uhocjrds cdh prjcuktj  y dqumpj
• @ïqumgos kjg kjgtrjh gu`írmkj
   J j sdrvmkmj • Qjajts
   B
cd ohtj gmvdh
   G
• KOC/KO@/KOD
   M • YH@
 
   D
   C
  • Kíhuhos cd `oguboktur
`ogubokturoo
   [ • [mstd`os outj`ïtmkjs cd kjgtrjh
   O @ogubokturo • KM@
    À
   N
• [mstd`os cd `ogubokturo 󿬁dxmahd
   J
   H
   J
   G
   K • [mstd`os vmsuohds
   D Kjgtrjh • [mstd`os cd `dcmkmûg cd ohto prdkmsmûg
   S cd kohmcoc

 Hognuond), hjs smstd`os poro dh cmsdÿj osmstmcj pjr kj`putocjro (KOC, Kj`putdr
 Omcdc Cdsmng), ho `ogubokturo osmstmco pjr kj`putocjro (KO@, Kj`putdr Omcdc
@ogubokturmgn ), ), ho mgndgmdrào osmstmco pjr kj`putocjro (KOD, Kj`putdr Omcdc Dg-
 nmgddrmgn ),
), ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh kmkhj cd vmco cdh prjcuktj (YH@,  Yrjcukt Hmbdkykhd
Hmbdkykhd
@ogond`dgt ), ), hjs sm`uhocjrds cd ohtj gmvdh, poro dh cmsdÿj y cdsorrjhhj cd prj-
cuktjs< hjs rjajts y `ïqumgos cd kjgtrjh gu`írmkj, y ugo cmvdrsmcoc cd prjkdsjs
mggjvocjrds poro ho `ogubokturo (vdo Nrjjvdr, 1991) dg dh ïrdo cd `oqumgormo y
dqumpj< hos kíhuhos cd `ogubokturo (vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard cmsdÿj cd cmspjsmkmûg cd
phogto), hjs smstd`os outj`ïtmkjs cd kjgtrjh y hjs smstd`os cd `ogubokturo 󿬁dxm-
 ahd dg dh ïrdo cd `ogubokturo< hjs smstd`os vmsuohds y hjs smstd`os cd `dcmkmûg
cd ohto prdkmsmûg, dg dh ïrdo cd kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc. Ocd`ïs cd dstjs kjgkdptjs,
koad sdÿohor dh rïpmcj ovogkd qud dg `otdrmo cd tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg eog
m`poktocj dg kosm tjcos hos ïrdos cd ho d`prdso.

Outj`otmzokmûg y tdkgjhjnào ovogzoco

Dg ho oktuohmcoc ho tdkgjhjnào ds dh boktjr qud dxphmko dh nrocj cd kj`pdtmtmvmcoc
cd hjs sdktjrds mgcustrmohds cd ugo gokmûg. Dg dh posocj sd kjgsmcdroao qud dh
vdrtmnmgjsj ovogkd cd ho tdkgjhjnào dro ugo cdsvdgtofo poro dh m`puhsj cd hos dkj-
gj`àos cd poàsds dg cdsorrjhhj, sd pdgsoao qud dstd ovogkd o`phmorào ho ‘ardkeo
tdkgjhûnmko‐ dgtrd poàsds cdsorrjhhocjs y poàsds dg cdsorrjhhj. [mg d`aornj, poàsds
kj`j Kemgo, Kjrdo cdh [ur, Mrhogco, y Yjrtunoh, qud eog hjnrocj ug cdsorrjhhj mg-
custrmoh y tdkgjhûnmkj dg tmd`pjs rdhotmvo`dgtd kjrtjs, `udstrog qud o portmr cd
`dkogms`js oprjpmocjs cd kjjpdrokmûg, ho tdkgjhjnào `jcdrgo sd osm`mho y oprj-
vdkeo poro cdsorrjhhor sdktjrds mgcustrmohds ohto`dgtd kj`pdtmtmvjs. Cd dgtroco,
sd rdkjgjkd qud ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd tdkgjhjnào `jcdrgo dg pdqudÿos y `dcmogos
d`prdsos gj ds ug prjkdsj kj`phmkocj< pjr dh kjgtrormj, ho tdkgjhjnào `jcdrgo
 ausko sm`phm󿬏kor ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds y hjs prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs.
Hjs ovogkds
gubokturos tdkgjhûnmkjs
y sdrvmkmjs cd `oyjr
dstïg hmnocjs m`pjrtogkmo cd
o ho mgkjrpjrokmûg poro
hoshokj`putocjros
prjcukkmûg cd
dg`o-
hjs

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 3=

smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg, hos qud eog pdr`mtmcj outj`otmzor kmdrtos tordos qud ogtds
rdqudràog ho mgtdrvdgkmûg cmrdkto cdh ej`ard. Ho outj`otmzokmûg cd hjs prjkdsjs
 prjcuktmvjs d`pmdzo dg ho cíkoco cd hjs kmgkudgto, kjg ho mgtrjcukkmûg cd hos `ï-
qumgos kjg kjgtrjh gu`írmkj, `ïqumgos kuyo jpdrokmûg y `jvm`mdgtj cd sus ed-
rro`mdgtos sd prjnro`o o portmr cd mgstrukkmjgds qud hddg y dfdkutog cmspjsmtmvjs
dhdktrûgmkjs< dg porohdhj kjg dh cdsorrjhhj cd sjbtword poro dh cmsdÿj y ogïhmsms
cd prjcuktjs y prjkdsjs, sd hjnro ho mgtdnrokmûg cd dstjs smstd`os, hj qud rdcufj cd
bjr`o kjgsmcdroahd dh prjkdsj cd cmsdÿj, cdsorrjhhj y `ogubokturo cd prjcuktjs
y prjkdsjs. O kjgtmguokmûg sd rdsu`dg hjs kjgkdptjs dg outj`otmzokmûg y tdkgj-
hjnào ovogzoco kjg ug m`poktj kjgsmcdroahd dg ho prjcukkmûg cd `ogubokturos y
sdrvmkmjs< cocj qud `ukejs cd dstjs kjgkdptjs sd rdkjgjkdg pjr su cdgj`mgokmûg
jrmnmgoh dg hdgnuo mgnhdso, sd mgcmko dgtrd porígtdsms dsto tdr`mgjhjnào, kuogcj
sdo dh kosj.
  Dg prm`dr hunor dstïg hjs kjgkdptjs cd m`pjrtogkmo poro dh cmsdÿj y cdso-
rrjhhj cd gudvjs prjcuktjs, tdgno dg kudgto qud oktuoh`dgtd gj sûhj ds gdkdsormj
qud hos d`prdsos sdog kopokds cd mgtrjcukmr oh `drkocj prjcuktjs qud sotmsbonog
`dfjr hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs khmdgtds, smgj to`amíg qud dsto mgtrjcukkmûg sd eono
dg tmd`pjs y kjstjs rdcukmcjs.

Cmsdÿj `jcuhor
Dh cmsdÿj cd prjcuktjs j sdrvmkmjs ausko jbrdkdr ugo `oy
`oyjr
jr vormdcoc cd prjcuktjs
oh khmdgtd, oh `ms`j tmd`pj qud oprjvdkeo hos vdgtofos cd ho dstogcormzokmûg cd-
rmvocos cd ho prjcukkmûg dg `oso. Yoro m`phogtor ug cmsdÿj `jcuhor prm`drj sd
cdadgcmsdÿor
hudnj mcdgtm󿬏kor hjs `ûcuhjs
cmbdrdgtds (kj`pjgdgtds
`jcdhjs prmgkmpohds)
poro koco `ûcuhj. cdh prjcuktj
Dh cmsdÿj j sdrvmkmj
cdad pdr`mtmr qudy
koco `jcdhj cd ug `ûcuhj sd okjphd kjg koco `jcdhj cd hjs jtrjs `ûcuhjs, hj
qud ds ugo dxtdgsmûg cdh prmgkmpmj cd pjsmamhmcoc cd mgtdrko`amj cd hos portds,
cdh qud yo trotû dh kopàtuhj ?. Cd dsto `ogdro, ho kj`amgokmûg cd hjs cmbdrdgtds
`jcdhjs cd hjs `ûcuhjs pdr`mtd jbrdkdr o hjs khmdgtds ugo nrog vormdcoc cd cmsd-
ÿjs, o ho vdz qud ho dstogcormzokmûg cd hjs `jcdhjs bokmhmto su prjcukkmûg dg `oso.
Dg cmvdrsos mgcustrmos eoy dfd`phjs cd cmsdÿj `jcuhor kj`j dg ho cd outj`ûvm-
hds, amkmkhdtos, `udahds y dhdktrûgmkjs. Dgtrd dhhos cdstoko dh kosj cd ho mgcustrmo
cd `udahds poro kjkmgo, cjgcd hjs kdgtrjs cd vdgto, opjyocjs dg smstd`os KOC,
prjpjrkmjgog ugo nrog vormdcoc cd jpkmjgds oh khmdgtd, ho ögmko mgbjr`okmûg qud
rdqumdrdg sjg hos cm`dgsmjgds cd ho kjkmgo.

Hdgnuofd Tgm﬏kocj cd @jcdhocj

(Tgm﬏dc @jcdhmgn Hognuond, T@H )
Ds ugo bo`mhmo cd nrï󿬏kos kjg sus kjrrdspjgcmdgtds sà`ajhjs cmsdÿocjs poro cds-
krmamr sjbtword, prjnro`os y smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg (vdo Bjwhdr 1993). Dsto gj-
`dgkhoturo pdr`mtd cdskrmamr prjkdsjs kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd cdsorrjhhor hjs smstd`os
cd mgbjr`okmûg qud opjyorïg sus kjrrdspjgcmdgtds prjkdsjs, cd dsto `ogdro sd
bokmhmto ho rdmgndgmdrào cd prjkdsjs y dh cdsorrjhhj cd smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg.
Dxmstdg edrro`mdgtos KO[D (Kj`putdr Omcdc [jbtword Dgnmgddrmgn ) qud trocukdg
nrï󿬏kos T@H o kûcmnj cd sjbtword y vmkdvdrso.

Cmsdÿj osmstmcj pjr kj`putocjro

(Kj`putdr Omcdc Cdsmng, KOC )
Ds dh cmsdÿj cd prjcuktjs j sdrvmkmjs kjg dh opjyj cd ugo kj`putocjro. Hjs smstd-
`os KOC sjg poqudtds cd nro󿬏kokmûg pjr kj`putocjro, qud pdr`mtdg ogohmzor dh
cdsd`pdÿj cd hjs cmsdÿjs
`mdgtj cd ocdkuocjs kjgcdaosd
gmvdhds dg sushjdspdkm󿬏kokmjgds,
kohmcoc, `dcmogtd
qud pdr`mtd ndgdror dh dstoahdkm-
hjs rdqudrm`mdg-

49  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

tjs cd `otdrmohds y/j prjkdsjs. Yjr dfd`phj, hjs smstd`os KOC smrvdg poro ogohmzor
hos `dcmcos cd ugo pmdzo y vdrm󿬏kor qud ísto pudco okjphorsd cd bjr`o ocdkuoco
 kjg hos jtros pmdzos cdh dqumpj, j to`amíg poro dvohuor dh cdsd`pdÿj cd ho cmspj-
smkmûg cd ugo phogto cd `ogubokturo, j ho cmspjsmkmûg cd j󿬏kmgos dg ug kdgtrj cd
otdgkmûg poro ho prdstokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs.

Kjgtrjh gu`írmkj
Ds dh kjgtrjh cdh `jvm`mdgtj cd ugo edrro`mdgto `dcmogtd mgstrukkmjgds gu`í-
rmkos, hos kuohds sjg cmrmnmcos pjr ugo kj`putocjro qud kjgtrjho o ho edrro`mdgto
pjr `dcmj
tocjro cd cmspjsmtmvjs
dg sdÿohds qud`ïqumgos
bàsmkos. Hos trogsbjr`og
kjg hos sdÿohds
kjgtrjh dhdktrûgmkos
gu`írmkj, cd ho kj`pu-
o cmbdrdgkmo cd hos
qud tmdgdg tdkgjhjnào `dkïgmko, gj gdkdsmtog qud dh jpdrormj rdnuhd `oguoh`dg-
td hos edrro`mdgtos, yo qud su rdnuhokmûg sd prjcukd outj`ïtmko`dgtd kjg aosd
dg hos mgstrukkmjgds gu`írmkos.

Qjajt
Ds ho bjr`o `ïs ovogzoco cd outj`otmzokmûg dg ugo jpdrokmûg cd `ogubokturo.
Hjs rjajts utmhmzocjs dg ho `ogubokturo sjg arozjs `dkïgmkjs kjg ohto kopokmcoc
cd `jvm`mdgtj. Dh rjajt sd prjnro`o poro qud sd cdsphokd dg dh pmsj cd prjcuk-
kmûg, ko`amd edrro`mdgtos y hos jpdrd kjg aosd dg hos gdkdsmcocds cd prjkdsj,
kjg hj qud sd jatmdgd ugo tdkgjhjnào `uy 󿬁dxmahd, cjtoco cd nrog kopokmcoc cd
prjkdsj y cd o`phmos vdgtofos poro mgtrjcukmr ho `ogubokturo cd gudvjs cmsdÿjs
dg ho phogto.
@ogubokturo osmstmco pjr kj`putocjro
(Kj`putdr Omcdc @ogubokturmgn, KO@ )
Ds dh kjgtrjh kj`putormzocj cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo. Dh kjgtrjh gu`írmkj pudcd
kjgsmcdrorsd ugo bjr`o cd KO@, y ho rjaûtmko ds ugo `jcohmcoc `ïs `jcdrgo
cd KO@. Dh kjgkdptj KO@, smg d`aornj, dg su kjgkdpkmûg `ïs o`phmo m`phmko ho
kjjrcmgokmûg outj`ïtmko cd hjs cmbdrdgtds prjkdsjs mgvjhukrocjs dg ho `ogubokturo
cd ug prjcuktj. Dg portmkuhor, sm ho `ogubokturo outj`ïtmko sd mgtdnro oh cmsdÿj
osmstmcj pjr kj`putocjro, sd jatmdgd dh kjgkdptj KOC/KO@, dh kuoh sd opjyo dg
mgtdrbokds qud pdr`mtdg ndgdror hos mgstrukkmjgds cd `oqumgocj dg ho `ïqumgo
cd kjgtrjh gu`írmkj o portmr cd hos dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds cd cmsdÿj cdsorrjhhocos dg dh
smstd`o KOC.

Mgndgmdrào osmstmco pjr kj`putocjro ( Kj`putdr Omcdc Dgnmgddrmgn, KOD )

Ds dh usj cd tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg poro opjyor o hjs mgndgmdrjs dg dh ogïhmsms,
sm`uhokmûg, cmsdÿj, `ogubokturo, phogdokmûg, cmongûstmkj y rdporokmûg cd ug prj-
cuktj. Yjr dfd`phj, hdgnuofds cd prjnro`okmûg kj`j OHNJQ, OG[][, M@OND[-
;C, @[K/GO[SQOG y [SOQCMGD
[SOQCMGD pdr`mtdg dvohuor hos prjpmdcocds `dkïgmkos cd
ug cmsdÿj ophmkogcj dh `ítjcj cdh dhd`dgtj 󿬏gmtj.

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh kmkhj cd vmco cdh prjcuktj

(Yrjcukt Hybdkykhd @ogond`dgt, YH@ )
Ds dh prjkdsj cd oc`mgmstror dh kmkhj cd vmco cd ug prjcuktj6 cdscd su kjgkdpkmûg,
cmsdÿj, cdsorrjhhj y `ogubokturo, eosto su sdrvmkmj, cdstrukkmûg y rdkmkhocj. Hjs
smstd`os YH@ (pjr dfd`phj, TN[) mgtdnrog cmvdrsos edrro`mdgtos KOC/KO@/KOD
qud pudcdg kj`ugmkorsd
mgbjr`okmûg sjard dh kmkhj dgtrd sà cd
cd vmco cdscd cmbdrdgtds hjkohmcocds poro kj`portmr ho
ug prjcuktj.

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 4?

[m`uhocjrds cd ohtj gmvdh

[jg hdgnuofds cd prjnro`okmûg kjg o`amdgtds nrï󿬏kjs d mgtdroktmvjs poro dh cd-
 sorrjhhj cd `jcdhjs qud pdr`mtdg sm`uhor dh cdsd`pdÿj cd prjkdsjs cd `ogubok-
turo y prdstokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs, prjkdsjs cd `oqumgocj j mgkhusmvd hos prjpmdcocds
`dkïgmkos cd ug cmsdÿj, ogtds cd ho bosd cd cdsorrjhhj cdh prjcuktj j prjkdsj. Dg
kmdrtos ophmkokmjgds, kj`j dg hjs poqudtds KOSMO y TGMNQOYEMK[ poro cmsdÿj,
sd mgtrjcufdrjg `ûcuhjs qud pdr`mtdg prjaor hos prjpmdcocds cdh cmsdÿj, dg jtros,
kj`j hjs poqudtds OQDGO, YQJ@JCDH, ^MSGD[[ j _TD[S sd mgtdnro ug hdg-
nuofd cd sm`uhokmûg kjg ug o`amdgtd nrï󿬏kj qud pdr`mtdg dvohuor vmrtuoh`dgtd
dh cdsd`pdÿj cd ug prjkdsj.
Gudvjs `otdrmohds y prjkdsjs
Ougqud hjs prmgkmpmjs aïsmkjs cd hjs prjkdsjs mgcustrmohds eog smcj dstucmocjs
cdscd ugo pdrspdktmvo tdûrmko, ho mgvdstmnokmûg ophmkoco kjgtmgöo kjg dh cdsorrjhhj
cd tdkgjhjnàos qud pdr`mtdg hhdvor o koaj hjs `ms`js prjkdsjs, o `dgjr kjstj, qud
hjs `ítjcjs trocmkmjgohds, j kjg `dfjrds dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds (`dfjrds prjpmdcocds j
`dgjrds tjhdrogkmos) cd cmsdÿj. Dg ïrdos rdhokmjgocos kjg dh cdsorrjhhj tdkgjhûnmkj
kj`j ho kmdgkmo cd hjs `otdrmohds y kj`pudstjs, ho outj`otmzokmûg y hos tdkgjhjnàos
cd mgbjr`okmûg, sd eog cdsphdnocj tdkgjhjnàos qud prjpjrkmjgog `oyjrds jpjrtu-
gmcocds poro ho mggjvokmûg cd hjs prjcuktjs y cd hjs prjkdsjs cd prjcukkmûg, y sd
eog jatdgmcj `otdrmohds kjg `dfjrds prjpmdcocds
prjpmdcocds (ohdokmjgds, pjhà`drjs, kdrï`mkos,
dgtrd jtrjs), `dfjrds prjkdcm`mdgtjs poro dh `oqumgocj (pjr dfd`phj, `ítjcjs
cd kjrtd hos
bokmhmtor kjgjpdrokmjgds
royjs hïsdr ydgcdhodhdktrjgds, y edrro`mdgtos
d`prdso, kj`j 󿬁dxmahds), y cd
sjg dh prjkdso`mdgtj `ítjcjs poroy
m`ïndgds
ho mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko (vdo Nrjjvdr, 1991).
Dg dh ïrdo cdh cmsdÿj cd hjs prjkdsjs cd `ogubokturo sd mgtrjcukd to`amíg
ho tdkgjhjnào ovogzoco. Ho krdkmdgtd m`pjrtogkmo cd gudvos cm`dgsmjgds cd kj`-
pdtdgkmo dg hjs `drkocjs jahmno o rdphogtdor hjs kjgkdptjs khïsmkjs poro dh cmsdÿj
cd phogtos. Dg ho oktuohmcoc gj sûhj ds m`pjrtogtd dh hjnrj cd ohtjs gmvdhds cd prj-
cuktmvmcoc, smgj qud to`amíg cdadg jatdgdrsd cmsdÿjs cd phogto qud bokmhmtdg ho
mggjvokmûg cd prjcuktjs y prjkdsjs, gdkdsormjs poro dgbrdgtor dh oktuoh o`amdgtd
kj`pdtmtmvj. Yjr jtrj hocj, ho krdkmdgtd otdgkmûg qud rdkmad ho kohmcoc cd hjs prj-
cuktjs poro `ogtdgdr pjsmkmjgds dg dh `drkocj eo pdr`mtmcj qud hos d`prdsos
oprjvdkedg gudvos tdkgjhjnàos dg opjyj cd ug kjgtrjh `ïs d󿬏kmdgtd cd hjs prjkd-
sjs cd prjcukkmûg. Dgtrd hjs kjgkdptjs kjgtd`pjrïgdjs cd `oyjr rdhdvogkmo rd-
hokmjgocjs kjg dh cmsdÿj cd ho phogto y cd hjs prjkdsjs cd `ogubokturo dstïg hjs
smnumdgtds6
Kíhuhos cd `ogubokturo
Ds ug dsqud`o cd cmspjsmkmûg cd phogtos, kuyo ocjpkmûg ds rdkj`dgcoahd poro
jrnogmzor ugo dstrotdnmo cd `ogubokturo sustdgtoco dg ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc poro mgtrj-
cukmr gudvjs prjcuktjs y ofustorsd dkjgû`mko`dgtd o ko`amjs dg hjs potrjgds cd
cd`ogco cd ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg. Dstd kjgkdptj, o cmbdrdgkmo cd hjs dsqud`os
trocmkmjgohds cd cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto, qud dspdkmohmzog o hjs tohhdrds pjr tmpj cd
prjkdsj j pjr prjcuktj, pdr`mtd qud dg hjs tohhdrds (hho`ocjs kíhuhos) sd hjnrd ho
`ogubokturo dkjgû`mko cd bo`mhmos cd prjcuktjs, cd sudrtd qud ho `oqumgormo y dh
dqumpj sd oprjvdked oh `ïxm`j aofj cmbdrdgtds potrjgds cd cd`ogco, hj qud bokmhm-
to mgkhusmvd ho `ogubokturo d󿬏kmdgtd cd gudvjs cmsdÿjs. Ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor sd
mgtrjcufj jrmnmgoh`dgtd dg phogtos fopjgdsos, ougqud dg dstd `j`dgtj sd ocjpto
kjg íxmtj dg d`prdsos
pjr cmstmgnumrsd cd cmvdrsjs
dg kuogtj poàsds,
o kopokmcoc cd dg portmkuhory cjgcd
mggjvokmûg eoy ugo aösqudco
󿬁dxmamhmcoc.

41  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

[mstd`os outj`ïtmkjs cd kjgtrjh

Dh kjgtrjh outj`ïtmkj cd hjs prjkdsjs tmdgd ug popdh dstrotínmkj dg ho `ogubokturo,
 gj sûhj pjrqud pdr`mtd prjcukmr dstïgcords cd kohmcoc `ïs prdkmsjs, smgj to`amíg
pjrqud m`phogto dsqud`os 󿬁dxmahds cd prjcukkmûg, smg sokrm󿬏kor ho prjcuktmvmcoc.
Dh kjgtrjh outj`ïtmkj cd hjs smstd`os cd kjgtrjh rdcukd hjs tmd`pjs pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsjs, eokmdgcj qud hjs dsqud`os 󿬁dxmahds cd `ogubokturo (pjr dfd`phj,
ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor) pudcog kj`pdtmr dg kjstjs kjg dsqud`os cd prjcukkmûg
dg `oso.

[mstd`os cd `ogubokturo fidxmahd

(Bhdxmahd @ogubokturmgn [ystd`s, B@[) 
Hjs smstd`os cd `ogubokturo 󿬁dxmahd sjg phogtos qud kj`amgog ho `ogubokturo
kdhuhor, dh cmsdÿj `jcuhor y ho outj`otmzokmûg poro hjnror ho prjcukkmûg dg `oso
cd ugo nrog vormdcoc cd cmsdÿjs cd ug `ms`j prjcuktj. Tg B@[, pjr hj ndgdroh,
hj bjr`og `ïqumgos (y/j rjajts), ugmcos `dcmogtd cmspjsmtmvjs outj`ïtmkjs cd
trogspjrtd, kjgtrjhocjs kdgtroh`dgtd pjr ugo kj`putocjro, ho qud cmrmnd dh 󿬁ufj
cd pmdzos o trovís cd hos cmbdrdgtds `ïqumgos y kjgtrjho hjs prjkdsjs dg hos `ms`os.
Tg B@[ prjcukd o pdcmcj cdh khmdgtd, kj`j ds dh kosj cd ho bïarmko cd amkmkhdtos
Yogosjgmk dg Fopûg, cjgcd dh khmdgtd, o portmr cd ug kotïhjnj, dhmnd dh `jcdhj cd
su prdbdrdgkmo dgtrd hjs cmbdrdgtds `ûcuhjs (tm`ûg, rudcos, osmdgtj, dtk.)< cmkeo
mgbjr`okmûg mgnrdso o ho kj`putocjro kdgtroh, qud cmrmnd dh prjkdsj poro hjnror ho
`ogubokturo cdh cmsdÿj pdcmcj.

@ogubokturo mgtdnroco pjr kj`putocj

kj`putocjro
ro
(Kj`putdr Mgtdnrotdc @ogubokturmgn, KM@) 
Kjgsmstd dg mgtdnror dh KOC/KO@ y B@[ (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.3), poro jatdgdr ho mgtd-
nrokmûg outj`ïtmko cd hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos, cdscd dh cmsdÿj eosto dh sdr-
vmkmj oh khmdgtd.

[mstd`os cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj y rdkupdrokmûg outj`ïtmko

[mstd`os cmsdÿocjs poro `ogdfor,
`ogdfor, oc`mgmstror y kjgtrjhor ohtos tosos cd `jvm`mdg-
tj cd `otdrmohds dg oh`okdgds. Dg ug smstd`o cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj y rdkupdrokmûg
outj`ïtmko ([OQO), ho `drkogkào hhdno oh smstd`o o trovís cd ug trogspjrtocjr
`ûvmh (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.4), qud ho trogs󿬏drd oh korrj cdh posmhhj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd cdh
oh`okíg, ugo vdz
koroktdràstmkos, qud ugoqud
cd `ogdro kj`putocjro
sdo bïkmh su kdgtroh eo mcdgtm󿬏kocj
rdkupdrokmûg sudghjkohmzokmûg
outj`ïtmko dh `j`dgtjy

‶ Bmnuro ;.3
 Outj`otmzokmûg
cd ho prjcukkmûg. Kjgtrjh
gu`írmkj

KO@ B@[

KM@
Qjajt
KOC

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 4;

‶ Bmnuro ;.4
ÏQDO[ CD OH@OKDGO@MDGSJ Cmonro`o cd ug smstd`o
cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj y
KOQQJ SQOG[YJQS
SQOG[YJQSOCJQ
OCJQ
rdkupdrokmûg outj`ïtmko.
  SQOG[YJQSOCJQ

MGRDGSOQMJ [OHMDGSD MGRDGSOQMJ DGSQOGSD

oprjpmocj. Tgj cd hjs prm`drjs [OQO bud mgstohocj dg Cdhto Omrhmgds poro oc`m-
gmstror ho nrog kogtmcoc cd rdpudstjs rdqudrmcjs pjr sus jpdrokmjgds cd vudhj.
  Ho m`pjrtogkmo qud ejy tmdgd ho kohmcoc kj`j cmstmgkmûg kj`pdtmtmvo armgco
jpjrtugmcocds poro hos ophmkokmjgds cd ho tdkgjhjnào dg dh ïrdo cd kjgtrjh y `dfj-
ro`mdgtj cd ho kohmcoc. Tgj cd hjs pmhords poro ho m`phogtokmûg cd smstd`os poro
ho `dfjro cd ho kohmcoc hj kjgstmtuydg hjs smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg (td`o qud sd
oajrco dgsdnumco), yo qud ug pugtj krukmoh poro dstoahdkdr prjnro`os cd `dfjro
kjgtmguo ds ho ndgdrokmûg cd rdpjrtds cd cdsd`pdÿj, o portmr cd hjs qud sd dsto-
 ahdkd ug ocdkuocj smstd`o cd mgkdgtmvjs poro ho `dfjro kjgtmguo cd ho kohmcoc.
Yjr jtrj hocj, ho outj`otmzokmûg cd hjs prjkdcm`mdgtjs cd mgspdkkmûg bokmhmto ho
rdohmzokmûg cd hos hoajrds gdkdsormos poro dh kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc, o aofj kjstj y
kjg `oyjr prdkmsmûg. Dg dstd sdgtmcj, kj`j ophmkokmjgds cd tdkgjhjnào ovogzoco,
dstïg hjs smstd`os vmsuohds y hjs smstd`os cd `dcmkmûg cd ohto prdkmsmûg.

[mstd`os vmsuohds 
[jg dqumpjs kjg sdgsjrds ûptmkjs, kjg kopokmcoc poro rdkjgjkdr m`ïndgds. Tg
smstd`o vmsuoh kjgsmstd cd ugo kï`oro poro koptor ho m`ondg, ug ogohmzocjr cd
vmcdj, ugo `mkrjkj`putocjro y ugo pogtohho. Ocd`ïs cd hos ophmkokmjgds poro dh
kjgtrjh cd ho kohmcoc (cdtdkkmûg cd cdbdktjs cd boarmkokmûg), hjs smstd`os vmsuohds
sd utmhmzog to`amíg poro ho khosm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko, vdrm󿬏kokmûg cd dspdkm󿬏kokmj-
gds cd d`poqud y sdhdkkmûg outj`ïtmko cd jafdtjs (pjr dfd`phj, osmstmdgcj o ug
rjajt). Yjr dfd`phj, dg ho phogto cd Ndgdroh @jtjrs dg Hogsmgn, ho hjkohmzokmûg cd
pugtjs cd pdrbjrokmûg y ho cdtdkkmûg cd drrjrds cd dgso`ahd sd rdohmzo o trovís
cd ogohmzocjrds cd vmcdj< to`amíg dxmstdg ophmkokmjgds dg ho mgcustrmo cd ohm`dgtjs
poro khosm󿬏kor ho `otdrmo prm`o pjr vjhu`dg y bjr`o< dg ho mgcustrmo bor`okíutmko
poro ho m`prdsmûg cd bdkeos y kûcmnjs cd hjtds, dg ho mgcustrmo dhdktrûgmko poro ho
vdrm󿬏kokmûg cd kmrkumtjs m`prdsjs, y dg ho mgcustrmo cd ho `ocdro poro mcdgtm󿬏kor
ho cmrdkkmûg cd ho 󿬏aro y dh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd kjrtd, dgtrd jtros.

[mstd`os cd `dcmkmûg cd ohto prdkmsmûg 

Ho `dfjro kjgtmguo cd ho kohmcoc eo cdtdr`mgocj qud hos tjhdrogkmos cd hos ds-
pdkm󿬏kokmjgds cd cmsdÿj tmdgcog o rdcukmrsd, poro ndgdror ortàkuhjs kjg cmsdÿjs
rjaustjs y `oyjr
tjhdrogkmos curoamhmcoc. Dg
dg hos cm`dgsmjgds cd ohnugos
hos portdsmgcustrmos (kj`j ho cd
sjg tog pdqudÿos qudoutjportds),
hjs drrjrds hos
cd

43  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

`ogubokturo gj sjg cdtdktoahds pjr dh jfj eu`ogj, gm smqumdro kjg ho oyuco

cd cmspjsmtmvjs `dkïgmkjs, pjr hj qud ds gdkdsormj utmhmzor dqumpj cd `dcmkmûg cd
ohto prdkmsmûg, ndgdroh`dgtd `dcmogtd sdgsjrds y cmspjsmtmvjs dhdktrûgmkjs. Rohd
 ho pdgo `dgkmjgor qud oktuoh`dgtd dh ohtj prdkmj cd dstjs dqumpjs pudcd gj fus-
tm󿬏kor su kj`pro dg d`prdsos cd to`oÿj pdqudÿj, pjr hj qud dg ohnugjs kosjs
(pjr dfd`phj, dh Kdgtrj Gokmjgoh cd @dtrjhjnào dg @íxmkj), dh Dstocj pudcd krdor
`dkogms`js cd opjyj poro ho kjgbjr`okmûg cd kdgtrjs dspdkmohmzocjs (pöahmkjs j
prmvocjs) qud jbrdzkog sdrvmkmjs cd `dcmkmûg y kdrtm󿬏kokmûg cd ho kohmcoc.

Sdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds

Tgo cd hos ïrdos dg qud ho tdkgjhjnào eo rdnmstrocj su `ïs gjtoahd cdsorrjhhj ds,
smg cuco, dh ïrdo cd ho mgbjr`okmûg y hos kj`ugmkokmjgds. Dg ho toaho ;.?, sd rdprj-
cukd ugo hmsto cd hjs cdsorrjhhjs tdkgjhûnmkjs dg mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds
kjg `oyjr m`poktj dg dh o`amdgtd d`prdsormoh. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd rdsohtor qud dstos
tdkgjhjnàos gj sûhj bokmhmtorjg ho m`phogtokmûg cd edrro`mdgtos `ïs prdkmsos (mgtdg-
smvos dg kïhkuhjs d mgbjr`okmûg) poro ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds, smgj qud pdr`mtmdrjg
cdskdgtrohmzor `ukeos cd hos tordos qud sd rdohmzoaog dg ugo `ms`o hjkohmcoc. Dg
portmkuhor, pdr`mtmdrjg qud dh cmsdÿj cd prjcuktjs tuvmdro ugo cmstrmaukmûg nhj-
 aoh, hj qud bokmhmtû dh cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds dg hjkohmcocds
hjkohmcocds cd cmbdrdgtds poàsds.
Yjr dfd`phj, d`prdsos kj`j Bjrc,Bjrc, Ndgdroh @jtjrs y @jtjrjho `ogtmdgdg dqumpjs
dg cmbdrdgtds portds cdh `ugcj, qud troaofog kjjpdrotmvo`dgtd dg dh cmsdÿj cd
gudvjs prjcuktjs, nrokmos oh usj cd hos bokmhmcocds qud jbrdkd ho tdkgjhjnào cd kj-
`ugmkokmjgds oktuoh.
  Dg rdhokmûg kjg hjs cdsorrjhhjs qud mhustro ho toaho ;.?, kjgvmdgd eokdr gjtor
qud dh hopsj dgtrd dh cdsorrjhhj cd ho tdkgjhjnào y su ophmkokmûg kj`drkmoh ds koco
vdz `ïs rdcukmcj. Yjr dfd`phj, ho ophmkokmûg cdh box kj`j `dcmj poro cdsorrjhhor
smstd`os cd dgvàj y `dgsofdrào rïpmco sd dxpdrm`dgtû dg ug phozj `uy kjrtj. Dg
ndgdroh, hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds kjgtrmauydg o ho nhjao-
hmzokmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds kj`drkmohds, bokmhmtog dh cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds y ho
uamkokmûg cd j󿬏kmgos cd aogkjs y vdgtos poro otdgcdr trogsokkmjgds dg cmbdrdgtds
portds cdh `ugcj.
  Dh m`poktj `ïs gjtoahd cd hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds
dg ho prjcukkmûg, smg d`aornj, ds qud bokmhmtorjg ho m`phogtokmûg cd tíkgmkos kuog-
tmtotmvos, qud kj`amgog mgbjr`okmûg rdhdvogtd sjard dh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj y `ítj-
cjs kmdgtà󿬏kjs poro opjyor dh prjkdsj cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds. Dg dstd `j`dgtj ho
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos dg hos d`prdsos cdad dstor opjyoco
pjr ug d󿬏kmdgtd smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg, qud kj`pmhd, jrnogmkd y cmstrmauyo ho mg-
bjr`okmûg sjard ho kuoh sdo pjsmahd tj`or hos cdkmsmjgds kjgvdgmdgtds poro cmrmnmr

‶ Soaho ;.? S D KG J HJ NÀ O C D K J@ T G MKO K M JG D [ C Í K O CO SDKGJ HJ NÀ O CD MGBJ Q@OKMÛ G

Cdsorrjhhjs tdkgjhûnmkjs dg
kj`ugmkokmjgds d mgbjr`okmûg.
Sdhdvmsmûg o kjhjr
?=49 Kj`putocjros kj`drkmohds
Cmskocj cmrdktj
Kj`ugmkokmjgds vào sotíhmtd
?=29 Kmrkumtjs mgtdnrocjs
Srogs`msmûg cmnmtoh tdhdbûgmko
Box
?=>9 Aosds cd cotjs kj`drkmohds
Qocmj `ûvmh ( ponmgn
 ponmgn)
Sdhíbjgj kdhuhor Kj`putocjro pdrsjgoh
Qdcds prmvocos Ejfo cd kïhkuhj
?=59
Kj`ugmkokmûg Mgtdrgdt Yrjkdsocjrds cd tdxtj
[drvmkmjs cd dgvàj rïpmcj Kjrrdj dhdktrûgmkj

SBudgtd6
rogs`msmûg tdhdbûgmko `uhtm`dcmo
Bhoedrty , ?==2.
?==9 @uhtm`dcmo

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 44

ho d`prdso eokmo dh ku`phm`mdgtj cd sus `dtos dstrotínmkos. O kjgtmguokmûg sd

cdskrmadg ohnugos cd hos tdkgjhjnàos kjg `oyjr m`poktj poro bokmhmtor dh prjkdsj
cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds cdgtrj cd ho d`prdso.
 [mstd`os cd mcdgtm﬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko
Tg smstd`o cd mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko ([MO) pdr`mtd ho kopturo outj`ïtmko cd
mgbjr`okmûg sjard ug jafdtj, ortàkuhj j khmdgtd, cd `jcj qud dsto mgbjr`okmûg mg-
nrdsd rïpmco`dgtd o ugo aosd cd cotjs poro su prjkdso`mdgtj. Hjs [MO `ïs kjgjkm-
cjs sjg ho torfdto cd krícmtj, dh kûcmnj cd aorros y hjs kemps poro mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg pjr
rocmjbrdkudgkmo
cd m`ïndgds y cd(QBMC),
vjz. Dhougqud to`amíg
m`poktj `oyjr dxmstdg [MO rocmko
cd hjs [MO aosocjsdgdghodhrdcukkmûg
rdkjgjkm`mdgtj
cd hjs
kjstjs cd mgbjr`okmûg, y, pjr dgcd, su mgstohokmûg o prdkmjs okkdsmahds.

[drvmkmjs wda
Ds ugo kjhdkkmûg cd prjtjkjhjs y dstïgcords qud smrvdg poro mgtdrko`amor cotjs
dgtrd ophmkokmjgds qud jpdrog dg cmbdrdgtds photobjr`os y/j smstd`os jpdrotmvjs.
Ohnugjs hdgnuofds cd prjnro`okmûg (FORO) mgkjrpjrog dstjs dstïgcords y prjtj-
kjhjs, hj qud bokmhmto ho kj`ugmkokmûg dgtrd cmbdrdgtds ophmkokmjgds, y pdr`mtd qud
ug khmdgtd rdohmkd trogsokkmjgds j sjhmkmtd sdrvmkmjs cd bjr`o rd`jto.

[mstd`os cd phogdokmûg cd rdkursjs cd ho d`prdso

(Dgtdrprmsd Qdsjurkd Yhoggmgn, DQY) 
Tg DQY ds ug smstd`o qud mgtdnro (j ausko mgtdnror) tjco ho mgbjr`okmûg y hjs prj-
kdsjs mgbjr`ïtmkjs cd ugo jrnogmzokmûg. Tg DQY o `dgucj portd cd ug smstd`o
cd kjgtoamhmcoc qud mgtdnro jtros bugkmjgds oc`mgmstrotmvos (󿬏gogzos, kj`pros,
`ogdfj cd mgvdgtormjs, phogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg, dgtrd jtros). Ho vdgtofo cdh
DQY rocmko dg ho utmhmzokmûg cd ugo aosd cd cotjs kj`ög, osà dvmto mgkjgsmstdg-
kmos. D`prdsos kj`j Jrokhd y [OY jbrdkdg sjhukmjgds DQY dstïgcor poro d`prdsos
pdqudÿos y `dcmogos (Yy`ds), ougqud dh prdkmj cd ug DQY poro ugo Yy`d dg
O`írmko Hotmgo pudcd vormor `ukej (dgtrd hjs $?9 999 y $499 999 cûhords dsto-
cjugmcdgsds sdnög Njgzïhds y Coh`ossj 1994), y pjr jtrj hocj tdkgjhjnàos kj`j
dh T@H y hjs sdrvmkmjs ^da sunmdrdg qud sd pudcdg cdsorrjhhor DQY o ho `dcmco
smg mgkurrmr dg kjstjs ohtjs.

[mstd`os cd opjyj o ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds

(Cdkmsmjg [uppjrt [ystd`s, C[[) 
@ukejs cd hjs prjahd`os cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds dg ugo d`prdso pudcdg tdgdr
mgnrdcmdgtds cd kj`phdfmcoc qud gj pdr`mtdg mcdgtm󿬏kor kjg bokmhmcoc ugo audgo
cdkmsmûg. Kj`j sd mgcmkû dg dh prm`dr kopàtuhj, dg ïrdos cd ho mgndgmdrào, kj`j ho
mgvdstmnokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds, sd eog prjpudstj `ítjcjs kuogtmtotmvjs qud pdr`m-
tdg rdprdsdgtor y rdsjhvdr prjahd`os prjpmjs cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho prjcuk-
kmûg< cmkejs `ítjcjs rdsuhtog cd nrog opjyj poro hjs rdspjgsoahds cd ho tj`o cd
cdkmsmjgds, kjg dh ögmkj mgkjgvdgmdgtd cd qud, pjr hj ndgdroh, sjg mgtdgsmvjs dg
kïhkuhjs y rdqumdrdg cd mgbjr`okmûg prdkmso y jpjrtugo. Tg C[[ ausko bokmhmtor dh
prjkdsj cd tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds oh pjgdr o cmspjsmkmûg cdh usuormj ho kopokmcoc cd
ophmkor kjg ropmcdz tíkgmkos kuogtmtotmvos sjard ho mgbjr`okmûg cmspjgmahd (o `d-
gucj sjard ug DQY), y kjgtrmauyd o qud sd tj`dg cdkmsmjgds rïpmcos kjg dh opjyj
cd `jcdhjs j `ítjcjs kuogtmtotmvjs. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud ho tdkgjhjnào
oktuoh pdr`mtd
ejfos cd kïhkuhjcdsorrjhhor ug yC[[
(vdo Kostmhhj kjg edrro`mdgtos
@uÿjz 1993, @mrogco`uy pjpuhords,
y @uÿjz 1994).kj`j sjg hos

42  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hos rdhokmjgds kjg dh khmdgtd

(Kustj`dr Qdhotmjgsemp @ogond`dgt, KQ@) 
Dh tír`mgj KQ@ sd utmhmzo poro eokdr rdbdrdgkmo o ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho mgtdrok-
 kmûg cd ugo d`prdso kjg sus khmdgtds, mgkhusj ho kopturo, oh`okdgo`mdgtj y ogï-
hmsms cd ho mgbjr`okmûg cd hjs khmdgtds. Hjs smstd`os KQ@ o `dgucj kjgstog cd ug
`dkogms`j cd kj`ugmkokmûg kjg hjs khmdgtds (pjr dfd`phj, sdrvmkmjs ^da), ugo
 aosd cd cotjs, y sjbtword oprjpmocj togtj poro rdspjgcdr o hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs
cdh khmdgtd kj`j poro ogohmzor ho mgbjr`okmûg kjg 󿬏gds cd phogdokmûg y prjgûstm-
kj cd ho cd`ogco.

[mstd`os cd mgtdhmndgkmo cd gdnjkmjs

(Ausmgdss Mgtdhhmndgkd, AM) 
[jg smstd`os cmsdÿocjs poro prjkdsor nrogcds kogtmcocds cd mgbjr`okmûg qud rdkm-
 ad ho d`prdso, kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd dgtdgcdr ho dvjhukmûg cdh gdnjkmj y hjs ospdktjs
`ïs m`pjrtogtds qud obdktog oh `ms`j. Tg smstd`o cd AM pjr hj ndgdroh rdqumd-
rd cd ho kjgstrukkmûg cd ug oh`okíg cd cotjs ( coto wordejusd), qud ds ugo aosd
cd cotjs cjgcd sd mgtdnrog hjs cotjs cd tjco ho d`prdso, y cd ho m`phd`dgtokmûg cd
C[[ oprjpmocjs poro oajrcor dh td`o dspdkà󿬏kj qud sd cdsdo dgtdgcdr. Osà, pjr
dfd`phj, ho d`prdso Ocvdrstmcmgn.kj` tmdgd ug kdgtrj cd mgvdstmnokmûg dg @jug-
tomg Rmdw, Kohmbjrgmo, cjgcd sd cdsorrjhhog smstd`os poro ogohmzor hos prdbdrdgkmos
cd hjs kjgsu`mcjrds, qud rdohmzog `mhhjgds cd trogsokkmjgds cmormos pjr Mgtdrgdt.

[mstd`os
(Ndjnropemkcd Mgbjr`otmjg
mgbjr`okmûg [ystd`s,
ndjnrï﬏koNM[) 
[jg smstd`os poro mgtdnror, oh`okdgor,
oh`okdgor, dcmtor y ogohmzor mgbjr`okmûg hmnoco o uamko-
kmjgds dspdkà󿬏kos dg ug `opo ndjnrï󿬏kj. Ho mgbjr`okmûg ndjnrï󿬏ko qud jbrdkd ug
NM[ ds `uy vormoco, pjr hj qud opjyo ho tj`o cd cdkmsmjgds dg td`os tog cmvdrsjs
kj`j6 krm`mgjhjnào, m`poktj o`amdgtoh, phogdokmûg uraogo, trï󿬏kj dg korrdtdros y
odrjpudrtjs, `orldtmgn, hjkohmzokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs, rutdj cd vdeàkuhjs, dgtrd jtrjs.

[mstd`os dxpdrtjs
Tg smstd`o dxpdrtj ([D) sd kjgstruyd o portmr cd mgbjr`okmûg cd ugo aosd cd cotjs
(hho`oco aosd cd kjgjkm`mdgtjs), ug kjgfugtj cd rdnhos qud pdr`mtdg cdcukmr prj-
pjsmkmjgds j dgugkmocjs kjg aosd dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj, y ug prjnro`o, kjgstrumcj
sjard hdgnuofds dspdkmoh`dgtd cmsdÿocjs kj`j dh YQJHJN j dh HM[Y, qud pdr`m-
tdg ophmkor
ndgdroh, hoso`phmor
poro rdnhos o hoho aosd
aosd cd
cd kjgjkm`mdgtjs.
kjgjkm`mdgtjs poro cdcukmr prjpjsmkmjgds
Ds kjgvdgmdgtd y, hos
jasdrvor qud dg
rdnhos aïsmkos poro tj`or cdkmsmjgds kjg aosd dg ug [D sjg mgtrjcukmcos pjr ohnög
dxpdrtj eu`ogj< fusto`dgtd pjr dso rozûg tohds smstd`os sd hho`og ‘dxpdrtjs‐, yo
qud dg vdrcoc sm`uhog (ougqud kjg `oyjr ropmcdz y kjgsmstdgkmo) dh cdsd`pdÿj
cdh dxpdrtj eu`ogj qud prjpjrkmjgû hos rdnhos. Hos ophmkokmjgds kj`drkmohds cd
hjs [D sjg `uy vormocos y oaorkog cdscd dh cmongûstmkj cd dgbdr`dcocds, eosto ho
kjg󿬏nurokmûg cd dqumpjs, oprjaokmûg cd krícmtjs y sdnurjs, cmongûstmkj cd bohhos
y oc`mgmstrokmûg y kjgtrjh cd ho prjcukkmûg.

  YQJCTKKMÛG FT[SJ O SMD@YJ

Dh tír`mgj fustj o tmd`pj, to`amíg rdkjgjkmcj pjr ho oardvmoturo  FMS   (pjr  Fust
mg
`ïsSm`d ), ds smgdgcuco
cmskusmûg dh kjgkdptj
hjs öhtm`js oÿjs.cdOugqud
prjcukkmûg cd o`ogubokturos
dh fustj y sdrvmkmjs
tmd`pj ds aostogtd kjg
bo`mhmor

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 4>

pjr su dgbjqud eokmo ho rdcukkmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs y, dg ndgdroh, cdh cdspdrcm-

kmj, su ohkogkd gj sd hm`mto o dstjs cjs ospdktjs. Dg prm`dr hunor, sd cdad sdÿohor
qud dh fustj o tmd`pj gj ds ugo tíkgmko cd prjcukkmûg, smgj `ïs amdg ugo 󿬏hjsj-
bào cd prjcukkmûg< rdsuhto m`pjsmahd cdskrmamr kjg prdkmsmûg hjs `dkogms`js (qud
 pudcdg sdr `uy cmvdrsjs) cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg poro eokdr rdbdrdgkmo o íh
kj`j ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj. [mg d`aornj, sà ds pjsmahd mgcmkor
hjs jafdtmvjs y vdgtofos cd prjcukmr aofj dh kjgkdptj fustj o tmd`pj, o ho vdz qud
cdstokor hos tíkgmkos y prïktmkos cd prjcukkmûg qud bokmhmtog ho m`phogtokmûg cd
dsto 󿬏hjsjbào. Ogtds cd cdskrmamr dg cdtohhd dh fustj o tmd`pj, kjgvmdgd eokdr gjtor
qud ho m`phogtokmûg cd dstd kjgkdptj dg ugo d`prdso pudcd hhdvor kmdrtj tmd`-
pj,jpdrokmûg
ho yo qud ho cd
`ms`o m`phmko,qud
ho d`prdso, dg hovog
`oyjrào
cdscd cd hos vdkds,
`ítjcjs ko`amjscd
y prïktmkos smngm󿬏kotmvjs dg
`ogubokturo,
eosto oc`mgmstrokmûg cd rdkursjs eu`ogjs y tdkgjhûnmkjs, y rdhokmjgds kjg prj-
vddcjrds. Dg ho prdsdgtd sdkkmûg sd ogohmzog dg cdtohhd hjs dhd`dgtjs `ïs m`pjr-
togtds qud sjg kj`ugds dg hos d`prdsos qud m`phogtog ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg
fustj o tmd`pj.

Dh kjgkdptj fustj o tmd`pj

Ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj, cdskrmto mgmkmoh`dgtd pjr okocí`mkjs
cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs y Fopûg (vdo, pjr dfd`phj, [emgnj, ?=5=), sd mgspmro dg hjs `í-
tjcjs cd prjcukkmûg cdsorrjhhocjs pjr Sommkem Jegj, fdbd cd phogto y hudnj vmkd-
prdsmcdgtd cd Sjyjto @jtjr Kj`pogy, qud oh prmgkmpmj budrjg smgtdtmzocjs dg dh
kjgkdptj ‘`ogubokturo dsadhto‐ (cdh mgnhís hdog `oguboktu rmgn ).
`ogubokturmgn  ). Hjs ko`amjs qud
Sommkem Jegj mgtrjcufj dg ho phogto cd Sjyjto,
Sjyjto, jadcdkmdrjg, dg sus kj`mdgzjs, o ho
rdcukkmûg cdh cdspdrcmkmj y oh ou`dgtj cd ho prjcuktmvmcoc cd hjs troaofocjrds (oh
dstmhj khïsmkj cd Edgry Bjrc). Ds cmngj cd otdgkmûg qud dstjs `ítjcjs 󿬏goh`dgtd
tdr`mgorog pjr `dfjror kosm tjcjs hjs ospdktjs cdh smstd`o< dg portmkuhor, ho kopo-
kmcoc poro mggjvor d mgtrjcukmr gudvjs cmsdÿjs, y dh hjnrj cd ohtjs dstïgcords cd
kohmcoc cd hjs prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs.
Dg ho cíkoco cd hjs kmgkudgto, ho mgcustrmo outj`jtrmz fopjgdso kjgtoao kjg
gmvdhds cd cd`ogco tog aofjs, qud cmbàkmh`dgtd pjcào kj`pdtmr kjg hjs `ítjcjs
cd prjcukkmûg dg `oso cd ho mgcustrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs. Ogtd dstd pogjro`o, ho
dstrotdnmo trozoco pjr hjs cmrdktmvjs cd Sjyjto  (dgtrd dhhjs dh prdsmcdgtd Dmfm Sjyj-
co), kjgsmstmû dg rdcukmr tjcos hos budgtds cd cdspdrcmkmj, kjg dh jafdtj cd oaotmr
kjstjs qud hds pdr`mtmdrog kj`pdtmr kjg mgcustrmos outj`jtrmkds `ïs `ocuros dg
jtrjs poàsds. Tgj cd hjs prm`drjs ospdktjs dg hjs qud kdgtrû su otdgkmûg Sommkem
Jegj bud ho `dfjro cd ho prjcuktmvmcoc cd hjs troaofocjrds< oh pdrkotorsd cd qud ho
outj`otmzokmûg eoaào hhdnocj o toh nrocj qud hjs jpdrormjs posoaog nrog portd cd
su
cd tmd`pj jasdrvogcj
prjcukkmûg, dh bugkmjgo`mdgtj
tuvj ho mcdo cd `ïqumgos
cd osmngor vormos ho `ïqumgoo koco
o su jpdrormj.
kornj dg Yoro
ho hàgdo
hj-
nrorhj, dgsoyû cmbdrdgtds dsqud`os cd cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto, kj`j cmspjsmkmjgds
dg H, porohdhos, y 󿬏goh`dgtd ho kjgjkmco cmspjsmkmûg dg T, qud hd pdr`mtào osmngor
rdkjrrmcjs o jpdrormjs qud `ogdfoaog cmbdrdgtds `ïqumgos (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.4). Dstos
`jcm󿬏kokmjgds mgmkmohds dg hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg tuvmdrjg ho kjgsdkudgkmo cd
rj`pdr dh porocmn`o cd ho dspdkmohmzokmûg y cdsorrjhhorjg dg hjs troaofocjrds ho
kopokmcoc poro rdohmzor cmbdrdgtds tordos dg ho phogto, hj qud o ho pjstrd kjgstmtuyd
ugo gdkdsmcoc poro hos d`prdsos qud ocjptog ugo dstrotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo pjr
mggjvokmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc. Dsto dstrotdnmo eo mg󿬁umcj o toh nrocj dh o`amdgtd kj`-
pdtmtmvj cd ho mgcustrmo outj`jtrmz, qud hos phogtos dgso`ahocjros oktuohds tmdgdg
ho kopokmcoc poro prjcukmr ug `jcdhj cmbdrdgtd o kjgtmguokmûg cd jtrj, o `oyjr
vdhjkmcoc y kjg `dfjrds gmvdhds cd prjcuktmvmcoc qud dg hos phogtos cd eokd ohnugos
cíkocos, dg hos qud sd prjcukào pjr hjtds cd ug `ms`j `jcdhj. Ds mgcucoahd, smg
d`aornj,
gj sûhj dh qud
cdsorrjhhj
dstjs ko`amjs
cd eoamhmcocds
gj jkurrdg
gudvos
cd ho
dggjked
dh pdrsjgoh,
o ho `oÿogo
smgj to`amíg
y qud okorrdog
ko`amjs

45  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

dg ho tdkgjhjnào y dg ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hos jpdrokmjgds, dstd td`o sd cdsorrjhho

dgsdnumco kjg `oyjr cdtohhd, dg dsto `ms`o sdkkmûg.
  Dh jafdtmvj bugco`dgtoh cd ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj ds dh cd
hjnror ug 󿬁ufj kjgtmguj cdh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg, cdscd ho rdkdpkmûg cd `otd-
 rmohds eosto ho vdgto 󿬏goh< dstj dqumvohd o osdnuror qud hjs mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmo
prm`o, cd prjcuktjs dg prjkdsj y tdr`mgocjs, sd rdcuzkog oh `àgm`j j, cmkej cd
jtro bjr`o, qud sd prjcuzko dh gö`drj ocdkuocj dg dh `j`dgtj rdqudrmcj (fustj
o tmd`pj). Hj ogtdrmjr pjcrào hhdvorhj o pdgsor qud dh fustj o tmd`pj ds suskdptmahd
cd m`phogtokmûg `dcmogtd ugo phogdokmûg cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds @QY
(vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs)< smg d`aornj, dxmstd ugo cm-
bdrdgkmo bugco`dgtoh dgtrd
@QY ho oc`mgmstrokmûg vo cddhorrmao
@QY yeokmo
dh fustj o tmd`pj.
oaofj Dg poro
–ds cdkmr, dbdktj, `mdgtrosugdgpd-
sotmsbokdr dh
cmcj sd phogdog hjs pdcmcjs cd `otdrmohds y hjs prjkdsjs, hj qud ndgdro ûrcdgds
qud d`ogog cd ug oc`mgmstrocjr kdgtroh– dg dh fustj o tmd`pj ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
vo cd oaofj eokmo orrmao, ds cdkmr, ho cd`ogco ndgdro sus prjpmjs pdcmcjs y ho prj-
cukkmûg 󿬁uyd kjgtmguo y outj`ïtmko`dgtd kjg ug troaofj aurjkrïtmkj `àgm`j,
hj qud `ogtmdgd oh `ms`j tmd`pj ug aofj gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs. Dg tdjrào, dh gmvdh
cd mgvdgtormjs dg dh fustj o tmd`pj cdadrào sdr dh rdqudrmcj poro prjcukmr dxokto-
`dgtd ugo ugmcoc cd prjcuktj 󿬏goh. Oejro sd co kudgto cd qud ho m`phogtokmûg
cd ho 󿬏hjsjbào fustj o tmd`pj gj ds ugo tordo trmvmoh. Kjg dh jafdtj cd okhoror oög
`ïs dstd kjgkdptj y cd dxphmkor su m`phogtokmûg kjgvmdgd trotor dg ho smnumdgtd
sdkkmûg hjs prmgkmpohds kj`pjgdgtds qud dxmstdg dg hos d`prdsos qud ocjptog dh
fustj o tmd`pj kj`j 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg.

Kj`pjgdgtds cdh fustj dho tmd`pj

Kj`j yo sd `dgkmjgû, fustj o tmd`pj gokd kj`j kjgsdkudgkmo cdh `ogcotj
cd rdcukmr dh cdspdrcmkmj dg tjcos sus budgtds (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.2)< ocd`ïs, ausko
dhm`mgor ho prjcukkmûg mggdkdsormo y hjnror ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg qud pdr-
`mto ug 󿬁ufj kjgtmguj cd ho prjcukkmûg cdscd ho rdkdpkmûg cd ho `otdrmo prm`o
eosto dh sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd. Hos prïktmkos cd `ogubokturo qud koroktdrmzog o hos
d`prdsos qud ocjptog dsto 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg sd onrupog dg hos smnumdgtds
kotdnjràos6
• [mstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh.
  • @ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg y cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto.
  • Qdkursjs eu`ogjs y `otdrmohds 󿬁dxmahds.
  • Oc`mgmstrokmûg
Oc`mgmstro kmûg poro ho kohmcoc tjtoh.
  • Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcj
prjvddcjrds.
rds.
O kjgtmguokmûg sd cdskrmadg hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos qud sd mgtdnrog dg koco ugo
cd hos kotdnjràos `dgkmjgocos.

[mstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj puhh 

Cdamcj o qud tjcj prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg mgvjhukro ho kjjrcmgokmûg cd cmvdrsos
jpdrokmjgds, trocmkmjgoh`dgtd ho phogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg jpdro aofj ho prd-
`mso cd qud ds gdkdsormj `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktj 󿬏goh poro sotmsbokdr
hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg< cd `jcj qud sd m`phogto ug smstd`o tmpj  puse (tír`m-
gj mgnhís qud m`phmko ‘d`pufor‐ ho prjcukkmûg). Ho jrnogmzokmûg cd ugo d`prdso
cd okudrcj kjg ug smstd`o tmpj  puse rdqumdrd qud ho d`prdso dstm`d su cd`ogco
poro ug ejrmzjgtd cd phogdokmûg (pjr dfd`phj, ug oÿj), phogdd sus rdqudrm`mdgtjs
cd rdkursjs, cdtdr`mgd hos `dtos cd prjcukkmûg dg ho phogto, y `ogdfd su phogto
prjcuktmvo poro ku`phmr dstos `dtos oh `àgm`j kjstj, smg prdjkuporsd cd`osmo-
cj pjr dh potrûg cd cd`ogco qud dgbrdgtog sus prjcuktjs. Ds tordo cd ho budrzo

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 4=

‶ Bmnuro ;.2
Yrmgkmpohds budgtds cd
cdspdrcmkmj dg ugo phogto.
 [updrvmsor dh troaofj Dspdror mgsu`js Kjgtor portds
cd ugo `ïqumgo

[ja
jard
rdpprj
rjccukk
kkmû
mûgg @jvd
vdrr po
porrtd
tdss nro
rogc
gcds
ds cms
msttog
ogkm
kmos
os Oh`
h`ookd
kdgo
gorr mg
mgvd
vdggto
torrmj

Auskor ed
edrro`mdgto Cdskj`pjsturos cd
cd `ï
`ïqumgos Qdaosor oh
oh tr
troaofj

cd vdgtos eokdr qud hjs mgvdgtormjs hhdnudg o hos `ogjs cd hjs khmdgtds< dg dstd
dsqud`o, ho phogdokmûg ‘d`pufo‐ o ho prjcukkmûg. Dstd tmpj cd jrnogmzokmûg eokd
gdkdsormj qud ho d`prdso rdkurro o hjs mgvdgtormjs, togtj cd `otdrmohds kj`j cd
prjcuktj 󿬏goh,pjr
pdrcdr vdgtos porobohto
dgbrdgtor hos 󿬁uktuokmjgds
cd mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd.cd ho cd`ogco cd kjrtj phozj, smg
  Ho mcdo cd krdor ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cmbdrdgtd cdh trocmkmjgoh surnd cd
ho prdjkupokmûg cd Sommkem Jegj pjr rdcukmr hjs mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktj 󿬏goh. Oh
mgspmrorsd dg ho bjr`o kj`j jpdrog hjs supdr`drkocjs, Jegj hjnrû m`phogtor ug
smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cjgcd, dg hunor cd qud ho phogdokmûg ‘d`pufd‐ o ho prj-
cukkmûg, sdo ho prjpmo cd`ogco ho qud ndgdrd sus ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg. Cd dsto
`ogdro, hjs pdcmcjs cd prjcukkmûg dg ho phogto gj sd jrmnmgog cd ugo phogdokmûg
cd `dcmogj phozj, smgj cdh potrûg cd cd`ogco qud dgbrdgto ho d`prdso. Yoro so-
tmsbokdr ug pdcmcj aofj dstd dsqud`o, ds gdkdsormj qud dh smstd`o sdo kopoz cd
‘fohor‐ hjs rdkursjs (portds, kj`pjgdgtds d mgsu`js) eokmo otrïs y `uy rïpmco`dg-
td poro sotmsbokdr oh khmdgtd, kjg dhhj sd rdcukdg hjs mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktj 󿬏goh,
yo qud sd prjcukd sûhj hj qud sd cd`ogco. Cdamcj o qud aofj dstjs smstd`os, ds
ho prjpmo cd`ogco ho qud ndgdro hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg, sd hds kjgjkd kjg dh
gj`ard cd smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh (tír`mgj mgnhís qud smngm󿬏ko ‘fohor‐
ho prjcukkmûg).

29  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  Dh kjgkdptj cd smstd`o tmpj  puhh ds ho khovd poro dgtdgcdr ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prj-

cukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj, yo qud tjcjs hjs cd`ïs kj`pjgdgtds tmdgdg pjr 󿬏gohmcoc
dh qud ho m`phogtokmûg cd dstd kjgkdptj sdo dbdktmvo dg ho prïktmko. Dg prm`dr hunor,
hunor,
ho m`phogtokmûg cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh  rdqumdrd ho ocjpkmûg cd
 ohnög `dkogms`j qud pdr`mto trogs`mtmr rïpmco`dgtd (eokmo otrïs) hos ûrcdgds
cd prjcukkmûg o hos cmbdrdgtds dstokmjgds qud cdadg sotmsbokdr dh pdcmcj (yo qud
gj sd cdskogso dg ugo phogdokmûg cd `dcmogj phozj). Dh `dkogms`j qud ho phogto
cd Sjyjto mgtrjcufj bud dh logaog, ougqud cdspuís opordkmdrjg jtros prjpudstos
kj`j dh KJG^MY (vdo Ejpp y [pdor`og, 199?).
  Ho pohoaro logaog smngm󿬏ko torfdto dg fopjgís, y dh tír`mgj sd ophmko o ug `d-
kogms`j
(eokmo qud opdr`mtd
otrïs) trogs`mtmr
portmr cd hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs
ho cd`ogco< hjs kj`pjgdgtdscd j`otdrmohds
`otdrmohdsy rdqudrmcjs
kj`pjgdgtdssd
rdtmrog y sd eokd usj cd torfdtos poro mgcmkor dh rdtmrj cd hjs `ms`js. Dg ho 󿬏nuro
;.> sd mhustro ug smstd`o logaog qud kjgsto cd cjs prjkdsjs, dh prjkdsj O ndgdro
pmdzos qud rdqumdrd dh prjkdsj A< kuogcj dh prjkdsj A utmhmzo ugo pmdzo cdh oh`o-
kíg A, cd mg`dcmotj sd rdtmrog ugo torfdto cdh ‘pudstj cd rdtmrj‐ (󿬁dkeo ?), y ugo
pmdzo cdh oh`okíg O (󿬁dkeo 1). Ho pmdzo cdh oh`okíg O sd cdpjsmto dg dh oh`okíg
A (󿬁dkeo 3), y ho torfdto dg dh ‘pudstj cd rdkmaj‐ (󿬁dkeo ;). Dg dh ‘pudstj cd rd-
kmaj‐ sd oku`uhog torfdtos eosto qud dh gö`drj fustm󿬏qud ug hjtd cd prjcukkmûg<
kuogcj dhhj jkurrd, hos torfdtos sd hhdvog
hh dvog o ‘pdcmcjs cd prjcukkmûg‐ (󿬁dkeo 4), poro
jrcdgor qud sd prjcuzkog pmdzos dg dh prjkdsj O (󿬁dkeo 2)< ugo vdz prjcukmcj
dh pdcmcj, hos pmdzos sjg cdpjsmtocos dg dh oh`okíg O (󿬁dkeo >) y hos torfdtos kj-
rrdspjgcmdgtds dg dh ‘pudstj cd rdtmrj‐ (󿬁dkeo 5). Cd dsto `ogdro sd osdnuro qud
smd`prd eoyo pmdzos cmspjgmahds poro dh prjkdsj A, y hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg sd
trogs`mtdg (eokmo otrïs) o portmr cd ho cd`ogco cd prjcuktjs 󿬏gohds, hj qud `og-
tmdgd ug gmvdh `uy aofj cd mgvdgtormjs. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd mgcmkor qud sm amdg hjs prm-
`drjs smstd`os logaog utmhmzoaog torfdtos, oktuoh`dgtd dstjs smstd`os okjstu`arog
utmhmzor jtrjs tmpjs cd sdÿohds (pjr dfd`phj, hukds), y pjr hj ndgdroh sd opjyog dg
ug smstd`o kj`putormzocj.
  Dh `dkogms`j cdgj`mgocj KJG^MY tmdgd ho `ms`o 󿬏gohmcoc qud dh logaog,
ougqud prdtdgcd ou`dgtor ho vdhjkmcoc cd rdspudsto cdh smstd`o oh rdcukmr dh gö-

‶ Bmnuro ;.>
Mhustrokmûg cd ug `dkogms`j
logaog.
4 Qdtmrj
ugmcoc
; bàsmko

LOGAOG 3
LOGAOG
Ydcmcjs cd Yudstj
prjcukkmûg cd rdkmaj
2

>
Oh`okíg O Oh`okíg A

Yrjkdsj O
5 ?

LOGAOG Yrjkdsj A
Yudstj
cd rdtmrj

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 2?

`drj cd sdÿohds. Ho pohoaro KJG^MY cdrmvo cd hjs tír`mgjs KJG (oardvmokmûg

cd ho pohoaro mgnhdso kjgstogt ),
), y cdh tír`mgj ^MY  (qud
  (qud ds ugo smnho cdh tír`mgj
mgnhís wjrl mg prjkdss), pjr hj qud dh gj`ard sunmdrd qud kjg dstd `dkogms`j sd
`ogtmdgdg kjgstogtds hjs mgvdgtormjs cd troaofj dg prjkdsj. Dg dbdktj, oh ophmkor
dh `dkogms`j KJG^MY dg ugo hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg, koco vdz qud sohd ugo ugmcoc
 (j hjtd) cd prjcukkmûg, sd dgvào ho jrcdg oh mgmkmj cd ho hàgdo poro qud prjcuzko
ho smnumdgtd ugmcoc (j hjtd). Cd dsto `ogdro, poro m`phogtor ug smstd`o tmpj  puhh 
kjg dh `dkogms`j KJG^MY, sûhj ds gdkdsormj trogs`mtmr cjs sdÿohds, ho prm`dro,
qud ndgdro ho cd`ogco oh rdtmror dh prjcuktj cd mgvdgtormj, y ho sdnugco, qud ds
dgvmoco oh mgmkmj cd ho hàgdo poro rdpjgdr dh mgvdgtormj bohtogtd. @dcmogtd dstd
`dkogms`j sd `ogtmdgd kjgstogtd dh mgvdgtormj cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj, y su vj-
hu`dg ds dh dstrmkto`dgtd gdkdsormj poro prjcukmr cd `ogdro rïpmco dh smnumdgtd
pdcmcj, kuogcj sdo cd`ogcocj. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd mgcmkor qud, sm amdg dstd `dkogms-
`j rdsuhto `dgjs kj`phmkocj cd m`phogtor qud dh `dkogms`j logaog tmdgd, smg
d`aornj, ho cdsvdgtofo cd rdstorhd 󿬁dxmamhmcoc oh smstd`o, yo qud ho jrcdg cd prj-
cukkmûg qud portd cdh mgmkmj cd ho hàgdo supjgd qud sd troto smd`prd cdh `ms`j
cmsdÿj< dg jtros pohoaros, gj pdr`mtd qud hos cmbdrdgtds dstokmjgds kj`amgdg
sus kopokmcocds poro dhoajror prjcuktjs kjg cmbdrdgtds cmsdÿjs y/j cmbdrdgtds
sdkudgkmos cd prjkdsj. [mg d`aornj, pjr su `oyjr vdhjkmcoc cd rdspudsto, dstd
`dkogms`j rdsuhto oprjpmocj poro prjcukmr amdgds kjg ug ohtj nrocj cd dstogco-
rmzokmûg.

@ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg y cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto

Jtro cd hos budgtds cd cdspdrcmkmj qud hho`û ho otdgkmûg cd Sommkem Jegj bud qud
dg ugo hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg cd ohto vdhjkmcoc, hjs jpdrormjs cdspdrcmkmog audgo
portd cd su tmd`pj oh hm`mtorsd o jasdrvor dh bugkmjgo`mdgtj cd hos `ïqumgos. Yjr
jtrj hocj, oh ocjptor dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh, ístd dxmnmrï qud sd prj-
cuzkog hjtds pdqudÿjs (yo qud ho prjcukkmûg gj jadcdkd o ugo phogdokmûg onrd-
noco)< dgtjgkds, ho hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg khïsmko, aosoco dg hjs prmgkmpmjs cd Bjrc y
dg ho dstogcormzokmûg cdh troaofj rdsuhtorào mgoprjpmoco poro pdrsdnumr hjs jafdtmvjs
phogtdocjs pjr Jegj, yo qud sd ndgdroràog kjgstogtds porjs y kjstjs pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsjs kjg ug cdspdrcmkmj oög `oyjr.
Ho sjhukmûg cd Jegj qud ophmkû dg ho phogto cd Sjyjto, bud ho cd mgtdgtor
ho bjr`okmûg cd pdqudÿjs tohhdrds qud gj sd dspdkmohmkdg dg ho prjcukkmûg cd ug
kj`pjgdgtd, smgj qud tdgnog ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc su󿬏kmdgtd poro prjkdsor ugo bo`mhmo
cd prjcuktjs kjg rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd prjkdsj sm`mhords. Dstjs tohhdrds budrjg aoutm-
zocjs kjg dh gj`ard cd kíhuhos, osà gokmû ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor (vdo dh kopàtuhj
sjard cmsdÿj cd cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto). Aofj dh kjgkdptj cd `ogubokturo kdhuhor
sd cmsdÿog tohhdrds
koroktdràstmkos j kíhuhos
sm`mhords. Kjgdg bugkmûgcdcdrdcukmr
dh jafdtj bo`mhmos cd portds
dh dspokmj j kj`pjgdgtds
y pdr`mtmr kjg
qud hjs jpd-
rormjs sd dgkornudg cd cmbdrdgtds prjkdsjs, sd okjstu`aro cmsdÿor kíhuhos cjgcd
hos `ïqumgos gj dstïg orrdnhocos dg hàgdo, smgj `ïs amdg dg bjr`o cd T. Dsto cms-
pjsmkmûg, ocd`ïs cd rdcukmr dh dspokmj, pdr`mtd qud ug jpdrormj sd eono kornj cd
vormos `ïqumgos, yo qud sd bokmhmto dh `jvm`mdgtj cdh jpdrormj cd `ïqumgo o `ï-
qumgo. Dg ho 󿬏nuro ;.5 opordkd ug dfd`phj cd ugo kíhuho kjg cmspjsmkmûg dg T. Dg
cmkeo kíhuho eoy ; jpdrormjs, koco ugj o kornj cd vormos jpdrokmjgds cd `ogubok-
turo. Koco kmrkumtj cd 󿬁dkeos mgcmko dh `jvm`mdgtj cd ug jpdrormj< pjr dfd`phj,
dh prm`dr jpdrormj (dh cd ho mzqumdrco) jpdro ho smdrro y dh prm`dr tjrgj, y eokd ho
mgspdkkmûg 󿬏goh poro vdrm󿬏kor ho tdr`mgokmûg cd ho `ogubokturo cd ho pmdzo dg
ho kíhuho. Qdsuhto mgtdrdsogtd qud ho mcdo cd rdcukmr dh cdspdrcmkmj (oh rdcukmr ds-
pokmjs y eokdr qud hjs jpdrormjs sd dgkornudg cd vormjs prjkdsjs), emzj pjsmahd ho
m`phogtokmûg cd dstd `ítjcj, qud tmdgd pjr prmgkmpoh vmrtuc ho cd sdr su`o`dgtd
󿬁dxmahd poro prjcukmr cmbdrdgtds cmsdÿjs dg ugo `ms`o kíhuho. Tgo vdgtofo ocm-
kmjgoh cd dsto tdkgjhjnào ds qud hjs ko`amjs rdqudrmcjs poro vormor cmsdÿjs y vj-

21  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro ;.5
Cmspjsmkmûg cd ugo kíhuho
cd `ogubokturo. [mdrro Sj`j Sj`j
  Y  Yuhmcjro
YR  Yrdgso vdrtmkoh
 
YE
 YE  Yrdgso ejrmzjgtoh

YR

Ymdzo Mgspdk- YR
󿬏goh kmûg Y

hö`dgds cd prjcukkmûg sd m`phogtog bïkmh`dgtd, aosto kjg ohtdror hos rutos y/j dh
gö`drj cd jpdrormjs.
Koad sdÿohor qud ho m`phogtokmûg cd ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor gj bud ugo tordo
bïkmh poro Sommkem Jegj, yo qud sd vmj bjrzocj o mgtrjcukmr ko`amjs tdkgjhûnmkjs
poro qud dsto cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto rdsuhtoro prjcuktmvo dg ho prïktmko. Ds gdkd-
sormj rdkjgjkdr qud ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor gj pudcd ohkogzor hjs gmvdhds cd vdhj-
kmcoc cd ho hàgdo khïsmko cd Bjrc, y pudcd rdsuhtor `uy mgd󿬏kmdgtd sm gj sd hjnrog
rdcukmr hjs kjstjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs. Ho rdcukkmûg cd kjstjs cd opdrturo
qud hjnrû ho phogto cd Sjyj
Sjyjto
to tuvj kj`j prmgkmpoh prjtonjgmsto oh kjgsuhtjr [emndj
[emgnj, qumdg hjnrû rdcukmr dh tmd`pj cd opdrturo cd prjkdsjs dg hos prdgsos poro
dh dsto`pocj cd korrjkdràos, cd 2 ejros o tog sûhj ; `mgutjs, `dcmogtd ug smstd-
`o qud cdgj`mgû [@DC (smgnhd-`mgutd dxkeognd jb cmds). O `ogdro cd mhustrokmûg
sd rdsu`dg hjs prmgkmpmjs cd dsto tíkgmko, qud pudcdg sdr utmhmzocjs dg kuohqumdr
kosj cd rdcukkmûg cd tmd`pjs cd opdrturo (dh hdktjr mgtdrdsocj dg dstd td`o pudcd
kjgsuhtor [emgnj, ?=5=)6
  • Mcdgtm󿬏kor hjs ko`amjs dxtdrgjs d mgtdrgjs. Hjs ko`amjs dxtdrgjs sjg hjs
ofustds gdkdsormjs qud sd dbdktöog kuogcj ho `ïqumgo troaofo (pjr hj qud gj
sd cdtmdgd ho prjcukkmûg)< hjs ko`amjs mgtdrgjs sd hhdvog o koaj kuogcj ho
`ïqumgo dstï cdtdgmco, y eokdg qud sd cdtdgno dh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj. [d ds-
tm`o
;9 qudpjr
y 49 ho ophmkokmûg
kmdgtj. cd dstd kjgkdptj rdcukd hjs tmd`pjs cd opdrturo dgtrd
  • Srogsbjr`or hjs ko`amjs mgtdrgjs o dxtdrgjs. Kjgbjr`d o dstd prmgkmpmj, sd
cdad dstor sdnurj cd qud, dbdktmvo`dgtd, hjs ko`amjs qud sd rdohmzog kuogcj
ho `ïqumgo dstï cdtdgmco, gj drog pjsmahds kjg ho `ïqumgo dg bugkmjgo`mdg-
tj< pjr dfd`phj, ohnugjs rdqumsmtjs kj`j ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cd edrro`mdgtos
y dqumpj, j ho dstogcormzokmûg cd hos kjgcmkmjgds cd hjs `otdrmohds rdqudrm-
cjs (prdkohdgto`mdgtj, cm`dgsmjgds, dtk.), pudcdg ku`phmrsd kj`j ko`amjs
dxtdrgjs.
  • Bokmhmtor dh `dkogms`j cd opdrturo . Dstd prmgkmpmj ausko jrnogmzor ho
opdrturo cd ug gudvj prjkdsj, cd `ogdro qud sd bokmhmtd su dfdkukmûg. Yjr
dfd`phj, hjs ko`amjs dxtdrgjs sd bokmhmtog sm sd tmdgdg o ho `ogj hjs `otdrmo-
hds y dqumpj gdkdsormjs, y sd jrnogmzo cd ho `dfjr `ogdro pjsmahd ho dstokmûg
cd troaofj< ocd`ïs, hjs ko`amjs dxtdrgjs sd rdcukdg sm sd utmhmzo tdkgjhjnào
oprjpmoco< pjr dfd`phj, oh mgkjrpjror `dkogms`js cd kjgtrjh gu`írmkj qud
pdr`mtog prjnro`or outj`ïtmko`dgtd hjs ko`amjs rdqudrmcjs.

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 2;

  • Dhm`mgor ko`amjs mggdkdsormjs j dfdkutorhjs dg porohdhj. Bmgoh`dgtd,

sd pudcdg rdcukmr oög `ïs hjs tmd`pjs cd opdrturo, sm sd cmsdÿo ug dqumpj
cd troaofj ocdkuocj, dg dh qud hjs `md`arjs cdh dqumpj sd kjjrcmgdg poro
rdohmzor tordos sm`uhtïgdos y dstogcormkdg hjs `otdrmohds y dh prjkdsj cd
opdrturo.
 Qdkursjs eu`ogjs y `otdrmohds fidxmahds
Eosto oejro sd eo cdskrmtj kû`j dh jafdtmvj cd rdcukmr dh cdspdrcmkmj kjgcufj o
Sommkem Jegj o m`phogtor ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg 󿬁dxmahd, aofj dh kuoh hjs jpd-
rormjs, dg hunor cd dspdkmohmzorsd dg ugo tordo, cdadg sdr kopokds cd dfdkutor cmbd-
rdgtds jpdrokmjgds kjg aosd dg hos gdkdsmcocds cd prjcukkmûg< ocd`ïs, dg hunor
cd dspdkmohmzor ho `oqumgormo y dqumpj poro rdohmzor tordos rdpdtmtmvos, dg dh sms-
td`o cd Sjyjto sd ko`amû ho tdkgjhjnào kjg dh jafdtj cd rdcukmr hjs tmd`pjs qud
rdqumdrdg hos opdrturos cd gudvjs prjkdsjs. Dstjs prmgkmpmjs kjgtrostog kjg hjs
prmgkmpmjs trocmkmjgohds cd ugo d`prdso qud kj`pmtd pjr vjhu`dg y aofj kjstj, y
kuyo vdgtofo kj`pdtmtmvo dstrmao dg ho dspdkmohmzokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs eu`ogjs
y `otdrmohds. Yjr dhhj, ho m`phogtokmûg cdh fustj o tmd`pj rdqumdrd cd prjnro`os
cd kopokmtokmûg kjgstogtds, kjg ug cmsdÿj qud cdsorrjhhd dg hjs jpdrormjs hos ko-
pokmcocds gdkdsormos poro dfdkutor hoajrds 󿬁dxmahds.
  Yjr jtrj hocj, ho `oqumgormo y dqumpj to`amíg cdadg tdgdr ho kopokmcoc poro
ocoptorsd o hjs cmbdrdgtds rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd dsto 󿬏hjsjbào< dg vdz cd utmhmzor `o-
qumgormo dspdkmohmzoco y kjg nrog kopokmcoc poro dfdkutor sûhj ug tmpj cd prjkdsj,
sd prd󿬏drd ho `oqumgormo cd prjpûsmtj ndgdroh, pjr `dcmj cd ho kuoh sd rdohmzog
cmbdrdgtds jpdrokmjgds
`jcm󿬏kokmjgds sjard hocd `ogubokturo.
`oqumgormo Dg `ukeos
y dqumpj, jkosmjgds
poro qud ds gdkdsormj
sd ocoptdg rdohmzor
o hos gdkdsmco-
cds cd ho d`prdso. Yjr dfd`phj, Sommkem Jegj sd vmj dg ho gdkdsmcoc cd m`phogtor
sufdtocjrds poro cdtdgdr ho prjcukkmûg dg dspdro cd qud ug jpdrormj `uhtmbugkmj-
goh tdr`mgd su rdkjrrmcj poro corhd otdgkmûg. Osm`ms`j, poro rdcukmr hjs tmd`pjs
cd opdrturo cd prjkdsjs, pudcd sdr kjgvdgmdgtd ho prjnro`okmûg cd ho `oqumgormo
`dcmogtd kjgtrjhds gu`írmkjs.

Oc`mgmstrokmûg poro ho kohmcoc tjtoh

Jtrj kj`pjgdgtd m`pjrtogtd cd ho 󿬏hjsjbào fustj o tmd`pj ds ho oc`mgmstrokmûg poro
ho kohmcoc tjtoh (td`o cd ug kopàtuhj pjstdrmjr)< dh kj`prj`msj cd tjcjs hjs gmvdhds
cd ho d`prdso pjr `dfjror kjgtmguo`dgtd ho kohmcoc cd hjs amdgds y sdrvmkmjs qud
jbrdkd. Cdamcj qud dh fustj o tmd`pj ausko ug 󿬁ufj kjgtmguj cd ho prjcukkmûg, gj
cdad eoadr mgtdrrupkmjgds
ugo pjhàtmko cd prdvdgkmûg cd pjrhoprjahd`os cdy,kohmcoc<
aofo kohmcoc pjr dstosdrozûg,
dg portmkuhor, sd dstoahdkd
rdqumdrdg prjvdd-
cjrds ohto`dgtd kjg󿬏oahds, gj sûhj dg kuogtj o kohmcoc smgj to`amíg dg kuogtj
o ropmcdz dg ho otdgkmûg cd pdcmcjs, ho pjhàtmko cd `ogtdgdr ug 󿬁ufj cd ugo sjho
pmdzo o ho vdz bokmhmto dh kjgtrjh cd kohmcoc cd hjs prjcuktjs.
  Ohnugjs kjgkdptjs qud oyucorjg o hjs fopjgdsds o bokmhmtor ho aösqudco cd ho
prjcukkmûg kjg kdrj cdbdktjs sjg dh aoloyold, qud smngm󿬏ko dh usj cd cmspjsmtmvjs
outj`ïtmkjs poro kjgtrjhor ho kohmcoc, y dh ]j-m-cjg, qud sd rd󿬏drd o ho mgtdrrupkmûg
cd ho prjcukkmûg sm hjs troaofocjrds cdskuardg ug prjahd`o cd kohmcoc sdrmj dg
ho prjcukkmûg. Jtro edrro`mdgto qud cdsorrjhhorjg hjs fopjgdsds poro dh kjgtrjh
tjtoh cd ho kohmcoc sjg hjs kàrkuhjs cd kohmcoc, pdqudÿjs nrupjs (cd 3 o ?4 `md`arjs)
cd troaofocjrds, pjr hj ndgdroh cdh `ms`j tohhdr j ïrdo cd troaofj. Dstjs kàrkuhjs cd
kohmcoc sd rdögdg pdrmûcmko`dgtd, aofj ho cmrdkkmûg cd ug supdrvmsjr (ugo vdz o ho
sd`ogo, pjr dfd`phj), poro cmskutmr sjard ho `dfjro cd sus `ítjcjs cd jpdrokmûg,
ogohmzor prjahd`os y phogtdor sjhukmjgds o hjs `ms`js, kjg dh jafdtj cd `dfjror
ho kohmcoc cd ho prjcukkmûg.

23  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

KO[J ;.?6 Yopos kjrtocos fustj o tmd`pj  

Oh mnuoh qud dg @íxmkj, dg Hm`o, ho kopmtoh cd Ydrö, prdnugtocj sm dh prm`dr `ítjcj gj eoarào smcj `ïs
dstï `uy cmbugcmcj dh kjgsu`j cd pjhhj rjstmzocj, dkjgû`mkj, yo qud hos popos pjcràog kj`prorsd dg
qud dg dsd poàs sd kjgjkd kj`j pjhhj o ho aroso. Ohhà dh `drkocj `oyjrmsto. [mg d`aornj, tdgno dg kudgto
 sd okjstu`aro sdrvmr dh pjhhj o ho aroso okj`poÿocj
cd popos brmtos, y dg hos cíkocos cd hjs sdsdgto y sd-
tdgto, dg qud dstd kjgsu`j sd ndgdrohmzû dg ho kmucoc
cd Hm`o, hjs prm`drjs rdstourogtds cd pjhhj o ho aroso
kj`proaog hos popos, hos pdhoaog y kjrtoaog poro
brdàrhos
mgcmkor,, dg
mgcmkor dh `ms`j
osm`ms`j, dstoahdkm`mdgtj.
qud `ukejs cd dstjsDsgdnjkmjs
mgtdrdsogtd
hjs
cmrmnàog `md`arjs cd ho kjhjgmo fopjgdso, qumdgds
to`amíg sd kjgtoaog dgtrd hjs prjpmdtormjs cd hos
nrogfos prjcuktjros cd pjhhj. O 󿬏gds cd ho cíkoco cd
hjs sdtdgto, hjs hm`dÿjs budrjg tdstmnjs cd ug ko`-
 amj dg dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cd popos brmtos dg
dsjs dstoahdkm`mdgtjs. ]o gj sd vdào o hjs kjkmgdrjs
kjrtor popos dg hjs rdstourogtds, smgj qud hhdnoaog
ko`mjgdtos kjg hos popos kjrtocos y hjs oaostdkàog
koco vdz qud eokàog ug pdcmcj, ds dh kosj cd popos
kjrtocos fustj o tmd`pj. Ohnugjs pdruogjs sd eoarïg  
qud, kjg dh gudvj `ítjcj, hjs oc`mgmstrocjrds cd
dsjs gdnjkmjs yo gj gdkdsmtog mgvdrtmr dg mgvdgtormj
m gvdgtormj
cd popos, gm cdadg prdjkuporsd cd qud hos popos sd
dkedg o pdrcdr. Yjr
Yjr jtrj hocj, hos popos kjrtocos gj
tmdgdg pjr quí sdr tog koros, yo qud dh cmstrmaumcjr cd
popos
cd qudoprjvdkeorï
oprjvdkeor
hos popos sdï hos dkjgj`àos
pjcràog cd dskoho,
kj`pror ocd`ïs
cmrdkto`dgtd
oh prjcuktjr. Tg boktjr qud qumzï hhdvû o dstd smstd-
`o oh íxmtj ds qud hjs cmstrmaumcjrds cd popos, dg
su `oyjrào, to`amíg drog `md`arjs cd ho kjhjgmo
fopjgdso, hj qud ndgdrû ugo `oyjr kjg󿬏ogzo dgtrd
hjs kj`procjrds. Dstd dfd`phj pdr`mtd oprdkmor ho
m`pjrtogkmo qud rdprdsdgto dh boktjr kjg󿬏ogzo y hjs
prmgkmpmjs cd kjjpdrokmûg poro ho audgo `orkeo cd
hjs gdnjkmjs. Mhustro to`amíg ho mcdo cd qud ugo bjr`o
d󿬏kmdgtd cd cdhdnor dh troaofj rdprdsdgto kjgsmcdro-
ahds oejrrjs pjr hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho
dskoho qud ndgdro.

Cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds
Yjr öhtm`j, ug kj`pjgdgtd gj `dgjs m`pjrtogtd cd ho 󿬏hjsjbào fustj o tmd`pj ds
dh smstd`o cd prjvddcjrds. Dh 󿬁ufj kjgtmguj cd ho prjcukkmûg gj pjcrào hjnrorsd
sm hjs prjvddcjrds gj dgtrdnorog hjs pdcmcjs o tmd`pj y sm dh oaostdkm`mdgtj gj
ku`phmdro kjg hjs dstïgcords cd kohmcoc. Yjr dsto rozûg, ho mgcustrmo fopjgdso krdo
ug smstd`o cd jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh qud sd 󿬏gko dg ugo nrog aosd dskohjgoco
cd prjvddcjrds. Ho d`prdso cdad troaofor kjg sus prjvddcjrds, poro eokdrhds hos
sundrdgkmos qud pdr`mtog hjnror ug oaostdkm`mdgtj kjg󿬏oahd y o tmd`pj, aosogcj
sus rdhokmjgds dg ho kjg󿬏ogzo `utuo y dg ho aösqudco cd dqumhmarmjs kjjpdrotmvjs.
Dg dh Kosj ;.? (tj`ocj cd @uÿjz, ?==1), sd ausko suaroyor qud dh cdsorrjhhj cd
prjvddcjrds, gdkdsormj poro dh fustj o tmd`pj, pudcd bugkmjgor smg `ukeos cm󿬏-
kuhtocds dg cmbdrdgtds kuhturos, sm sd tmdgd ho kopokmcoc poro auskor hjs pugtjs cd
 kjjpdrokmûg y adgd󿬏kmj
Bmgoh`dgtd, `utuj.
kjgvmdgd cdstokor hjs adgd󿬏kmjs qud jatmdgdg hos d`prdsos qud
eog m`phogtocj dh fustj o tmd`pj. Dh hjnrj bugco`dgtoh ds qud `dfjrorjg ho kohm-
coc cd sus prjcuktjs, rdcufdrjg dh cdspdrcmkmj, `ogtuvmdrjg ug smstd`o rozjgo-
 ahd cd mgvdgtormjs y dstoahdkmdrjg ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg kj`j opjy
opjyjj dbdktmvj
cd ugo dstrotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo pjr mggjvokmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc. Dg ho 󿬏nuro ;.= sd
rdsu`dg dstos vdgtofos y sus mgtdrrdhokmjgds.

  YDQ[JGOHMVOKMÛG DG @O[O
Dg `ukejs `drkocjs hos d`prdsos dgbrdgtog dh porocmn`o cd qud sus khmdgtds
cd`ogcog qud sus ûrcdgds sdog otdgcmcos kjg prjgtmtuc, o ho vdz qud cdsdog
prjcuktjs ohto`dgtd pdrsjgohmzocjs. Dstd porocmn`o hj eog oprjvdkeocj ohnugos
d`prdsos kj`j Cdhh, d`prdso cd kj`putocjros pdrsjgohds, qud otrod khmdgtds kjg
 aosd dg ho otdgkmûg pdrsjgohmzoco
pdrsjgohmzoco y hjnro o ho vdz tmd`pjs cd otdgkmûg
otdgkmûg `uy rïpmcjs

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 24

‶ Bmnuro ;.=
Adgd󿬏kmjs cdh fustj o tmd`pj.
Cdsorrjhhj
@ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg cd prjvddcjrds
y cmspjsmkmûg cd phogto
 Qdkursjs eu`ogjs
y `otdrmohds 󿬁dxmahds

[mstd`o
cd prjcukkmûg Oc`mgmstrokmûg @dgjr 
Smpj Yuhh tjtoh cd ho kohmcoc cdspdrcmkmj

Yrjcukkmûg
kjgstogtd
@dgjr troaofj
pjr cdbdktjs
Mgvdgtormjs
rdcukmcjs

@dgjr kogtmcoc cd `ogj cd jaro, `oqumgormo d mgvdgtormj pjr ho `ms`o

j `oyjr prjcukkmûg. @oyjr bhdxmamhmcoc cdh smstd`o.

o kjstjs rozjgoahds. Dh ortd cd otdgcdr ho cd`ogco cd hjs khmdgtds kjg ug ohtj nrocj
cd pdrsjgohmzokmûg, pdrj kjg dh oprjvdkeo`mdgtj cd hos vdgtofos cd ho prjcukkmûg
dg `oso, rdkmad dh gj`ard cd pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso y eo prjaocj sdr ug `dcmj
`uy d󿬏koz poro nogor `drkocjs. Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd ogohmzog hos cmstmgtos `ogdros
dg qud hos d`prdsos m`phd`dgtorjg dstd kjgkdptj, osà kj`j cd hjs h js dhd`dgtjs khovd
qud pdr`mtdg m`phogtor dsto 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg.

Dstrotdnmos poro ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso

Gj tjcos hos d`prdsos qud ocjptog ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso hj eokdg pjr hos
`ms`os
cd rozjgds. Nmh`jrd
pdrsjgohmzokmûg y Ymgd
dg `oso (?==>)okhosm󿬏korjg
(?==>)
y oyucog dg kuotrj
dgtdgcdr `dfjr kotdnjràos hos bjr`os
dstd kjgkdptj.

Ydrsjgohmzokmûg dg kjjpdrokmûg
Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
Aofj dsto dstrotdnmo, ho d`prdso mgtdroktöo kjg dh khmdgtd poro oyucorhj o cdtdr`mgor
hos koroktdràstmkos cdh prjcuktj qud `dfjr sd ocoptd o sus gdkdsmcocds. Tg dfd`phj
ds ho d`prdso cd ogtdjfjs fopjgdso Yorms @mlm, qud utmhmzo m`ïndgds cmnmtohds y kotï-
hjnjs cd sus kj`pjgdgtds poro oyucor oh khmdgtd o sdhdkkmjgor dh `jcdhj pdrsjgo-
hmzocj qud `dfjr hd sotmsbono, y cdspuís ístd sd prjcukd dg `dgjs cd ugo ejro.

Ydrsjgohmzokmûg ocoptoahd
Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
Jkurrd kuogcj dh khmdgtd rdkmad ug prjcuktj dstïgcor, pdrj ístd ds hj su󿬏kmdgtd-
`dgtd 󿬁dxmahd kj`j poro sotmsbokdr gdkdsmcocds cmbdrdgtds o portmr cd ho smtuokmûg
portmkuhor cd su usj. Ho d`prdso dstocjugmcdgsd Hutrjg Dhdktrjgmks prjcukd smstd-

22  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

`os cd mhu`mgokmûg kosdrjs qud kj`amgog cmbdrdgtds mgtdrruptjrds d mgtdgsmcocds

cd huz poro ocoptor dh smstd`o o smtuokmjgds cmvdrsos, yo sdo ugo 󿬏dsto, ug `j`dgtj
rj`ïgtmkj j ugj cd troaofj.

Ydrsjgohmzokmûg
Ydrsjgohmzokmûg kjs`ítmko
 Ds ugo bjr`o `uy kj`ög cd pdrsjgohmzokmûg, aofj ho kuoh dh khmdgtd rdkmad dh
`ms`j prjcuktj, sûhj kjg ugo opormdgkmo cmbdrdgtd qud cdpdgcd cd su nustj. Dsto
dstrotdnmo ds `uy kj`ög dg ho mgcustrmo cd ohm`dgtjs, cjgcd cd okudrcj kjg dh
supdr`drkocj j tmdgco qud pmcd dh prjcuktj, ístd opordkd kjg cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs,
dtmqudtos y/j d`poquds.

Ydrsjgohmzokmûg trogspordgtd
Ho d`prdso smnud dsto dstrotdnmo kuogcj tmdgd dh su󿬏kmdgtd kjgjkm`mdgtj cd su
khmdgtd kj`j poro jbrdkdrhd ug prjcuktj pdrsjgohmzocj smg qud dh khmdgtd hj gjtd.
Dg dsto dstrotdnmo sjardsohd ho d`prdso `dxmkogo Kd`dx, qud jbrdkd ug prjcuktj
dstïgcor (kd`dgtj), pdrj qud pudcd prdstor dh sdrvmkmj cd vokmocj cd ugo dstruk-
turo, kjg aosd dg hos gdkdsmcocds cdh khmdgtd (Bougcds, 1992).
  Hjs tmpjs cd pdrsjgohmzokmûg ogtdrmjrds cm󿬏drdg sm jbrdkdg j gj oh khmdgtd ug
ko`amj dg dh prjcuktj `ms`j j dg ho prdsdgtokmûg (vdo ho 󿬏nuro ;.?9), kj`j dh
d`poqud,
d`po qud, hjs `otdrmohds cd prdsdgtokmûg y prjponogco, dh sdrvmkmj cd pjsvdgto
j ho `orko `ms`o cdh prjcuktj. Tgo d`prdso qud ocjptd ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg
`oso cdad cdkmcmr kjg aosd dg sus dstucmjs cd `drkocj dh tmpj qud hd kjgvmdgd,
to`amíg cdad kjgsmcdror ugo pjsmahd kj`amgokmûg. Yjr dfd`phj, Kd`dx utmhmzo
ugo pdrsjgohmzo
pdrsjgohmzokmûg
kmûg trogspordgtd kuogcj cdtdr`mgo dh sdrvmkmj kjg aosd dg ho ds-
trukturo qud prdsdgto dh khmdgtd, smg d`aornj, to`amíg jbrdkd ug sdrvmkmj cd osd-
sjrào tíkgmko o pdqudÿjs kjgstruktjrds, dg ho qud mgtdgto ugo pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg
kjhoajrokmûg.

Yjspjgdr ho cmbdrdgkmokmûg cdh prjcuktj

Ho khovd poro hjnror ugo pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso dbdktmvo, cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto
jpdrokmjgoh, kjgsmstd dg pjspjgdr dh posj cd cmbdrdgkmokmûg cdh prjcuktj 󿬏goh dh
`oyjrr tmd`pj pjsmahd dg ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj (Bdmtz
`oyj (Bdmtzmgndr
mgndr y Hdd, ?==
?==>).
>). Dstd jafd-
tmvj sd hjnro kjg aosd dg dh cmsdÿj oprjpmocj, togtj cdh prjcuktj kj`j cdh prjkdsj
cd prjcukkmûg, y dg ho prïktmko dxmstdg vormos `ogdros poro hjnror dstd jafdtmvj, hos
qud cm󿬏drdg bugco`dgtoh`dgtd dg su kjstj. O kjgtmguokmûg sd kj`dgtog ohnugos
cd hos tíkgmkos kjg `ïs cmbusmûg (vdo Hdd y Sogn, ?==>).

Cmsdÿj `jcuhor
Kj`j sd dxphmkû dg ho sdkkmûg ogtdrmjr, ug cmsdÿj `jcuhor kjgsmstd dg prjpjgdr
cmbdrdgtds `jcdhjs poro koco `ûcuhj cdh prjcuktj, pdrj sd cdad jbrdkdr ho bugkmj-
gohmcoc rdqudrmco pjr dh khmdgtd oh kj`amgor hjs `jcdhjs cd koco `ûcuhj. Ocd`ïs
cd hjs kjstjs ocmkmjgohds pjr dh cmsdÿj, ho m`phogtokmûg cd dsto tíkgmko mgkurrd dg
kjstjs ocmkmjgohds oh pjspjgdr ho cmbdrdgkmokmûg cdh prjcuktj. Yjr dfd`phj, dh dg-
so`ahd 󿬏goh sukdcd dg dh kdgtrj cd cmstrmaukmûg, gj dg ho bïarmko `ms`o, pjr hj
qud eoy kjstjs ocmkmjgohds pjr kjjrcmgokmûg y cd`jros. Dsto tíkgmko ds oprjpmoco
kuogcj dh kjstj cdh cmsdÿj `jcuhor gj ds `uy ohtj j dh kdgtrj cd cmstrmaukmûg dstï
hdfogj o ho bïarmko.

Dstogcormzokmûg cd kj`pjgdgtds
Dstogcormzokmûg
Kjgsmstd dg mgkjrpjror cmbdrdgtds bugkmjgohmcocds dg ug `ms`j kj`pjgdgtd.
Yjr dfd`phj, ugo torfdto dhdktrûgmko qud smrvo togtj poro ugo m`prdsjro cd kjhjr

SDKGJHJNÀO OROGVOCO ] JSQO[ SDGCDGKMO[ DG YQJCTKKMÛG 2>

‶ Bmnuro ;.?9
YQJCTKSJ Cm`dgsmjgds cd ho
pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso.

DG
 KJG KO@AMJ SQOG[YOQDGSD KJJYDQOKMÛG

[MG KO@AMJ OCOYSOAHD KJ[@ÍSMKJ

[MG KO@AMJ KJG KO@AMJ

YQD[DGSOKMÛG

kj`j poro ugo cd ahogkj y gdnrj. Dsto tíkgmko ds `uy kjgvdgmdgtd kuogcj dh
kjstj cdh kj`pjgdgtd dstïgcor gj ds `uy ohtj, ougqud hos vdgtofos cms`mguydg
sm ohnugj cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds gj ds dstogcormzoahd, hj qud jahmno o pdrsjgohmzor dh
dgso`ahd cdh prjcuktj.

Qdcmsdÿj cdh prjkdsj

Kjgsmstd dg ohtdror ho sdkudgkmo cd jpdrokmjgds cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo, pjr
hj qud sd cdfog oh 󿬏goh hos jpdrokmjgds `dgjs kràtmkos dg ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg cdh
prjcuktj. Yjr dfd`phj,
dfd`phj, trocmkmjgoh`dgtd dg ho mgcustrmo cdh vdstmcj prm`drj sd tmÿd
ho tdho y hudnj sd kjgbdkkmjgo dh prjcuktj, pdrj cdamcj o qud dh prjkdsj cd tdÿm-
cj ds `ukej `ïs rïpmcj (sd eokd pjr hjtds), pudcd sdr prdbdrmahd cdforhj oh 󿬏goh
dg dspdro cd mgbjr`okmûg `ïs prdkmso sjard ho cd`ogco cdh prjcuktj. Dsto tíkgmko
ds `uy kjgvdgmdgtd kuogcj ds pjsmahd pjspjgdr poro dh 󿬏goh hos jpdrokmjgds cd
kjrto curokmûg y/j ohtj vohjr onrdnocj.

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. cdsorrjhhj
Mcdgtm󿬏qudcdoh kocdgos
`dgjs trds cd hjscd
nhjaohds rdtjs qud rdprdsdgto dh
prjvddcjrds.   5. cd
Mgcmqud poro quí dstrotdnmo
ho `ogubokturo kdhuhor. ds oprjpmoco ho m`phogtokmû
m`phogtokmûgg
  1. Dxphmqud dg quí kjgsmstd ho dstrukturo cd `uhtmtmdrs.   =. [dÿohd hjs jafdtmvjs bugco`dgtohds qud pdrsmnud ho 󿬏hj-
  ;. @dgkmjgd ardvd`dgtd hos prmgkmpohds cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd sjbào cd prjcukkmûg fustj o tmd`pj
ho jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh cd hos d`prdsos fopjgdsos y ho  ?9. Dxphmqud hos rozjgds pjr hos kuohds ho ophmkokmûg cdh kjg-
jrnogmzokmûg mgcustrmoh cd hos d`prdsos cd Dstocjs
Dst ocjs Tgm- kdptj fustj o tmd`pj dxmnd qud sd rdcuzkog hjs tmd`pjs
cjs, cdscd prmgkmpmjs cd ho Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh eosto pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs.
ho cíkoco cd hjs sdtdgto.  ??. Dgugkmd y dxphmqud hjs posjs qud sunmdrd [. [emgnj poro
  3. [dÿohd hos ïrdos cd ho d`prdso
d`prds o cjgcd eo tdgmcj su `oyjr rdcukmr hjs tmd`pjs cd opdrturo cd ohnög prjkdsj.
m`poktj ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd gudvos tdkgjhjnàos cd prj-  ?1. Mgcmqud dg quí kjgsmstd dh kjgkdptj cd pdrsjgohmzokmûg
cuktj, prjkdsj d mgbjr`okmûg. dg `oso.
4. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos prmgkmpohds rozjgds pjr hos qud sd dxpd-  ?;. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos prmgkmpohds dstrotdnmos qud pudcd sd-
rm`dgto ug nrog cdsorrjhhj cdamcj o ho ophmkokmûg cd hos numr ugo d`prdso poro m`phogtor ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg
tdkgjhjnàos `jcdrgos dg hjs smstd`os prjcuktmvjs. `oso.
2. Mgcmqud dh smngm󿬏kocj cdh kjgkdptj cd cmsdÿj `jcuhor.  ?3. Kj`dgtd hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos cd mgndgmdrào qud smr-
>. Cdskrmao ardvd`dgtd hj qud dgtmdgcd pjr ug smstd`o cd vdg poro opjyor ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg `oso.
`ogubokturo 󿬁dxmahd.

25  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Kostmhhj,
Kostmhh j, O. H. y C. B. @uÿjz (1993), ‘Cdsorrjhhj
‘Cdsorrjhh j cd ug  ??.
??. Hdd, E. H. y K. [. Sogn (?==>), ‘@jcdhhmgn
‘@jcdhhm gn ted kjsts ogc
smstd`o poro prjnro`or rdkursjs y oktmvmcocds dg ho bo-  adgd󿬏ts jb cdhoy
cdhoydc
dc prjcukt cmbbdrdgtmo
cmbbdrdgtmotmjg‐,
tmjg‐, @ogond`dgt
 armkokmûg cd kohdgtocjrds dhíktrmkjs aofj pdcmcj‐, Qdvmsto
 Qdvmsto [kmdgkd, 3;(?), 39-4;.
 Bokuhtoc cd Mgndgmdrào, T.S.O. (Kemhd), ?1 (1) ;4-31.  ?1.
?1. @k@mhhog, F. (?==9), ‘@ogonmgn supphmdrs6 mgkdgtmvd sys-
   1. Bougcds, O. (1992), Kj`prj`msj dg Kocdgo , O`írmko td`s mg fopogdssd ogc T.[. mgcustry , Kohmbjrgmo @ogond-
 Dkjgj`ào, gjvmd`ard-cmkmd`ard cd 1992, ;1-3;. `dgt Qdvmdw, vdrogj cd ?==9, ;5-44.
  ;. Bdmtzmgndr, D. y E. H. Hdd (?==>), ‘@oss kustj`mzotmjg
kustj`mz otmjg ot  ?;.
?;. @mrogco, O. L. y C. B. B. @uÿjz (1994),
(19 94), ‘C[[ tj `ogond
Edwhdtt-Yoklorc6
Edwhdtt-Yo klorc6 Sed pjwdr jb pjstpjgd`dgt‐, Eorvorc
 Eorvorc OS@ kose ugcdr pdrmjcmk rdvmdw wmte d`drndgky jrcdrs‐,
 Ausmgdss Qdvmdw , dgdrj-bdardrj cd ?==>, ??2-?1?. Yrjkddcmgns
Yrjkddcmg ns jb ted 1994 ^mgtdr [m`uhotmjg Kjgbdrdgkd,
  3. Bhoedrty, @. S. (?==2), Nhjaoh jpdrotmjgs `ogond`dgt,  @. D. Lueh, G. @. [tdmndr, B. A. Or`strjgn, y F. O. Fjmgds,
@kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl. dcs. 14=4-14==, Mgstmtutd jb Dhdktrmkoh ogc Dhdktrjgmks
  4. Bjwhdr, @. (1993), T@H Cmstmhhdc, ;o. dc., Occmsjg-^ds- Dgnmgddrs Mgk., Jrhogcj.
hdy, Gudvo ]jrl.  ?3.
?3. @uÿjz, C. B. B. (?==1). ‘Sdgcdgkmos
‘Sdgcdgkmos oktuohds
oktu ohds dg hjs smstd`os
  2. Nmh`jr
Nmh`jrd,
d, F.F. E. y A. F. Ymgd MM (?==>),
(?==>), ‘Kustj`mzotmjg6
‘Kustj`mzotm jg6 ted cd prjcukkmûg‐. Dg Yrjnro`o cd Cdsorrjhhj D`prdsormoh,
bjur bokds‐,  Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw, dgdrj-bdardrj cd Boskàkuhj 1 cdh `ûcuhj R, @. D. Kosor (dc.), y Gokmjgoh
?==>, =?-?9?. Bmgogkmdro, @íxmkj, C. B.
  >. Njgzïhds,
Njg zïhds, @. O. y F.F. Y.Y. Coh`ossj (1994),
(19 94), ‘Hos Yy`ds  ?4.
?4. [emgnj, [. (?=5=), O stucy jb ted Sjyjto
Sjyjto prjcuktmjg systd`
pjgdg prjo oh buturj‐, O`írmko Dkjgj`ào, dgdrj-bdardr
dgdrj-bdardrjj  brj` og mgcustrmoh dgnmgddrmgn vmdwpjmgt . Yrjcuktmvmty
cd 1994, 41-43. Yrdss, Ko`armcnd.
  5. Nrjjvdr, @. Y. (1991),  Bugco`dgtohs jb `jcdrg `ogu-  ?2.
?2. Rdrtdr, C. y @. K. Cmgkdr (?==1),
( ?==1), ‘Og
‘Og mgtdnrotdc
mgtdn rotdc dvohuo-
 bokturmgn6 `otdrmohs, prjkdssds ogc systd`s , 1o. dc., Fjeg tmjg jb bokmhmty hjkotmjg, kopokmty dxpogsmjg ogc tdkegj-
^mhdy, Gudvo ]jrl. hjny sdhdktmjg bjr cdsmngmgn nhjaoh `ogubokturmgn
  =. Eoyds, Q. E. y N. Ymsogj (?==3), ‘Adyjgc wjrhc khoss6 ted strotdnmds‐,  Durjpdog Fjurgoh jb Jpdrotmjgoh Qdsdorke,
gdw `ogubokturmgn strotdny‐,  Eorvorc Ausmgdss Qdvmdw, 29, ?-?5.
?, >>-52.
 ?9.
?9. cotmjgs
Ejpp, ^.
^jb. F.`ogubokturmgn
y @. H. [pdor`og (1999), Bokt
 Boktjry
`ogond`dgt 
jry peysmks6 bjug-
, 1o. dc., @kNrow-
Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl.

KOYÀSTHJ 3

Mgtrjcukkmûg oh ogïhmsms
 cd prjkdsjs

•  Rmsmûg cd prjkdsj cd hos jrnogmzokmjgds

• @dcmkmûg cdh cdsd`pdÿj
•  Ogïhmsms cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs

portmr cd dstd kopàtuhj dh ogïhmsms sd cdcmko oh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds cdscd

ho pdrspdktmvo cdh 󿬁ufj cd hos dgtmcocds (khmdgtds, dbdktmvj, portds y kj`pj-

O
ds `uy gdgtds)
ötmh porodghodhcmrdkkmûg
smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg.
cd hos Dstoyovmsmûg
jpdrokmjgds, cdh prjkdsj
qud pdr`mtd cd prjcukkmûg
dgtdgcdr dh prjkd-
sj cdscd ugo pdrspdktmvo nhjaoh. Dg dstd kopàtuhj sd prdsdgtog hjs dhd`dgtjs qud
kjgbjr`og dsto vmsmûg, ocd`ïs cd mgtrjcukmr hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos poro ogohmzor
dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd ho cmrdkkmûg cdh prjkdsj. Hjs
kopàtuhjs pjstdrmjrds sd dgbjkog dg dh ogïhmsms cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos
(tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj, toso cd 󿬁ufj d mgvdgtormjs) cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.

  RM[MÛG CD YQJKD[J CD HO[ JQNOGMVOKMJGD[

Dg dh prm`dr kopàtuhj sd trotû oh kjgkdptj cd smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg kj`j ug prjkdsj
cd trogsbjr`okmûg y, ougqud dg ho 󿬏nuro ?.? sd mcdgtm󿬏kû pjr `dcmj cd ug rdkuo-
crj sdgkmhhj (kj`j ugo ‘kofo gdnro‐), cdad rdkjgjkdrsd qud `ïs amdg ds ug smstd`o
kjgsmstdgtd cd ug kjgfugtj cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs, cjgcd koco ugj ku`phd ugo
bugkmûg portmkuhor cdgtrj cd ho d`prdso. @ïs oög, cdamcj o qud dh sdrvmkmj fudno ug
popdh koco vdz `ïs m`pjrtogtd poro rdtdgdr o hjs khmdgtds, oejro hjs prjcuktjs qud
jbrdkdg hos d`prdsos sjg ‘poqudtds‐ cd `ogubokturos y/j sdrvmkmjs< pjr dfd`phj,
oh kj`pror ug dhdktrjcj`ístmkj, dh prjcuktj gj sûhj mgkhuyd ho dgtrdno cdh dqumpj,
smgj qud o `dgucj sd kjgsmcdrog sdrvmkmjs osjkmocjs kj`j dh 󿬏gogkmo`mdgtj, dh
pdrmjcj cd norogtào, y ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cd rdpudstjs y sdrvmkmjs cd `ogtdgm`mdgtj<
dg bjr`o sd`dfogtd, ho prdstokmûg cd sdrvmkmjs to`amíg sd osjkmo kjg dh kjgsu`j
cd `ogubokturos kj`j bjr`uhormjs, ohm`dgtjs, u jasdqumjs cd rdkudrcj. Koco ugj
cd hjs dhd`dgtjs cdh poqudtd tmdgd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs prjpmj.

Rdgtofos cd ho vmsmûg cd prjkdsj

Oh rdkjgjkdr qud dxmstdg `öhtmphds prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs dg ugo d`prdso, ds kjg-
vdgmdgtd kjgkdamr oh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg kj`j ug smstd`o dg dh qud cmvdrsos
dgtmcocds (khmdgtds, `otdrmohds, kj`pjgdgtds, mgbjr`okmûg, dtk.) 󿬁uydg o trovís cd 2=

>9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 3.?
 Rmsmûg cd prjkdsj cd ug smstd`o
prjcuktmvj.
Qdkursj Qdkursj
 Qdkursj Qdkursj

ugo rdc cd rdkursjs y rutos cjgcd sd dfdkutog hos cmbdrdgtds oktmvmcocds prjcuktm-
vos (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 3.?). Koco ugo cd hos dgtmcocds cdad rdkjrrdr ho ruto qud kjrrds-
pjgcd o su prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs poro ndgdror hos `ogubokturos y hjs sdrvmkmjs qud
jbrdkd ho d`prdso. Dg ho toaho 3.? opordkdg dfd`phjs mhustrotmvjs cd hjs dhd`dgtjs
(dgtmcocds, rdkursjs y prjcuktj 󿬏goh) qud kjgstmtuydg ho rdc poro ohnugjs prjkd-
sjs prjcuktmvjs. Dsto kjgkdpkmûg cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg rdkmad dh gj`ard cd
‘vmsmûg cd prjkdsj‐ (Ogupmgcm dt oh., 1992), y dgtrd hos vdgtofos qud sd jatmdgdg oh
ocjptor dsto vmsmûg sd dgkudgtrog6
  • Dh sjhj dfdrkmkmj cd mcdgtm󿬏kor hos dgtmcocds
dgtmcocds qud 󿬁uydg dg ho rdc,
rdc, sus rutos y
hjs rdkursjs qud
`mgmstrocjrds cdsdhjsutmhmzog
prjkdsjsdg ocqumdrog
koco prjkdsj
ugocd`oyjr
gdnjkmjs, pdr`mtd qud
kj`prdgsmûg hjs`d-
cd hjs oc-
kogms`js qud njamdrgog dh prjkdsj, hj qud pdr`mtd, ocd`ïs, qud ístjs sd
dfdkutdg cd `ogdro trogspordgtd.
  • Ho vmsmûg kjgfugto cd hos rdcds kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o hjs cmbdrdgtds prjkdsjs cd
gdnjkmjs, bokmhmto mcdgtm󿬏kor hjs rdkursjs qud sd kj`portdg, ho kopokmcoc cdh
smstd`o poro mgkjrpjror gudvjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs y dh nrocj cd mgtdrokkmûg
dgtrd hjs cmbdrdgtds prjkdsjs. Dstos vdgtofos prjpjrkmjgog o hjs oc`mgmstro-
cjrds cd prm`dr gmvdh ugo vmsmûg `ïs mgtdnroh cd ho d`prdso.
  • Dh dstucmj
dstucmj cd
cd rdcds,
rdcds, qud
qud yoyo kudgto
kudgto kjg ug cdsorrjhhj
cdsorrjhhj cd vormos cíkocos, dg
portmkuhor dh cd hos rdcds cd tdhdkj`ugmkokmjgds, mgkdgtmvo dh dstucmj cdscd
dh pugtj cd vmsto cd ho kjgndstmûg, ho ropmcdz dg dh sdrvmkmj y ho vdhjkmcoc cd
prjcukkmûg. Dh dstucmj cd dstos koroktdràstmkos ds m`pjrtogtd yo qud hjs `í-
tjcjs dxmstdgtds pudcdg oprjvdkeorsd poro jatdgdr `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj
ötmhds poro ho dvohuokmûg cd hjs smstd`os prjcuktmvjs.
  • Ho mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg cd ho rdc cd rdkursjs, rutos y dgtmcocds qud kjgstmtuy
kjgstmtuydg
dg hjs
prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs to`amíg rdsuhto ötmh poro dhoajror `dcmcos cd cdsd`-

‶ Soaho 3.? [M[SD@O D G S M CO C D [ QD KT Q[ J[ YQ JC TKSJ BM GOH

Dhd`dgtjs cd ho rdc poro kmdrtjs
smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg. Dgso`ahd cd Hï`mgo, portds, Síkgmkjs, phogto  Outj`ûvmhds
outj`ûvmhds kj`pjgdgtds outj`jtrmz
Sroto`mdgtj Yokmdgtds, @ícmkjs, dqumpj, [ohuc cdh pokmdgtd
`ícmkj `dcmko`dgtjs, ûrcdgds dgbdr`dros
 Oaostdkm`mdgtj Ûrcdgds, prjcuktjs Srogspjr
jrttocjrds, Cmspjgmamhmcoc cd
cd `otdrmo prm`o oh`okdgds, `otdrmo prm`o
oc`mgmstrocjrds
[drvmkmj cd Khmdgtds, ûrcdgds, Qdkdpkmjgmstos, Dqumpj dg audg dstocj

`ogtdgm`mdgtj dqumpj o mgspdkkmjgor tíkgmkjs

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ >?

‶ Bmnuro 3.1
[M[SD@
[M[SD@O[
O[ CD
CD MGBJQ
MGBJQ@O
@OKM
KM G Dhd`dgtjs cd ug prjkdsj
cd gdnjkmjs.

QDC CD OKSMRMCOCD[ ] ATBBDQ[

 DGSQOCO[ [OHMCO[

DGSMCOCD[ CD BHTFJ QDKTQ[J[

pdÿj cdh smstd`o y kjg aosd dg ho rdc, sus koroktdràstmkos y hos `dcmcos cd
cdsd`pdÿj, ds pjsmahd sm`uhor pjr kj`putocjro dh cdsd`pdÿj cd hjs prjkdsjs
 aofj cmbdrdgtds kjgcmkmjgds. Dstos sm`uhokmjgds smrvdg poro cmbdrdgtds 󿬏gds6
  ▩
  Kuogtm󿬏kor dh dbdktj cd ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd
cd gudvos tdkgjhjnàos j dqumpjs.
  ▩
  Kj`poror dh cdsd`pdÿj
cdsd`pdÿj cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg aofj
aofj cmbdrdgtds
cmbdrdgtds dsqud-
`os cd jrnogmzokmûg (‘rutos‐) cd hjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs.
  ▩
  Kj`poror dh cdsd`pdÿj cd cd cmbdrdgtds pjhàtmkos oc`mgmstrotmvos
oc`mgmstrotmvos poro hjs
prjkdsjs
jrcdg cd cd gdnjkmjs (pjr
prjkdso`mdgtj cddfd`phj, cmbdrdgtds rdnhos poro cdtdr`mgor dh
hjs troaofjs).
  ▩
  Kj`poror dhdh cdsd`pdÿj cdh smstd`o cdcd prjcukkmûg ogtd
ogtd cmbdrdgtds
cmbdrdgtds dskd-
gormjs (pjr dfd`phj, cd cd`ogco).

Dhd`dgtjs cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs

Tgo vdz qud sd ocjpto ugo vmsmûg cd prjkdsj, cdad eokdrsd dxphàkmto, poro dhhj
kjgvmdgd mcdgtm󿬏kor kjg ho `oyjr prdkmsmûg pjsmahd tjcjs hjs dhd`dgtjs cdh prjkd-
sj cd gdnjkmjs, kjg hjs cmonro`os y cjku`dgtokmûg gdkdsormjs. Yoro bokmhmtor dsto
tordo, o kjgtmguokmûg sd rdsu`dg hjs kmgkj dhd`dgtjs cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs
(vdo ho 󿬏nuro 3.1), qud cdadg mcdgtm󿬏korsd kjg khormcoc poro koco ugj cd hjs prj-
kdsjs cd ho d`prdso.

Dgtrocos y sohmcos
Kjgstmtuydg hjs dhd`dgtjs kjg hjs qud dh smstd`o mgtdroktöo kjg su dgtjrgj. Hos
dgtrocos sjg hjs amdgds tognmahds j mgtognmahds qud 󿬁uydg cdscd dh dgtjrgj eokmo dh
smstd`o, `mdgtros qud hos sohmcos sjg hjs amdgds qud 󿬁uydg cdscd dh smstd`o eokmo
su dgtjrgj. Dg ho toaho 3.1 opordkdg ohnugjs dfd`phjs.

‶ Soaho 3.1
[M[SD@O D G S Q O CO [ [ O H M CO [ Dgtrocos y sohmcos dg kmdrtjs
Dgso
Dgso`a
`ahhd cd
cd out
outj`
j`ûv
ûvmhmhds
ds Hï`m
Hï`mgo
go,, por
porttds
ds,, kj`
kj`pj
pjgd
gdggtds Outj`
Out j`ûv
ûvmhmhds
ds cd cm
cmbd
bdrd
rdgt
gtds
ds smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg.
`jcdhjs
Cmstrmaukmûg cdscd tmdgcos o Yrjcuktjs poro vdgto, pdcmcjs Khmdgtds sotmsbdkejs, prjcuktjs
khmdgtds cd khmdgtds dgtrdnocjs
Cmstrmaukmûg cdscd bïarmko eokmo Yrjcuktjs poro oh`okíg cd ho Dgtrdnos, ûrcdgds sotmsbdkeos
oh`okdgds cd tmdgcos bïarmko, ûrcdgds cd pdcmcj cd
hos tmdgcos

>1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Dgtmcocds cd fiufj
[jg hos dgtmcocds qud 󿬁uydg cdgtrj cdh prjkdsj y kuyj 󿬁ufj sd cdsdo ogohmzor.
Koco dgtmcoc tmdgd otrmautjs, pjr dfd`phj, dh to`oÿj cd ho dgtmcoc ds ug otrmautj
m`pjrtogtd, yo qud gj ds hj `ms`j ug pdcmcj pjr ?9 ugmcocds cd ug prjcuktj qud
pjr ?99 ugmcocds. Qdspdktj cd dstd otrmautj, osu`o qud koco dgtmcoc tmdgd ugo j
`ïs ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj, qud ds ugo `dcmco cdh to`oÿj cd ho dgtmcoc. Dg ug prj-
 kdsj cd gdnjkmjs kmdrtos dgtmcocds sd kjgsjhmcog (pjr dfd`phj ug toahdrj y vormos
potos sd kjgsjhmcog dg ugo `dso) j to`amíg sd ro`m󿬏kog (pjr dfd`phj ugo jrcdg
cd kj`pro cd ug prjcuktj sd ro`m󿬏ko dg ugo jrcdg cd kjarj y dg ug pdcmcj cdh
prjcuktj oh oh`okíg). Hos dgtmcocds sjg m`pjrtogtds pjrqud hos `dcmcos cdh 󿬁ufj
cd hos dgtmcocds
td`o. (ropmcdz,
Yjr jtrj hocj, vdhjkmcoc,
hos ugmcocds dg kjgndstmûg) cdtdr`mgog
hos qud sd dxprdso dh cdsd`pdÿj
dh to`oÿj cdh sms-
cd hos dgtmcocds
mg󿬁uydg dg hos cdkmsmjgds sjard kopokmcoc y cmsdÿj cdh smstd`o.

Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr

Ds dh cmonro`o cd 󿬁ufj cd hos oktmvmcocds y hos sdkudgkmos cd oktmvmcocds qud cdadg
rdkjrrdr hos dgtmcocds cd 󿬁ufj. Hjs aubbdr sjg hjs dspokmjs poro dh oh`okdgo`mdgtj
td`pjroh cd hos dgtmcocds qud sd dgkudgtrog dg dspdro cd mgnrdsor
mgn rdsor o ugo oktmvmcoc,
y hos dgtmcocds dg hjs aubbdr kjgstmtuydg dh mgvdgtormj dg dspdro. Jasdrvd qud ho
bohto cd mgvdgtormj dg dspdro cdtmdgd dh prjkdsj, `mdgtros qud dh dxkdsj ds kjstj-
sj y cd`drmto ho kohmcoc cdh prjkdsj. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.; sd prdsdgtog hjs prmgkmpohds
sà`ajhjs poro nro󿬏kor ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr.

Qdkursjs
[jg hjs oktmvjs tognmahds gdkdsormjs poro dfdkutor hos oktmvmcocds cd hjs prjkdsjs cd
gdnjkmjs. Dg ndgdroh, dxmstdg cjs tmpjs cd rdkursjs6 hjs cd kopmtoh (pjr dfd`phj mgs-
tohokmjgds, dqumpj, `oqumgormo, trogspjrtocjrds), y hjs eu`ogjs (pjr dfd`phj tíkgm-
kjs, jpdrormjs, bugkmjgormjs). Jasdrvd qud ugo oktmvmcoc rdqumdrd `öhtmphds rdkursjs
y qud ho d󿬏kmdgkmo, kjstj y tmd`pj cdh prjkdsj cdpdgcd cd ho kogtmcoc y kohmcoc cd
hjs rdkursjs osmngocjs o koco oktmvmcoc.

‶ Bmnuro 3.;
Yrmgkmpohds sà`ajhjs usocjs dg
ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr. Dvdgtj cd mgmkmj j cd tdr`mgokmûg

Oktmvmcoc (jpdrokmûg)

Oktmvmcoc (trogspjrtd)

@jvm`mdgtj (󿬁ufj)

Au﬉dr  (dspokmj poro dspdro)

Cdkmsmûg (rutdj)

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ >;

[mstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg
Cdtdr`mgo ho mgbjr`okmûg cmspjgmahd poro oc`mgmstror dh 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj cd gd-
njkmjs, rdkudrcd qud ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh 󿬁ufj cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs ds dh
kjgfugtj cd pjhàtmkos qud dspdkm󿬏kog ho `ogdro dg qud cdad jpdror ug prjkdsj o
hj hornj cdh tmd`pj (cmsdÿj, prjnro`okmûg, osmngokmûg y sdkudgkmokmûg cd oktmvmco-
cds y rdkursjs). Jasdrvd qud ho audgo cmrdkkmûg oc`mgmstrotmvo cd ug prjkdsj dstï
 àgtm`o`dgtd rdhokmjgoco kjg ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cd mgbjr`okmûg.

Dfd`phj 3.?. Tg prjkdsj cd cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs

Ho cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs ds ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs m`pjrtogtd qud sd jbrdkd

rdnuhor`dgtd dg ug smstd`o cd oc`mgmstrokmûg trmautormo ([OS). Ho sjhmkmtuc cd
cdvjhukmûg sd mgmkmo kjg ho cdkhorokmûg furoco cdh kjgtrmauydgtd, pdrj dh trï`mtd
dspdkà󿬏kj cdad mgmkmorhj dh kjgtrmauydgtd okdrkïgcjsd pdrsjgoh`dgtd o ohnugo cd
hos j󿬏kmgos cdh [OS. Tg prjkdsj tàpmkj cd cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs kjgsmstd cd hjs
smnumdgtds posjs6
  • Dh kjgtrmauydgtd
kjgtrmauydgtd sjhmkmto mgbjr`okmûg sjard dh trï`mtd dg dh `ûcuhj
`ûcuhj cd otdg-
kmûg cd ho j󿬏kmgo cdh [OS, cjgcd sd hd mgbjr`o qud cdad ku`phmr kmdrtjs rd-
qumsmtjs y prdsdgtor su sjhmkmtuc kjg ho cjku`dgtokmûg gdkdsormo dg dh `ûcuhj
cd cdvjhukmjgds.
• Dh kjgtrmauydgtd
kjgtrmauydgtd prdsdgto su sjhmkmtuc y ho cjku`dgtokmûg
cjku`dgtokmûg gdkdsormo dg dh
`ûcuhj cd cdvjhukmjgds, cjgcd sd hd mgbjr`o qud sd puahmkorï pjr Mgtdrgdt
dh rdsuhtocj
  • Tg cd su trï`mtd
kj`mtí rdvmsjr dghmzo
dh phozj
(KQ) ogohmzo
ogo kjrrdspjgcmdgtd.
ho sjhmkmtuc y ho khosm󿬏ko dg ohnugo
ohnugo cd hos sm-
numdgtd kotdnjràos6 O (pordkd boktmahd), A (rdqumdrd ug dxo`dg `ïs cdtohhocj)
j K (sd rdkeozo ho cdvjhukmûg).
  • Hos sjhmkmtucds
sjhmkmtucds tmpj
tmpj O y A hos rdvmso su rdspdktmvj
rdspdktmvj kj`mtí (KO
(KO y KA,) dh qud
d`mtd dh vdrdcmktj cd okdptokmûg j rdkeozj. Tg vdrdcmktj cd okdptokmûg nd-
gdro ho d`msmûg cd ug kedqud pjr ho kogtmcoc kjrrdspjgcmdgtd.
Kjg aosd dg ho mgbjr`okmûg ogtdrmjr hjs dhd`dgtjs cd dstd prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs
sjg6
  ?.  Dgtrocos y sohmcos6 koco dgtmcoc cd dgtroco dg dstd smstd`o ds ug kjgtrm-
 auydgtd qud cdsdo sjhmkmtor ugo cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs, `mdgtros qud ho
sohmco pudcd sdr ug kedqud pjr ho cdvjhukmûg j ug vdrdcmktj cd rdkeozj cd
ho sjhmkmtuc.
  1.  Dgtmcocds cd 󿬁ufj6 ho dgtmcoc cd dgtroco oh smstd`o ds ug kjgtrmauydgt
kjgtrmauydgtd,d, qud
hudnj dvjhukmjgo dg ug dxpdcmdgtd qud kjgtmdgd ugo sjhmkmtuc y kmdrtjs cjku-
`dgtjs, poro kjgvdrtmrsd dg ug kedqud j dg ug vdrdcmktj cd rdkeozj, sdnög
dh kosj. @mdgtros sd cdsorrjhho dh prjkdsj sd pudcdg ndgdror jtros dgtmcocds
kj`j pjcràog sdr sjhmkmtucds cd mgbjr`okmûg j cd rdnmstrj cd mgbjr`okmûg.
  ;.  Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr6 dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.3 sd mhustro ho rdc cd oktmvmco-
cds y aubbdr poro dstd prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs. Jasdrvd qud ogtds cd koco ugo
cd hos oktmvmcocds eoy ug sà`ajhj cd aubbdr (trmïgnuhj), qud mgcmko ohnugos
dgtmcocds dg dspdro poro mgnrdsor o ho oktmvmcoc, pjrqud tjcjs hjs rdkursjs
qud dfdkutog ho oktmvmcoc kjrrdspjgcmdgtd dstïg jkupocjs. Jasdrvd to`amíg
qud sd eog uamkocj ; sà`ajhjs cd rutdj (rj`aj) poro mgcmkor qud ho dgtmcoc
sd cmrmnmrï o ugo (y sûhj ugo) cd vormos rutos pjsmahds.
  3.  Qdkursjs6 dg koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds cd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr
dxmstd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs eu`ogjs (d`phdocjs) y cd kopmtoh (pjr dfd`phj
kj`putocjros) qud pdr`mtdg ho dfdkukmûg cd hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds oktmvmco-

>3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 3.3
Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr
poro ug prjkdsj cd cdvjhukmûg Okdptokmûg D`msmûg
cd m`pudstjs. cd kedqud

Okdptokmûg
Qdvmsmûg
KO
Qdkeozj
 @ûcuhj cd Qdvmsmûg Bmg
Mgmkmj mgbjr`okmûg KA
KO Qdkeozj

KA Qdkeozj

@ûcuhj cd Qdvmsmûg
cdvjhukmûg rïpmco (KQ)

cds. Ohnugjs rdkursjs pudcdg kj`portmrsd kjg jtrjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs

(pjr dfd`phj pdrsjgoh cdh `ûcuhj cd mgbjr`okmûg j cd d`msmûg cd kedquds),
`mdgtros qud jtrjs rdkursjs pucmdrog sdr dxkhusmvjs poro dh prjkdsj cd cd-
vjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs (pdrsjgoh cdh `ûcuhj cd cdvjhukmûg, kj`mtí rdvmsjr,
kj`mtí O j kj`mtí A).
  4.  koco
[mstd`o
ugocd
cd mgbjr`okmûg 6 ocd`ïs
hos oktmvmcocds cd ho cd
cdh prjkdsj mgbjr`okmûg
cdvjhukmûgrdqudrmco poro okkdsj
(pjr dfd`phj dfdkutor
o
ho mgbjr`okmûg sjard dh kjgtrmauydgtd), ho audgo oc`mgmstrokmûg cd dstd prj-
kdsj dxmnd dh rdnmstrj y prjkdso`mdgtj cd mgbjr`okmûg rdhokmjgoco kjg hjs
tmd`pjs cd mgnrdsj cd hos dgtmcocds o koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds y aubbdr cdh
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs, yo qud cd dsto `ogdro sd pjcrï soadr sm sd otmdgcdg hos
sjhmkmtucds dg tmd`pjs rozjgoahds poro dh kjgtrmauydgtd. Mgbjr`okmûg sjard
qudfos j drrjrds kj`dtmcjs dg dh prjkdsj to`amíg sdrïg cd `ukeo utmhmcoc
poro oc`mgmstror ocdkuoco`dgtd dh prjkdsj.
✣

  @DCMKMÛG CDH CD[D@YDßJ

Tgo vdgtofo cd ho vmsmûg cd prjkdsj ds qud pdr`mtd cd󿬏gmr `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds
kj`ugds o tjcjs hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg y o sus prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs. Dstos
`dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj sd rdhokmjgog kjg ho h o vdhjkmcoc cd prjcukkmûg, ho kjgndstmûg
y dh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto cdh smstd`o. Dg ho prdsdgtd sdkkmûg sd prdsdgtog hos `d-
cmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, osà kj`j ugo dkuokmûg
`uy m`pjrtogtd, ho rdnho cd Hmtthd, qud ds ugo rdhokmûg cd `ukeo utmhmcoc prïktmko
dgtrd dstos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds.

@dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd bhufj

Dg tjcj prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs dxmstdg `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj dspdkà󿬏kos y qud gj
sjg ophmkoahds o jtrjs prjkdsjs. Yjr dfd`phj, dg dh prjkdsj cd cdvjhukmûg cd m`-
pudstjs dh gö`drj cd khmdgtds qud prdsdgtog qudfos pjr gj dstor cd okudrcj kjg dh
vdrdcmktj cd okdptokmûg j rdkeozj, ds ugo `dcmco cdh cdsd`pdÿj cd dstd prjkdsj<
smg d`aornj, gj ophmko poro prjkdsjs cd `ogubokturo dg hjs qud eoy mgvdgtormj

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ >4

cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj qud gj ds kopoz cd d`mtmr qudfos. Dg ko`amj, dxmstdg jtros

`dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj qud sjg ugmvdrsohds, cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto qud ophmkog
poro kuohqumdr prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.
  Kjg dh jafdtj cd prdsdgtor hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj kjg ho
`oyjr prdkmsmûg pjsmahd, kjgvmdgd qud prdstd otdgkmûg o ho smnumdgtd gjtokmûg `o-
td`ïtmko. [upjgno qud dg kmdrtj smstd`o (ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs) hhdnog dgtmco-
cds qud pdr`ogdkdg cdgtrj cd íh y hudnj sohdg. Curogtd dh pdrmjcj dgtrd S   9 y
 S     t  y
 y dg dh mgtdrvohj cd tmd`pj \9, t P  sd rdnmstrorjg hos smnumdgtds vormoahds6
 G (s)  gö`drj cd ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj qud eog sohmcj cdh smstd`o eosto dh tmd`pj s
 M (s) gö`drj cd ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj qud sd dgkudgtrog cdgtrj cdh smstd`o oh
tmd`pj s,
  S m  tmd`pj qud ho m-ísm`o ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj pdr`ogdkmû dg dh smstd`o,

poro 9   s    t , m    G (t ).

). Hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cdh 󿬁ufj dg ug smstd-
`o sjg ho toso cd 󿬁ufj6
 G (t )
   Q(t ) 0 , (3.?)
t 
dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj dg dh smstd`o
t 

 
 ∬  M(s)cs ,
 M (t ) 0 9 (3.1)
t 

y dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj6

 G ( t )

∟ S 
  m 0?
m
  S (t ) 0 . (3.;)
 G (t )

Ho toso cd 󿬁ufj `mcd ho vdhjkmcoc cd prjcukkmûg dg ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs, `mdg-

tros qud dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj ds ugo `dcmco cd ho kjgndstmûg y dh tmd`pj prj-
`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj ds ugo `dcmco cdh kmkhj cd tmd`pj qud tj`o ho prjcukkmûg cd ugo
ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj. Jtro `dcmco jpdrokmjgoh cd m`pjrtogkmo dg ug prjkdsj cd gdnj-
kmjs ds ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, qud sd jatmdgd o portmr cd hos `dcmcos aïsmkos
y sd cd󿬏gd pjr6
 Q(t )
  R (t ) 0 . (3.3)
 M (t )

  Ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs pudcd mgtdrprdtorsd kj`j hos ‘vudhtos‐ (j rdpj-

smkmjgds) qud dxpdrm`dgto dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cdh smstd`o dg dh mgtdrvohj cd
tmd`pj \9, t P.
P.

Dfd`phj 3.1. @dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj dg ug kofdrj outj`ïtmkj

Dh d`phdocj cd ugo ondgkmo cd Aogkj`or jasdrvo qud dh kofdrj outj`ïtmkj sd dg-

kudgtro cdsjkupocj (dg S    9) y cdkmcd rdnmstror dh tmd`pj (dg `mgutjs) dg qud
jkurrdg hjs dvdgtjs cd hhdnoco y sohmco cd khmdgtds, dspdro o qud hhdnud dh prm`dr
khmdgtd y eosto qud dh kofdrj sd cdsjkupd gudvo`dgtd (vudhvo o dstor vokàj). Hjs
rdsuhtocjs cdh dxpdrm`dgtj cdh d`phdocj sd rdsu`dg dg ho toaho 3.;.
  Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, dh d`phdocj jasdrvû dh smstd`o cdh kofdrj outj`ïtmkj
dgtrd S     9 y S    =.> `mgutjs. Kj`j pudcd jasdrvor dg ho toaho, dh gö`drj cd

>2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho 3.; D RD G SJ S M D @ Y J C D J K T Q Q D G K M O ( s ) G ( s ) M ( s )

Smd`pjs cd jkurrdgkmo
cd hjs dvdgtjs dg ug kofdrj
outj`ïtmkj.
Mgmkmj cd rdnmstrj 9 9 9
Hhdnoco khmdgtd ? ?.4 9 ?
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 1 1.> 9 1
[ohmco khmdgtd ? ;.1 ? ?
Hhdnoco khmdgtd ; ;.4 ? 1
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 3 3.5 ? ;
 [ohmco khmdgtd 1 4.1 1 1
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 4 2.9 1 ;
[ohmco khmdgtd ; 2.5 ; 1
[ohmco khmdgtd 3 5.; 3 ?
[ohmco khmdgtd 4 =.> 4 9

khmdgtds otdgcmcjs bud cd  G (=.>)

(=.>)  4, pjr hj qud ho toso cd 󿬁ufj jasdrvoco bud cd
 Q(=.>)  4/=.>  9.4? 9.4?44 khmdgtds pjr `mgutj. Yoro kohkuhor dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj o


portmr cd hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 3.;, prm`drj nro󿬏qud dh mgvdgtormj  M (s) kj`j bugkmûg
cdh tmd`pj (s). Ho nrï󿬏ko kjrrdspjgcmdgtd sd prdsdgto dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.4.
  Ho nrï󿬏ko `udstro qud dh ïrdo aofj ho nrï󿬏ko cd  M (s)  ds ugo su`o cd rdk-
tïgnuhjs, pjr hj qud o portmr cd (3.1) y hjs cotjs cd ho toaho dh mgvdgtormj prj`d-
cmj ds6
?
 M (=.>) 0 \9(?.4 ∑ 9) + ?(1.> ∑ ?.4) + 1(;.1 ∑ ?.>) + ... + ?(= .> ∑ 5.;)P 0
=.>
?3.>
0 ≅ ?.4?4
4?4 kh
khmd
mdgt
gtds
ds
=.>
Yjr öhtm`j, hjs cotjs cd ho toaho `udstrog qud hjs tmd`pjs cd pdr`ogdgkmo poro
koco ugj cd hjs 4 khmdgtds rdnmstrocjs sjg hjs smnumdgtds6
Khmdgtd (m ) ? 1 ; 3 4
Ydr`ogdgkmo (S m m)  ?.> 1.4 ;.; ;.4 ;.>

‶ Bmnuro 3.4
Nrï󿬏ko cdh mgvdgtormj cd khmdgtds
dg ug kofdrj outj`ïtmkj. M(s)
;

  s
  d
1
   t
  g
  d
   m
   h
   K

9
9 ?.4 1.> ;.1 ;.4 3.5 4.1 2 2.5 5.; =.>
Smd`pj (s)

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ >>

Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj ds6

? ?3.>
S (=.>) 0
\?.> + 1.4 + ;.; + ;.4 + ;.>P 0 ≅ 1.=3 `mmgtujs
`mmgtujs,,
4 4
qud ds dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd pdr`ogdgkmo dg dh kofdrj (dspdro `ïs otdgkmûg) cd
hjs khmdgtds jasdrvocjs. Jasdrvd qud  M  ∑(=.>)   Q ∑
Q(=.>)S (=.>), hj kuoh gj ds ugo kjmg-
kmcdgkmo, kj`j vdrï o kjgtmguokmûg.
 ✣

Ho rdnho cd Hmtthd
Dg ndgdroh rdsuhto `uy cmbàkmh kohkuhor hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd cdsd`-
pdÿj cd ug smstd`o, o portmr cd sus koroktdràstmkos cd cmsdÿj y potrûg cd hhdnocos
cd dgtmcocds, o `dgjs qud sd rdnmstrd d`pàrmko`dgtd ho dvjhukmûg cdh smstd`o. Oh
rdspdktj, ho edrro`mdgto `ïs ötmh poro dstoahdkdr kjgkhusmjgds kdrkogos o ho rdohm-
coc ds ho sm`uhokmûg cd smstd`os, y dh hdktjr kjg mgtdrís dg dh td`o pudcd kjgsuhtor
Ldhtjg dt oh. (199>). Dxmstd, smg d`aornj, ugo rdnho `uy ötmh poro dstoahdkdr kjgkhu-
smjgds oprjxm`ocos sjard hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos dg dh hornj phozj. Yoro
sdr `ïs prdkmsjs, cdgjtd kjg  Q,  M ∑  y S 
∑ o ho toso cd 󿬁ufj, dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj y
dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cd ug smstd`o dg dh hornj phozj, ds cdkmr, tj`d dh hà`mtd kuogcj
t   ↑   o hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds `dcmcos cd cdsd`pdÿj cd󿬏gmcos dg (3.?)-(3.;). Ho
rdnho cd Hmtthd dstoahdkd qud6
  ∑ ∑
 M     QS 
QS . (3.4)

Dsto rdnho bud dgugkmoco mgmkmoh`dgtd pjr Fjeg C. K. Hmtthd, prjbdsjr cd ho @MS
[hjog [kejjh jb @ogond`dgt, y hj sjrprdgcdgtd cd ho `ms`o ds qud ophmko o smstd-
`os `uy kj`phdfjs, yo sdo oh smstd`o kj`phdtj j o ug suasmstd`o (j prjkdsj) cdh
`ms`j, sd eog cdsorrjhhocj dxtdgsmjgds cd ho rdnho cd Hmtthd aofj kjgcmkmjgds `uy
ndgdrohds (vdo Nhygg, ?=5=). Jasdrvd qud sm R  cdgjto
  cdgjto ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
dg dh hornj phozj, o portmr cd (3.3) y (3.4) pudcd kjgkhumr qud6
  R     Q ∑   ?/ S 
Q/  M  ∑. (3.2)
Ocd`ïs, dg ho dkuokmûg (3.?) ho toso cd 󿬁ufj  Q(t ) sd cd󿬏gd kjg aosd dg hos ugmco-
cds qud sohdg cdh smstd`o, pjr hj qud dg ug sdgtmcj dstrmktj ds `ïs amdg ho toso
cd sohmco cdh smstd`o. Ougqud sd pudcd prjpjrkmjgor ugo cd󿬏gmkmûg sm`mhor poro
ho toso cd dgtroco, poro ug smstd`o dg dstocj dstoahd, ho toso cd dgtroco cdad sdr
mnuoh o ho toso cd sohmco dg dh hornj phozj (cd jtro bjr`o hjs mgvdgtormjs krdkdràog
mgcd󿬏gmco`dgtd), y pjrsûhj
phjs cd dstd kopàtuhj), dstosdrozûg
eokd dg ho rdnho ocdhoHmtthd
rdbdrdgkmo (y 󿬁ufj
toso cd dg hjs Qsmnumdgtds dfd`-
 y sd supjgd ug
smstd`o dg dstocj dstoahd y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, ho toso cd dgtroco y ho toso cd sohmco
sjg mnuohds o  Q.

Dfd`phj 3.;. Cmbdrdgtds ophmkokmjgds cd ho rdnho cd Hmtthd

Kjg dh jafdtj cd mhustror ho vdrsotmhmcoc cd ho rdnho cd Hmtthd poro dstoahdkdr kjg-
khusmjgds sjard dh cdsd`pdÿj cd ug smstd`o, o kjgtmguokmûg sd phogtdog ohnugjs
kosjs.
  ?.  Bhufj cd `otdrmohds6 ug rdstourogtd cd kj`mco rïpmco prjkdso ug prj`dcmj
cd ? tjgdhoco cd korgd `jhmco pjr sd`ogo y `ogtmdgd ug mgvdgtormj prj-
`dcmj cd 9.4 tjgdhocos. Oh kjgsmcdror kj`j ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj ? ln cd korgd

>5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

`jhmco, sd cdsdo mcdgtm󿬏kor dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkd koco ln cd

korgd `jhmco dg dh rdstourogtd.
  1.  Bhufj cd khmdgtds6 dh rdstourogtd otmdgcd ug prj`dcmj cd 499 khmdgtds oh cào
(curogtd ?4 ejros oh cào), dh prj`dcmj cd khmdgtds prdsdgtds dg dh rdstourogtd
(jrcdgogcj, dg dspdro poro jrcdgor, dg dspdro cd ho jrcdg j kj`mdgcj dg
ohnugo cd hos `dsos) ds cd 14. [d cdsdo soadr dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr-
`ogdkdg hjs khmdgtds dg dh rdstourogtd.
  ;.  Hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg6 ho j󿬏kmgo cd ugo kj`poÿào cd sdnurjs prjkdso ?9 999
 sjhmkmtucds cd rdkho`js oh oÿj, kjg ug tmd`pj cd prjkdso`mdgtj prj`dcmj
cd ; sd`ogos (sd kjgsmcdrog 41 sd`ogos oh oÿj). ºDg prj`dcmj, kuïgtos sj-
hmkmtucds cd rdkho`j sd dgkjgtrorïg dg prjkdsj:
  3.  Kopmtoh cd dtk.)
rrj, kjqud, pjr6 ug
troaofj ugovohjr
bïarmko cd okdrj
cd 399 prjkdso
`mhhjgds mgsu`js
cd cûhords (`mgdroh
oh oÿj cd emd-
d mgkurrd dg
ug kjstj cd prjkdso`mdgtj cd 199 `mhhjgds oh oÿj. Dh vohjr cd su mgvdgtormj
(mgsu`js `ïs `otdrmohds dg prjkdsj) dg prj`dcmj ds cd ?9 `mhhjgds. ºKuïg-
tj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj pdr`ogdkd koco cûhor mgvdrtmcj dg dh prjkdsj cd
prjcukkmûg:
  4. Hmqumcdz6 ugo d`prdso cmstrmaumcjro cd ortàkuhjs poro dh ejnor tmdgd ug gmvdh
cd vdgtos cd $;99 `mhhjgds oh oÿj y dg prj`dcmj dh vjhu`dg cd sus kudgtos
pjr kjaror nmro ohrdcdcjr cd $34 `mhhjgds. Dg prj`dcmj, ºkuïh ds dh hopsj cd
cd`jro dgtrd ho d`msmûg cdh rdkmaj y dh kjarj dbdktmvj:
O kjgtmguokmûg sd co rdspudsto o hos mgtdrrjnogtds phogtdocos6
  ?. Dg dstd kosj Q  ? tjgdhoco/sd`ogo, M  ∑  9.4 tjgdhocos, pjr hj qud dh tmd`pj
prj`dcmj qud koco ln cd korgd `jhmco pdr`ogdkd dg dh rdstourogtd ds cd
∑   9.4/?  9.4 sd`ogos.
S 
∑   14 khmdgtds, pjr hj
  1. Dg dh kosj cdh 󿬁ufj cd khmdgtds  Q   499 khmdgtds/cào,  M 
qud dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkdg hjs khmdgtds dg dh rdstourogtd ds cd
∑   14/499  9.4 càos cd ?4 ejros, ds cdkmr, cd 34 `mgutjs.
S 
  ;. Yoro ho kj`poÿào cd sdnurjs Q  ?9,999 sjhmkmtucds/oÿj, S  ∑  ; sd`ogos, pjr
hj qud dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd sjhmkmtucds dg prjkdsj ds cd  M  ∑   ?9999(;)/41
  4>> sjhmkmtucds.
  3. Dg dh kosj cd ho bïarmko cd okdrj  Q   399  199  299 `mhhjgds cd $/oÿj,
∑
 M    ?99 `mhhjgds cd $, pjr hj qud dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkd koco
cûhor mgvdrtmcj dg dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg ds cd S  ∑   ?9/299  ?/29 oÿjs,
ds cdkmr, cd 9.1 `dsds.
  4. Yoro ho d`prdso
d`prdso cd ortdboktjs poro dh ejnor
ejnor  Q    ;99 `mhhjgds cd $/oÿj,
∑
 M   34 `mhhjgds cd $, pjr hj qud dh hopsj cd cd`jro dgtrd ho d`msmûg cdh rdkm-
∑   34/;99  9.4 oÿjs, ds cdkmr, cd ?.5 `dsds.
 aj y dh kjarj dbdktmvj ds cd S 
Koad `dgkmjgor qud dg dstjs kosjs sd supjgd qud hjs cotjs sjg rdprdsdgtotmvjs
cdh cdsd`pdÿj dg dh hornj phozj.
✣

  OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ CD GDNJKMJ[

Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd cdskrmad kû`j dh ogïhmsms cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos
cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs ds cd `ukeo utmhmcoc poro jatdgdr ugo vmsmûg cdh prj-
kdsj kj`j ug tjcj, hj qud pdr`mtd kjgkhusmjgds rïpmcos sjard ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh
prjkdsj prjcuktmvj j sjard hos jpjrtugmcocds cd `dfjro cdh `ms`j. So`amíg sd
`udstro kû`j ho rdnho cd Hmtthd ds ugo edrro`mdgto bugco`dgtoh poro dh ogïhmsms
cd prjkdsjs.

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ >=

Kj`porokmûg cd cmsdÿjs ohtdrgjs

Tgo prm`dro ophmkokmûg cdh ogïhmsms cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd ug
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs ds ho kj`porokmûg dgtrd cmsdÿjs ohtdrgjs poro dh `ms`j prj-
kdsj cd gdnjkmjs, y dg portmkuhor, dh pjcdr kjgkhumr kuïh cd hjs cmsdÿjs ds dh `ïs
oprjpmocj. Dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj mhustro kû`j dh ogïhmsms cd hos `dcmcos cd 󿬁ufj
oyuco o kjgkhumr sm ug gudvj cmsdÿj poro ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs ds `dfjr qud dh
cmsdÿj ogtdrmjr.
 Dfd`phj 3.3. Cdsd`pdÿj cd ug gudvj cmsdÿj
poro ho cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs
Ogtds cd m`phogtor dh smstd`o poro ho cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs cdh dfd`phj ?, dh
[OS rdkmaào ug prj`dcmj cd ? 999 sjhmkmtucds pjr `ds y gj cmstmgnuào dgtrd sjhm-
kmtucds tmpj O, A j K, cd `ogdro qud ug sjhj kj`mtí sd dgkornoao cd eokdr ugo
rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo, kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.2, cjgcd ocd`ïs sd prdsdgto dh
mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd sjhmkmtucds (khmdgtds) qud sd jasdrvû dg koco ugo cd hos
oktmvmcocds.
  Cdamcj o qud gj sd tmdgd mgbjr`okmûg okdrko cd kuïhds sjhmkmtucds dstïg dg
prjkdsj y kuïhds dg dspdro, sd dhm`mgorjg hjs sà`ajhjs cd aubbdr dg ho 󿬏nuro, pjr hj
qud dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj rdpjrtocj poro koco oktmvmcoc mgkhuyd o hos sjhmkmtucds
dg dspdro y o hos qud dstïg dg otdgkmûg (dg prjkdsj). Osà, pjr dfd`phj, dxmstàog dg
prj`dcmj 499 sjhmkmtucds rdkmamcos dg dh ïrdo cd rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo, ohnugos cd
dhhos dg rdvmsmûg cd ohnög d`phdocj y jtros sm`phd`dgtd dg dspdro pjr dh mgmkmj
cd su rdvmsmûg. Jasdrvd qud oh osu`mr cotjs cd dstocj dstoahd, ho toso cd sohmco cd
koco prjkdsj ds mnuoh o su toso cd dgtroco y, dg portmkuhor, ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh prj-
kdsj cd rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo kjgtmgöo dg ? 999 sjhmkmtucds/`ds. Kjg hjs cotjs cd ho
󿬏nuro sd cdtdr`mgo (oh ophmkor ho rdnho cd Hmtthd) qud ho rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo cd koco
sjhmkmtuc tj`oao dg prj`dcmj S  ∑    499/?999   9.4 `dsds, pjr hj qud sd cdkmcmû
 
ko`amor ho rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo pjr dh prjkdsj cdskrmtj dg dh dfd`phj 3.?. Jasdrvd
qud sm sd mgkhuyd ho d`msmûg cd kedquds, dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cdscd ho rdvmsmûg
∑   499   19  419, pjr hj qud dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud tj`o
dxeoustmvo ds cd  M 
ho otdgkmûg cd ugo sjhmkmtuc cdscd ho rdvmsmûg dxeoustmvo (mgkhusj ho d`msmûg cd
kedquds) ds cd S ∑   419/?999  9.41 `dsds.
  Hudnj cd m`phogtor dh gudvj prjkdsj cd otdgkmûg cd sjhmkmtucds, kj`j dg
dh kosj ogtdrmjr, gj sd cmspjgd cd cotjs prdkmsjs sjard dh tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg cd
koco sjhmkmtuc, pdrj dg ko`amj sd cmspjgd cd cotjs sjard dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj
cd sjhmkmtucds, kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.>, cjgcd gudvo`dgtd sd dhm`mgorjg
hjs sà`ajhjs cd aubbdr pjr gj cmspjgdr cd ho mgbjr`okmûg prdkmso.
  Yoro soadr, kjg aosd dg hjs cotjs dgkjgtrocjs, sm dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd otdgkmûg
cd
qudhos
dh sjhmkmtucds `dfjrû
mgvdgtormj tjtoh kjgdhdstd
poro gudvjgudvj prjkdsj
prjkdsj ds cdcd∑ otdgkmûg,
 M  aosto
 ;9  149  19kjgmcdgtm󿬏kor
 19  ;19,

‶ Bmnuro 3.2
Q  ?999 Cdsd`pdÿj cdh prjkdsj
ogtmnuj poro ho cdvjhukmûg
@ûcuhj cd ‛ cd m`pudstjs.
Mgmkmj ‛ Okdptokmûg M  19
mgbjr`okmûg M  ?
(59%) D`msmûg
cd kedqud

@ûcuhj cd Qdvmsmûg Bmg

cdvjhukmûg dxeousmvo Qdkeozj (19%)
‛ ‛
M  1 M  499

59  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 3.>
Cdsd`pdÿj cdh gudvj Q  ?999
prjkdsj poro ho cdvjhukmûg
cd m`pudstjs. Mgmkmj @ûcuhj cd ‛
mgbjr`okmûg M  ? ‛
‛ Okdptokmûg M  19
M  1
 149
49
(>2%)
Qdvmsmûg D`msmûg
‛ @ûcuhj cd KA cd kedqud
M  1 cdvjhukmûg
Qdkeozj (13%)
KA (39%) Qdkeozj
 (?9%)
Qdvmsmûg Bmg
rïpmco (KQ)
‛ KO (49%)
M  ;9
Qdkeozj (9.5%)
Qdvmsmûg
KO
Okdptokmûg (==.1%)
‛
M  19

pjr hj qud dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud tj`o ho otdgkmûg cd ugo sjhmkmtuc cdscd ho rd-
vmsmûg rïpmco (mgkhusj ho d`msmûg cd kedquds) ds cd S  ∑   ;19/?999  9.;1 `dsds,
qud ds sustogkmoh`dgtd `dfjr qud hjs 9.41 `dsds qud tj`oao dh prjkdsj ogtdrmjr.
Jasdrvd qud sm amdg dstd ogïhmsms pdr`mtd dvohuor sm dh prjkdsj `dfjrû j gj, kjg aosd
dg cotjs d`pàrmkjs, dg ko`amj gj ds kopoz cd mgcmkor ho rozûg cdh ko`amj. Dg hjs
dfd`phjs pjstdrmjrds vdrï kû`j sd pudcdg dxphjtor `dfjr hjs cotjs cmspjgmahds.

Ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj pjr oktmvmcocds

Tgo edrro`mdgto `uy ötmh poro dvohuor dh cdsd`pdÿj cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs
ds ho nrï󿬏ko cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cdh prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs (vdo ho
󿬏nuro 3.5). Dg dh dfd cd hos oaskmsos sd prdsdgtog hjs tmd`pjs prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj cd
hos oktmvmcocds cdh prjkdsj, `mdgtros qud dg dh dfd cd hos jrcdgocos opordkdg hos
tosos cd 󿬁ufj kjrrdspjgcmdgtds, y oh oprjvdkeor ho rdnho cd Hmtthd, yo gj ds gdkd-
sormj mgcmkor dxphàkmto`dgtd dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd koco oktmvmcoc, yo qud ístd
kjrrdspjgcd oh ïrdo cdh rdktïgnuhj cd ho oktmvmcoc kjrrdspjgcmdgtd. Kjg dh smnumdg-

‶ Bmnuro 3.5`dcmcos
Nrï󿬏ko cd Soso
jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj
cd 󿬁ufj. ?999
599
299
399
199

4 ?9 ?4 19 Smd`pj
@M 9.9; (càos)
@C 9.92 KO ?.1 KA ?5.>4 DKE 9.>4
KQ 9.=

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 5?

MGRDGSOQMJ SMD@YJ CD BHTFJ SMD@YJ CD BHTFJ ‶ Soaho 3.3

O K S M R M CO C SO [ O C D B H T F J YQJ@DCMJ YQJ@DCMJ (@D[D[) YQJ@DCMJ (CÀO[) @dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos
cd 󿬁ufj poro dh prjkdsj cd
@ûcuhj cd mgbjr`okmûg ?999 ? 9.99? 9.9; cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs.
@ûcuhj cd cdvjhukmûg ?999 1 9.991 9.92
Qdvmsmûg rïpmco ?999 ;9 9.9; 9.=
Qdvmsmûg kj`mtí O 499 19 9.93 ?.1
Qdvmsmûg kj`mtí A 399 149 9.214 ?5.>4
D`msmûg cd kedquds 599 19 9.914 9.>4
 td dfd`phj sd mhustro ho kjgstrukkmûg cd ugo nrï󿬏ko cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds
 aïsmkos cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.

Dfd`phj 3.4. Ogïhmsms cd hos oktmvmcocds cdh prjkdsj

cd cdvjhukmûg cd m`pudstjs
Dh gudvj prjkdsj cdh [O [OS
S, cdskrmtj dg hjs dfd`phjs 3.? y 3.4, smrvd cd dfd`phj poro
mhustror dh ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj pjr oktmvmcocds. Cd okudrcj kjg ho 󿬏nuro 3.>, dh
prjkdsj tmdgd 2 oktmvmcocds y poro koco ugo cd dhhos sd cmspjgd cd ho kjrrdspjg-
cmdgtd toso cd 󿬁ufj y cdh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj, pjr hj qud, sm supjgd oh smstd`o dg
dstocj dstoahd, ds pjsmahd kohkuhor dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj poro koco oktmvmcoc.
Hjs rdsuhtocjs sd rdsu`dg dg ho toaho 3.3, y o kjgtmguokmûg sd dxphmkog ohnugjs
cd hjs kïhkuhjs.
  Cdamcj o qud ho toso cd 󿬁ufj poro ho rdvmsmûg rïpmco ds cd ? 999 sjhmkmtucds/
`ds y su mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj ds cd ;9, oh ophmkor ho rdnho cd Hmtthd sd jatmdgd ug
tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj cd S  ∑   ;9/? 999  9.9; `dsds (9.= càos kjg ug `ds cd
;9 càos). Dg bjr`o sd`dfogtd sd jatmdgdg hjs tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj poro hjs
`ûcuhjs cd mgbjr`okmûg y cdvjhukmûg.
  Yudstj qud 49% cd hos sjhmkmtucds posog o rdvmsmûg pjr dh kj`mtí O, ho toso
cd 󿬁ufj poro ho rdvmsmûg pjr dh kj`mtí O ds cd (9.4)? 999  499 sjhmkmtucds/`ds, y
su mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj ds cd 19, oh ophmkor ho rdnho cd Hmtthd sd jatmdgd ug tmd`pj
cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj cd S  ∑  19/499  9.93 `dsds (?.1 càos). Dg bjr`o sm`mhor sd ja-
tmdgd dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj poro ho rdvmsmûg pjr dh kj`mtí A.
  Yjr öhtm`j, jasdrvd qud dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.> ho d`msmûg cd kedquds rdkmad 󿬁ufj pjr
cjs ko`mgjs, dgtjgkds hos tosos cd 󿬁ufj cdadg su`orsd6 (9.>2) 399  (9.==1)499
 599 sjhmkmtucds/`ds, y su mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj ds cd 19, oh ophmkor ho rdnho cd
Hmtthd sd jatmdgd ug tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj cd S  ∑  19/599  9.914 `dsds (9.>4

càos). Ho nrï󿬏ko
cdvjhukmûg cd hos `dcmcos
cd m`pudstjs jpdrokmjgohds
sd prdsdgto aïsmkos
dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.5. cd 󿬁ufj poro dh prjkdsj cd
  Jasdrvd dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.5 qud ho oktmvmcoc kjg `oy
`oyjr
jr jpjrtugmcoc poro ho `d-
fjro ds ho rdvmsmûg pjr dh kj`mtí A (tmdgd dh `oyjr tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj), `mdgtros qud
hos oktmvmcocds cjgcd ho `dfjro tdgcrào ug `oyjr m`poktj sjg hjs `ûcuhjs cd mg-
bjr`okmûg y cdvjhukmûg y ho rdvmsmûg rïpmco (tmdgdg ho `oyj
`oyjrr toso cd 󿬁ufj). Yjr jtrj
hocj, ho `ongmtuc cd hjs mgvdgtormjs dg koco oktmvmcoc sd oprdkmo to`amíg dg ho nrï-
n rï-
󿬏ko, yo qud ístjs kjrrdspjgcdg o hos ïrdos cd hjs kjrrdspjgcmdgtds rdktïgnuhjs.
✣

Kuogcj dg ug smstd`o dxmstdg vormjs tmpjs cd khmdgtds, dh ogïhmsms cd 󿬁ufj pjr tmpj cd
khmdgtd tmdgd ug mgtdrís prïktmkj. Dh dfd`phj 3.3 `udstro qud poro dh gudvj prjkdsj
dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd rdvmsmûg (y d`msmûg cd kedquds) cd tjcos ho sjhmkmtucds ds cd
9.;1 `dsds, pdrj sdrào mgtdrdsogtd rdspjgcdr o ho mgtdrrjnogtd cd kuïh ds dh tmd`pj

51  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj poro hos sjhmkmtucds rdkeozocos y poro hos okdptocos pjr sdporocj
(gj sdrào sjrprdgcdgtd qud hos sjhmkmtucds rdkeozocos sdog `ïs torcocos). Kjg hjs
cotjs cdh dfd`phj 3.3, smg d`aornj, gj ds pjsmahd rdspjgcdr o dsto mgtdrrjnogtd,
yo qud gj dstïg cmspjgmahds hjs cotjs cd mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj pjr tmpj cd khmdgtd<
pjr dfd`phj, sd soad qud dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd khmdgtds dg ho rdvmsmûg rïpmco ds
cd ;9 (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 3.>), pdrj gj sd soad dh prj`dcmj cd hjs qud sdrïg oprjaocjs
y cd hjs qud sdrïg rdkeozocjs pjr sdporocj. Dg dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj sd prjpjrkmj-
gog cotjs su󿬏kmdgtds poro dbdktuor ug ogïhmsms cd 󿬁ufj pjr tmpj cd khmdgtd, ocd`ïs
cd qud sd dxphmko kû`j sd kj`amgog tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj pjr tmpj cd khmdgtds (j rutos
 cmbdrdgtds) poro jatdgdr dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kj`amgocj.
[upjgno qud dxmstdg g rutos poro hjs khmdgtds cd ug smstd`o, dg dh qud ho toso
∑
prj`dcmj
1, cd 󿬁ufj y dh tmd`pj
… , g, rdspdktmvo`dgtd. prj`dcmj
Dgtjgkds ho tosocd
cd󿬁ufj
󿬁ufjporo   m sjg  Qm  y S poro
ho ruto(kj`amgoco)
prj`dcmj m m 
,   hos
  ?,
g rutos rdspjgcd o ho dkuokmûg6
g

∟
  0?
 Q S  m m
  S 0 m
g
. (3.>)
∟0? Q
m
m

Dfd`phj 3.2. Ogïhmsms cd ug sdrvmkmj cdh kumcocj

cd ho sohuc pjr tmpjs cd khmdgtds
O ho soho cd d`drndgkmo cdh ejspmtoh Orkïgndh hhdnog 39 pokmdgtds pjr ejro dg prj-
`dcmj y hjs
smstd`o sd cdsdo m`phogtor
pokmdgtds ug smstd`o
sd rdnmstrog cd dxpdcmkmûg
(oktmvmcoc qud tj`ocd;pokmdgtds.
`mgutjs dgAofj dh gudvj
prj`dcmj),
y o kjgtmguokmûg rdkmadg ugo mgspdkkmûg rïpmco pjr ugo osmstdgtd cd dgbdr`drào,
qumdg khosm󿬏ko dh kosj poro ugo sm`phd rdkdto j poro ugo oc`msmûg pjtdgkmoh oh
ejspmtoh (troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj)< hjs prm`drjs mgnrdsog oh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj
rdnuhor, y hjs sdnugcjs oh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj. Kjg aosd dg prudaos
dxpdrm`dgtohds y potrjgds cd hhdnocos sd dstm`o qud ho mgspdkkmûg rïpmco cd ugo
osmstdgtd tj`orï 3 `mgutjs dg prj`dcmj, qud eoarï ug prj`dcmj cd ?4 pokmdgtds
dg dspdro pjr dh rdnmstrj y 3 dg dspdro poro rdkmamr ho mgspdkkmûg rïpmco. Dg kuogtj
o ho otdgkmûg dg dh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor sd dstm`o qud tj`d 2 `mgutjs dg
prj`dcmj y qud eoarï ug prj`dcmj cd ?9 pokmdgtds dg dspdro poro rdkmamr otdg-
kmûg< `mdgtros qud dg dh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj
cd otdgkmûg sdrï cd ;9 `mgutjs, kjg sûhj ? pokmdgtd (dg prj`dcmj) dg dspdro cd
otdgkmûg. [d soad qud =9% cd hjs pokmdgtds mgnrdso oh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor
y dh rdstj o troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj. Hjs cotjs sd dstm`orjg dg dh supudstj cd
qud ho osmstdgtd cd dgbdr`drào smd`prd okmdrto dg su khosm󿬏kokmûg. Kjg aosd dg dsto
mgbjr`okmûg y dg dh supudstj cd ug smstd`o dg dstocj dstoahd, sd co rdspudsto o
hos smnumdgtds mgtdrrjnogtds6
  ?. ºKuïh ds dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkdrï
pdr`ogdkdrï ug pokmdgtd qud rdqumdrd
rdqumdrd tro-
tro-
to`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
  1. ºKuïgtjs pokmdgtds (dg prj`dcmj)
prj`dcmj) eoarï
eoarï dg tjtoh dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
d`drndgkmo:
  ;. ºKuïh ds dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkdrïg
pdr`ogdkdrïg hjs pokmdgtds dg ho soho cd
d`drndgkmo:
  Yoro cor rdspudsto o cmkeos mgtdrrjnogtds, ds kjgvdgmdgtd kjgstrumr ho rdc cd
oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd prjkdsj, ho kuoh sd prdsdgto dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.=. Jasdr-
vd qud sd tmdgd mgbjr`okmûg cdh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj dg hjs aubbdr, kjg ho kuoh sd
jatdgcrï dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj `dcmogtd ho rdnho cd Hmtthd, `mdgtros qud

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 5;

‶ Bmnuro 3.=
Q  39/ejro Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr
Sroto`mdgtj poro ugo soho cd d`drndgkmo.
Mgmkmj ‛ dspdkmohmzocj
‛ M ? ‛
M  ?4
 
 
S   ;9 `mg

=9% Sroto`mdgtj
‛Qdnmstrj ‛ ‛Mgspdkkmûg ‛
‛ rdnuhor 
Bmg
S   ; `mg. M 3 S   3 `mg. M  ?9
   
S   2 `mg.
 poro hos oktmvmcocds sd tmdgd mgbjr`okmûg cdh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj, pjr hj qud
sd jatdgcrï dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj kjg ho rdnho cd Hmtthd.
  Yoro rdspjgcdr ho prm`dro prdnugto prm`drj sd kohkuhog hjs tmd`pjs prj`d-
cmj cd dspdro dg koco aubbdr6
∑    ?4(29)/39  11.4 `mgutjs, S 
S  ∑    3(29)/39  2 `mgutjs, S ∑    ?(29)/3  
 DQ  DM   DSD 
∑
?4 `mgutjs, S  DSQ  ?9(29)/;2  ?2.22 `mgutjs, pjr togtj, hjs pokmdgtds qud posog
pjr dh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj tmdgdg ug tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj cd6
∑    11.4  ;  2  3 
S  ?4  ;9  59.4 `mgutjs.
 BSD 

  Yoro rdspjgcdr ho sdnugco prdnugto sd kohkuhog hjs prj`dcmjs cd pokmdgtds

(dg prjkdsj) dg koco oktmvmcoc6

∑ Q   ;(39)/29  1,  M 

 M  ∑ M    3(39)/29  1.22,  M 
∑SD    ;9(3)/29   1,  M 
∑SQ   2(;2)/29  
;.2, pjr togtj, dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj dg tjcj dh smstd`o ds cd6
∑   ?4  1  3  1.22  ?  1  ?9  ;.2  39.12 pokmdgtds.
 M 

Yoro rdspjgcdr ho öhtm`o prdnugto sd usog hjs cotjs cd ho rdspudsto o ho prdnugto

?, pjr togtj, dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj cd hjs pokmdgtds qud posog pjr dh ïrdo
cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor ds cd6
∑
S  BSD    11.4  ;  2  3  ?2.22  2  45.?2 `mgutjs,
dgtjgkds, oh ophmkor ho dkuokmûg (3.>) dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj qud pdr`ogdkdrïg hjs
pokmdgtds dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo ds cd6
4 5. ?2
;2(45 ?2) + 3(59
5 9. 4)
S  0 39 0 29.3 `mgutjs.
Jasdrvd qud oh usor ho rdspudsto cd ho prdnugto 1 y ho rdnho cd Hmtthd sd jatmdgd dh
`ms`j rdsuhtocj (39.12)(29)/39  29.3 `mgutjs.
✣

Ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj kjg cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs cd dgtmcocds

Dg `ukejs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs hos dgtmcocds qud 󿬁uydg dg dh smstd`o gj smd`-
prd sjg cdh `ms`j to`oÿj, pjr dfd`phj, hjs rjhhjs cd hï`mgo cd okdrj qud sd prj-
cukdg dg ugo ho`mgocjro pudcdg sdr cd cmbdrdgtd pdsj, cd ho `ms`o `ogdro qud
hos bo`mhmos qud sjhmkmtog rdsdrvokmjgds dg ug ejtdh tmdgdg cmbdrdgtds gö`drjs cd
`md`arjs. Dg dstd kosj, poro ogohmzor dh prjkdsj sd osmngo ug to`oÿj dg ugmcocds
kj`ugds (ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj) o koco dgtmcoc, cd `ogdro qud dh mgvdgtormj dg dh sms-

53  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

td`o sd dxprdso dg ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj y ho toso cd 󿬁ufj sd dxprdso dg ugmcocds cd

󿬁ufj/ugmcoc cd tmd`pj. Oug kjg dstos kjgsmcdrokmjgds tjcovào ophmko ho rdnho
cd Hmtthd dxprdsoco dg ho dkuokmûg (3.4). Dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj ogohmzo dh 󿬁ufj cd
dbdktmvj dg ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs. Dg dstd kosj, ho ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj ds ho ugmcoc
`jgdtormo ($), `ms`o qud sd ophmko o kuohqumdr dgtmcoc y sd mhustrorï to`amíg kû`j
hjs cotjs poro ogohmzor dh prjkdsj pudcdg sohmr cd mgbjr`ds kjgtoahds.

Dfd`phj 3.>. Ogïhmsms cdh kopmtoh cd troaofj poro ho prjcukkmûg

 cd ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj
Cdh`dx boarmko ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj dg ugo kíhuho
kíh uho cd `ogubokturo, cd okudrcj
kjg hjs cmonro`os cd 󿬁ufj qud sd mhustrog dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.?9. Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor,
dxmstdg cjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs m`pjrtogtds6 ?) `ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj,
y 1) kjarogzo. Dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo kjgsmstd dg dh sdhhocj cd hos cjs torfdtos
(O y A) qud kjgbjr`og dh kj`pjgdgtd, ho torfdto O sd boarmko dg Cdh`dx (oktmvm-
coc hho`oco Sorfdtos O dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.?9) y o portmr cd hos portds O ho torfdto A sd
ocqumdrd kjg ug prjvddcjr. Dh jafdtj ds kohkuhor dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cdh kopmtoh cd
troaofj cd Cdh`dx, ds cdkmr, kuïgtj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj pdr`ogdkd dg dh prjkdsj
ug cûhor mgvdrtmcj dg ho prjcukkmûg y dh kjarj cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj. Yoro
dstj ds kjgvdgmdgtd mgtdrprdtor o hos 󿬁dkeos cd hjs cmonro`os cd ho 󿬏nuro 3.?9 kj`j
dh 󿬁ufj cd dgtmcocds dxprdsocos dg ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj `jgdtormj (cmgdrj).
  Kj`j pudcd m`onmgor
m`onmgor,, hjs tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj cdh dbdktmvj gj sjg bïkmhds cd
rdnmstror dg ug smstd`o kjgtoahd, pjr hj qud sd kohkuhorïg mgcmrdkto`dgtd kjg ho
rdnho cd Hmtthd. Ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cd hjs prjkdsjs cd Cdh`dx rdsuhto cd hjs dstocjs
kjgsjhmcocjs cd 󿬏g cd oÿj (toaho 3.4). Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg ho toaho, ho toso cd
󿬁ufj poro
1 ds cd  Q1 dh
 prjkdsj
;19.; `mh? ds cd  Q?   193.; `mh $/oÿj, `mdgtros qud poro dh prjkdsj
$/oÿj.
 
  Yjr jtrj hocj, hjs mgvdgtormjs cd hjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs sd uamkog dg dh ao-
hogkd ndgdroh cd 󿬏g cd oÿj, hjs cotjs opordkdg dg ho toaho 3.2, dh mgvdgtormj poro
dh prjkdsj ? ds cd  M ∑    ;;.>, y cd  M 
∑    ;9.3 poro dh prjkdsj 1.
? 1
  Oh supjgdr qud hjs mgvdgtormjs rdpjrtocjs o 󿬏g cd oÿj rdprdsdgtog dh prj`d-
cmj oguoh sd ophmko ho rdnho cd Hmtthd poro dgkjgtror hjs tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj
poro koco prjkdsj6
∑    ;;.>(;29)/193.;
S  
∑    ;9.3(;29)/;19.;  ;3 càos),
 4= càos, S  
? ?

‶ Bmnuro 3.?9
Yrjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs Yrjkdsj ?6 @ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj
cd ug kj`pjgdgtd
dhdktrûgmkj cd Cdh`dx.

Yortds O Sorfdtos O [dhhocj Oh`okdgo- Bmg

`mdgtj

Mgmkmj

Sorfdtos A

Yrjkdsj 16 Kjarogzo

Mgmkmj Kudgtos Bmg

pjr kjaror 

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 54

R D G SO [ G D SO [ ;19.; ‶ Soaho 3.4

Dstocjs kjgsjhmcocjs poro
Kjstjs y nostjs dh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj
Kjstj cd vdgtos 193.; cd Cdh`dx (`mh $/oÿj).
Nostjs cd oc`mgmstrokmûg 39.;
Nostjs 󿬏gogkmdrjs 3.4
Cdprdkmokmûg 1.4
Jtrjs nostjs 1.3
Kjstjs y nostjs tjtohds 143
Ttmhmcocds ogtds cd m`pudstjs 22.;
 Yrjvmsmûg cd M[Q 14.1
Ttmhmcoc gdto 3?.?

dgtjgkds, ugo vdz rdohmzoco ugo vdgto, Cdh`dx cdad dspdror ;3 càos dg prj`dcmj
poro rdkmamr cmgdrj cd hjs khmdgtds y, dg prj`dcmj, ds gdkdsormj qud trogskurrog =;
càos (4= dg `ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj  ;3 dg kudgtos pjr kjaror) poro qud
dh kopmtoh cd troaofj mgvdrtmcj sdo rdkupdrocj.
  Kjg dstd dgbjqud cd osmngor o hos dgtmcocds ugo `dcmco cd to`oÿj kj`ög
($), sd mhustro dh ogïhmsms cd hjs prjkdsjs pjr oktmvmcocds. Hjs cotjs sd prdsdgtog dg
ho toaho 3.>, cjgcd, pjr dfd`phj, ho toso cd 󿬁ufj poro ho oktmvmcoc Yortds O (cd ho
󿬏nuro 3.?9) ds cd 5?.1 `mh $/oÿj, `mdgtros qud dh mgvdgtormj ds cd 3.4 `mh $. Ja-
sdrvd qud dh kjstj cd ho `ogubokturo cd hos torfdtos O vdgcmcos ds cd ?9.1 `mh $,
hj qud co ugo toso cd 󿬁ufj tjtoh cd 5?.1  ?9.1 `mh $/oÿj poro hos torfdtos O.

OKSMRJ KMQKTHOGSD   ‶ Soaho 3.2

Yortd cdh aohogkd ndgdroh
Dbdktmvj y kofo 1.4 poro dh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj
Mgvdrsmjgds td`pjrohds ;.5 cd Cdh`dx (`mh $).
Kudgtos pjr kjaror ;9.3
Mgvdgtormjs ;;.>
Jtrjs oktmvjs kmrkuhogtds 1.2
Sjtoh oktmvj kmrkuhogtd >;

‶ Soaho 3.>
MGRDGSOQMJ[ Mgvdgtormjs y kjstjs cd hjs
Yortds O 3.4 kj`pjgdgtds vdgcmcjs pjr
Sorfdtos O ;.3 Cdh`dx (`mh $ y `mh $/oÿj).
Sorfdtos A =.5
^MY Kj`pjgdgtds sdhhocjs >.2
Kj`pjgdgtds dg oh`okíg 5.3
Kjstj tjtoh cd mgvdgtormjs ;;.>
KJ[SJ CD RDGSO[
Yortds O 5?.1
@ogubokturo cd torfdtos O ?9.1
Sorfdtos A =>.4
[dhhocj cd kj`pjgdgtds ?4.3
Kjstj tjtoh cd vdgtos 193.;

52  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho 3.5 MGRDGSOQMJ SO[O CD BHTFJ SMD@YJ CD BHTFJ SMD@YJ CD BHTFJ

@dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos OKSMRMCOC YQJ@DCMJ (@MH $) (@MH $/OßJ) YQJ@DCMJ (OßJ[) YQJ@DCMJ (CÀO[)
cd 󿬁ufj poro ug kj`pjgdgtd
dhdktrûgmkj cd Cdh`dx. Yortds O 3.4 5?.1 9.944 ?=.=4?
Sorfdtos O ;.3 =?.3 9.9;> ?;.;=1
Sorfdtos A =.5 =>.4 9.?9? ;2.?54
^MY Kj`pjgdgtds sdhhocjs >.2 193.; 9.9;> ?;.;=1
Kj`pjgdgtds dg oh`okíg 5.3 193.; 9.93? ?3.591
   Kjg dh cmonr
cmonro`o
o`o cd 󿬁ufj cd ho 󿬏nuro 3.?9 y hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 3.>,
3.>, dg ho
󿬏nuro 3.?? sd prdsdgtog hos tosos cd 󿬁ufj d mgvdgtormjs cdtohhocjs pjr oktmvmcocds
poro dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cd
Cdh`dx. Oh osu`mr gudvo`dgtd qud hjs mgvdgtormjs rdpjrtocjs sjg rdprdsdgtotm-
vjs cdh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj, sd ophmko ho rdnho cd Hmtthd poro dgkjgtror hjs tmd`pjs
prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj. Hjs rdsuhtocjs sd rdsu`dg dg ho toaho 3.5.
  Ho nrï󿬏ko kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj cd
dbdktmvj poro ho `ogubokturo, oh`okdgo`mdgtj y kjarogzo cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrû-
gmkj cd Cdh`dx sd prdsdgto dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.?1, cjgcd sd oprdkmo qud ho `oyjr jpjr-
tugmcoc poro rdcukkmûg cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj sd dgkudgtro dg dh oh`okdgo`mdgtj cd
hos torfdtos A, `mdgtros qud dh `oyjr m`poktj dg ho rdcukkmûg cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj
sd dgkudgtro dg ho oktmvmcoc cd kudgtos pjr kjaror, qud dxpdrm`dgto ho `oyjr toso
cd 󿬁ufj cd dbdktmvj.
  Yjr öhtm`j, kjgvmdgd oprjvdkeo
oprjvdkeorr dstd dfd`phj poro mhustror ug pjsmahd drrjr
oh utmhmzor dh vohjr cd hos vdgtos dg hunor cdh kjstj cd vdgtos poro kohkuhor ho rjto-
kmûg cd mgvdgtormjs.
okudrcj Jasdrvd
kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.2)qud ho R 
ds cd rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
 2.92 dg dstd dfd`phj,
(kjgcd
9   193.;/;;.> vudhtos/oÿj
 dh
kjstj cd vdgtos), y supjgno qud dh prûxm`j oÿj sd jatmdgd ug vohjr cd vdgtos cd
;;9 `mh $/oÿj, ug kjstj cd vdgtos cd 149 `mh $/oÿj, y ug mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj
cd ;4 `mh $. Ho rjtokmûg (kjg dh kjstj cd vdgtos) sdrào cd R ?  194/;4  >.?3 vudh- 

tos/oÿj, hj qud `udstro ugo `dfjro dg dh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds. Yjr jtrj hocj, sm sd
euamdro utmhmzocj (mgocdkuoco`dgtd) dh vohjr cd vdgtos, ho rjtokmûg dg dstd oÿj sdrào
cd R 9   ;19.;/;;.>  =.4 vudhtos/oÿj, y ho rjtokmûg poro dh smnumdgtd oÿj sdrào cd


R ?   ;;9/;4  =.3; vudhtos/oÿj, hj qud mgcmko ug hmndrj cdtdrmjrj. Ho rjtokmûg



cd mgvdgtormjs ds ugo `dcmco cd d󿬏kmdgkmo jpdrokmjgoh, ho sdnugco ohtdrgotmvo

(usor dh vohjr cd vdgtos) gj ds oprjpmoco, yo qud dh cdtdrmjrj dg dstd öhtm`j kosj
sd cdad o kjgcmkmjgds cd `drkocj (koàco dg dh prdkmj cdh prjcuktj) y gj o ugo
`dgjr d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh smstd`o cd jpdrokmjgds.
✣

‶ Bmnuro 3.??
Bhufjs cd dbdktmvj cdtohhocjs
poro ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj Q  ?4.3/oÿj
cd Cdh`dx. Q  ?9.1/oÿj
Oh`okdgo-
‛Yortds O S‛orfdtos O ‛[dhhocj ‛`mdgtj Bmg
M  3.4 M  ;.3 M  >
 >.2
.2 M  5.3
Q  5
 5?
?.1/oÿj Q  =?.3/oÿj Q  193.;/oÿj
Mgmkmj
Q  =>.4/oÿj
S‛orfdtos A
M  =.5

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 5>

‶ Bmnuro 3.?1
Nrï󿬏ko cd `dcmcos
jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj
Soso cd 󿬁ufj
($/oÿj) poro Cdh`dx.
;49
;4 9
;99
;99
149
149
199
199
?49
 ?99
49 Yortds Sorfdtos Sorfdtos [dhho- Oh`o- Kudgtos
O O A cos kíg pjr kjaror
9
19 39 29 59 ?99 ?19 Smd`pj cd 󿬁ufj
(càos)

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. Dg ugj cd sus ortàkuhjs ^ohh [trddt Fjurgoh rdpjrtû6   3. Dh rdstourogtd Ho @or sd dspdkmohmzo dg kj`mco njur`dt  
‘…`mdgtros qud N@ y Sjyjto jpdrog kjg ho `ms`o rj- o aosd cd prjcuktjs cdh `or y otmdgcd tjcjs hjs càos dg
tokmûg
cjahd cdcdhomgvdgtormjs, ho toso cd sohmco
cd N@‐. Ho cmskrdpogkmo, cd Sjyjto
kjgkhuyd dh outjrdscdh
dh cjs turgjs, dhcdprm`drj
y dh sdnugcj 2 p.`. ocd
?9?1 o.`.
p.`. o 3 p.`.
(kdgo). (`dcmj cào),
Ho rdkdpkmjgmsto
ortàkuhj, ‘pudcd cdadrsd o tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj `ïs rïpmcjs tmdgd kurmjsmcoc pjr mgvdstmnor dh 󿬁ufj cd khmdgtds dg dh
y `dgjrds mgvdgtormjs, qud sjg vmrtucds cdh smstd`o cd rdstourogtd, pjr hj qud rdnmstrû hjs tmd`pjs cd hhdnoco
prjcukkmûg cd Sjyjto‐
Sjyjto‐ (ocoptocj cd Ogupmgcm
Ogupm gcm dt oh., 1992). y cd sohmco cd hjs khmdgtds. Curogtd hos prm`dros 1 ejros
  o) Mgcmqud sm hos rozjgds dxpudstos
dxpudst os poro ‘ho cmskrdpogkmo‐ cd otdgkmûg (?1 o.`. o 1 p.`.) cd kmdrtj cào, dhho jatuvj
sjg kjgsmstdgtds kjg ho tdjrào vmsto dg dstd kopàtuhj hjs rdsuhtocjs (tmd`pjs dg `mgutjs cdscd hos ?1 o.`.)
y pjr quí. cd ho smnumdgtd toaho.
  a) [m dg hunor cd ‘ho `ms`o rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs‐ cm-
fdro ‘hjs `ms`js mgvdgtormjs‐, kû`j sd dxphmkorào ho SMD@YJ CD SMD@YJ CD
`oyjr toso cd prjcukkmûg cd Sjyjto. JKTQQDGKMO JKTQQDGKMO
  1. [d soad qud dh prjkdsj cd cdskorno cd `mgdroh kjg- DRDGSJ ( s ) DR DG SJ ( s )
kdgtrocj cd hjs ko`mjgds qud hhdnog o @dt@dx tj`o Mgmkmj cd rdnmstrj 9 Hhdnoco khmdgtd = 41
?4 `mgutjs dg prj`dcmj, smg d`aornj, hjs ko`mjgds Hhdnoco khmdgtd ? ?9 [ohmco khmdgtd ; 29
pdr`ogdkdg dg dh smstd`o ug prj`dcmj cd ;9 `mgutjs Hhdnoco khmdgtd 1 ?1 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?9 21
cdamcj o ho kjgndstmûg. [m dh 󿬁ufj cd ko`mjgds ds cd 3
Hhdnoco khmdgtd ; ?4 [ohmco khmdgtd ? 29
  pjr ejro ds
o) ºKuïh y supjgd ugprj`dcmj
dh tmd`pj smstd`o dgqud
dstocj dstoahd6 dspd-
hjs ko`mjgds Hhdnoco khmdgtd 3 19 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?? >1
rog ogtds cd rdkmamr otdgkmûg: Hhdnoco khmdgtd 4 11 [ohmco khmdgtd 4 54
  a) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd ko`mjgds dg dspdro Hhdnoco khmdgtd 2 14 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?1 =1
pjr cdskornor: Hhdnoco khmdgtd > ;9 [ohmco khmdgtd 3 ?93
  k) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd ko`mjgds qud dstïg
dg cdskorno: Hhdnoco khmdgtd 5 39 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?; ??9
  ;. Ho rjtokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs dg dh Cdporto`dgtj cd @ud- [ohmco khmdgtd 1 49 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?3 ??4
 ahds cd ho dxkhusmvo
dxkhusmvo kocdgo Dh Yohokmj
Yohokmj cd @or󿬏h ds cd ?1 [ohmco khmdgtd 4 =.> [ohmco khmdgtd > ??5
vudhtos oh oÿj. Osu`o qud hjs cotjs sjg cd dstocj dstoahd6
dst oahd6
  o) ºKuïgtjs `dsds dg prj`dcmj tj`o ug cûhor mgvdrtm-   o) Kohkuhd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o Q(?19) cd okudrcj
cj dg mgvdgtormj cd `udahds dg kjgvdrtmrsd dg ugo kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.?).
vdgto:   a) Kjgstruyo ugo nrï󿬏ko cdh gö`drj cd khmdgtds Q(s) dg
  a) [m dh kjstj cd vdgtos cd `udahds oskmdgcd o 3 `mhhj- dh rdstourogtd, poro 9   s   ?19, y kjg aosd dg ho
gds cd $ oh oÿj ºkuïh sdrï dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj dg nrï󿬏ko kohkuhd dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd khmdgtds dg
dh Cdporto`dgtj cd @udahds: ∑  (?19) cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.1).
dh smstd`o  M 

55  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  k) Kohkuhd dh tmd`pj cd pdr`ogdgkmo dg dh rdstourogtd  
poro koco ugj cd hjs khmdgtds qud sohmdrjg, y dvohöd,
cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.;), dh tmd`pj
t md`pj prj`dcmj
∑
cd 󿬁ufj S (?19) dg dh rdstourogtd.
  c) Kohkuhd ho toso cd dgtroco  Qd(?19) cdh smstd`o kjg  
hjs khmdgtds qud dgtrorjg oh smstd`o kjg ho dkuokmûg
(3.?) (dg hunor cd hjs khmdgtds qud sohmdrjg).
  d) Kj`dgtd pjr quí sd ku`phd j gj sd ku`phd dg dstd
∑(?19)   Q
kosj qud  M  Q(?19) S ∑(?19).
  4. Kjg dh 󿬏g cd kj`poror sus rdsuhtocjs poro dh prm`dr
turgj kjg dh 󿬁ufj cd khmdgtds dg dh sdnugcj turgj, ho
a) [upjgno qud hjs cotjs kjrrdspjgcdg oh dstocj ds-
toahd, ºkuïgtj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj (dg càos) tj`û
ho otdgkmûg kj`phdto cd ug kosj aofj dstd smstd`o:
(osu`o ;9 càos oh `ds).
>. Kjg dh 󿬏g cd `dfjror dh tmd`pj cd hmadrokmûg cd hjs
kosjs, dh KQCO cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr cdkmcmû jrnogmzor
o hjs ondgtds dg 1 dqumpjs (O y A), `ïs ug ondgtd rd-
vmsjr y ug ondgtd poro kosjs dspdkmohds. Dh smstd`o cd
otdgkmûg sd ko`amû cd ho smnumdgtd `ogdro6 dh ondgtd
rdvmsjr rdnmstro y kotohjno hjs kosjs kj`j O (prjaoahd-
`dgtd sm`phds), j A (prjaoahd`dgtd `ïs torcocjs), y hjs
 rdkdpkmjgmsto cdh rdstourogtd cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr rd- poso o ho aogcdfo cdh dqumpj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd kjg ugo
nmstrû hjs tmd`pjs cd hhdnoco y cd sohmco cd hjs khmdgtds, ejfo cd mgstrukkmjgds poro su otdgkmûg. Hjs ondgtds cd
curogtd hos prm`dros
dg dh `ms`j cào, dhho1jatuvj
ejr os cd
ejros hjsotdgkmûg (2 p.`.
rdsuhtocjs o 5 p.`.)
(tmd`pjs dg hjs dqumpjs
 aogcdfos O y A rdkjndg
y oprudaog hjs kosjs
y hmadrog cd jsushj rdspdktmvos
dh kosj rd`mtdg oh
`mgutjs cdscd hos 2 p.`.) cd ho smnumdgtd toaho. ondgtd poro kosjs dspdkmohds, dg kosj cd qud sd rdqumdro
su oprjaokmûg (dh ondgtd dspdkmoh sd dgkorno cd oprjaor
SMD@YJ CD SMD@YJ CD y hmadror cd󿬏gmtmvo`dgtd dh kosj kjg hos `jcm󿬏kokmjgds
JKTQQDGKMO JKTQQDGKMO y/j sundrdgkmos gdkdsormos). Cdspuís cd m`phogtor dstd
DRDGSJ ( s ) DR D GSJ ( s ) smstd`o sd dgkjgtrû qud6
Mgmkmj cd rdnmstrj 9 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?9 41   • Dh ondgtd rdvmsjr khosm󿬏ko 39% cd hjs kosjs kj`j O y
Hhdnoco khmdgtd ? 4 [ohmco khmdgtd 1 29 29% cd hjs kosjs kj`j A.
  • Dh dqumpj O hmadro =4% cd hjs kosjs y 4% hjs rd`mtd oh
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 1 5 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?? 2?
ondgtd poro kosjs dspdkmohds, `mdgtros qud dh A hmadro
Hhdnoco khmdgtd ; ?1 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?1 24 59% cd hjs kosjs y 19% hjs dgvào oh ondgtd poro kosjs
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 3 ?5 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?; >; dspdkmohds.
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 4 11 [ohmco khmdgtd ; 53   • Dh prj`dcmj cd kosjs otdgcmcjs y hmadrocjs bud cd ;99
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 2 14 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?3 =; oh `ds kjg hjs smnumdgtds kosjs pdgcmdgtds (dspdro dg
 aogcdfo  otdgkmûg) dg prj`dcmj6 ; kjg dh ondgtd rd-
Hhdnoco khmdgtd > ;9 [ohmco khmdgtd 1 ?94 vmsjr, 2 kjg dh dqumpj O, 5 kjg dh dqumpj A y ?9 kjg
Hhdnoco khmdgtd 5 39 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?4 ?95 dh ondgtd poro kosjs dspdkmohds.
Hhdnoco khmdgtd = 49 Hhdnoco khmdgtd ?2 ??3   Yoro hos smnumdgtds prdnugtos, osu`o qud hjs cotjs kj-
[ohmco khmdgtd 4 =.> [ohmco khmdgtd ? ??> rrdspjgcdg oh dstocj dstoahd.
  o) ºKuïgtj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj tj`o ho otdgkmûg kj`-
  o) Kohkuhd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o Q(?19) cd okudrcj phdto (cdscd dh mgnrdsj eosto ho hmadrokmûg) cd ug kosj
kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.?).  aofj dstd sdnugcj smstd`o:
  a) Kjgstruyo ugo nrï󿬏ko cdh gö`drj cd khmdgtds Q(s) dg   a) ºKuïgtj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj tj`o dh prjkdsj cd ug
dh rdstourogtd, poro 9   s   ?19, y kjg aosd dg ho kosj (dspdro   otdgkmûg) dg koco oktmvmcoc6 ondg-
nrï󿬏ko kohkuhd dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd khmdgtds dg td rdvmsjr, dqumpj O, dqumpj A y ondgtd poro kosjs
∑(?19) cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.1).
dh smstd`o  M  dspdkmohds:
  k) Kohkuhd dh tmd`pj cd pdr`ogdgkmo dg dh rdstourogtd   k) ºKuïgtj tmd`pj dg prj`dcmj tj`o ho otdgkmûg kj`-
poro koco ugj cd hjs khmdgtds qud sohmdrjg y dvohöd, phdto (cdscd dh mgnrdsj eosto ho hmadrokmûg) cd hjs kosjs
cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (3.;), dh tmd`pj
tm d`pj prj`dcmj qud sjg hmadrocjs pjr dh dqumpj O, pjr dh dqumpj A,
∑(?19) dg dh rdstourogtd.
cd 󿬁ufj S  pjr dh ondgtd poro kosjs dspdkmohds:
  c) Kj`dgtd hos cmbdrdgkmos
cjs qud jatuvj poro dh jsdnugcj
kjmgkmcdgkmos cd hjs rdsuhto-
y dh prm`dr turgj.   5. Ho
cd soho cd d`drndgkmo
rdkdpkmûg dg ho qudcdkoco
ug ejspmtoh
pokmdgtdtmdgd
cdadugo dstokmûg
rdnmstrorsd
  2. Dh KQCO (Kdgtrj poro Qdkho`j cd Coÿjs dg Outj`ûvm- ogtds cd rdkmamr otdgkmûg. Dg su turgj o koco pokmdgtd
hds) cd ugo kj`poÿào cd sdnurjs otmdgcd rdnuhor`dgtd hj otmdgcd ug `ícmkj y pudcd sohmr cdh smstd`o kjg ugo
hos sjhmkmtucds cd rdkho`js cd sus osdnurocjs. Oh mgnrd- rdkdto j kjg ugo oc`msmûg oh ejspmtoh poro rdkmamr troto-
sor oh KQCO (kjg cjku`dgtokmûg kj`phdto), koco kosj `mdgtj. Dg prj`dcmj ho soho rdkmad 49 pokmdgtds pjr ejro
sd rdnmstro, y sd rdtmdgd dg ugo aogcdfo poro dspdro, y sd eo jasdrvocj qud ?9% cd hjs `ms`js mgnrdsog oh
eosto qud ug ondgtd hj rdtmro poro corhd otdgkmûg. Koco ejspmtoh poro su troto`mdgtj. Dg prj`dcmj ;9 pokmdgtds
ondgtd ds rdspjgsoahd cd sjhmkmtor ho mgbjr`okmûg y/j dspdrog poro rdnmstrorsd (tjcovào gj dstïg dg rdnmstrj)
oprjaokmjgds gdkdsormos poro otdgcdr su kosj. Dg dh y 39 yo sd rdnmstrorjg pdrj dstïg dg dspdro poro rdkmamr
prm`dr sd`dstrd cdh prdsdgtd oÿj, aofj dstd smstd`o, sd otdgkmûg pjr ug `ícmkj cd turgj. Dh prjkdsj cd rdnmstrj
dxpdrm`dgtû ug prj`dcmj cd ?19 kosjs otdgcmcjs koco tj`o ug prj`dcmj cd 1 `mgutjs pjr pokmdgtd, dh prj`dcmj
?4 càos, y ug prj`dcmj cd 39 kosjs pdgcmdgtds (dspdro cd otdgkmûg cd hjs pokmdgtds ds cd 4 `mgutjs poro hjs
dg aogcdfo  otdgkmûg dg prjkdsj). qud rdkmadg sûhj ugo rdkdto y cd ;9 `mgutjs poro hjs qud
  o) ºKuïh ds ho toso cd 󿬁ufj, dg kosjs oh `ds, qud dxpd- mgnrdsorïg oh ejspmtoh. [upjgno qud hjs cotjs kjrrdspjg-
rm`dgtû dh KQCO aofj dstd smstd`o: cdg oh dstocj dstoahd6

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ 5=

  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd dspdkmohds. Ocd`ïs,

prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.
  a) ºKuïh ds dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd pdr`ogdgkmo cd ug
pokmdgtd dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
  k) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd pokmdgtds qud sjg  
otdgcmcjs pjr hjs `ícmkjs cd turgj:
  c) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd pokmdgtds qud dstïg  
dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
  =. Cdspuís cd m`phogtor dh gudvj smstd`o cd otdgkmûg  
poro ho soho cd d`drndgkmo cdh dfd`phj 3.2, sd jasdrvo
ug cdsd`pdÿj sm`mhor oh dspdrocj, dxkdptj
dxkdptj pjr ho khosm-
󿬏kokmûg cd ho osmstdgtd, qud eo khosm󿬏kocj o =1% cd hjs  
Ocd`ïs, sd soad qud 29% cd hjs kosjs rdqud-
rmrïg cd cdsorrjhhjs dspdkmohds. Kjg aosd dg ho mgbjr`o-
kmûg y dg dh supudstj cd qud hjs cotjs kjrrdspjgcdg oh
dstocj dstoahd6
o) Kjgstruyo ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.
a) ºKuïgtjs càos (dg prj`dcmj) tj`orï ho otdgkmûg cd
ugo sjhmkmtuc cd sjhukmûg mg`dcmoto:
k) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd sjhmkmtucds dg dh sms-
td`o (kjgsmcdrd hos qud sd otmdgcdg y hos qud dstïg
dg dspdro):
c) ºKuïgtj
ºKuïgtjss càos (dg prj`dcmj) tj`orï ho otdgkmûg kj`-
 kosjs kj`j sm`phds rdkdtos, y ougqud dh 5% rdstogtd sà
kjrrdspjgcd
kmohmzocj, 1% ocdhvdrcocdrjs kosjsdstïg
tjtoh cd kosjs cd troto`mdgtj dspd-
`oh khosm󿬏kocjs
kj`j sm`phds rdkdtos, y kuogcj dh `ícmkj cdh ïrdo cd
troto`mdgtj rdnuhor cdskuard dh drrjr, tmdgd qud rd`mtmr
oh pokmdgtd oh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj (hudnj
cd ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd otdgkmûg). [m dh rdstj cd ho mgbjr-
`okmûg oög ds vïhmco6
  o) Kjgstruyo ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd
gudvj prjkdsj.
  a) ºKuïgtj tmd`pj (dg prj`dcmj) pdr`ogdkdg hjs po-
kmdgtds dg ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
  k) ºKuïgtj tmd`pj (dg prj`dcmj) pdr`ogdkd ug po-
kmdgtd qud rdqumdrd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj dg ho
soho cd d`drndgkmo:
  c) ºKuïgtjs pokmdgtds
pokmdgtds (dg prj`dcmj) eoarào dg tjtoh
tjt oh dg
ho soho cd d`drndgkmo:
 ?9. Ho d`prdso [mstd@dx ds ugo kjgsuhtjro dspdkmohmzoco dg
dh cdsorrjhhj cd smstd`os o ho `dcmco poro sus khmdgtds,
y `ogtmdgd ug dqumpj cd troaofj dxkhusmvj poro ho otdg-
kmûg cd hos sjhmkmtucds cd `ogtdgm`mdgtj cd hjs smstd`os
cdsorrjhhocjs poro sus khmdgtds, hos kuohds jkurrdg o ugo
toso cd ?9 sjhmkmtucds/`ds. Oktuoh`dgtd dh prjkdsj cd
otdgkmûg cd hos sjhmkmtucds cd `ogtdgm`mdgtj sd okoao
cd rdcmsdÿor kjg hjs smnumdgtds posjs6
  • Koco sjhmkmtuc sd rdnmstro, sd hd osmngo ug gö`drj cd
bjhmj, y sd rdkoao ho mgbjr`okmûg pdrtmgdgtd o trovís
cd ugo dgtrdvmsto kjg dh khmdgtd. [d dstm`o qud dsto
oktmvmcoc tj`orï ug cào dg prj`dcmj.
  • Tgo vdz rdnmstroco ho sjhmkmtuc, sd rdohmzo ugo rdvmsmûg
prdhm`mgor,, qud kjgsmstd dg osmngor ug hàcdr cd prjydktj,
prdhm`mgor
qumdg dstucmo dh kosj y hj kohm󿬏ko kj`j ugo sjhukmûg
mg`dcmoto j kj`j ug cdsorrjhhj dspdkmoh. [d dstm`o
qud dsto oktmvmcoc tj`orï ug cào dg prj`dcmj.
  • Hjs kosjs khosm󿬏kocjs kj`j sjhukmjgds mg`dcmotos
hjs otmdgcd ug prjnro`ocjr cdh ïrdo cd sjhukmjgds
mg`dcmotos, `mdgtros qud o hjs cdsorrjhhjs dspdkmo-
hds hjs otmdgcdg hjs ogohmstos y prjnro`ocjrds cdh
ïrdo cd sjhukmjgds dspdkmohds qud cdtdr`mgo dh hàcdr
cdh prjydktj. [d dstm`o qud ho sjhukmûg mg`dcmo-
to rdqudrmrï cd ; càos dg prj`dcmj, `mdgtros qud
ho sjhukmûg dspdkmoh rdqudrmrï cd ?4 càos dg prj-
`dcmj.
  Kjg aosd dg hjs rdkursjs dxmstdgtds sd dstm`o qud eoarï
ug prj`dcmj cd 9.?9 sjhmkmtucds dg dspdro cd rdnmstrj, 1
sjhmkmtucds dg dspdro cd ho rdvmsmûg prdhm`mgor
prdhm`mgor,, ? kosj dg
dspdro cd otdgkmûg cdh ïrdo cd sjhukmjgds mg`dcmotos, y
1 kosjs dg dspdro cd otdgkmûg dg dh ïrdo cd sjhukmjgds
=9
  Kjg aosd dg ho mgbjr`okmûg y kjg dh supudstj cd qud
hjs cotjs kjrrdspjgcdg oh dstocj dstoahd6
  o) Kjgstruyo ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd  
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.
  a) ºKuïgtjs `mgutjs (dg prj`dcmj) posorï ugo jhho
rdvjhvdcjro qud mgnrdso o ho phogto poro su hhdgocj
pjr korno kjgvdgkmjgoh:
  k) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd jhhos rdvjhvdcjros qud  
dstïg cdgtrj cd ho phogto poro su hhdgocj (kjgsmcdrd
hos qud sd otmdgcdg y hos qud dstïg dg dspdro):
  c) ºKuïgtjs `mgutjs (dg prj`dcmj) tj`orï ho otdgkmûg
kj`phdto cdh hhdgocj cd ugo jhho aofj dstd cmsdÿj:
phdto cd ugo sjhmkmtuc aofj dstd cmsdÿj:
 ??. Sros
sdrvûm`phogtor dh smstd`o
qud hjs hàcdrds cdhktj
cd prjyd prjahd`o
prjydktj bohhog dgogtdrmjr, sd ja-
ho khosm󿬏kokmûg
cd hjs kosjs6 khosm󿬏korjg 49% cd kosjs kj`j sjhukmjgds
mg`dcmotos y 19% cd hjs `ms`js (?9% cdh tjtoh) budrjg
`oh khosm󿬏kocjs y cdadg sdr otdgcmcjs kj`j cdsorrjhhjs
dspdkmohds. Kuogcj jkurrd ug kosj `oh khosm󿬏kocj, dh
prjnro`ocjr cd sjhukmjgds mg`dcmotos tj`o oög ; càos
dg prj`dcmj poro otdgcdr dh kosj, pdrj rdpjrto dh drrjr
y dh kosj sd rd`mtd oh ïrdo cd sjhukmjgds dspdkmohds poro
su otdgkmûg. [upjgno qud dh rdstj cd ho mgbjr`okmûg cdh
dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr oög ds vïhmco (dxkdptj qud dh gö`drj
prj`dcmj cd kosjs dg dspdro cd otdgkmûg dg dh ïrdo cd
sjhukmjgds mg`dcmotos oejro ds cd 1)6
  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs.
  a) ºKuïgtjs càos (dg prj`dcmj) tj`orï ho otdgkmûg cd
ugo sjhmkmtuc cd sjhukmûg mg`dcmoto:
  k) ºKuïgtjs càos (dg prj`dcmj) tj`orï ho otdgkmûg cd
ugo sjhmkmtuc cd cdsorrjhhj dspdkmoh:
  c) ºKuïh ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd sjhmkmtucds dg dh sms-
td`o (kjgsmcdrd hos qud sd otmdgcdg y hos qud dstïg
dg dspdro):
 ?1. Ho d`prdso Kd`[ur tmdgd ugo phogto cd kjgkrdtj prd-
`dzkhocj qud dxpdrm`dgto ug 󿬁ufj oprjxm`ocj cd ?9
jhhos rdvjhvdcjros cd kjgkrdtj pjr ejro. Oktuoh`dgtd dh
prjkdsj cd otdgkmûg cd koco jrcdg cd jhho rdvjhvdcjro
sd rdcmsdÿû kjg hjs smnumdgtds posjs6
  • Ho jhho qud hhdno vokào cdad sdr hm`pmoco kjg onuo poro
dhm`mgor cdspdrcmkmjs. Dsto oktmvmcoc tj`o ug prj`d-
cmj cd 4 `mgutjs pjr jhho y sd dstm`o ug prj`dcmj cd
1 jhhos dg dspdro poro dh mgmkmj cd su hm`pmdzo.
  • O kjgtmguokmûg ho jhho cdad sdr pdsoco. Dsto oktmvmcoc
tj`o ug prj`dcmj cd 1 `mgutjs pjr jhho y sd dstm`o
ug prj`dcmj cd ; jhhos dg dspdro.
  • Oejro smnud dh prjkdsj cd korno, cdh qud dxmstdg cjs
tmpjs6 ?) kjgvdgkmjgoh poro aogqudtos y kosos, y 1)
dstrukturoh poro dcm󿬏kmjs y kjgstrukkmjgds cd rmdsnj.
Yoro korno kjgvdgkmjgoh sjg >9% cd hjs kosjs y dsto
oktmvmcoc tj`o ug prj`dcmj cd ?9 `mgutjs, sd dstm`o
ug prj`dcmj cd ; ugmcocds dg dspdro. Dh rdstj cd hjs
kosjs sjhmkmto korno dstrukturoh y dsto oktmvmcoc tj`o
ug prj`dcmj cd ?4 `mgutjs, sd dstm`o ug prj`dcmj
cd ? ugmcoc dg dspdro.
  • Yjr öhtm`j, sd vdrm󿬏ko dh pdsj cd ho jhho y sd rdkoao
dh kj`prjaogtd kjrrdspjgcmdgtd. Dsto oktmvmcoc tj`o
ug prj`dcmj cd 1 `mgutjs, sd dstm`o ug prj`dcmj cd
? ugmcoc dg dspdro.
OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[
Cdh`dx, cdtohhd pjr oktmvmcocds (j`mto aubbdr dg su
cmonro`o).
a) Osu`o qud hjs cotjs sjg rdprdsdgtotmvjs cdh dstocj
dstoahd, kjgstruyo ugo toaho kjg hos tosos cd 󿬁ufj,
tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj d mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj
poro koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds cd su cmonro`o cdh
mgkmsj o.
k) Kjgstruyo ho nrï󿬏ko cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds
 aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o hos oktmvmcocds rd-
pjrtocos dg dh mgkmsj a. Mgcmqud hos oktmvmcocds kuyo
`dfjro tdgcrào ug `oyjr m`poktj y hos qud tmdgdg
ugo `oyjr jpjrtugmcoc cd `dfjro.
  ?;. [upjgno qud tros m`phogtor dh smstd`o cdh dfdrkmkmj   c) Mgcmqud dg kuïgtjs càos, dg prj`dcmj, sd kjgvmdrtd
ogtdrmjr, sd jasdrvû
pdrocj, dxkdptj ug cdsd`pdÿj
pjrqud oejro cmkeo`uy sm`mhor
phogto oh ds-
su`mgmstro dg vdgto ug
go`mdgtj cd $dstd
mgvdrtmcj dg `ogubokturo
kj`pjgdgtd y dg kuïgtjsy oh`okd-
càos, dg
ugo `oyjr kogtmcoc cd kjgkrdtj kjgvdgkmjgoh poro rd- prj`dcmj, sd rdkupdro dh $ mgvdrtmcj.
gjvor tjcos hos aogqudtos y nuorgmkmjgds cd ugo kjhj-   d) Kohkuhd hos vudhtos oh oÿj kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o ho rj-
gmo. Hjs pjrkdgtofds oejro sjg =9% y ?9% cd kjgkrdtj tokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd dstd kj`pjgdgtd.
kjgvdgkmjgoh y kjgkrdtj dstrukturoh, rdspdktmvo`dgtd.  ?4. Tgj cd hjs prjkdsjs cd sjpjrtd cd ho d`prdso cd sd-
[upjgno qud dh rdstj cd ho mgbjr`okmûg oög ds vïhmco nurjs [GY ds dh prjkdsj cd otdgkmûg cd sjhmkmtucds
y rdspjgco gudvo`dgtd tjcjs hjs mgkmsjs cdh dfdrkmkmj poro rdohmzor ko`amjs dg dh smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg, yo
ogtdrmjr. sdog o hos ophmkokmjgds yo dxmstdgtds j poro dh cdsorrjhhj
 ?3. Cdh`dx boarmko ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cmbdrdgtd oh cd gudvos ophmkokmjgds. Dh prjkdsj dxpdrm`dgto ug 󿬁ufj cd
cdh dfd`phj 3.> dg jtro kdhco cd `ogubokturo. Dg dstd sjhmkmtucds cd =9 oh `ds, y tmdgd hjs smnumdgtds posjs6
kosj to`amíg dxmstdg cjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs m`pjr-   • Ho sdkrdtorào cd ho cmrdkkmûg cd smstd`os rdkmad, y dg
togtds6 ?) `ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj, y 1) kjarog- su `j`dgtj rdnmstro, ho sjhmkmtuc dg dh smstd`o, qud
zo. Dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo kjgsmstd aïsmko`dgtd dg ds rdkmamco pjr ho ugmcoc cd kjgtrjh cd rdqudrm`mdg-
dh sdhhocj cd cjs torfdtos (O? y O1) qud kjgbjr`og dh tjs (TKQ). Dg dsto oktmvmcoc sd jasdrvo ug mgvdgtormj
kj`pjgdgtd, y o`aos torfdtos sd boarmkog dg Cdh`dx, prj`dcmj cd 1 sjhmkmtucds.
ho   • Ho TKQ ogohmzo ho sjhmkmtuc, rdkoao `ïs mgbjr`okmûg,
tmrprm`dro o portmr
cd hos portds O1.cdDhhos portds kjgtoahd
mgbjr`d O? y ho sdnugco o por-
cd 󿬏g cd oÿj sm ds gdkdsormo, y cdkmcd sm ho sjhmkmtuc kjrrdspjgcd o
poro dstd kj`pjgdgtd orrjfû hjs smnumdgtds cotjs cd mg- ug ko`amj dg ug smstd`o dxmstdgtd j o ug cdsorrjhhj
vdgtormjs (dg `mhds cd $) y kjstj cd vdgtos (dg `mhds cd gudvj. Dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj dg dsto oktmvmcoc ds
$/oÿj). [d soad ocd`ïs qud dh vohjr cd hos vdgtos gdtos cd 4 sjhmkmtucds, cd hos kuohds =9% kjrrdspjgcdg o
cdh oÿj oskmdgcdg o 319 `mh $ y hos kudgtos pjr kjaror ug ko`amj y ?9% o ug cdsorrjhhj.
o ;9 `mh $.   • Dh cmrdktjr cd smstd`os rdkmad hos sjhmkmtucds kjg
cmongûstmkj cd ho TKQ, osmngo ug prjnro`ocjr sm ho
MGRDGSOQMJ[ sjhmkmtuc ds pjr ko`amj y ug ogohmsto sm ho sjhmkmtuc ds
pjr cdsorrjhhj. Dg dsto oktmvmcoc sd dxpdrm`dgto ug
Yortds O 4.3 mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd 2 sjhmkmtucds pjr ko`amj y cd
Yortds A ;.5 3 sjhmkmtucds pjr cdsorrjhhj.
Sorfdtos O 3.1   • Yjr öhtm`j, ho sjhmkmtuc ds otdgcmco pjr dh prjnro`ocjr
Sorfdtos A 4.3 j pjr dh ogohmsto, sdnög sdo dh kosj, qumdgds ndgdrog
ug mgbjr`d 󿬏goh o ho cmrdkkmûg cd smstd`os. Dg dsto
^MY Kj`pjgdgtds sdhhocjs =.1
oktmvmcoc sd dxpdrm`dgto ug mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj
Kj`pjgdgtds dg oh`okíg ?9.3 cd ?4 sjhmkmtucds pjr ko`amj y cd ?9 sjhmkmtucds pjr
Kjstj tjtoh cd mgvdgtormjs ;5.3 cdsorrjhhj.
KJ[SJ CD RDGSO[   o) Kjgstruyo ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj
cd sjpjrtd (j`mto aubbdr dg su cmonro`o cdamcj o ho
Yortds O =4.5 bohto cd mgbjr`okmûg cdtohhoco).
Yortds A 53.1   a) Osu`o qud hjs cotjs sjg rdprdsdgtotmvjs cdh dstocj
@ogubokturo cd torfdtos O ?9.1 dstoahd, kjgstruyo ugo toaho kjg hos tosos cd 󿬁ufj,
@ogubokturo cd torfdtos A 19.5 tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj prj`dcmj d mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj
[dhhocj cd kj`pjgdgtds ;9.3
poro koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds cd su cmonro`o cdh
mgkmsj o.
Kjstj tjtoh cd vdgtos 1>=.5   k) Kjgstruyo ho nrï󿬏ko cd hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds
 aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o hos oktmvmcocds rd-
  o) Kjgstruyo ug cmonro`o poro dh 󿬁ufj cd dbdktmvj pjrtocos dg dh mgkmsj a. Mgcmqud hos oktmvmcocds kuyo
dg dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo y oh`okdgo`mdgtj, `dfjro tdgcrào ug `oyjr m`poktj y hos qud tmdgdg
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o dstd kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cd ugo `oyjr jpjrtugmcoc cd `dfjro.

MGSQJCTKKMÛG OH OGÏHM[M[ CD YQJKD[J[ =?

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Ogupmgcm Q., [. Kejpro, [.C. [uceolor,
[uceolor, F.O.R
F.O.R.. @mdned`,   3. Ejpp ^. ^. F.F. y @. H. [pdor`og (1999), Boktjry peysmks6 bjug-
y D. Vd`dh (1992), @ogonmgn ausmgdss prjkdss 󿬁jws,  1o. `ogubokturmgnn `ogond`dgt , 1o. dc., @kNrow-
cotmjgs jb `ogubokturmg
dc., Yrdgtmkd Eohh, Gudvo Fdrsdy. Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl.
  1. Covdgpjrt S.S. E. y F.F. D. [ejrt (?==9), ‘Sed gdw mgcustrm
mgcustrmoh
oh   4. Ldhtjg ^. C., Q. Y. [ocjwslm y C. S. [turrjkl (199>),
dgnmgddrmgn6 mgbjr`otmjg tdkegjhjny ogc ausmgdss prj- [m`uhotmjg wmte OQDGO, 3o. dc., @kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo
kdss rdcdsmng‐, [hjog @ogond`dgt Qdvmdw ;?(3), ??-1>.  ]jrl.
 ]jrl.
  ;. Nhygg Y.
Y. ^.
^. y ^.
^. ^emtt (?=5=), ‘Dxtdgsmjgs
‘Dxtdgsm jgs jb ted qudu-
mgn rdhotmjgs H  L  y E   MN‐, Jpdrotmjgs Qdsdorke ;>(3),
2;3-233.
 

KOYÀSTHJ 4

Kj`pdtdgkmo dg tmd`pj
cd rdspudsto
 • Ho m`pjrtogkmo cdh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto
•  Ogïhmsms cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj
•  Ogïhmsms cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg dspdros

D
dh
tíkgmkos
std kopàtuhj troto cdh dstucmj, ho `dcmkmûg y ho `dfjro cdh tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg
j cd rdspudsto o hjs pdcmcjs dg ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs. Yudstj qud dh tmd`pj
cd rdspudsto tmdgd ugo dstrdkeo rdhokmûg kjg ugo `dcmco jpdrokmjgoh aïsmko,
tmd`pjqud
cd pdr`mtdg
󿬁ufj, td`o`dcmr,
cdh kopàtuhj
ogohmzorprdkdcdgtd,
y `dfjror dhdgtmd`pj
dstd kopàtuhj
cd 󿬁ufjsdcdprdsdgtog hos
ug prjkdsj.
Ho prm`dro sdkkmûg cmskurrd sjard kû`j dh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto o hjs pdcmcjs sd
eo vudhtj ho pmdcro ognuhor cd ho dstrotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo cd `ukeos d`prdsos
dxmtjsos, ho sdnugco sdkkmûg ogohmzo dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj, qud ds dh tmd`pj cd
󿬁ufj dbdktmvj cd ug prjkdsj, smg kjgsmcdror hos dspdros ogtds cd rdkmamr otdgkmûg.
Yjr öhtm`j, ho tdrkdro sdkkmûg sd jkupo cd ho `dcmkmûg y `dfjro cd hjs tmd`pjs cd
dspdro, mgkhusj cd ho prjnro`okmûg cd oktmvmcocds kjg rdkursjs hm`mtocjs.

  HO M@YJQSOGKMO
M@YJQSOGKMO CDH SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO
QD[YTD[SO
Dg dh kopàtuhj ? sd dxphmkû ho bjr`o dg qud ho dkjgj`ào, aosoco dg dh kjgjkm`mdgtj
y ho nhjaohmzokmûg cd hjs `drkocjs, pdr`mtmû qud ho mggjvokmûg y ho ropmcdz poro
otdgcdr hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs kjgsu`mcjrds sd kjgvmrtmdrog dg prmjrmcocds poro hos
d`prdsos qud kj`pmtdg dg hjs `drkocjs nhjaohds. Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd phogtdog
hjs prmgkmpohds kj`pjgdgtds cd ho dstrotdnmo cd hos d`prdsos qud sustdgtog su
íxmtj dg dh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto o hos gdkdsmcocds cd hjs khmdgtds, osà kj`j ho m`-
pjrtogkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj, qud ds ho `dcmco cd cdsd`pdÿj jpdrokmjgoh `ïs
rdhokmjgoco kjg dh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto.

Bhufj cdh prjkdsj y dstrotdnmo cd vdgtos

Hos d`prdsos qud kj`pmtdg dg `drkocjs nhjaohds gdkdsmtog sdr kopokds cd mgtrj-
cukmr kjg ropmcdz gudvjs prjcuktjs y sdrvmkmjs poro otrodr khmdgtds y, o `dgucj,
hjs cmsdÿjs cdh prjcuktj y cdh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj cdadg tdgdr ho su󿬏kmdgtd 󿬁dxm-
 amhmcoc poro pdr`mtmr ho mgkjrpjrokmûg cd hos gudvos koroktdràstmkos qud cd`ogco
ug `drkocj dg krdkm`mdgtj. Yjr dfd`phj, ho `ogubokturo o pdcmcj pdcmcj  tmdgd ugo
o`phmo ophmkokmûg dg sdktjrds kj`j dh cd ho vdgto cd rjpo cd `jco, cjgcd `orkos =;

=3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.?
Dhd`dgtjs cd ugo dstrotdnmo
onrdsmvo cd vdgtos. Mgvdgtormj ocdkuocj6
• Smpj cd prjcuktj @oyjr rdgtoamhmcoc
• @j`dgtj y hunor
• Yrdkmj

Oc`mgmstrokmûg Kocdgo
cd mgvdgtormjs cd su`mgmstrj
 y prdkmjs vdhjz
 Yrjgûstmkjs Cotjs cmspjgmahds
 y kjg󿬏oahds

kj`j Voro y ^jrhc cmsdÿog ug gudvj prjcuktj y oaostdkdg o hos tmdgcos dg phozjs
cd tog sûhj trds sd`ogos. Dsto 󿬁dxmamhmcoc dg hjs prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs sd kj`phd-
`dgto kjg ho m`phogtokmûg cd `dtjcjhjnàos poro prjgjstmkor ho cd`ogco kjg aosd
dg ho okdptokmûg mgmkmoh cdh prjcuktj, hj qud pdr`mtd phogdor ho prjcukkmûg poro
rdspjgcdr dg bjr`o sotmsboktjrmo o ho cd`ogco cd prjcuktjs qud tmdgdg kmkhjs cd
 vmco rdhotmvo`dgtd
Kj`j mhustro hokjrtjs.
󿬏nuro 4.?, hos d`prdsos kuyj jafdtmvj dstrotínmkj ds jbrdkdr oh
khmdgtd dh prjcuktj qud gdkdsmto dg dh `j`dgtj y hunor oprjpmocjs, aosog su dstro-
tdnmo dg kocdgos cd su`mgmstrj kjg kopokmcoc poro cor rdspudsto rïpmco, dkjgû`mko
y jpjrtugo o hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs cdh khmdgtd, y dh íxmtj cd su dstrotdnmo cdskogso,
bugco`dgtoh`dgtd, dg kuotrj boktjrds (Bmsedr dt oh., 1999)6 ?) cotjs cmspjgmahds y
kjg󿬏oahds cd hjs pugtjs cd vdgto, 1) prjgûstmkj cd ho cd`ogco, ;) ocdkuoco pho-
gdokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs y prdkmjs, y 3) kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj vdhjz. O kjgtmguokmûg
sd co ugo dxphmkokmûg ardvd cd koco ugj cd dstjs boktjrds.

Cotjs cmspjgmahds y kjg﬏oahds

Yoro kjgjkdr ho okdptokmûg cd sus prjcuktjs dg dh `drkocj, hos d`prdsos cdadg
cmspjgdr cd hjs rdnmstrjs oprjpmocjs cd ho cd`ogco (dbdktmvo y pjtdgkmoh) y dhm`m-
gor hos budgtds cd drrjr. Ds gdkdsormj rdkjgjkdr qud hjs rdnmstrjs cd vdgtos gj sjg
su󿬏kmdgtds poro dstm`or ho cd`ogco, yo qud cdadg rdnmstrorsd to`amíg hjs pdcmcjs
cd hjs khmdgtds qud gj kj`prorjg pjr bohto cd mgvdgtormj, yo sdo cdh prjcuktj, `j-
cdhj, tohho j kjhjr dspdkà󿬏kj qud auskoaog. Yjr jtrj hocj, cdadg dvmtorsd rdnmstrjs
drrocjs cd mgvdgtormjs, yo sdo pjrqud sd emzj ug ko`amj cd tohho j kjhjr qud gj sd
rdpjrtû, j pjrqud sd rdnmstrû ho dgtroco j sohmco cd ug prjcuktj kj`j sm budro ho
dgtroco j sohmco cd jtrj prjcuktj pordkmcj.

Yrjgûstmkj cd ho cd`ogco
Yoro hos d`prdsos cd prjcuktjs cd `jco j cd td`pjroco ds m`pjrtogtd rdcukmr dh
rmdsnj cd ugo ko`poÿo kjg ugo `dfjro cd sus prjgûstmkjs, yo sdo kjg ho phogdo-
kmûg cd prudaos cd okdptokmûg dg cmbdrdgtds tmdgcos j ho utmhmzokmûg cd cotjs cd
vdgtos td`progos poro ofustor hjs prjgûstmkjs mgmkmohds< dh prm`dr pugtj ds cd ho
`oyjr m`pjrtogkmo, ds cdkmr, sd cdad cmspjgdr cd cotjs kjg󿬏oahds. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO =4

`dgkmjgor qud sm amdg dg ho prïktmko hos d`prdsos utmhmzog ugo nrog vormdcoc cd
`dtjcjhjnàos poro dh prjgûstmkj, ds rdhdvogtd qud ocd`ïs cdh prjgûstmkj pugtuoh,
cmspjgnog cd ugo `dcmco cd vormoamhmcoc (j prdkmsmûg cdh prjgûstmkj), yo qud poro
dh smnumdgtd posj, ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, ds m`prdskmgcmahd cmspjgdr cd
dsto mgbjr`okmûg.

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs y prdkmjs

Ougqud cd dstd td`o sd jkupo dg cdtohhd dh kopàtuhj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd, dg dstd hunor
koad `dgkmjgor qud ds `uy m`pjrtogtd tj`or hos cdkmsmjgds oprjpmocos sjard quí
prjcuktjs, kuïgtj y kuïgcj cdadg jrcdgorsd, poro dhhj sd cdad tdgdr dg kudgto gj
 sûhj dh prjgûstmkj, smgj to`amíg hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho, hos cd`jros cd hjs pdcm
cjs y hjs kjgtrotjs cd su`mgmstrj, dgtrd jtrjs boktjrds m`pjrtogtds.
Kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj vdhjz
Ho prmgkmpoh vdgtofo cd sdr kopoz cd cor rdspudsto rïpmco o hjs pdcmcjs cd su`mgmstrj,
ds qud pdr`mtd kjgtor kjg mgbjr`okmûg `ïs oktuoh y kjg󿬏oahd sjard hos prdbdrdgkmos
cdh kjgsu`mcjr. Hudnj cd eokdr ug pdcmcj, ohnugos d`prdsos kj`j Voro y ^jrhc
sjg kopokds cd boarmkor y oaostdkdr o sus tmdgcos dg cjs sd`ogos, y, sm sd mgkhuyd dh
cmsdÿj, dh phozj ds cd sûhj ; sd`ogos, dstj hds pdr`mtd jrcdgor ho prjcukkmûg `ïs
ocdkuoco (dg kogtmcoc y cmsdÿj) o hos prdbdrdgkmos cdh kjgsu`mcjr.
  Kj`j sd `dgkmjgû dg dh tdrkdr kopàtuhj, dh hjnrj cd ugo kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj
vdhjz rdqumdrd cd ho ocjpkmûg cd tíkgmkos oprjpmocos (kj`j ho pdrsjgohmzokmûg dg
`oso). Osà, pjr dfd`phj, dh usj cd cmsdÿjs `jcuhords kjg portds kj`ugds (tdhos
j ajtjgds dg ho mgcustrmo cd ho kjgbdkkmûg) pdr`mtd `dfjror dh prjgûstmkj cd hjs
kj`pjgdgtds
ug kj`ugds,
prjcuktj qud yo qud ds cmsdÿjs,
ho cd cmbdrdgtds `ïs bïkmh`jcdhjs
prjgjstmkor ho cd`ogco
j tohhos onrdnoco
cdh `ms`j cd
prjcuktj.
Yjr öhtm`j, sd cdad `dgkmjgor qud hjs kuotrj dhd`dgtjs ogtdrmjrds sjg mgcmspdg-
soahds poro qud ho dstrotdnmo cd vdgtos sdo dxmtjso, yo qud dh brokosj cd ohnugj cd
dhhjs m`pdcmrï oprdkmor hos vdgtofos qud jbrdkdg hjs jtrjs. Yjr dfd`phj, sm hjs cotjs
sjard ho cd`ogco gj sjg kjg󿬏oahds, dh prjgûstmkj y ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgto-
rmjs dstorïg dqumvjkocjs, y cd goco sdrvmrï tdgdr ugo kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj vdhjz
sm gj sd jrcdgog hjs prjcuktjs qud sjhmkmto dh `drkocj.

M`pjrtogkmo cdh tmd`pj cd bhufj

Kuogcj sd mcdgtm󿬏kog hjs dhd`dgtjs cd ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs (󿬏nuro 3.1) y dg
portmkuhor su rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr,
aubbdr, dh tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg j cd rdspudsto o ug
pdcmcj sd rdhokmjgo dstrdkeo`dgtd kjg dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj< pudstj qud ho
vmsmûg cd prjkdsj ds ophmkoahd o cmvdrsjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg, yo sdo ho prjcuk-
kmûg dg `oso cd ugo `ogubokturo, ho prdstokmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj j dh hogzo`mdgtj cd
ug gudvj cmsdÿj oh `drkocj, o kjgtmguokmûg sd `dgkmjgog ohnugos cd hos vdgtofos
qud sd jatmdgdg kuogcj dh prjkdsj tmdgd ug tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj rdcukmcj6
  • Smd`pjs cd dgtrdno6 kuogcj dh prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs ds ho `ogubokturo cd ug
prjcuktj y hjs khmdgtds sjg hos tmdgcos cjgcd sd vdgcd dh prjcuktj, ug `dgjr
tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o pdr`mtd ho dgtrdno cd hjs pdcmcjs o hos tmdgcos dg
ug tmd`pj rdcukmcj, cd `jcj qud ístos jbrdkdg dh prjcuktj qud rdqumdrd dh
kj`procjr 󿬏goh y osdnurog ho prdbdrdgkmo cd sus khmdgtds.
  • Qdtorcj cd pdcmcjs6 ugo dstrotdnmo `uy kj`ög dg hos tmdgcos qud dgbrdg-
tog `drkocjs `uy kj`pdtmcjs, ds ho cd rdtorcor dh `oyjr tmd`pj pjsmahd
ho pudsto cd hjs pdcmcjs o sus prjvddcjrds, kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd kjgtor kjg ho
`oyjr mgbjr`okmûg pjsmahd sjard `orkos, `jcdhjs y/j to`oÿjs dspdkà󿬏kjs
qud sd ofustog `dfjr o hos prdbdrdgkmos cdh kjgsu`mcjr. Dh ocoptorsd o dsto

=2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

dstrotdnmo rdsuhto dg ug rmdsnj poro dh prjvddcjr sm cdad `ogtdgdr ohtjs mg-

vdgtormjs pjrqud sus prjkdsjs cd prjcukkmûg gj `udstrog tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj
rdcukmcjs.
  • Kjstjs pjr mgvdgtormjs6 ug rdposj o ho hdy cd Hmtthd hd rdkjrcorï qud hjs gmvd-
hds cd mgvdgtormj dg ug prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo dstïg àgtm`o`dgtd osjkmocjs
kjg dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj. Ho hdgtmtuc cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg
sd rd󿬁dfo dg tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj ohtjs qud ndgdrog kjgndstmûg y ohtjs kjstjs pjr
`ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs.
  • Mgtrjcukkmûg cd gudvjs prjcuktjs6 sm dh prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs kjrrdspjgcd
oh cmsdÿj, cdsorrjhhj y hogzo`mdgtj cd ug gudvj prjcuktj, dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj
cd dstd prjkdsj ds dh tmd`pj qud torcorï dh prjcuktj poro dstor cmspjgmahd dg
dh `drkocj. Tg tmd`pj cd mgtrjcukkmûg kjrtj rdprdsdgto, dg dstd kosj, ho vdg-
   • tofo cd sdrcd
Smd`pjs hjscd`jro
prm`drjs dg rdkmamr
6 kuogcj dh rdkjgjkm`mdgtj
dh prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjscddshjsugkjgsu`mcjrds.
smstd`o cd cms-
trmaukmûg cd `drkogkàos, cdscd dh oh`okíg eokmo hos tmdgcos, dh tmd`pj cd
󿬁ufj kjrrdspjgcd oh tmd`pj qud trogskurrd dgtrd ho pudsto cdh pdcmcj y ho
rdkdpkmûg dg ho tmdgco (qud sd mcdgtm󿬏ko kj`j ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj). Kuog-
cj dh tmd`pj cd cd`jro ds nrogcd, gj sûhj sd mgkurrd dg ohtjs mgvdgtormjs
dg trïgsmtj, smgj qud ho tmdgco gdkdsmto eokdr hjs pdcmcjs kjg ogtmkmpokmûg,
hj qud m`phmko dh `ogtdgdr ohtjs mgvdgtormjs cd sdnurmcoc poro sotmsbokdr ho
cd`ogco cd hjs khmdgtds curogtd ho cd`jro.
  • Kjstj cd ho dspdro cdh khmdgtd6 kuogcj dh prjkdsj kjrrdspjgcd o ho prdsto-
kmûg cd ug sdrvmkmj, dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj ds dh tmd`pj qud dh khmdgtd cdad mgvdrtmr
poro rdkmamr dh sdrvmkmj qud sjhmkmto y ds mgcucoahd qud dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs
sdrvmkmjs (otdgkmûg dg ug aogkj j dg ug trï`mtd cdh njamdrgj), ho kohmcoc cdh
sdrvmkmj dstï dstrdkeo`dgtd rdhokmjgoco kjg ho cd`jro dg ho otdgkmûg cdh khmdgtd.
Ocd`ïs cd hos vdgtofos ogtdrmjrds, sd cdad `dgkmjgor qud dg kuohqumdr prjkdsj
cd gdnjkmjs ug tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj rdcukmcj rd󿬁dfo ug ohtj nrocj cd kjjrcmgokmûg,
jrnogmzokmûg y kohmcoc dg dh prjkdsj. So`amíg ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor hos m`-
prdsmjgogtds pjsmamhmcocds cd `dfjro dg ho otdgkmûg cd trï`mtds poro dh dstoahdkm-
`mdgtj cd gdnjkmjs qud dxmstdg cdscd eokd ohnög tmd`pj dg `ukeos dkjgj`àos
hotmgjo`drmkogos (vdo Cd [jtj, ?=52), y qud rdprdsdgtog ugo cdsvdgtofo poro ho
kj`pdtmtmvmcoc cd ho rdnmûg brdgtd o jtros (pjr dfd`phj, ho jrmdgtoh).

  OGÏHM[M[ CDH SMD@YJ SDÛQMKJ CD BHTFJ

Dg prm`dr hunor sd cdad rdkohkor qud kuohqumdr smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, yo sdo rd-
pdtmtmvj (kj`j dg ho prjcukkmûg dg `oso j pjr hjtds) j cd ugo sjho vdz (kj`j dg
ho prjcukkmûg pjr prjydktj cd ug gudvj cmsdÿj j cd ug sdrvmkmj cd kjgsuhtjrào),
ds rdprdsdgtoahd, cd okudrcj kjg ho vmsmûg cd prjkdsj, pjr `dcmj cd ug cmonro`o
cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr, cd `ogdro qud dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cd koco dgtmcoc qud mg-
nrdso oh smstd`o ds dh tmd`pj qud torco ho dgtmcoc o portmr cdh dvdgtj cd mgmkmj dg
dh cmonro`o eosto su hhdnoco oh dvdgtj cd 󿬏gohmzokmûg (vdo dh dfd`phj 3.?). Yudstj
qud koco dgtmcoc dxpdrm`dgto tmd`pjs cd dspdro dg hjs aubbdr cdh smstd`o, cdad
cmstmgnumr dgtrd dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj (S  ∑ td`o cdh kopàtuhj prdkdcdgtd), y
∑
dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj (S td), qud ds dh `àgm`j tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj sm hos
dgtmcocds gj dxpdrm`dgtorog dspdros dg hjs aubbdr. Cd dsto `ogdro sd cd󿬏gd dh
tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd dspdro ( D  ∑) o portmr cd S 
∑ y S 
∑6
td

  ∑    S 
 D  ∑    S 
∑, (4.?)
td

∑ cdgjto oh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj,  D 

cjgcd S  ∑ oh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd dspdro y S 
∑ 
td
∑
oh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj. Cd dsto bjr`o, kuogcj  D   9(gj eoy cd`jros pjr dspd-

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO =>

ro), dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj ds mnuoh oh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj cd hos dgtmcocds
cdh smstd`o, y ds `uy kjgvdgmdgtd dstm`or dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro kjgjkdr
hos hm`mtokmjgds cdh tmd`pj cd rdspudsto. Jasdrvd qud ugo dgtmcoc dxpdrm`dgto
cd`jros dg hjs aubbdr cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg cdamcj o qud hjs rdkursjs qud
dfdkutog hos oktmvmcocds gj otmdgcdg o ho dgtmcoc, yo sdo pjrqud dstïg jkupocjs, gj
dstïg cmspjgmahds j pjrqud cdadg dspdror ho jkurrdgkmo cd ohnög dvdgtj poro mgmkmor
ho otdgkmûg. O kjgtmguokmûg oprdgcdrï kû`j dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd ug smstd`o
cd prjcukkmûg sd dstm`o o portmr cd hjs tmd`pjs prj`dcmj cd otdgkmûg qud rdqumdrdg
hos dgtmcocds dg koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg, osm`ms`j,
kj`prdgcdrï hjs boktjrds qud cdtdr`mgog ho `ongmtuc cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
 @ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko
[upjgno qud eo mcdgtm󿬏kocj ugo ruto (cdscd dh mgmkmj cdh prjkdsj eosto dh 󿬏goh cdh
`ms`j) dg ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg y qud cmspjgd cd
tjcjs hjs tmd`pjs cd otdgkmûg qud dxpdrm`dgto ho dgtmcoc dg koco ugo cd hos ok-
tmvmcocds cd ho ruto. Dh tmd`pj tjtoh cd otdgkmûg cd ho dgtmcoc dg cmkeo ruto sdrï,
sm`phd`dgtd, ho su`o cd tjcjs hjs tmd`pjs cd otdgkmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds dg ho
ruto y, cdamcj o qud dg ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds dxmstdg vormos rutos, dh tmd`pj qud
cd`jro ho otdgkmûg cd ho dgtmcoc (dg tjcj dh smstd`o) sdrï dh tmd`pj tjtoh cd otdg-
kmûg dg ho ruto qud tmdgd ho curokmûg `ïs horno. Yjr dsto rozûg dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj
cd 󿬁ufj dg ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg sd dstm`o o portmr cd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds y cd
hjs tmd`pjs cd otdgkmûg prj`dcmj (curokmjgds) dg koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds
cd ho rdc. Kjg aosd dg dsto mgbjr`okmûg, dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj sd kohkuho kjg
ho curokmûg tjtoh (su`o cd curokmjgds cd oktmvmcocds) dg ho ruto (cdscd dh mgmkmj
eosto dh 󿬏goh) cd ho rdc qud tmdgd ho curokmûg `ïs horno y cmkeo ruto rdkmad dh
gj`ard cd ruto kràtmko.
  Dg ndgdroh, dh gö`drj cd rutos cmbdrdgtds dg ugo rdc krdkd dxpjgdgkmoh`dg-
td (`uy rïpmcj) kjg dh gö`drj cd oktmvmcocds cd ho rdc y pjr dsto rozûg ho dgu-
`drokmûg kj`phdto cd tjcos hos rutos cd ho rdc rdsuhto sdr ug `ítjcj mgd󿬏kmdgtd
poro mcdgtm󿬏kor ho ruto kràtmko. Yjr bjrtugo, dxmstd ug ohnjrmt`j, `ítjcj cd ho
ruto kràtmko, qud pdr`mtd mcdgtm󿬏kor dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj y ho ruto kràtmko kjg
d󿬏kmdgkmo.
  Yoro ophmkor dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko, sd cdad portmr cd ho rdc cd oktmvmco-
cds cdh smstd`o y poro koco oktmvmcoc cdadg mcdgtm󿬏korsd sus prdcdkdsjrds mg`d-
cmotjs (hos oktmvmcocds cd hos qud sohd ug orkj cd 󿬁dkeo cmrmnmcj eokmo dhho) y sus
sukdsjrds mg`dcmotjs (hos oktmvmcocds qud rdkmadg ug orkj cd 󿬁dkeo qud sohd cd
dhho). Yoro koco oktmvmcoc sd cd󿬏gdg hjs kjgkdptjs smnumdgtds6
  • Dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd mgmkmokmûg td`progo (SMSD)6 ds dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj dg qud
qud sd mgmkmo ugo
oktmvmcoc, sm tjcjs sus prdcdkdsjrds sd mgmkmog hj `ïs td`progj pjsmahd. Dh
SMSD cdh mgmkmj ds 9 y dh SMSD cd kuohqumdr jtro oktmvmcoc ( m ) sd kohkuho kjg
ho dkuokmûg (4.;).
  • Dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd tdr`mgokmûg td`progo
td`progo (SSSD)6 ds dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj dg qud sd tdr`mgo
tdr`mgo
ugo oktmvmcoc sm tjcjs sus prdcdkdsjrds (y dhho `ms`o) sd mgmkmog hj `ïs td`-
progj pjsmahd, pjr hj qud dh SSSD cd ugo oktmvmcoc m sd kohkuho kj`j6
  SSSD(m )  SMSD(m )  CTQOKMÛG(m ), (4.1)
y dh SMSD cd kuohqumdr oktmvmcoc (m ) qud gj sdo dh mgmkmj sd kohkuho kj`j6
  SMSD(m )  `ïx{SSSD( f )6 f  ds
 ds prdcdkdsjr mg`dcmotj cd m }. (4.;)
  • Dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd
cd tdr`mgokmûg
tdr`mgokmûg torcào (SSSO)6 yo qud dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj ds
dh SSSD cdh ‘󿬏g‐ cdh cmonro`o cdh smstd`o, dh SSSO ds dh tmd`pj `ïs torco-

=5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cj dg qud sd tdr`mgo ugo oktmvmcoc smg qud mgkrd`dgtd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd

󿬁ufj.
  • Dh tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd mgmkmokmûg torcào
torcào (SMSO)6
(SMSO)6 pudstj
pudstj qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj
󿬁ufj
ds dh SMSD cdh ‘󿬏g‐ cdh cmonro`o cdh smstd`o, dh SMSO ds dh tmd`pj `ïs tor-
cocj dg qud sd mgmkmo ugo oktmvmcoc smg qud mgkrd`dgtd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd
󿬁ufj. Yudstj qud dh SSSO cdh ‘󿬏g‐ ds mnuoh oh SMSD cdh ‘󿬏g‐, dh SMSO cd ugo
oktmvmcoc m sd kohkuho o portmr cd su SSSO6
  SMSO(m )  SSSO(m )  CTQOKMÛG(m ), (4.3)
y dh SSSO cd kuohqumdr oktmvmcoc (m ) qud gj sdo dh ‘󿬏g‐ sd kohkuho kj`j6
   SSSO(m )  `àg{SMSO( f )6 f  ds
 ds sukdsjr mg`dcmotj cd m }. (4.4)
  • Ho ejhnuro
ejhnuro cd
cd ugo oktmvmcoc ds dh tmd`pj qud pudcd rdtorcorsd dh mgmkmj td`-
progj cd ho oktmvmcoc smg qud sd mgkrd`dgtd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj. Ho
ejhnuro cd ugo oktmvmcoc m sd kohkuho o portmr cd6
  EJHNTQO(m )  SMSO(m )  SMSD(m )  SSSO(m )  SSSD(m ). (4.2)
Dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko kjgsmstd dg dfdkutor cjs mtdrokmjgds sjard hos oktmvm-
cocds cd ho rdc. Dg ho prm`dro mtdrokmûg (hho`oco eokmo ocdhogtd), sd kohkuhog hjs
SMSD y SSSD cd koco oktmvmcoc kjg hos dkuokmjgds (4.1) y (4.;), `mdgtros qud dg
ho sdnugco mtdrokmûg (hho`oco eokmo otrïs), sd kohkuhog hjs SMSO y SSSO cd koco
oktmvmcoc. Oh 󿬏goh cd ho prm`dro mtdrokmûg sd jatmdgd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj, yo
qud ístd ds mnuoh oh SMSD cdh ‘󿬏g‐, y oh 󿬏goh cd ho sdnugco mtdrokmûg sd kohkuhog
hos ejhnuros kjg (4.2). Bmgoh`dgtd, hos oktmvmcocds kràtmkos (hos qud dstïg dg ohnugo
ruto kràtmko) sjg hos qud tmdgdg ejhnuro mnuoh o kdrj.
  Dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko ds sjbtword dg vormjs prjnro`os kj`drkmohds kuyj
usj ds `uy o`mnoahd (pjr dfd`phj @mkrjsjbt Yrjfdkt). Kjg dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj sd
mhustro dh kïhkuhj cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj kjg aosd dg hos curokmjgds cd hos ok-
tmvmcocds, dh cmonro`o cd 󿬁ufj y ho ophmkokmûg cdh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko.

Dfd`phj 4.?. Smd`pj tdûrmkj cd fiufj poro ho `ogubokturo

cd ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj
Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cd ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cd Cdh`dx.
Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.1, dh prjkdsj sd mgmkmo kjg ho sdporokmûg cd hos portds
kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o koco ugo cd cjs torfdtos (O y A), cdspuís koco ugo cd hos cjs

‶ Bmnuro 4.1
Yrjkdsj cd `ogubokturo
cd ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj.
Mgmkmj
Dgso`ahd Yrudao
cd torfdtos O cd torfdtos O [dhhocj

[dporokmûg
cd portds

Dgso`ahd Yrudao Yrudao Bmg

cd torfdtos A cd torfdtos A cdh kj`pjgdgtd

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ==

# C D O K S M R M CO C GJ @ AQD CT QO K M ÛG (@ M GT SJ [ ) Y QDC DKD [JQ D[ ‶ Soaho 4.?

Curokmjgds cd hos oktmvmcocds
? [dporokmûg cd portds ? Mgmkmj poro ho `ogubokturo cd ug
1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O ? ? kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj.
; Dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.4 ?
3 Yrudao torfdto O ?.4 1
4 Yrudao torfdto A 1 ;
2 [dhhocj ? 3, 4
> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd ?.4 2
 torfdtos (dg porohdhj)
kj`pjgdgtd sd dgso`aho
y, pjr öhtm`j, y hudnj sd prudao
o ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd prudaoporo
cdhprjkdcdr oh sdhhocj cdh
kj`pjgdgtd.
  Dg ho toaho 4.? sd prdsdgtog hos curokmjgds prj`dcmj poro koco ugo cd hos
oktmvmcocds cdh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.1. Jasdrvd qud oug kuogcj
dstd prjkdsj ds rdpdtmtmvj, pjr hj qud ds cd dspdror qud dxmstog aubbdr ogtds cd
koco oktmvmcoc, dg dh cmonro`o cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.1 gj sd mhustrog hjs aubbdr, sd mngjro-
rjg pjrqud dh mgtdrís cdh dfd`phj rocmko dg kohkuhor dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
  O hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 4.? sd hds ophmkû dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro jatd-
gdr dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd cd
Cdh`dx, hjs rdsuhtocjs sd mhustrog dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.;. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, dg ho prm`dro
mtdrokmûg (eokmo ocdhogtd), dh SMSD cd ho oktmvmcoc 2 sd jatuvj, kjg ho dkuokmûg (4.;),
o portmr cd hjs SSSD cd hos oktmvmcocds 3 y 46 `ox{;.4, 3.4}  3.4. Yjr jtrj hocj,
dg ho sdnugco mtdrokmûg (eokmo otrïs), dh SSSO cd ho oktmvmcoc ? sd jatuvj, kjg ho
dkuokmûg (4.4), o portmr cd hjs SMSO cd hos oktmvmcocds ; y 16 `mg{1, ?}  ?.
  Kj`j sd jasdrvo dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.;, dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro ho `ogubok-
turo cd ugo ugmcoc cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cd Cdh`dx ds cd S  ∑td  > `mgutjs,
pjr hj qud dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj poro ho `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd gj
pudcd sdr `dgjr qud > `mgutjs.
✣

Smd`pj tdûrmkj cd bhufj kjg rdprjkdsj

Ds gdkdsormj sdÿohor qud poro ophmkor dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko ho rdc cd oktmvm-
cocds gj cdad kjgtdgdr kmkhjs (rutos qud portdg cd ugo oktmvmcoc y rdnrdsog o ho
`ms`o), cdamcj o qud ugo oktmvmcoc gj pudcd sdr prdcdkdsjro cd sà `ms`o. [mg

‶ Bmnuro 4.;
@ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro
# SMSD SSSD dh kj`pjgdgtd cd Cdh`dx.
c SMSO SSSO
Mgmkmj
1 ? 1 3 1 ;.4
? 1 ; ?.4 ; 3.4
? 9 ? 2 3.4 4.4 > 4.4 >
? 9 ? ? 3.4 4.4 ?.4 4.4 >
; ? ? 4 1.4 3.4
?.4 ? 1.4 1 1.4 3.4 Bmg

?99  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

d`aornj, dg ohnugos smtuokmjgds ugo dgtmcoc pjcrào vjhvdr o sjhmkmtor otdgkmûg dg

ho `ms`o oktmvmcoc, pjr dfd`phj, cdamcj o qud ho prm`dro vdz sd kj`dtmû ohnög
drrjr, dg dstd kosj ho dgtmcoc sjhmkmtû rdprjkdsj.
Yoro kohkuhor dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj dg ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds qud tmdgd
rdprjkdsj, sd cdad mgtrjcukmr dh kjgkdptj cd kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj. Yudstj qud
kjg dh tír`mgj curokmûg cd ho oktmvmcoc sd eokd rdbdrdgkmo oh tmd`pj prj`dcmj
qud tj`o otdgkmûg cd ho dgtmcoc dg ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd oktmvmcoc, kuogcj dxmstd
rdprjkdsj cdad kjgsmcdror dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos qud tj`orï ugo dgtm-
coc, cd `ogdro qud dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj cd ugo oktmvmcoc ( m ) sd cd󿬏gd kj`j6
  KS(m )  GDR(m ) *CTQOKMÛG(m ), (4.>)
 cjgcd GDR(mm.) @dcmogtd
ho oktmvmcoc cdgjto oh ho
gö`drj dspdrocj
dkuokmûg cdpjsmahd
(4.>) ds vmsmtos qud tj`orï dhugo
mgtdrprdtor dgtmcoc dg
kjgtdgmcj cd
troaofj kj`j dh tmd`pj dspdrocj qud tj`orï ho otdgkmûg cd koco dgtmcoc dg ho
oktmvmcoc kjrrdspjgcmdgtd.
  O portmr cd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg y hjs kjrrdspjg-
cmdgtds kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro koco oktmvmcoc, dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj sd
dstm`o kjg dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko yo cdskrmtj, sûhj qud ds gdkdsormj tj`or
hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj dg rdd`phozj cd hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds curokmjgds cd
oktmvmcocds.

Dfd`phj 4.1. Dstm`okmûg cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd fiufj kjg rdprjkdsj

Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh dfd`phj 4.?, sûhj qud oejro dxmstd ho pj-
smamhmcoc cd qud ohnugo torfdto (j dh kj`pjgdgtd `ms`j) gj posd ho prudao kjrrds-
kjr rds-
pjgcmdgtd, dg kuyj kosj ho torfdto (j dh kj`pjgdgtd) rdnrdso o sjhmkmtor rdprjkdsj
dg dh posj ogtdrmjr. Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.3, 2% cd hos torfdtos O sjhmkmto
rdprjkdsj, `mdgtros qud dh pjrkdgtofd cd rdprjkdsj ds cd 3% poro hos torfdtos A y cd
1% poro dh kj`pjgdgtd. [upjgno qud sm ugo torfdto j kj`pjgdgtd sjhmkmto rdprjkd-
sj, ho sdnugco vdz posorï ho prudao sotmsboktjrmo`dgtd. Cd dsto `ogdro, dh gö`drj
dspdrocj cd vmsmtos poro dh dgso`ahd cd torfdtos sdrï cd6 ?(9.=3)  1(9.92)  ?.92,
hj `ms`j poro hos jtros oktmvmcocds. Hjs rdsuhtocjs cd kohkuhor osà dh gö`drj dspd-
rocj cd vmsmtos y su kjrrdspjgcmdgtd kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj poro koco oktmvmcoc sd
prdsdgtog dg ho toaho 4.1, cjgcd hos curokmjgds cd koco vmsmto kjrrdspjgcdg o hjs
cotjs cd ho toaho 4.?. Jasdrvd qud dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.3 gj sd uso dh sà`ajhj cd rutdj
(rj`aj) poro mgcmkor qud ugo dgtmcoc sjhmkmto rdprjkdsj, dg su hunor opordkdg

‶ Bmnuro 4.3
Yrjkdsj cd `ogubokturo
cd ug kj`pjgdgtd kjg
rdprjkdsj. 2%
Mgmkmj
Dgso`ahd Yrudao
cd torfdtos O cd torfdtos O [dhhocj
1%
[dporokmûg
cd portds

Dgso`ahd Yrudao Yrudao Bmg

cd torfdtos A cd torfdtos A cdh kj`pjgdgtd

3%

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ?9??

?9

MC OKSM RMCOC C TQO KM Û G ( @M G TSJ [ ) # D [ Y D Q O C J C D R M [ M SO [ KJ G S DG M CJ CD S QO AO F J ‶ Soaho 4.1

Kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj
? [dporokmûg cd portds ? ? ? poro ho `ogubokturo
1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O ? ?.92 ?.92 cd ug kj`pjgdgtd.
; Dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.4 ?.93 ?.42
3 Yrudao torfdto O ?.4 ?.92 ?.4=
4 Yrudao torfdto A 1 ?.93 1.95
2 [dhhocj ? ?.91 ?.91
> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd ?.4 ?.91 ?.4;
 hàgdos pugtdocos,
gj ophmko kjgkjg
dg ugo rdc ho 󿬏gohmcoc
kmkhjs< hjscd
quddgbotmzor qud oh
sd dhm`mgog dh kohkuhor
`ítjcj hjs
cd kjgtdgmcjs
ho ruto kràtmko
cd
troaofj.
  Oh ophmkor dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko kjg hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd ho toaho
4.1 sd jatmdgd qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj ds cd S  ∑   >.?= `mgutjs, rdsuhtocj qud
td
opordkd dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.4. Cd dsto bjr`o, dh `àgm`j tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj
qud sd dxpdrm`dgto dg dstd smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg suad cd > o >.?= `mgutjs cdam-
cj oh rdprjkdsj.
✣

Smd`pj cd bhufj kjg dgtmcocds cd cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs

Dg ugo nrog vormdcoc cd prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs 󿬁uydg sm`uhtïgdo`dgtd dgtmcocds
cd 󿬁ufj qud tmdgdg cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs j kj`phdfmcocds< pjr dfd`phj, hjs khmdgtds
qud sjhmkmtog otdgkmûg dg ugo j󿬏kmgo cd rdnmstrjs pöahmkjs rdnmstrog prjpmdcocds
kjg vormos ugmcocds eoamtokmjgohds, ugo ho`mgocjro cd okdrj prjcukd rjhhjs cd
hï`mgo cd cmbdrdgtds pdsjs y/j hjgnmtucds (cd okudrcj kjg hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs
cd hjs khmdgtds), j ugo kíhuho cd `ogubokturo ohtdrgo ho prjcukkmûg cd cmbdrdgtds
`jcdhjs cdh `ms`j tmpj cd pmdzo.
  Kuogcj dg ug prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs mgnrdsog dgtmcocds kjg cmbdrdgtds otrmau-
tjs, ístos rdqumdrdg cmbdrdgtds kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj dg koco oktmvmcoc, pdrj oög
osà ds pjsmahd ogohmzor hos `dcmcos jpdrokmjgohds aïsmkos cd 󿬁ufj. Kj`j mhustro ho
󿬏nuro 4.2, cdad tdgdr dg kudgto qud, gj jastogtd, hjs cmbdrdgtds kjgtdgmcjs cd
troaofj cd hos dgtmcocds, ístjs sd dxprdsog dg hos `ms`os ugmcocds cd tmd`pj (pjr
dfd`phj, `mgutjs), cd `ogdro qud sm dh mgvdgtormj cdh smstd`o sd dxprdso dg hos `ms-
`os ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj poro koco tmpj cd dgtmcoc (pjr dfd`phj, tjgdhocos), hos ugm-

‶ Bmnuro 4.4
Smd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj
# SMSD SSSD poro ho `ogubokturo
cd ug kj`pjgdgtd.
c SMSO SSSO
Mgmkmj
1 ? 1.92 3 1.92 ;.24
?.92 ?.== ;.94 ?.4= ;.94 3.23
? 9 ? 2 3.23 4.22 > 4.22 >.?=
? 9 ? ?.91 3.23 4.22 ?.4; 4.22 >.?=
; ? 1.42 4 1.42 3.23
?.42 ? 1.42 1.95 1.42 3.23 Bmg

?91  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.2
 Ogïhmsms cd ug prjkdsj
cd gdnjkmjs kjg cmbdrdgtds Dgtmcoc Dgtmcoc
tmpjs cd dgtmcocds. cd 󿬁ufj ? cd 󿬁ufj 1

Kjgtdgmcj Mgvdgtormj ? Mgvdgtormj 1 Kjgtdgmcj

cd troaofj ? cd troaofj 1

@dcmco kj`ög cd bhufj

 cocds cd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj dstorïg amdg cd󿬏gmcos (tjgdhocos/`mgutj). Aofj dstos kjg-
smcdrokmjgds sd ophmko ho rdnho cd Hmtthd (3.4).
  Kuogcj sd cdsdo dstm`or dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj dg ug smstd`o cjgcd
mgnrdsog g tmpjs cd dgtmcocds, sd cdad kjgjkdr ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg, ho kuoh
g
dstorï amdg cd󿬏gmco pjr hjs pdsjs w?, w1, … wg, qud cdadg sotmsbokdr ∟ wg 0 ? , y
 f 0?
9   w f     ?, f    ?, 1, …, g y, pjr jtrj hocj, poro koco oktmvmcoc m cdad kjgjkdr hjs
kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj KS(m,  f ) kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o hos cmbdrdgtds dgtmcocds  f     ?,
1, …, g. Kjg aosd dg dsto mgbjr`okmûg sd kohkuho dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj poro koco
oktmvmcoc m6
g
  KS ( m ) 0 ∟ w KS(m, f),  
 f 0?
 f  (4.5)

cd `ogdro qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj sd dstm`o oh ophmkor dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto

kràtmko kjg hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj o portmr cd ho dkuokmûg (4.5). Oejro kjgvmdgd
prdsdgtor ug dfd`phj.

Dfd`phj 4.;. Dstm`okmûg cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd fiufj

kjg cmbdrdgtds tmpjs cd dgtmcocds
Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh dfd`phj 4.1, sûhj qud hjs cotjs cd kjgtd-
gmcj
gdgtdcddhdktrûgmkj
troaofj qud opordkdg
y sd dg ho toaho
cdsdo boarmkor dg ho4.1, kjrrdspjgcdg
`ms`o kíhuho cd oh `jcdhj [ cdh
`ogubokturo dh kj`pj-
`jcdhj
S. Dstd öhtm`j dstï kj`pudstj to`amíg cd ugo torfdto O y cd ugo torfdto A, pjr hj
qud su `ogubokturo smnud hjs `ms`js posjs cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.3. [mg d`aornj, ho `o-
gubokturo cd dstd `jcdhj rdqumdrd cd cmbdrdgtds kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj dg ohnugos
oktmvmcocds, kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho kuorto kjhu`go cd ho toaho 4.;. Yoro ugo `dzkho
cd prjcukkmûg dg ho kíhuho cd `ogubokturo cd 39% poro dh `jcdhj [ y cd 29% cdh
`jcdhj S, cdsdo dstm`or dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
  Dg dstd kosj g   1 tmpjs cd dgtmcocds, dh prm`dr tmpj kjrrdspjgcd oh `jcdhj
[ y dh sdnugcj oh `jcdhj S, pjr hj qud, cd okudrcj kjg ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg,
hjs pdsjs sjg w?   9.3 y w1   9.2. Hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro koco oktmvmcoc
(cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg 4.5) sd prjpjrkmjgog dg ho qumgto kjhu`go cd ho toaho
4.;, osà, dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj cd ho oktmvmcoc ‘dgso`ahd torfdto O‐O‐ ds cd 9.3 (?.92)
( ?.92)
 9.2 (1.?1)  ?.2=2 `mgutjs.

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ?9;

KJGSDGMCJ CD SQOAOFJ ‶ Soaho 4.;

Kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj
MC O K S M R M CO C @J C DHJ [ @J CD HJ S @ D V KH O (dg `mgutjs) poro hjs `jcdhjs
? [dporokmûg cd portds ? ? ? [ y S cdh kj`pjgdgtd
cd Cdh`dx.
1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O ?.92 1.?1 ?.2=2
; Dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.42 ?.= ?.>23
3 Yrudao torfdto O ?.4= 1.?1 ?.=95
4 Yrudao torfdto A 1.95 ?.5> ?.=43
2 [dhhocj ?.91 ?.91 ?.91
> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd ?.4; ?.4; ?.4;
   Hjs rdsuhtocjs cd ho ophmkokmûg cdh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko kjg hjs kjgtdgmcjs
cd troaofj cd ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg cd ho toaho 4.; sd `udstrog dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.>,
cjgcd sd oprdkmo qud kuogcj ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg ds cd 39% poro dh `jcdhj [
y 29% poro dh `jcdhj S, dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj sdrï cd S  ∑    >.125 `mgutjs.
td

@dfjro cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd bhufj

Dh prm`dr posj poro trotor cd `dfjror dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd ug prjkdsj cd
gdnjkmjs ds, smg cuco, ho kjgstrukkmûg cd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds, ho mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg
cd ho ruto kràtmko y hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds oktmvmcocds kràtmkos. Jasdrvd qud ho rd-
cukkmûg cdh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj dg ugo oktmvmcoc qud gj dstï dg ho ruto kràtmko,
gj cms`mguyd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj oh ophmkor dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko, pjr
hj qud poro `dfjror dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj, ds `uy kjgvdgmdgtd mcdgtm󿬏kor hos
oktmvmcocds cd ho ruto kràtmko.
  O kjgtmguokmûg cdad mcdgtm󿬏kor sm koco oktmvmcoc ds cd vohjr onrdnocj j gj.
Tgo oktmvmcoc ds cd vohjr onrdnocj sm su dfdkukmûg mgkrd`dgto dh vohjr qud pdrkmad
dh khmdgtd sjard ho `ogubokturo j sdrvmkmj qud rdkmad, cd hj kjgtrormj ho oktmvmcoc
gj oÿocd vohjr oh prjkdsj. Dg ugo rdmgndgmdrào cdh prjkdsj poro rdcukmr dh tmd`pj
tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj, hos oktmvmcocds qud gj oÿocdg vohjr oh prjkdsj sdrïg hos prm`dros
dg sdr dhm`mgocos j dg sdr rdcukmcos. Ho `ogdro `ïs bïkmh cd mcdgtm󿬏kor sm ugo ok-
tmvmcoc ds cd vohjr onrdnocj ds soadr sm dh khmdgtd pdrkmad ohnugo cmbdrdgkmo dg ho
`ogubokturo j sdrvmkmj sm cmkeo oktmvmcoc sd dhm`mgo j ko`amo pjr jtro. Yjr dfd`-
phj, ugo oktmvmcoc cd trogspjrtd cd ugo `drkogkào cdscd ho bïarmko eosto dh pugtj

‶ Bmnuro 4.>
@ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro
# SMSD SSSD `dzkho cd `jcdhjs [ y S.
c SMSO SSSO
Mgmkmj
1 ? 1.2=2 3 1.2=2 3.293

?.2=2 ?.??3 1.5? ?.=95 1.5? 3.>?5

? 9 ? 2 3.>?5 4.>;5 > 4.>;5 >.125

? 9 ? ?.91 3.>?5 4.>;5 ?.4; 4.>;5 >.125

; ? 1.>23 4 1.>23 3.>?5

?.>23 ? 1.>23 ?.=43 1.>23 3.>?5 Bmg

?93  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cd vdgto ds cd vohjr onrdnocj, yo qud oh khmdgtd sà hd m`pjrtorï qud dh prjcuktj

dstí dg ho tmdgco y gj dg ho bïarmko< dg ko`amj, pjkj hd mgtdrdsorï oh khmdgtd sm ug
kj`pjgdgtd cd su prjcuktj ds troshococj cdscd ug tohhdr cmstogtd eosto dh tohhdr
cd dgso`ahd cdh prjcuktj, `mdgtros íh rdkmao dh prjcuktj kjg ug audg dgso`ahd<
pjr dsto rozûg, ho `oyjrào cd hjs trogspjrtds mggdkdsormjs cdgtrj cd ugo phogto
sdrïg oktmvmcocds qud gj onrdnog vohjr oh prjkdsj.
  Sros mcdgtm󿬏kor hos oktmvmcocds kràtmkos cdh prjkdsj ds gdkdsormj khosm󿬏korhos
dg ohnugo cd hos smnumdgtds kotdnjràos6 ?) hos qud pdr`mtdg rdcukmr dh kjgtdgmcj cd
troaofj cd ugo oktmvmcoc kràtmko, j 1) hos qud pdr`mtdg troshocor dh kjgtdgmcj cd tro-
 aofj cd ugo oktmvmcoc budro cd ho ruto
r uto kràtmko. Dgtrd hos prm`dros sd dgkudgtrog6
  • Dhm`mgor ho oktmvmcoc6 kuogcj ugo oktmvmcoc gj onrdno vohjr oh prjkdsj (pjr
 dfd`phj,
`mgokmûg,smhodskuoh
ug trï`mtd
prjkdcdaurjkrïtmkj),
dg kosj cd gjho trodr
prm`dro okkmûg o dxphjror
kjgsdkudgkmos ds suporo
gdnotmvos dhm-
dh prjkdsj.
  • Cms`mgumr ho curokmûg cd ho oktmvmcoc6 sm ho dfdkukmûg cd ugo oktmvmcoc ds
gdkdsormo y gj ds pjsmahd dhm`mgorho, ho sdnugco jpkmûg ds rdcukmr ho curokmûg
cd su dfdkukmûg, pjr dfd`phj, kjg `dfjr tdkgjhjnào cd prjkdsj j cd mgbjr`o-
kmûg y kj`ugmkokmjgds j kjg kopokmtokmûg cdh pdrsjgoh poro hjnror
hjn ror ugo `oyjr
ropmcdz dg ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds.
  • Qdcukmr dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos cd ho `ms`o dgtmcoc 6 pudstj
qud, kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho dkuokmûg 4.>, ugo rdcukkmûg dg dh gö`drj dspdro-
cj cd vmsmtos cd ho dgtmcoc rdcukd dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj cd ho oktmvmcoc, hos
`dfjros qud pdr`mtdg cms`mgumr dh gö`drj cd drrjrds j mgkjgsmstdgkmos qud
sd kj`dtdg dg ho dfdkukmûg cd ho oktmvmcoc, ds ugo `dcmco oprjpmoco poro
cms`mgumr dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj.

Dgtrd hos `dcmcos qud pdr`mtdg troshocor dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj cd ugo oktmvmcoc
kràtmko budro cd ho ruto kràtmko sd dgkudgtrog6
  • @jvdr ho oktmvmcoc budro cd ho ruto kràtmko 6 dg kmdrtos smtuokmjgds, yo sdo
pjrqud ohnugo prdkdcdgkmo dg dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds gj ds dg rdohmcoc
gdkdsormo j pjrqud dh prjkdsj sd pudcd rdcmsdÿor poro dhm`mgor rdhokmjgds cd
prdkdcdgkmo, ds pjsmahd rdtmror ohnugo oktmvmcoc kràtmko. Adgdttjg dfd`phm󿬏kû
dsto `dcmco kuogcj pdr`mtmû qud dh tdÿmcj cd ho prdgco sd emkmdro cdspuís
cd ho kjsturo y gj dg ho tdho, ogtds cd ho kjgbdkkmûg, osà ho oktmvmcoc cd tdÿmcj
yo gj ds kràtmko poro cdkmcmr dh `jcdhj 󿬏goh cd ho kjgbdkkmûg.
  • @jvdr troaofj budro cdh prjkdsj6 kuogcj ds pjsmahd cdhdnor ugo oktmvmcoc
kràtmko o ug prjvddcjr (pjr dfd`phj ho boarmkokmûg cd ho tdho dg ho mgcustrmo
cd ho kjgbdkkmûg), dh dbdktj mg`dcmotj ds ho cms`mgukmûg cdh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd
󿬁ufj. Dg dstd kosj, cdad tdgdr dg kudgto qud oejro sdrï gdkdsormj rdohmzor
ugo audgo oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs poro qud dh prjkdsj 󿬁uyo kjg
ropmcdz.

Dfd`phj 4.3. Qdmgndgmdrào cd ug prjkdsj cd dxpdcmkmûg

cd kjgbjr`mcoc cd jaro
Ho dxpdcmkmûg cd ho kjgbjr`mcoc cd jaro (KJ) ds ug posj gdkdsormj poro rdnmstror
pöahmko`dgtd ugo jaro cd kjgstrukkmûg y norogtmzor ho prjpmdcoc cd ho jaro. Dg ho
`oyjrào cd hjs poàsds cd O`írmko Hotmgo, hos outjrmcocds cd hos oc`mgmstrokmjgds
hjkohds (cdh `ugmkmpmj j cmstrmtj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd) sjg hos qud dxpmcdg ho KJ. Dg
ho toaho 4.3 sd dxphmkog hos oktmvmcocds tàpmkos cd ug prjkdsj cd dxpdcmkmûg cd KJ,
cjgcd sd mcdgtm󿬏kog to`amíg hos oktmvmcocds cd vohjr onrdnocj (RO) y hos qud gj
sjg cd vohjr onrdnocj (GRO).

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ?94

MC C D[KQ MY KMÛ G SMYJ ‶ Soaho 4.3

 Oktmvmcocds cdh trï`mtd cd
? Dgtrdno y rdvmsmûg
Dgtrdno rdvmsmûg cdh
cdh dxpdcmdgt
dxpdcmdgtdd dg vdgtogmh
vdgtogmhho
ho ögmko
ögmko (RT). Dh
Dh dxpdcmdgt
dxpdcmdgtdd kjgsto
kjgsto cd6  RO dxpdcmkmûg cd kjgbjr`mcoc
sjhmkmtuc, tàtuhj cd prjpmdcoc (kjpmo kjtdfoco), ajhdtos cd ponjs prdcmohds y cjs cd jaro.
fudnjs cd phogjs orqumtdktûgmkjs.
1 Srogsp
rogspjrtd
jrtd cd
cd dxpdcmdgt
dxpdcmdgtdd cdscd
cdscd ho RT eokmo ho cmrdkkmû
cmrdkkmûgg cd jaros
jaros y cdsor
cdsorrjhhj
rjhhj GRO
uraogj (CJCT)
; Qdnmstrj cdh dxpdcmdgtd dg ho j󿬏kmgo cd rdkdpkmûg (JQ) cd ho CJCT GRO
3 Srogsp
rogspjrtd
jrtd cdh
cdh dxpdcmdg
dxpdcmdgtd
td cdscd
cdscd ho JQ cd ho CJCT
CJCT eokmo
eokmo ho j󿬏kmgo cd osdsjrào
osdsjrào GRO
furàcmko (JOF)
4 Rdrm󿬏kokmûg cd dskrmturos, hmtmnmjs y ponjs cd m`pudstjs dg ho JOF RO
2 Srogspjrtd cd
cdh dxpdcmdgtd cdscd ho JOF eokmo ho ugmcoc cd hmhmkdgkmos (TH) GRO
> Rdrm󿬏kokmûg cd ho kjgbjr`mcoc cd hjs phogjs dg ho TH RO

5 Srogspjrtd cd ug mgspdktjr y vmsmto cd mgspdkkmûg o ho jaro RO

 = Srogspjrtd cdh dxpdcmdgtd cdscd ho TH eokmo ho CJCT GRO
?9 Qdvmsmûg y 󿬏r`o cd ho KJ dg ho CJCT RO
?? Srogspjrtd cdh dxpdcmdgtd eokmo ho RT GRO

  Dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.5 opordkd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds cd ho toaho 4.3, dg ho qud sd

utmhmzo dh sà`ajhj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd poro mcdgtm󿬏kor hos oktmvmcocds cd trogspjrtd.
Dg ho 󿬏nuro sd dspdkm󿬏ko (dgtrd porígtdsms) ho curokmûg prj`dcmj (dg `mgutjs) cd
koco oktmvmcoc, osà kj`j dh edkej cd qud 19% cd hos sjhmkmtucds sjg rdkeozocos
y dh sjhmkmtogtd cdad d`pdzor dh trï`mtd cd gudvo kudgto. Dg dh supudstj cd qud
gmgnugo sjhmkmtuc sdrï rdkeozoco pjr sdnugco vdz, dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos
poro koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds sdrï cd ?.1, y kjg sûhj ugo ruto dgtrd hjs dvdgtjs
cd mgmkmj y 󿬏goh, dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd prjkdsj rdsuhto cd6 ?.1(29  
?9   …   1  ?9)  ;21.3 `mgutjs.
  Kjg dh jafdtj cd `dfjror dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd prjkdsj cd gd-
njkmjs, sd m`phogtog hos smnumdgtds `dfjros dg sdkudgkmo6
  ?. Dhm`mgor oktmvmcocds
oktmvmcocds qud
qud gj oÿocdg vohjr6 ho CJCT sd pdrkotû
pdrkotû cd
cd qud dg rd-
nmstrjs pöahmkjs, dg ho ugmcoc cd kjarogzo y dg ho ugmcoc cd hmkdgkmos dxmstdg
rdnmstrjs dhdktrûgmkjs cdh tàtuhj cd prjpmdcoc, ponjs prdcmohds y phogjs orqum-
tdktûgmkjs, pjr hj qud m`phogto ug smstd`o poro qud dh dxpdcmdgtd sd kopturd
dhdktrûgmko`dgtd y sd pjgno o cmspjsmkmûg cd hos ugmcocds mgvjhukrocos. Dstd
smstd`o dhm`mgo hos oktmvmcocds 1, ;, 3, 2, = y ??, oktmvmcocds qud gj oÿocdg
vohjr oh prjkdsj.
  1. Okdhdror ho dfdkukmûg cd oktmvmcocds6
oktmvmcocds6 cocj qud oejro
oejro ho sjhmkmtuc ds ug rd-
nmstrj dhdktrûgmkj, ho CJCT ndstmjgû qud sus ugmcocds eonog kjgsuhtos o hjs
smstd`os cd rdnmstrjs pöahmkjs, ugmcoc cd kjarogzo y ugmcoc cd hmkdgkmos, hj

‶ Bmnuro 4.5
Cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds
 y curokmjgds (dg `mgutjs)
cd ug trï`mtd cd KJ.
Mgmkmj ? ; 4 > 5 ?9 19%
(29) (?9) (;9) (29) (=9) (1)

1 3 2 = ?? Bmg
(?9) (?9) (?9) (?9) (?9)

?92  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.=
Cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds
cd ug trï`mtd cd KJ smg 19%
oktmvmcocds qud gj onrdnog
vohjr. ? 4 > 5 ?9
Mgmkmj (29) (;9) (29) (=9) (1) Bmg

qud onmhmzû hos oktmvmcocds ?, 4 y >, y rdcufj ho curokmûg cd koco ugo cd dhhos
o ho `mtoc.
  ;. Qdcukmr gö`drj cd cd vmsmtos6 kjg dh jafdtj cd rdcukmr
rdcukmr dh gö`drj cd
cd sjhmkmtucds
sjhmkmtucds
rdkeozocos, ho CJCT m`phogtû ug prjnro`o cd trogspordgkmo, pjr hj qud
puahmko dg Mgtdrgdt hjs rdnho`dgtjs y cmspjsmkmjgds vmndgtds qud sd rdhokmj-
 gog kjg dh trï`mtd cd dxpdcmkmûg cd KJ. Dstd prjnro`o rdcufj hos sjhmkmtucds
rdkeozocos cd 19% o sûhj 4%.
  3. @jvdr oktmvmcocds budro
budro cd ho ruto kràtmko6 cdamcj o qud hos oktmvmcocds 4,
> y 5 gj gdkdsmtog dfdkutorsd dg sdkudgkmo, ho CJCT cdkmcd dfdkutorhos dg
porohdhj.
  4. Cms`mgumr curokmûg cd oktmvmcoc6 dg ug öhtm`j
öhtm`j mgtdgtj
mgtdgtj pjr `dfjror dh sdrvmkmj
sdrvmkmj
sd dxmnd ugo rdcukkmûg cd 19% dg ho curokmûg cd ho oktmvmcoc >.
  O kjgtmguokmûg sd ogohmzo dh m`poktj `ornmgoh cd koco ugo cd hos prjpudstos
cd `dfjro. Ho prm`dro okkmûg dhm`mgû tjcos hos oktmvmcocds qud gj onrdnog vohjr
oh prjkdsj, cd `ogdro qud dh gudvj cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds sd prdsdgto dg ho 󿬏-
nuro 4.=, y dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj rdsuhto cd ?.1(29   ;9   …   1)  1=9.3
`mgutjs.
  Dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds cdspuís cd ho sdnugco okkmûg cd `dfjro ds `uy
sm`mhor oh cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.=, sûhj ko`amo ho curokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds ?, 4 y >, y dh
gudvj tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj rdsuhto cd ?.1(;9  ?4  …  1)  199.3 `mgutjs.
Yoro ho tdrkdro okkmûg cd `dfjro, dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds to`amíg ds `uy sm`m-
hor oh cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.=, y poro kohkuhor dh gudvj tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj, cdad tdgdr
dg kudgto qud oh ko`amor dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos (cd ?.1 o ?.94), ko`amorïg
hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj, pjr hj qud dh gudvj tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj rdsuhto cd
?.94(;9  ?4  …  1)  ?>4.;4 `mgutjs.
  Cdspuís cd m`phogtor ho kuorto `dfjro, dh cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds cd ho 󿬏-
nuro 4.= sà ko`amo, yo qud oejro sd dfdkutog dg porohdhj hos oktmvmcocds 4, > y 5.
Cdamcj o qud yo gj dxmstd ugo ruto ögmko cdscd dh mgmkmj eosto dh 󿬏g cdh cmonro`o,
sd ophmko dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko (qud sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?9), poro jatdgdr
ug tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd ?15.? `mgutjs.
  Bmgoh`dgtd, jasdrvd qud ho oktmvmcoc > gj ds ugo oktmvmcoc kràtmko, osà qud
ho qumgto
cotjs qud`dfjro gj tdgcrï
ko`amoràog dg ho gmgnög dbdktjoh dg
󿬏nuro 4.?9, dh tmd`pj
ophmkor tdûrmkjcdcdho󿬁ufj,
dh `ítjcj hjs ögmkjs
ruto kràtmko, sd-
ràog ho curokmûg cd ho oktmvmcoc > (posorào o 14.1), dh SSSD cd ho oktmvmcoc > (sd
rdcukmrào cd >2 o 42.>) y dh SMSO cd ho oktmvmcoc > (sdrào cd ?99.5). Hudnj cd tjcos
hos `dfjros sd hjnrû rdcukmr dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd ;21.3 o ?15.? `mgutjs
(kosm o ug tdrkmj cdh tmd`pj jrmnmgoh).
✣

  OGÏHM[M[ CDH SMD@YJ CD BHTFJ KJG D[YDQO[

Kj`j `udstro dg ho dkuokmûg (4.?), y ds ug rd󿬁dfj cd hj qud sd dxpdrm`dgto dg
ho `oyjrào cd hjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs, hos dgtmcocds qud mgnrdsog oh prjkdsj gj

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ?9>

‶ Bmnuro 4.?9
@ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro
# SMSD SSSD ug trï`mtd cd KJ `dfjrocj.
Mgmkmj c SMSO SSSO
4 ;?.4 3>.14

?4.>4 ??9.14 ?12

? 9 ;?.4 > ;?.4 >2 ?9 ?12 ?15.?

Bmg
;?.4 9 ;?.4 ;?.4 =3.4 ?12 1.? ?12 ?15.?

5 ;?.4 ?12

=3.4 ;?.4 ?12

 gdkdsormo`dgtd sjg otdgcmcos cd mg`dcmotj dg koco oktmvmcoc, pjr hj ndgdroh dx-
pdrm`dgtog dspdros cdamcj o ho kj`pdtdgkmo pjr dh usj cd hjs rdkursjs. Dh tmd`pj
tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj ds dg rdohmcoc dh `àgm`j tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj qud dxpdrm`dgto
dh smstd`o, y dh kjgjkm`mdgtj cdh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj (kjg hos dspdros) pdr-
`mtd `dcmr ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj6
S td
B 0
 DSB 
 DS (?99)%,   (4.=)
  S 

cjgcd  DSB  cdgjto
  cdgjto ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj (dg pjrkdgtofd), y S 
∑td, S 
∑ dstïg
cd󿬏gmcos dg ho dkuokmûg (4.?). Ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj `mcd kuïg pdqud-
ÿos sjg hos dspdros dg rdhokmûg kjg dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj, yo qud sm gj sd
dxpdrm`dgtog dspdros dg dh prjkdsj, ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj sdrào cd ?99%,
y o `dcmco qud hos dspdros krdkdg, ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cms`mguyd y
sd okdrko o kdrj.

Dstm`okmûg cdh tmd`pj cd bhufj kjg dspdros

Dg ndgdroh, dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj S ∑, yo sdo poro ug prjkdsj, ug aubbdr j ugo
oktmvmcoc, sd dstm`o cmrdkto j mgcmrdkto`dgtd. Ho dstm`okmûg cmrdkto kjgsmstd dg6
o) jasdrvor dh smstd`o pjr kmdrtj pdrmjcj (kj`j dg dh dfd`phj 3.1), a) poro koco
ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj qud dgtrû y sohmû cdh smstd`o sd rdnmstro dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj, y k) sd
∑ pjr dh prj`dcmj cd hjs tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj jasdrvocjs. Dstd `ítjcj ds mg-
dstm`o S 
cucoahd`dgtd
 aubbdr dh `ïs
j oktmvmcoc< sdnurj poro
smg d`aornj, dstm`or
pjcrào dh tmd`pjjcdkjstjsj
sdr hoajrmjsj 󿬁ufj, sm
yogj
sdosdcdh prjkdsj,
cmspjgd cd
ho tdkgjhjnào oprjpmoco qud pdr`mto ug rdnmstrj outj`ïtmkj cd hjs tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj
(pjr dfd`phj, QBMC poro ugo `ogubokturo j wjrl󿬁jw poro ug sdrvmkmj). Tgo jpkmûg
`dgjs kjstjso ds ho dstm`okmûg mgcmrdkto, qud kjgsmstd dg dstm`or hjs mgvdgtormjs
prj`dcmj dg dh prjkdsj j oktmvmcoc, y dstm`or dh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd tmd`pj prj`d-
∑ kjg ho ophmkokmûg cd ho rdnho cd Hmtthd (dkuokmûg 3.4), kjg aosd dg dh
cmj cd 󿬁ufj S 
mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj  M ∑ y ho toso cd 󿬁ufj  Q.
  Kjg dh jafdtj cd mcdgtm󿬏kor hos dspdros dg aubbdr y hos oktmvmcocds kràtmkos,
prm`drj sd dstm`og hjs tmd`pjs prj`dcmj cd dspdro qud hos ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj dxpd-
rm`dgtog dg koco ugj cd hjs aubbdr, yo sdo kjg ho dstm`okmûg cmrdkto j ho mgcmrdkto.
Yoro dgkjgtror dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o tjcj dh prjkdsj, sd
ophmko dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko o ho rdc kj`phdto cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr< koco
dspdro dg ug aubbdr sd kjgsmcdro kj`j ugo oktmvmcoc posmvo, kjg sus kjrrdspjgcmdg-

?95  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.??
Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr
poro ho `ogubokturo cd ug Dgso`ahd Yrudao
Mgmkmj cd torfdtos O cd torfdtos O [dhhocj
kj`pjgdgtd. A1 A3 A2

[dporokmûg
cd portds A>

Dgso`ahd Yrudao Yrudao cdh Bmg

A; cd torfdtos A A4 cd torfdtos A kj`pjgdgtd
 tds dspdros prj`dcmj kj`j sm budrog sus curokmjgds. Dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj mhustro
ho dstm`okmûg mgcmrdkto cd hjs tmd`pjs cd dspdro prj`dcmj y ho mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg cd hos
oktmvmcocds y dspdros kràtmkos cdh prjkdsj.

Dfd`phj 4.4. D﬏kmdgkmo cd ug prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo

Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cdh dfd`phj 4.?,
kjg ug tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd > `mgutjs. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?? opordkd cd gudvj
dstd prjkdsj, pdrj oejro mgkhuyd hjs aubbdr cdh prjkdsj kjg dh jafdtj cd ogohmzor
dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg dspdros. Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho 󿬏nuro, dh prjkdsj mgmkmo kjg
ho sdporokmûg cd portds poro hos torfdtos O y A, y tdr`mgo kjg ho `ogubokturo cdh
kj`pjgdgtd,
cd prjcukkmûghmstj poro dgtror oh
sd mcdgtm󿬏korjg oh`okíg
2 aubbdr cdhoprjcuktjs
y dg tdr`mgocjs.
toaho 4.4 dstïg Dg dh1 smstd`o
(kjhu`gos y ;) hjs
mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj dg koco ugj cd hjs aubbdr cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.??, tj`d dg kudgto
qud sd dxpdrm`dgto ugo toso cd prjcukkmûg cd =9 kj`pjgdgtds/ejro, hos kjhu`-
gos 3 y 4 cd ho `ms`o toaho rdnmstrog hjs kjrrdspjgcmdgtds tmd`pjs prj`dcmj cd
dspdro (dg `mgutjs) qud rdsuhtog cd ophmkor ho rdnho cd Hmtthd, osà, dh tmd`pj prj-
`dcmj cd dspdro cd hos portds cd ho torfdto O dg dh aubbdr A1 ds cd 3.4(29)/=9  ;
`mgutjs.
  Kjg aosd dg ho curokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds cd ho toaho 4.?, hjs tmd`pjs prj`d-
cmj cd dspdro cd ho toaho 4.4, y oh kjgsmcdror o hjs aubbdr kj`j oktmvmcocds posmvos,
dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?? sd ophmko dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro dgkjgtror dh tmd`pj
prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj dg tjcj dh prjkdsj. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?1 opordkdg hjs rdsuhtocjs cd
ho ophmkokmûg cdh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko, cjgcd dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj poro
dh prjkdsj sd dstm`o dg 13 `mgutjs. Jasdrvd qud dg dh aubbdr A2 dxmstdg cjs tmpjs
cd mgvdgtormjs
kjgsmcdrog cjs(torfdtos O y cd
oktmvmcocds A),dspdro
pjr hj qud
porodg ho rdc
dstd cd aubbdr
aubbdr, ho A2Ocdy ho 󿬏nuro 4.?1rd-
A2A, poro sd

‶ Soaho 4.4 M G R D G SO Q M J Y Q J @ D C M J S M D@ YJ YQ J@ DC M J C D D[ YDQ O (@ MG T SJ[ )

Mgvdgtormjs y tmd`pjs prj`dcmj
cd dspdro dg aubbdr. ATBBDQ SO Q F D SO [ O SO Q F D SO [ A SO Q F D SO [ O SO Q F D SO [ A
A1 3.4 9 ; 9
A; 9 >.4 9 4
A3 2 9 3 9
A4 9 >.4 9 4
A2 2 2 3 3
A> 3.4 3.4 ; ;

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ?9=

‶ Bmnuro 4.?1
@ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko poro
1 3 4 A3 4 = # SMSD SSSD dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg dspdros.
? 5 = 3 = ?;
Mgmkmj c SMSO SSSO

A1 ? 3 3 = ?9.4 A2O ?9.4 ?3.4

? 9 ? ; 4 5 ?.4 ?; ?3.4 3 ?3.4 ?5.4

2 ?5.4 ?=.4 A> ?=.4 11.4
? 9 ?
? ?5.4 ?=.4 ; ?=.4 11.4
A; ? 2 4 ?; ?3.4 A2A ?3.4 ?5.4

4 ? 2 ?.4 ?; ?3.4 3 ?3.4 ?5.4

; 2 5 A4 5 ?; > 11.4 13

1 2 5 4 5 ?; ?.4 11.4 13
 Bmg

prdsdgtor hos dspdros cd hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds torfdtos O y A. Kjg aosd dg hjs cotjs
cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.?1, ho sdkudgkmo cd oktmvmcocds y dspdros kràtmkos ds6
? ↑ A; ↑ ; ↑ A4 ↑ 4↑ A2A ↑ 2 ↑ A> ↑ >.
  Yjr öhtm`j, cocj qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd prjkdsj cd `o-
gubokturo bud cd > `mgutjs (vdo dh dfd`phj 4.?), ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cd dstd smstd`o cd
prjcukkmûg ds cd >(?99)/1
>(?99)/133  1=.1%, ds cdkmr, 1=.1% cdh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj


kjrrdspjgcd oh tmd`pj tdûrmkj (y dh rdstj o dspdros).

✣

@dfjro cdh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd dspdro

Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud dg ho prïktmko dxmstd ugo nrog jpjrtugmcoc poro
`dfjror hjs tmd`pjs cd dspdro dg aubbdr. Dg dstd sdgtmcj, dh dstucmj d`pàrmkj cd
Ahoklaurg (?==1) rdpjrto d󿬏kmdgkmos `uy pdqudÿos dg cmvdrsjs sdktjrds cd ho mg-
custrmo cd Dstocjs Tgmcjs, dgtrd hos qud rdsohto ugo d󿬏kmdgkmo cd 9.?2% poro ho
dxpdcmkmûg
cd cd pûhmzos
gudvjs cmsdÿjs dgmgcustrmo
dg ho ho mgcustrmo cd sdnurjs y cd 9.?3% poro dh hogzo`mdgtj
cd d`poquds.
  Dh prm`dr posj poro `dfjror dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd dspdros dg ug prjkdsj
cd gdnjkmjs ds mcdgtm󿬏kor ho ruto kràtmko y hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds dspdros dg aubbdr
qud sjg kràtmkos. Tgo `oyjr kopokmcoc cd prjkdsj dg hos oktmvmcocds qud ndgdrog
hos dspdros kràtmkos tdgcrï ug m`poktj pjsmtmvj poro cms`mgumr dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj
cd dspdro. Cdad tdgdr dg kudgto, smg d`aornj, qud ho curokmûg cd hos dspdros dg
 aubbdr cdpdgcd gj sûhj cd ho kopokmcoc poro prdstor hjs sdrvmkmjs, smgj to`amíg cd
hos pjhàtmkos poro prjnro`or ho otdgkmûg cd hos dgtmcocds, cd ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc cd hjs
rdkursjs y cd hos pjhàtmkos poro prjnro`or y osmngor hjs rdkursjs o hos oktmvmcocds,
dgtrd jtrjs boktjrds. Dg dh kopàtuhj ?1 sd ogohmzog hos cmbdrdgtds tíkgmkos poro prj-
nro`or ho otdgkmûg cd hos dgtmcocds< `mdgtros, kjgvmdgd otdgcdr dh prjahd`o cd
ho prjnro`okmûg cd oktmvmcocds kjg rdkursjs hm`mtocjs, kjgjkmcj dg ho hmtdroturo
mgnhdso pjr ho smnhos QKY[Y (rdsjurkd kjgstromgdc prjfdkt skedcuhmgn prjahd`), y

??9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

qud tmdgd `ukeo rdhdvogkmo poro trotor cd cms`mgumr hos dspdros pjr bohto cd rd-
kursjs poro otdgcdr o hos dgtmcocds.
  Dg ho `oyj
`oyjrào
rào cd hjs prjkdsjs cd gdnjkmjs dxmstdg rdkursjs 󿬁dxmahds qud tmdgdg
ho kopokmcoc poro otdgcdr cmbdrdgtds oktmvmcocds< pjr dfd`phj, ho sdkrdtormo cd ug
cdporto`dgtj pudcd sdrvmr cd rdkdpkmjgmsto togtj poro dh fdbd cd cdporto`dgtj,
kj`j poro hjs cmbdrdgtds bugkmjgormjs cdh `ms`j cdporto`dgtj, j ug prjnro`o-
cjr pudcd dstor osmngocj o vormos oktmvmcocds cdh `ms`j prjydktj cd cdsorrjhhj cd
sjbtword. Kuogcj ug `ms`j rdkursj cdad otdgcdr cmbdrdgtds oktmvmcocds cdh `ms`j
prjkdsj cd gdnjkmjs, ho sdkudgkmo dg ho qud sd dfdkutog hos oktmvmcocds cd ho rdc
obdkto dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj. Yjr dfd`phj, m`onmgd qud sm ug rdkursj ds
gdkdsormj poro otdgcdr ugo oktmvmcoc kràtmko y jtro gj kràtmko, sdrào prmjrmtormj qud
dh rdkursj otmdgco prm`drj ho oktmvmcoc kràtmko, poro dvmtor qud dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj
sd mgkrd`dgtd cd bjr`o mggdkdsormo.
  O kjgtmgu
kjgtmguokmûg
okmûg sd cd󿬏gd kjg `oyjr prdkmsm
prdkmsmûg
ûg dh QKY[Y
QKY[Y.. Coco ugo rdc cd g 
 oktmvmcocds kjg curokmjgds c?, c1, …, cg, rdspdktmvo`dgtd, y ug kjgfugtj cd `  rd
kursjs kjg cmspjgmamhmcocds (dgtdros) K ?, K 1, …, K `, cjgcd ho oktmvmcoc m  (m   ?, 1,
…, g) jkupo cd bjr`o sm`uhtïgdo Kmf  ugmcocds cdh rdkursj  f  (
 ( f   ?, 1, …, `) curog-
td ho dfdkukmûg cd ho `ms`o, dh prjahd`o cd dgkjgtror ho sdkudgkmo cd oktmvmcocds
qud jptm`mkd ohnög krmtdrmj, qud rdspdtd hos prdkdcdgkmos cd ho rdc cd oktmvmco-
cds y,
y, qud dg gmgnög `j`dgtj dh tjtoh cd ugmcocds jkupocos cd kuohqumdr rdkursj
dxkdco ho cmspjgmamhmcoc cdh `ms`j, sd kjgjkd kjg dh gj`ard cd QKY[Y. Dg dstd
kosj dh mgtdrís portmkuhor sjard dh QKY[
QKY[YY ds `mgm`mzor dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj (curokmûg
cd ho ruto kràtmko) dg ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds.
  Eosto oejro y o cmbdrdgkmo cdh prjahd`o cd dgkjgtror dh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj dg
ugo rdc cd oktmvmcocds smg hm`mtokmjgds cd rdkursjs, qud sd rdsudhvd oh ophmkor dh
`ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko, poro dh QKY[Y gj dxmstd ug ohnjrmt`j d󿬏kmdgtd poro dg-
kjgtror su sjhukmûg, hjs `ítjcjs dxoktjs `ïs d󿬏kmdgtds prjpudstjs sd aosog dg
bjr`uhokmjgds dg prjnro`okmûg
pdrj su ophmkokmûg pudcd gj sdr hmgdoh kjgporo
boktmahd vormoahds dgtdros
rdcds kjg 19 j(@mgnjzzm
dt oh. ?==5),
`ïs oktmvmcocds. Yjr
togtj sd sunmdrd dh usj cd `ítjcjs eduràstmkjs poro dgkjgtror sjhukmjgds qud, oug
kuogcj gj osdnurog dh ûptm`j, cog ugo sjhukmûg `uy kdrkogo (j mgkhusmvd ho ûp-
tm`o) dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs kosjs.
  Oh ophmkor ug `ítjcj eduràstm
eduràstmkj
kj poro rdsjhvdr ug QKY[Y
QKY[Y,, cdad sm`uho
sm`uhorsd
rsd ho
dfdkukmûg cdh prjkdsj, kjgstrumr ho prjnro`okmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds cdscd dh mgmkmj
cdh prjydktj (tmd`pj t    9) y kjg hjs smnumdgtds prmgkmpmjs6
  • ]o sdo oh mgmkmj cd ho prjnro`okmûg (t   9), j koco vdz qud sd tdr`mgo ho dfd-
kukmûg cd ugo oktmvmcoc, cdadg cdtdr`mgorsd hos oktmvmcocds dhdnmahds poro
sdr prjnro`ocos, dh krmtdrmj poro qud ugo oktmvmcoc sdo dhdnmahd ds ho dxmstdg-
kmo cd su󿬏kmdgtds rdkursjs cmspjgmahds poro su dfdkukmûg y dh tír`mgj cd hos
dfdkukmjgds cd sus oktmvmcocds prdcdkdsjros.
  • krmtdrmj
Hos oktmvmcocds
oktmvmcocds dhdnmahds
eduràstmkj, sd prjnro`og
y sd cdskudgtog dg sdkudgkmo,
sdkudgkmo, dhrdkursjs
hjs kjrrdspjgcmdgtds jrcdg hj jtjrno dh
jtjrno
cmspjgmahds
koco vdz qud sd prjnro`o dh mgmkmj cd ugo oktmvmcoc.
  • Kuogcj gj dxmstdg oktmvmcocds dhdnmahds sd sm`uho ho dfdkukmûg cdh prjkdsj,
sd ovogzo dh ‘rdhjf‐ t  eosto
 eosto qud ho smnumdgtd oktmvmcoc tdr`mgo su dfdkukmûg.
  • Dh prjkdcm`mdgtj
prjkdcm`mdgtj kjgkhuyd
kjgkhuyd kuogcj
kuogcj sd tdr`mgo ho dfdkukmûg cd tjcos tjcos hos
oktmvmcocds.
Dg ho ejfo cd gj`ard ‘QdkursjsHm`mtocjs‐ cdh orkemvj ‘Kop4.xhs‐ opordkd ho prj-
nro`okmûg cd dstd prjkdcm`mdgtj, cd okudrcj kjg hjs krmtdrmjs eduràstmkjs cd `oyjr
cmbusmûg poro dh QKY[Y6
  • @dgjr tmd`pj cd prjkdsj6 sd jtjrno `ïs prmjrmcoc o ho oktmvmcoc kjg ho
`dgjr curokmûg.

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ????

??

  • @dgjr ejhnuro6 sd jtjrno `ïs prmjrmcoc o ho oktmvmcoc qud tdgcrào ho `dgjr

ejhnuro, sm sd kjgtmgöo ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds rdstogtds smg kjgsmcdror
hos hm`mtokmjgds cd rdkursjs.
  • @oyjr gö`drj cd sdnumcjrds kràtmkjs6 sd jtjrno `ïs prmjrmcoc o ho oktm-
vmcoc qud tdgcrào dh `oyjr gö`drj cd oktmvmcocds sukdsjros qud dstïg dg
ugo ruto kràtmko, sm sd kjgtmgöo ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds rdstogtds smg
kjgsmcdror hos hm`mtokmjgds cd rdkursjs.
  • @dgjr tmd`pj cd tdr`mgokmûg torcàj6 sd jtjrno `ïs prmjrmcoc o ho oktmvm-
coc qud tdgcrào dh `dgjr tmd`pj cd tdr`mgokmûg torcàj (SSSO), sm sd kjgtm-
göo ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds rdstogtds smg kjgsmcdror hos hm`mtokmjgds
cd rdkursjs.
  • @ítjcj cd mgkrd`dgtj cd ho curokmûg6 sd kohkuhog àgcmkds cmf  poro koco
pordfo cd oktmvmcocds dhdnmahds m,  f , y sd jtjrno `ïs prmjrmcoc o ho oktmvmcoc
qud tmdgd dh `dgjr àgcmkd cmf , cjgcd cmf   ds dh mgkrd`dgtj dg dh tmd`pj cd
󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj, sm sd prjnro`o ho oktmvmcoc  f  cdspuís
 cdspuís cd ho m, y sd kjgtmgöo
 ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds rdstogtds smg kjgsmcdror hos hm`mtokmjgds cd
rdkursjs.
  Cd okudrcj kjg Covms y Yottdrsj
Yottdrsjgg (?=
(?=>4),
>4), ho rdnho cd `dgjr ejhnuro sd kj`-
pjrto aostogtd amdg dg ho ndgdrohmcoc cd hjs kosjs, ougqud dh cdsd`pdÿj cd kuoh-
qumdr eduràstmko cdpdgcd cdh kosj portmkuhor, pjr hj qud sd eog prjpudstj cmvdrsos
eduràstmkos qud pjcràog cdsd`pdÿorsd amdg dg kosjs dspdkmohds (pjr dfd`phj, Njh-
crott, ?==>< Kostmhhj y @uÿjz, 1993). Yjr öhtm`j, poro mhustror ugo prjnro`okmûg
cd oktmvmcocds, ds kjgvdgmdgtd kjgstrumr hjs cmonro`os cd korno cd koco rdkursj
(vdo 󿬏nuros 4.?4 y 4.?2). Dh cmonro`o cd korno cd ug rdkursj ds ugo nrï󿬏ko dg cjs
cm`dgsmjgds, cjgcd dh dfd cd hos oaskmsos kjrrdspjgcd oh tmd`pj y dg dh dfd cd hos
jrcdgocos sd mgcmkog hos ugmcocds jkupocos cdh rdkursj.

Dfd`phj 4.2. Osmngokmûg cd rdkursjs dg ug prjydktj

cd cdsorrjhhj cd smstd`os
Sdk[jbt ds ugo d`prdso cdcmkoco oh cdsorrjhhj cd smstd`os o ho `dcmco poro d`-
prdsos nrogcds y `dcmogos. Ogtds cd mgmkmor koco prjydktj Sdk[jbt okjstu`aro
cdsorrjhhor ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds cdh prjydktj, dstm`o togtj hos curokmjgds cd hos
oktmvmcocds, kj`j hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd pdrsjgoh (ogohmstos y prjnro`ocjrds).
Dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?; sd prdsdgto ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds cd ug prjydktj `uy m`pjrtog-
td qud Sdk[jbt cdad cdsorrjhhor poro ugo d`prdso cd sdnurjs, cjgcd sd mgcmkog
hos curokmjgds (dg sd`ogos) y hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd ogohmstos y prjnro`ocjrds
poro koco ugo cd hos oktmvmcocds. Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho 󿬏nuro, dh prjydktj kjgs-
to cd ?9 oktmvmcocds (cd ho O o ho F) y, pjr dfd`phj, ho oktmvmcoc A cd`jro 3 sd-
`ogos, rdqumdrd ho cdcmkokmûg cd ?1 prjnro`ocjrds y 3 ogohmstos curogtd hos 3
sd`ogos.
  Cdamcj o ho m`pjrtogkmo cd dstd prjy
prjydktj
dktj Sdk[jbt osmngorï ug gö`drj kjgs-
togtd cd ogohmstos y prjnro`ocjrds curogtd su dfdkukmûg, qud sd cdsdo tdr`mgor
dg ?4 sd`ogos. Yjr dstos rozjgds dh kjstj dg qud mgkurrmrï Sdk[jbt ds6
  • Yjr koco sd`ogo cd curokmûg cdspuís cd ho sd`ogo
sd`ogo ?4?4 sd mgkurrd dg ugo pd-
pd-
gohmzokmûg cd $?9 999.
999.
  • Dh kjstj pjr sd`ogo
sd`ogo cd koco ogohmsto ds cd $? 999, y cd koco
koco prjnro`ocjr
cd $499, koco ogohmsto y koco prjnro`ocjr rdkmamrï su sohormj curogtd hos sd-
`ogos qud curd dh prjydktj.
  Kjg aosd dg ho mgbjr`okmûg ogtdrmjr Sdk[jbt cdsdo mgvdstmnor dh kjstj cd hos
smnumdgtds jpkmjgds6

??1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.?;
Qdc cd oktmvmcocds, curokmjgds
 y rdqudrm`mdgtjs poro dh O62 (?9, ;) C63 (;, ;)  F63 (?3,
(?3, ?)
cdsorrjhhj cd ug smstd`o.

Bmg
K61 (?1, >) D64 (?9, 3)
Mgmkmj
E61 (=, ;)
A63 (?1, 3) B6; (2, 1)

N6; (4, 1) M63 (5, 4)

O62 (?9, ;)
 Ogohmstos
Oktmvmcoc Curokmûg Yrjnro`ocjrds
(sd`ogos)

  ?. Yrjnro`or hos oktmvmcocds

oktmvmcocds kuogtj
kuogtj ogtds
ogtds y kjgtrotor o hjs ogohmstos y prjnro-
`ocjrds gdkdsormjs poro tdr`mgor dh prjydktj hj `ïs prjgtj pjsmahd.
  1. Yrjnro`or hos oktmvmcocds poro tdr`mgor dh prjydktj
prjydktj hj ogtds pjsmahd, pdrj
kjg ug pdrsjgoh cd 5 ogohmstos y 11 prjnro`ocjrds.
  ;. Yrjnro`or hos oktmvmcocds poro tdr`mgor dh prjydktj
prjydktj hj ogtds pjsmahd, pdrj
kjg ?9 ogohmstos y 11 prjnro`ocjrds.
  Yoro mgvdstmnor dh kjstj cd ho prm`dro jpkmûg, prm`drj sd ophmko dh `ítjcj cd
ho ruto kràtmko qud orrjfo ug tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj cd ?2 sd`ogos (hjs rdsuhtocjs
sd prdsdgtog dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?3). O kjgtmguokmûg sd prjnro`og hos oktmvmcocds tog
prjgtj kj`j sdo pjsmahd (mgmkmj cd hos oktmvmcocds dg su SMSD), cd `ogdro qud hos
oktmvmcocds O y A orrogqudg dg ho sd`ogo 9, ho K oh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo 3, y osà dg
hj sukdsmvj (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 4.?3), y sd kjgstruydg hjs cmonro`os cd korno cd hjs rd-
kursjs qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?4.

‶ Bmnuro 4.?3
Smd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro ug
O 9 2 C 2 ?9  F ?9 ?3
prjydktj cd smstd`os.
2 9 2 3 2 ?9 3 ?1 ?2

K 3 2 D 2 ?? Bmg
Mgmkmj
1 3 2 4 ?? ?2
E ?9 ?1
B 3 > 1 ?9 ?1
A 9 3
; > ?9
3 9 3
N 3 > M ?1 ?2
; = ?1 3 ?1 ?2

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ??;

‶ Bmnuro 4.?4
Cmonro`os cd korno cd hjs
;9 N (;, 4) rdkursjs kjg ug mgmkmj tog
prjgtj kj`j ds pjsmahd.
    s14 B (;, 2)  F (3, ?3)
    d
    r
    j
     c19
    o
    `
    o
    r?4
    n
A (3, ?1) K (1, ?1)
    j E (1, =)
    r
     Y C (3, ;)
?9
4 O (2, ?9) D (4, ?9)
M (3, 5)

4 ?9 ?4
[d`ogo
?2
O (2, ;) D (4, 3) M (3, 4)
    s 4 A (3, 3) C (3, ;) E (1, ;)
    o
     t K (1, >)
     s
     m
 F (3, ?)
?)
     h ?9
    o B (;, 1)
    g
     O 2 (;, 1)
?4

OKSMRMCOC OKSMRMCOC OKSMRMCOC OGOHM[SO YQJNQO@OCJQ ‶ Soaho 4.2

SMD@YJ SDQ@MGOCO CM [YJ GMA HD CT QOKM ÛG [DHDKKMJGOCO (CM[YJGMAHD[) (CM[YJGMAHD[)  Ophmkokmûg cd ho rdnho cd `dgjr
ejhnuro kjg 5 ogohmstos y 11
9 gmgnugo 5 11 prjnro`ocjrds.
? 2
1 3
1 3 ?9
? ? 9
3 1 4 ?1
2 ;
> ;
2 ; 2
> ? ?
2 ? 3 ??
> 2, > 5 11
; 1
; ? ?9
= ; 5 11
3 3
4 4

3 4 ?=
4 ? =
?; 3 3 ?1
5 1
5 ? ;
?3 4 4 ?;
?4 5 5 11
= 3
?9 3
= ; ?3
?9 1 9
Curo
Curokm
kmûg
ûg66 ?=
?= =, ?9

??3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 4.?2
Cmonro`os cd korno cd hjs
rdkursjs kjg > ogohmstos y 11 ;9
prjnro`ocjrds.
    s14
    d
    r
    j
     c19
    o
    ` N (;, 4)
    o
    r?4
    n
A (3, ?1)  F (3, ?3)
    j
    r B (;, 2) E (1, =)
     Y C (3, ;)
?9
4 O (2, ?9) K (1, ?1) D (4, ?9) M (3, 5)

4 ?9 ?4
[d`ogo

O (2, ;) D (4, 3) M (3, 4)

B (;, 1) K (1, >)
    s 4 A (3, 3) N (;, 1) C (3, ;) E (1, ;)  F (3, ?)
    o
     t
     s
     m
     h
    o?9
    g
     O
?4

  O portmr cd hjs rdsuhtocjs cd ho prjnro`okmûg cd ho 󿬏nuro 4.?4, sd gdkdsmto-

ràog ;; prjnro`ocjrds (dg hos sd`ogos 4 o > y ?? o ?3) y ?3 ogohmstos (dg hos sd-
`ogos 4 o >), pjr hj qud dh kjstj cd ho prm`dro jpkmûg sdrào cd ?9 999 (?2  ?4)
 ? 999(?3)(?2)  499(;;)(?2)  $3=5 999.  Jasdrvd dg hjs cmonro`os cd ho 󿬏nuro
4.?4 qud ho prjnro`okmûg tog prjgtj kj`j ds pjsmahd pudcd sdr `uy mgd󿬏kmdgtd, yo
qud sd pjcrào
mgkrd`dgtd rdtrosor dhcdh
ho curokmûg mgmkmj cd hoseokmdgcj
prjydktj, oktmvmcocds
qudBsdy gdkdsmtdg
N o ho sd`ogo 5, smg `dgjs
; ogohmstos qud sd
(eoy ugo rdcukkmûg cdh kjstj).
  Dg kuogtj oh kjstj cd ho sdnugco jpkmûg, prm`drj sd ophmko ho rdnho cd `dgjr
ejhnuro poro prjnro`or hos oktmvmcocds kjg 5 ogohmstos y 11 prjnro`ocjrds, hj qud
pdr`mtd dstm`or ho curokmûg cdh prjy
prjydktj
dktj kjg dsto cmspjsmkmûg cd rdkursjs. @dcmog-

‶ Bmnuro 4.?>
Cmonro`os cd korno cd hjs
rdkursjs kjg ?9 ogohmstos ;9
 y 11 prjnro`ocjrds.
    s14
    d
    r
    j N (;, 4)
     c19
    o M (3, 5)
    `
    o
    r?4
    n A (3
(3, ?1) K (1, ?1) B (;, 2)
    j E (1, =)
    r
     Y C (3, ;)
?9
 F (3, ?3)
4 O (2, ?9) D (4, ?9)

4 ?9 ?4
[d`ogo

O (2, ;) C (3, ;) E (1, ;) M (3, 4)

B (;, 1)
4
    s O (3, 3) N (;, 1)  F(3, ?)
    o
     t K (1, >) D (4, 3)
    s
     m
     h
    o?9
    g
     O
?4

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ??4

td dh prjkdcm`mdgtj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd cd ho ejfo ‘QdkursjsHm`mtocjs‐ cdh orkemvj

‘Kop4.xhs‐, opordkdg hjs rdsuhtocjs cdtohhocjs qud sd `udstrog dg ho toaho 4.2. Ja-
sdrvd qud gugko sd hhdnog o utmhmzor hjs 5 ogohmstos cmspjgmahds, pjr hj qud kjg > (dg
hunor cd 5) sd jatdgcrï ho `ms`o curokmûg cd 5 sd`ogos. Cd dsto `ogdro, dh kjstj
cd dsto sdnugco jpkmûg sdrào cd ?9 999 (?= ‛ ?4)  ? 999(>)(?=)  499(11)(?=)  
$;51 999, `dgjr qud dg ho jpkmûg ?. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 4.?2 opordkdg hjs cmonro`os cd
korno kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o ho prjnro`okmûg cdtohhoco dg ho toaho 4.2.
  Yjr öhtm`j, oh ophmkor ho rdnho cd prjnro`okmûg cd `dgjr ejhnuro kjg ?9 ogo-
hmstos y 11 prjnro`ocjrds, sd jatmdgdg hjs cmonro`os cd korno qud mhustrog ho 󿬏nuro
4.?>, cjgcd sd oprdkmo qud dh prjydktj sd tdr`mgorào dg ?5 sd`ogos, kjg ug kjstj
tjtoh cd6 ?9 999 (?5-?4)  ? 999(?9)(?5)  499(11)(?5)  $395 999, oög `dgjr qud
dh cd ho prm`dro jpkmûg (prjnro`okmûg tog prjgtj kj`j ds pjsmahd), pdrj `oyjr
qud dh cd ho sdnugco jpkmûg, pjr togtj, cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cdh kjstj cd cdso-
rrjhhj cdh smstd`o, ds kjgvdgmdgtd kjgtrotor > ogohmstos y 11 prjnro`ocjrds poro
dstd prjydktj.
 ✣

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. Tg tohhdr cd fjydrào boarmko rdhjfds cd jrj kjg hos oktmvm-   a) Kohkuhd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj d mcdgtm󿬏qud hos
cocds qud sd cdskrmadg dg ho smnumdgtd toaho6 oktmvmcocds kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj y
ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg cdh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr.
KJGSDGMCJ   ;. @dxSjys boarmko outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd. Dh `jcdhj ds-
CD SQOAOFJ YQDCDKD- tïgcor rdqumdrd cjs suadgso`ahds6 ho photobjr`o y ho
MC OKSMRMCOC (@MGTSJ[) [JQD[ korrjkdrào, y ho `ogubokturo mgmkmo kjg ho sdporokmûg
? Ydcmcj 4 Gmgnugj cd hos portds cd koco suadgso`ahd, o kjgtmguokmûg ho
1 @ogubokturo cd okkdsjrmjs ;99 ? photobjr`o y ho korrjkdrào sd troaofog dg porohdhj, cd
; @ogubokturo cd kofo y topo 199 ? okudrcj kjg hos oktmvmcocds, curokmjgds y prdkdcdgkmos
qud sd cdtohhog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho.
3 Dgso`ahd cdh dxtdgsmahd 29 1
4 Dgso`ahd cd fudnjs poro kofo 19 ;
CTQOKMÛG YQDCDKD-
2 Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh ;9 3,4 MC O K S M R M CO C (@MGTSJ[) [JQD[
  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj cd ? [dporor portds 4 Gmgnugj
`ogubokturo (gj mgkhuyo gmgnög aubbdr). 1 Kjrtor photobjr`o ?1 ?
  a) Dstm`d dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj d mcdgtm󿬏qud hos ; Kjrtor korrjkdrào ?9 ?
oktmvmcocds kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj. 3 Bjr`or photobjr`o ; 1
  1. [upjgno qud hjs cotjs cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr kjrrdspjgcdg
kjrr dspjgcdg
oh `jcdhj dkjgû`mkj y qud dh `jcdhj cd hufj smnud hjs 4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào 4 ;
`ms`js posjs, pdrj kjg hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj qud 2 [uadgso`ahor 4 3
sd prdsdgtog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho. photobjr`o
> Dgso`ahor 4 4,2
MC O K S M R M CO C KJ G S DG M CJ CD S QO AO F J 5 Mgspdkkmjgor ?1 >
(@MGTSJ[)
? Ydcmcj 4   o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj cd
1 @ogubokturo cd okkdsjrmjs 399 `ogubokturo (gj mgkhuyo gmgnög aubbdr).
; @ogubokturo cd kofo y topo ;19   a) [m sd dspdro qud dh gö`drj cd vmsmtos sdo cd ? poro
3 Dgso`ahd cdh dxtdgsmahd 59
koco oktmvmcoc, kohkuhd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj d
mcdgtm󿬏qud hos oktmvmcocds kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj
4 Dgso`ahd cd fudnjs poro kofo 19 tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
2 Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh 49   3. Kjgsmcdrd ho `ogubokturo cd outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd
cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr, kjg hos `ms`os oktmvmcocds, curo-
  o) Kohkuhd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro ugo `dzkho kmjgds y prdkdcdgkmos, pdrj kjg hjs smnumdgtds gö`drjs
cd prjcukkmûg cd 29% poro dh `jcdhj dkjgû`mkj y cd vmsmtos pjr oktmvmcoc.
39% poro dh `jcdhj cd hufj.

??2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

MC OKSM RMCOC GDR   o) Kohkuhd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro dh `jcdhj

cdpjrtmvj.
? [dporor portds ?
  a) Kohkuhd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro ugo `dzkho
1 Kjrtor photobjr`o ?.1 cd prjcukkmûg cd 39% poro dh `jcdhj dkjgû`mkj y
; Kjrtor korrjkdrào ?.? 29% poro dh `jcdhj cdpjrtmvj.
3 Bjr`or photobjr`o ?.3   k) Kohkuhd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj d mcdgtm󿬏qud hos
4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào ?.1
oktmvmcocds kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj y
ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg cdh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr.
2 [uadgso`ahor photobjr`o ?.?   >. Kjgsmcdrd ho `ogubokturo cd outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd cdh
> Dgso`ahor ?.?
?. dfdrkmkmj 3, kjg hos `ms`os oktmvmcocds, kjgtdgmcjs cd
5 Mgspdkkmjgor ?.? troaofj y prdkdcdgkmos, pdrj osu`o qud hos oktmvmcocds
sjg dfdkutocos pjr hjs rdkursjs qud sd mgcmkog dg ho sm-
  o) Kohkuhd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro koco ugo cd numdgtd toaho.
hos oktmvmcocds.
  a) oktmvmcocds
Kohkuhd dh tmd`pj
kràtmkostdûrmkj
poro dh cd 󿬁ufj tdûrmkj
tmd`pj d mcdgtm󿬏qud
cd 󿬁ufj.hos MC O K S M R M CO C Q DK TQ [ J[ T S M HM VO C J [
? [dporor Síkgmkj [
  4. Kjgsmcdrd ho `ogubokturo cd outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd cdh
1 Kjrtor aosd Kjrtocjro, tíkgmkj ?
 dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr, kjg hjs `ms`js kjgtdgmcjs cd troao
fj pjr oktmvmcoc, pdrj kjg ug aubbdr ogtds cd koco ugo ; Kjrtor tdkej Kjrtocjro, tíkgmkj ?
cd hos oktmvmcocds 1 o ho 5. Ho toso cd prjcukkmûg cdh 3 Bjr`or aosd Yrdgso, tíkgmkj 1
prjkdsj ds cd ?5 outj`ûvmhds/ejro, y kjg hjs smnumdgtds 4 Bjr`or tdkej Yrdgso, tíkgmkj 1
mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj dg koco ugj cd hjs aubbdr.
2 [uadgso`ahd Síkgmkj D?
> Dgso`ahd Síkgmkj D1
OKSMRMCOC MG@DCMOS
MG@DCMOSOO MGRDGSOQMJ YQJ@DCMJ
5 Mgspdkkmûg Mgspdktjr
YJ[SDQMJQ Y H OSO B J Q @ O [ KO QQJ K DQ ÀO [
1 1> ‛   o) Osu`o qud dxmstd sûhj ugo ugmcoc cd koco ugj cd
; ‛ ?5 hjs rdkursjs (tíkgmkj [, kjrtocjro, tíkgmkj ?, tíkgmkj
3 = ‛ 1, prdgso, tíkgmkj D?, tíkgmkj D1, mgspdktjr), y ophm-
qud ho eduràstmko cd `dgjr ejhnuro poro prjnro`or
4 ‛ 1?
2 ?5 ‛ hos oktmvmcocds
cd funudtd poro ho `ogubokturo
d mcdgtm󿬏qud cd ug outj`ûvmh
dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj
> = ?1 poro ho boarmkokmûg cd ug outj`ûvmh.
5 ?5 ?5   a) Dhoajrd hjs cmonro`os cd korno poro koco ugj cd hjs
rdkursjs.
  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr poro dstd   k) Kohkuhd ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj kjg aosd dg
prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo. dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj y su rdspudsto cdh mgkmsj o.
  a) Dstm`d dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj d mcdgtm󿬏qud hos   5. Dh Ejspmtoh Orkïgndh cdsdo rdcmsdÿor dh prjkdsj cd ophm-
oktmvmcocds y dspdros qud sjg kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj kokmûg cd royjs U, kjg dh jafdtmvj cd `mgm`mzor dh tmd`pj
prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj. rdqudrmcj cdscd qud dh pokmdgtd sohd cdh kjgsuhtjrmj cdh
  k) Dstm`d ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd prj- `ícmkj (poro rdkmamr hjs royjs U), eosto qud dh pokmdgtd
kdsj cd `ogubokturo. y ho phoko hhdnog oh kjgsuhtjrmj cdh `ícmkj. Kjg dh jafd-
  2. [upjgno qud hjs cotjs cdh dfdrkmkmj 3 kjrrdspjgcdg oh tj cd dstucmor dh prjkdsj oktuoh, sd eog mcdgtm󿬏kocj hos
`jcdhj dkjgû`mkj, y qud dh `jcdhj cdpjrtmvj smnud hjs oktmvmcocds gdkdsormos, qud sd cdtohhog o kjgtmguokmûg.
`ms`js posjs pdrj kjg hos curokmjgds y gö`drjs cd vm-
smtos qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho. YQDCDKD-
M C O K S M R M CO C S M Y J [JQD[
MC O K S M R M CO C C TQ O KM Û G ( @M G TSJ [ ) GDR ? Yokmdgtd ko`mgo o soho cd royjs U GRO Gmgnugj
? [dporor portds > ? 1 @dgs
@d gsof
ofdr
drj
j dg
dgvà
vàoo sjh
sjhmk
mkmt
mtuc
uc o soh
sohoo cd
cd ro
royjs U GRO
GRO Gmgnu
gnugj
1 Kjrtor photobjr`o ?3 ?.1 ; Síkgmkj
Síkgmk j cd roy
royjs
js U hhd
hhdgo
go ugo
ugo bjr`o
bjr`o kjg
kjg hjs
hjs GRO 1
cotjs qud prjpjrkmjgo dh `ícmkj
; Kjrtor korrjkdrào ?1 ?.?
3 Qdkdp
Qd kdpkmj
kmjgms
gmsto
to rdkmad
rdkmad mgbjr`o
mgbjr`okmû
kmûgg cdh pokmdgt
pokmdgtdd  RO ?,;
3 Bjr`or photobjr`o 3 ?.3
sjard su sdnurj y ho dgvào o ho kj`poÿào
4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào 2 ?.1
4 Yokmdgtd sd kjhjko ugo aoto RO 3
2 [uadgso`ahor 2 ?.?
2 Síkgmk
Sík gmkj
j cd hoaj
hoajrot
rotjrm
jrmj
j cd roy
royjs
js U tj
tj`o
`o ho  RO 4
photobjr`o
phoko
> Dgso`ahor > ?.?
> Síkgmk
Sík gmkj
j cd rdv
rdvdho
dhocj
cj cd roy
royjs
js U rdv
rdvdho
dho ho
ho  RO 2
5 Mgspdkkmjgor ?9 ?.? phoko

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ??>>

??

5 Síkgmkj
Síkgmkj cd hoajr
hoajrotjrm
otjrmjj cd roy
royjs
js U  RO >   c) Kjg aosd dg hjs cotjs cd hjs mgkmsjs ogtdrmjrds, dstm`d
mgspdkkmjgo ho phoko. [m ho phoko gj ds dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj, y hos dspdros
sotmsboktjrmo sd rdpmtdg hjs posjs 2, > y 5 dg aubbdr qud sjg kràtmkos poro dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj
(>4% cd hos vdkds ho phoko poso o ho prm`dro, cd 󿬁ufj.
14% o ho sdnugco y gmgnugo rdqumdrd `ïs)   d) Dstm`d ho d󿬏kmdgkmo cdh tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd
= Dh pokmdgtd sd qumto ho aoto y sd vmstd RO 5 sdrvmkmj.
?9 Dh pokmdgtd ko`mgo oh kjgsuhtjrmj GRO =   =. Mgkhuyo koco ugo cd hos smnumdgtds `jcm󿬏kokmjgds oh
prjkdsj cd ho prdnugto ogtdrmjr (koco ugo smg kjgsmcd-
?? Tg `d
`dgs
gsof
ofdr
drj
j hhd
hdvvo ho ph
phok
okoo oh kj
kjgs
gsuh
uhttjr
jrmj
mj GRO 5
ror hos ogtdrmjrds), y hudnj6 m) mgcmqud dh dbdktj dg hjs
kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd hos oktmvmcocds, mm) mgcmqud dh
  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj (gj dbdktj dg dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
mgkhuyo gmgnög aubbdr).   o) Mgstohor gudvj dqumpj qud rdcukd dh tmd`pj cd rdvd-
  a) Kjg aosd dg ugo `udstro cd 49 pokmdgtds poro koco hocj cd ?1 o ?9 `mgutjs.
oktmvmcoc, sd dstm`orjg hos smnumdgtds curokmjgds cd   a) Qdcmsdÿ
Qdcmsdÿor
or ho ruto
rut o cdh `dgsofdrj poro rdcukmr su tmd`-
hos oktmvmcocds, gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos y kjgtd- pj cd vmofd cd 19 o ?4 `mgutjs dg koco vmofd cd mco
gmcjs cd troaofj6 j vudhto.
  k) Mgkdgtmvor o qud dh pokmdgtd rdcuzko su tmd`pj cd
CTQOKMÛG KJGSDGMCJ vmofd cd > o 4 `mgutjs.
 OKSMRMCOC (@ M G TSJ [ ) R M [ M SO [ CD SQOAOFJ   c) Mgkdgtmvor o qud dh pokmdgtd rdcuzko su tmd`pj cd
? > ? > vdstmcj/cdsvdstmcj cd ; o 1 `mgutjs.
1 19 ? 19   d) Eokdr qud hjs pokmdgtds hhdvdg togtj dh pdcmcj kj`j
ho phoko cd rdnrdsj.
; 2 ? 2
  b) Qdcukmr hos tj`os bohhmcos cd 14% o 4%.
3 4 ? 4  ?9. Qdpdtmr dh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr, pdrj oejro mgkhuyo koco `jcm-
4 ; ? ; 󿬏kokmûg dg sdkudgkmo, ocmkmjgoh`dgtd o hos ogtdrmjrds.
2 2 ?.14 >.4  ??. Krmstmgo y Cjhjrds tmdgdg ug gdnjkmj cd vdgto cd nohhdtos
> ?1 ?.14 ?4
 aofj pdcmcj.
pdcmcj. Dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg
prjcukkmûg cd ugo cjkdgo
cjkdgo cd
nohhdtos smnud dh prjkdcm`mdgtj
prjkdcm`mdg tj qud sd dxphmko o kjgtmguo-
5 1 ?.14 1.4 kmûg. Opdgos rdkmamco ho jrcdg pjr tdhíbjgj, cdadg dfdku-
= ; ? ; torsd hos smnumdgtds oktmvmcocds (ocoptocj
(ocopt ocj cd Ajeg ?=52).
?=52).
?9 > ? >   • dh
O6 pdcmcj
hovor utdgsmhmjs
(cd`jroy2prdporor
`mgutjs hodg`oso cd okudrcj kjg
prj`dcmj).
?? 19 ? 19
  • A6 vokmor ho `dzkho dg ug `jhcd poro ?1 nohhdtos (cd-
  Mcdgtm󿬏qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj poro dstd prjkdsj `jro 1 `mgutjs y cdad eoadrsd dfdkutocj O).
y hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds oktmvmcocds kràtmkos.   • K6 prdporor dh ejrgj y pjgdr dh `jhcd dg dh ejrgj (cd-
  k) [upjgno qud dxmstdg aubbdr ogtds cd hos oktmvmcocds, `jro ? `mgutj, curogtd dh kuoh sd jkupo dh ejrgj, y
y o kjgtmguokmûg sd prdsdgto dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cdad eoadrsd dfdkutocj A).
dstm`ocj dg koco ugj cd hjs aubbdr6   • C6 ejrgdocj cd nohhdtos (cd`jro = `mgutjs, curogtd
hjs qud sûhj sd jkupo dh ejrgj, y cdad eoadrsd dfdku-
tocj K).
OKSMRMCOC MGRDGSOQMJ YQJ@DCMJ   • D6 cdskornor dg ugo `dso y cdfor dgbrmor hos nohhdtos
MG@DCMOSOO CD[YTÍ[
MG@DCMOS
CD ATBBDQ [JHMKMSTC J BJQ@O YOKMDGSD (dg ho `dso) pjr 4 `mgutjs, dh tmd`pj cd cdskorno sd
pudcd mngjror (sûhj sd jkupo ho `dso y cdad eoadrsd
? 9 9 dfdkutocj C).
1 1 9   • B6 d`ajhsor hos nohhdtos (1 `mgutjs y cdad eoadrsd
; ? 9 dfdkutocj D).
3 ? ?   • N6 dgtrdnor y kjaror (? `mgutj y cdad eoadrsd dfdku-
tocj B).
4 9 ?   o) Yrdsdgtd ug cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj
2 9 ? (gj mgkhuyo aubbdr) sm koco pdcmcj ds cd ugo cjkdgo
> 9 ? cd nohhdtos y kohkuhd dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj (cdscd
5 9 ? qud sd rdkmamû ho jrcdg eosto qud sd tdr`mgo cd kj-
= 9 ?
 aror). Osu`o qud gj dxmstdg dspdros ogtds cd koco
oktmvmcoc y qud gj dxmstdg rdstrmkkmjgds cd rdkursjs
?9 9 9 (eu`ogjs y/j cd kopmtoh).
?? 1 9   a) Oejro supjgno qud koco pdcmcj kjgsmstd cd 1 cjkd-
gos cd nohhdtos y qud sm amdg
am dg ho rdkdpkmûg, hm`pmdzo y
  [m ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o ds cd ?4 pokmdgtds pjr ejro, `dzkho poro 1 cjkdgos tj`o dh `ms`j tmd`pj ogtdrmjr
dstm`d hjs tmd`pjs prj`dcmj cd dspdro (dg `mgutjs) dg (2 `mgutjs), dh ejrgj tmdgd kopokmcoc poro ejrgdor
koco ugj cd hjs aubbdr. sûhj ug `jhcd (kjg ? cjkdgo) cd nohhdtos o ho vdz. Dh

??5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

vokmocj cd ho `dzkho smnud dg 1 `mgutjs pjr `jhcd

y, hudnj cdh ejrgdocj, koco `jhcd cdad dgbrmorsd  
ogtds cd d`ajhsor hos nohhdtos (dh d`ajhsocj tj`o 1
`mgutjs pjr koco cjkdgo). Ho dgtrdno y kjarj smnud  
dg ? `mgutj (pdrj kjg 1 cjkdgos o ho vdz). Yrdsdgtd dh
cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds kjrrdspjgcmdgtd y cdtdr`mgd
dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj (gj dxmstdg rdstrmkkmjgds cd
rdkursjs y dg portmkuhor sd cmspjgd cd vormjs ejrgjs).
 ?1. Kjgsmcdrd dh gdnjkmj cd vdgto cd nohhdtos cdh dfdrkmkmj
ogtdrmjr. Yoro rdsjhvdr hjs smnumdgtds mgkmsjs sd sunmdrd  
ophmkor ug `ítjcj eduràstmkj poro prjnro`or oktmvmco-
cds y kjgstrumr hjs cmonro`os cd korno cd hjs rdkursjs.
  o) Dstm`d dh `àgm`j tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg cd ug pdcmcj
cd 1 cjkdgos, kjgsmcdrd qud dxmstd sûhj ? ejrgj kjg
kopokmcoc poro ug `jhcd cd ?1 nohhdtos (poro prdporor
dh ejrgj poro ho sdnugco cjkdgo cdad eoadrsd ejr-  
gdocj ho prm`dro), y qud Krmstmgo dfdkuto hos oktmvmco-
cds O y A, y Cjhjrds dfdkuto hos oktmvmcocds K, B y N.  
o) Kjgstruyo ug cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds poro dh prj-
kdsj y dstm`d dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
a) Yrjnro`d hos oktmvmcocds kjg ug `ítjcj eduràstmkj
y kjgstruyo hjs cmonro`os cd korno poro Krmstmgo, Cj-
hjrds y dh ejrgj, qud hd pdr`mtog dstm`or dh `dgjr
tmd`pj dg qud pudcd otdgcdrsd ug pdcmcj sm hos oktmvm-
oktm vm-
cocds O, A, K, C, D sd osmngog o Krmstmgo, y hos oktmvmco-
cds B, N, M, F sd osmngog o Cjhjrds.
k) Yrjnro`d hos oktmvmcocds kjg ug `ítjcj eduràstmkj y
kjgstruyo hjs cmonro`os cd korno poro Krmstmgo, Cjhjrds
y dh ejrgj, qud hd pdr`mto dstm`or dh `dgjr tmd`pj
dg qud pudcd otdgcdrsd ug pdcmcj sm hos oktmvmcocds
O, A, K, M, F sd osmngog o Krmstmgo y hos oktmvmcocds C,
D, B, N sd osmngog o Cjhjrds.
GJSGJSO6 O6 dg ho prdporokmûg cdh ejrgj sd utmhmzo dh
`ms`j.
?3. Kjgsmcdrd dh gdnjkmj cd pmzzos cd K&C cdh dfdrkmkmj og-
   a) Dstm`d dh `àgm`j tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg cd ug pdcmcj
cd 1 cjkdgos poro dh kosj cdskrmtj dg dh mgkmsj o, sm
sd kj`pro ug sdnugcj ejrgj qud pudcd ejrgdor ?
`jhcd o ho vdz.
  k) Yoro dh kosj cdskrmtj dg o, dstm`d dh `àgm`j tmd`pj
cd otdgkmûg sm sd rdd`phozo dh ejrgj pjr ugj qud  
pudcd ejrgdor 1 `jhcds o ho vdz. Jasdrvd qud ohnu-
gos oktmvmcocds (prdporokmûg cd ejrgj, ejrgdocj y  
dgbrmocj) sd eokdg ugo sjho vdz poro hos cjs cjkd-
gos, ougqud dh vokmocj cd ho sdnugco cjkdgo smnud
cdspuís cdh cd ho prm`dro y ohnj sm`mhor jkurrd kjg
dh d`poqud.
  c) Yoro dh kosj
tmd`pj cdskrmtjsmdg
cd otdgkmûg sd dh mgkmsj o dstm`d
rdd`phozo dh pjr
dh ejrgj `àgm`j
ugj
qud ejrgdo ? `jhcd o ho vdz, pdrj dg 2 `mgutjs dg
hunor cd = (ho ögmko cmbdrdgkmo kjg dh mgkmsj o ds dh  
tmd`pj cd ejrgdocj).
 ?;. Krmstmgo y Cjhjrds (K&C) kjgsmcdrog ho utmhmzokmûg cd
su smstd`o cd otdgkmûg cd pdcmcjs poro mgnrdsor oh `dr-  
kocj cd hos pmzzos. Krmstmgo kjgtrotorï ug osmstdgtd poro
jpdror ho cmvmsmûg cd nohhdtos, kj`prorï ug gudvj ejrgj
poro ho cmvmsmûg cd pmzzos y sd cdcmkorï o otdgcdr pdr-
sjgoh`dgtd dh gdnjkmj cd pmzzos. Hos oktmvmcocds poro
otdgcdr ug pdcmcj sd prdsdgtog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho.
tdrmjr, pdrj supjgno oejro qud dh pdcmcj ds cd 1 pmzzos.
Koco oktmvmcoc `dgkmjgoco sd dfdkuto poro koco pmzzo
pjr sdporocj, o dxkdpkmûg cd ho tj`o cdh pdcmcj, ho dg-
trdno y dh kjarj qud smnudg smdgcj sûhj ugo vdz koco
ugo poro hos 1 pmzzos dg su kjgfugtj.
o) Kjgstruyo ug cmonro`o cd oktmvmcocds poro dh prj-
kdsj y dstm`d dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj.
a) Yrjnro`d hos oktmvmcocds kjg ug `ítjcj eduràstmkj y
kjgstruyo hjs cmonro`os cd korno poro Krmstmgo, Cj-
hjrds y dh ejrgj, qud hd pdr`mtog dstm`or dh `dgjr
tmd`pj dg qud pudcd otdgcdrsd ug pdcmcj (cd 1
pmzzos) sm dh ejrgj ds ug `mkrjjgcos kjg kopokmcoc
poro ugo sjho
sd osmngog pmzzo, hosy oktmvmcocds
o Krmstmgo, tmpjtmpj
hos oktmvmcocds O, A,
C,K,D,M,B,F
N sd osmngog o Cjhjrds.
k) Yrjpjgno cjs okkmjgds poro rdcukmr dh tmd`pj dgkjg-
trocj dg dh mgkmsj a d mgcmqud kuïhds sdràog hjs gudvjs
tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj.
c) Kjgstruyo hjs cmonro`os cd korno qud fustm󿬏kog hjs
tmd`pjs cd 󿬁ufj cd su rdspudsto cdh mgkmsj k.

CTQOKMÛG YQDCDKD-
M C O K S M R M CO C (@MGTSJ[) [JQD[
 O Sj`o cd ho jrcdg pjr tdhíbjgj 1 Gmgnugj
A @dzkho cd mgnrdcmdgtds poro ho `oso 4 O
K Rokmocj cd ho `oso dg ug `jhcd ? A
C Yrdporokmûg cd mgnrdcmdgtds ocmkmjgohds 1 O
D Hm`pmdzo y `dzkho cd mgnrdcmdgtds 1 C
B Onrdnor mgnrdcmdgtds o ho `oso ? K, D
N Yrdporokmûg y korno cdh ejrgj ? B
E Ejrgdocj 5 N
M Cdskorno y d`poqudtocj ? E
F Dg
D gtrdno y kjarj ? M

KJ@YDSDGKMO DG SMD@YJ CD QD[YTD[SO ??=

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Ogupmgcm Q., [. Kejpro, [.C. [uceolor,
[uceolor, F.O.R
F.O.R.. @mdned`,   2. Cd [jtj E. (?=52),  Dh jtrj sdgcdrj, ;o. dc., Dcmtjrmoh Dh
y D. Vd`dh (1992), @ogonmgn ausmgdss prjkdss 󿬁jws, 1o. Aorrogkj, Hm`o.
dc., Yrdgtmkd Eohh, Gudvo Fdrsdy.   >. Bmsedr @. H., O. Qo`og y O. [. @kKhdhhog
@kKhdhhogcc (1999) ‘Qjkldt
  1. Ahoklaurg F.F. C. (?==1),
(?==1), ‘Sm`d-aosdc
‘Sm`d-aosdc kj`pdtmtmjg6
kj`pdtmtmjg6 ^emtd skmdgkd rdtomhmgn ms oh`jst edrd, ord yju rdocy:‐, Eorvorc
kjhhor oktmvmtmds‐,  Ausmgdss Ejrmzjgs ;4(3), =2-?9?.  Ausmgdss Qdvmdw  >5(3), ??4-?13.
  ;. Ajeg Q. D. (?=52),  Lrmstdg ”s Kjjlmd Kj`pogy , Eorvorc
 Lrmstdg”s   5. Njhcrott D. @. (?==>), Krmtmkoh Keomg, Gjrte Qmvdr, Nrdot
Ausmgdss [kejjh Kosd =-252-9=;, Ko`armcnd. Aorrmgntjg.
 3. Kostmhhj O. H. y C. B. @uÿjz (1993), ‘Cdsorrjhhj cd ug   =. @drdcmte F. Q. y [. F.F. @ogtdh Fr.
Fr. (1994),  Yrjfdkt `ogond-
smstd`o poro prjnro`or rdkursjs y oktmvmcocds dg ho bo- `dgt6 O `ogondrmoh opprjoke,  2o. dc., Fjeg ^mhdy, Gudvo
 armkokmûg cd kohdgtocjrds dhíktrmkjs aofj pdcmcj‐, Qdvmsto
 Qdvmsto  Fdrsdy..
 Fdrsdy
 Bokuhtoc cd Mgndgmdrào, T.S T.S.O. ?1 (1), ;4-31.  ?9.
?9. @mgnjzzm
@m gnjzzm O., R. @ogmdzzj, [. Qmkkmorcdhhm y H. Amogkj
  4. Covms D. ^.
^. y F.F. E. Yottdrsjg (?=>4),
(?=>4), ‘O
‘O kj`pormsjg jb edu- (?==5), ‘Og dxokt ohnjrmte` bjr ted rdsjurkd-kjgstromgdc
rmstmk ogc jptm`u`@ogond`dg
fdkt skedcuhmgn‐, sjhutmjgs mg rdsjurkd-kjgstromgdc prj-
@ogond`dgtt [kmdgkd 1?(5), =33-=44.
prjfdkt skedcuhmgn@ogond`
koh bjr`uhotmjg‐, prjahd`dgt
aosdc
@ogond`dgt
jg o gdw `oted`otm-
[kmdgkd 33(4), >?3->1=.
 

KOYÀSTHJ 2

Ogïhmsms cd ho kopokmcoc

• Yrmgkmpmjs aïsmkjs poro ogohmzor ho kopokmcoc

 • @dcmkmûg cd ho kopokmcoc
• @dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc

K j`j sd opugtû dg dh kopàtuhj 1, ho dstrotdnmo cd kj`pdtdgkmo pjr kjstj y

vjhu`dg kj`prjaû su optmtuc poro nogor `drkocjs cdscd hjs mgmkmjs cd ho
Qdvjhukmûg Mgcustrmoh y eo `ogtdgmcj eosto gudstrjs càos su dvmcdgtd ko-
pokmcoc poro kj`pdtmr kjg íxmtj. Kuogcj sd kj`pmtd pjr kjstj y vjhu`dg ds `uy
m`pjrtogtd qud dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg sdo kopoz cd hjnror hos `oyjrds tosos cd
prjcukkmûg kjg hjs rdkursjs cmspjgmahds, dg kuyj kosj ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho ko-
pokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg sd vudhvd cd portmkuhor m`pjrtogkmo.
  Dstd kopàtuhj sd jkupo cd hjs kjgkdptjs y tíkgmkos `ïs m`pjrtogtds poro ogo-
hmzor ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o prjcuktmvj, kjg ho mgtdgkmûg cd qud dh hdktjr sdo
kopoz cd cmsdÿor dh smstd`o poro qud utmhmkd sus rdkursjs cd `ogdro ocdkuoco y
hjnrd prjcukmr su `oyjr toso cd prjcukkmûg d mgkurro dg hjs `dgjrds kjstjs. Dg ho
prm`dro sdkkmûg sd prdsdgtog hjs prmgkmpohds boktjrds o kjgsmcdror dg dh ogïhmsms cd
kopokmcoc, poro cdcmkor ho sdnugco sdkkmûg o hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos qud pdr`mtmrïg
`dcmr ho kopokmcoc. Yjr öhtm`j, dg ho tdrkdro sdkkmûg sd prdsdgtog hjs `dkogms`js
qud pdr`mtdg `dfjror ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg.

  YQMGKMYMJ[ AÏ[MKJ[ YOQO

YOQO OGOHMVOQ HO KOYOKMCOC
KOYOKMCOC
Ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cd ug smstd`o ds dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd ugmcocds cd 󿬁ufj qud
sohdg cdh smstd`o pjr ugmcoc cd tmd`pj. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud oug kuog-
cj oquà sd d`phdo dh tír`mgj toso cd 󿬁ufj, dg kjgnrudgkmo kjg ho gj`dgkhoturo
qud sd prdsdgtû dg dh kopàtuhj sjard ogïhmsms cd prjkdsjs, dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs hm-
 arjs sjard oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg sd eokd rdbdrdgkmo o ho toso cd 󿬁ufj
kjg jtrjs tír`mgjs `ïs oprjpmocjs oh o`amdgtd cd ho prjcukkmûg cd `oguboktu-
ros y sdrvmkmjs, kj`j sjg toso cd prjcukkmûg,  prjcukkmûg dbdktmvo, j dg hjs hmarjs dg
mgnhís kj`j terjuneput .
  Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg ocdkuoco cd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj mgkmcd cd `ogdro m`pjrtogtd
dg ho rdgtoamhmcoc cd ho d`prdso, yo qud ho prjcukkmûg dxkdsmvo kjgcukd o kjstjs
mggdkdsormjs pjr ohtjs mgvdgtormjs y o rdcukkmjgds dg prdkmj `dcmogtd prj`jkmjgds<
pjr jtrj hocj, ho prjcukkmûg mgsu󿬏kmdgtd gj pdr`mtd oprjvdkeor ho cd`ogco cdh
prjcuktj dg adgd󿬏kmj cd ho rdgtoamhmcoc cd ho d`prdso. Dh hà`mtd o ho toso cd 󿬁ufj ?1?

?11  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cd ug smstd`o hj dstoahdkd ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg cdh `ms`j< o kjgtmguokmûg

sd ogohmzog hjs prmgkmpohds boktjrds qud cdadg tdgdrsd dg kudgto poro oc`mgmstror
ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o prjcuktmvj.

Boktjrds qud obdktog ho kopokmcoc

Ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds ho `ïxm`o toso cd 󿬁ufj qud pudcd
dxpdrm`dgtor dh smstd`o aofj sus kjgcmkmjgds cd jpdrokmûg, pjr hj qud, poro hjnror
ugo toso cd 󿬁ufj ocdkuoco, cdad dgtdgcdr hjs boktjrds qud cdtdr`mgog ho kopokm-
coc cdh smstd`o. Hjs boktjrds `ïs m`pjrtogtds sjg6

Qdkursjs
Ho kohmcoc y kogtmcoc cd hjs rdkursjs sjg dh boktjr `ïs m`pjrtogtd poro cdtdr`mgor
ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg. Jasdrvd qud ugo `oyjr d󿬏kmdgkmo cd
hjs rdkursjs (dg kjgsmstdgkmo y ropmcdz) mgkrd`dgto ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg<
osà kj`j ugo `oyjr kogtmcoc cd rdkursjs tmdgd ug dbdktj pjsmtmvj. Yjr jtrj hocj,
 ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc cd hjs rdkursjs to`amíg mg󿬁uyd dg ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg, yo
qud o `dcmco qud ug rdkursj dfdkuto `ïs oktmvmcocds cdh prjkdsj, sd tmdgd `oyjr
eoamhmcoc poro dvmtor ho mgoktmvmcoc cd hjs rdkursjs.

Qdc cd oktmvmcocds y aubbdr

Ho curokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds, ho dstrukturo cd ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds d mgkhusj hjs
to`oÿjs cd hjs aubbdr tmdgdg ugo nrog mg󿬁udgkmo dg ho toso cd 󿬁ufj (y pjr dhhj dg
ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg) cdh smstd`o. Yjr dfd`phj, sm dh aubbdr cd ho oktmvmcoc
smnumdgtd sd dgkudgtro hhdgj, ho prjcukkmûg sd ahjqudo, yo qud gj sd pudcdg dgvmor
ugmcocds pjr bohto cd dspokmj poro dspdro. @ïs oög, hos cdkmsmjgds ûptm`os sjard
kopokmcoc d mgvdgtormjs sjg cdpdgcmdgtds dgtrd sà (Arochdy y Nhygg, 1991).

Yjhàtmkos cd jpdrokmûg
Cmvdrsos pjhàtmkos, yo sdo dh jrcdg dg qud sd prjkdsog vormjs prjcuktjs dg dspdro,
ho osmngokmûg cd hjs cmbdrdgtds rdkursjs o ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds, j ho sm`-
phd osmngokmûg cd prmjrmcocds o kmdrtos dgtmcocds, pudcdg tdgdr ug ohtj m`poktj
dg ho toso cd 󿬁ufj (vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard phogdokmûg y kjgtrjh cd hos oktmvmcocds
prjcuktmvos). Yjr dfd`phj, ho rdnho cd prjkdsor prm`drj hos dgtmcocds qud tdgcrïg
ug `dgjr tmd`pj cd prjkdsj, mgtumtmvo`dgtd pdr`mtd qud hos dgtmcocds okdhdrdg
su pdr`ogdgkmo dg ho 󿬏ho cd dspdro, y pudcd tdgdr ug dbdktj pjsmtmvj dg ho toso cd
󿬁ufj, pjr hj qud ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cd dsto rdnho eo smcj dxphjroco aofj kjgcmkmjgds
`uy ndgdrohds (vdo pjr dfd`phj, Umo dt oh., 1999).

@dzkho cd prjcukkmûg
Dg `ukejs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg sd eokd usj cd hjs `ms`js rdkursjs poro prj-
cukmr cmbdrdgtds `jcdhjs cdh `ms`j prjcuktj, j to`amíg cmbdrdgtds prjcuktjs,
kjg cmbdrdgtds tmd`pjs cd prjkdsj y/j kj`phdfmcocds. Dstos cmbdrdgkmos tmdgdg pjr
kjgsdkudgkmo qud ho `dzkho cd prjcuktjs tdgno ug m`poktj sjard ho toso cd 󿬁ufj.
Dg ho prïktmko, smg d`aornj, ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg ho cdtdr`mgo ho cd`ogco cd
hjs cmbdrdgtds `jcdhjs j prjcuktjs, pjr hj qud dxmstd pjko hmadrtoc poro ko`amor
ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg, o `dgjs qud sd tj`dg cdkmsmjgds sjard dspdkmohmzokmûg
cd ho prjcukkmûg dg cmbdrdgtds phogtos prjcuktmvos.

Jrnogmzokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs

Dg dh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr sd suaroyû qud dh tmd`pj tdûrmkj cd 󿬁ufj dg ug prjkdsj
prjcuktmvj hj cdtdr`mgog hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd hos oktmvmcocds kràtmkos cdh

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?1;

prjkdsj. Dg ko`amj, kuogcj cdsdd ogohmzor ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o, cdad tj`or
dg kudgto hos kopokmcocds cd hjs rdkursjs qud dfdkutog hos oktmvmcocds, yo qud sm
 amdg ds kmdrtj qud ho curokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds mg󿬁uyd
mg󿬁uyd dg ho toso cd 󿬁ufj, to`amíg
ds kmdrtj qud sd pudcd mgkrd`dgtor ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg oh mgkrd`dgtor ho
kogtmcoc cd hjs rdkursjs cmspjgmahds. Ds pjr dsto rozûg qud poro ogohmzor ho kopo-
kmcoc cdh smstd`o prm`drj cdad mgvdstmnor kuïh ds ho jrnogmzokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs
qud dfdkutog hos oktmvmcocds gdkdsormos.
  Hjs rdkursjs cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg sd jrnogmzog dg nrupjs (j tohhdrds
bugkmjgohds) o hjs qud sd cdgj`mgo  pjjhds. Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, ug pjjh cd rdkursjs 
ds ug kjgfugtj cd rdkursjs qud dfdkutog hos `ms`os oktmvmcocds y qud sjg mgtdr-
ko`amoahds, dg dh sdgtmcj cd qud dfdkutog sus oktmvmcocds kjg dh `ms`j gmvdh cd
d󿬏kmdgkmo. Koco rdkursj cdgtrj cd ug  pjjh ds ugo  ugmcoc cd rdkursj cdgtrj cdh
 pjjh. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, ug nrupj cd kmgkj tdhdbjgmstos dg ugo kdgtroh tdhdbûgmko

kjgbjr`og ug pjjh
tdhdbjgmsto dstí  cd tdhdbjgmstos
kopokmtoco kjg kmgkj
poro otdgcdr ugmcocds,
kuohqumdr smd`prd
hho`oco y kuogcj kuohqumdr
tdhdbûgmko.
  Cdamcj o qud koco ugmcoc cd rdkursj cdgtrj cd ug  pjjh cdad dfdkutor tjcos
hos oktmvmcocds qud hd sjg prjpmos, ho korno cd troaofj pjr koco dgtmcoc otdgcmco
 (o ho qud sd cdgj`mgo korno ugmtormo) ds ho su`o cd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd
tjcos hos oktmvmcocds qud rdohmzo koco ugmcoc cdh  pjjh cd rdkursjs, kj`j hj mhustro
dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj.

Dfd`phj 2.?. Kornos ugmtormos poro ho otdgkmûg dg ugo soho cd d`drndgkmo

Kjgsmcdrd dh sdrvmkmj dg ugo soho cd d`drndgkmo, qud sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.= cdh
dfd`phj 3.2, cjgcd o koco pokmdgtd, hudnj cd qud sd hd rdnmstro y rdkmad ugo mgspdk-
kmûg rïpmco, hj otmdgcd ug `ícmkj, yo sdo dg dh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj
j dg dh ïrdo cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor. Tgo ohtdrgotmvo poro jrnogmzor hjs rdkursjs
eu`ogjs poro ho otdgkmûg dg dstd smstd`o ds kjgsmcdror 3  pjjhds, koco ugj kjg
kmdrtj gö`drj cd ugmcocds (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 2.?). Aofj dsto ohtdrgotmvo, hjs 3  pjjhds 
kjrrdspjgcdg o ?) rdkdpkmjgmsto, 1) dgbdr`dro cd mgspdkkmûg rïpmco, ;) `ícmkj cd
troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj y 3) `ícmkj cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor. Kjg hjs tmd`pjs
cd otdgkmûg prj`dcmj pjr pokmdgtd, qud opordkdg dg ho 󿬏nuro 3.=, poro koco ugo

‶ Bmnuro 2.?
Jrnogmzokmûg cd rdkursjs
dg ug sdrvmkmj poro dh kumcocj
QDKDYKMJGM[SO cd ho sohuc (ohtdrgotmvo ?).
KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 ; `mgutjs

DGBDQ@DQO CD MG[YDKKMÛG
KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 3 `mgutjsQÏYMCO

@ÍCMKJ SQOSO@MDGSJ D[YDKMOHMVOCJ

KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 ; `mgutjs

@ÍCMKJ SQOS
SQOSO@MDGSJ
O@MDGSJ QDNTHOQ
QDNTHO Q
KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 4.3 `mgutjs

?13  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 2.1
Jrnogmzokmûg cd rdkursjs
dg ug sdrvmkmj poro dh kumcocj
cd ho sohuc (ohtdrgotmvo 1). QDKDYKMJGM[SO-DGBDQ@DQO
KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 > `mgutjs

@ÍCMKJ SQOSO@MDGSJ D[YDKMOHMVOCJ

KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 ; `mgutjs

@ÍCMKJ SQOS
SQOSO@MDGSJ
O@MDGSJ QDNTHOQ
QDNTHO Q
KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 4.3 `mgutjs
 cd hos oktmvmcocds, sd jatmdgdg hos kornos ugmtormos qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho 󿬏nuro
2.?. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, ho korno ugmtormo cdh  pjjh cd rdkdpkmjgmstos ds cd ; `mgutjs,
cdamcj o qud koco rdkdpkmjgmsto sd jkupo sûhj cd ho rdkdpkmûg y dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj
cd otdgkmûg poro dsto oktmvmcoc ds cd ; `mgutjs, kjg ug gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsm-
tos mnuoh o ?. Dg ko`amj, poro kohkuhor ho korno ugmtormo dg dh  pjjh cd `ícmkjs poro
troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj, cdad tdgdr dg kudgto qud dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos
pjr pokmdgtd ds cd 9.?, y sm kjgsmcdro dh tmd`pj prj`dcmj cd otdgkmûg cd ;9 `mgu-
tjs, rdsuhto ugo korno ugmtormo (kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj) cd 9.?(;9)  ; `mgutjs.
  Dg ho 󿬏nuro 2.1 sd mhustro jtro ohtdrgotmvo cd jrnogmzokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs
poro prdstor dstd sdrvmkmj. Dg dsto jkosmûg sd prjpjgdg ;  pjjhds cd rdkursjs6 ?) rd-
kdpkmjgmsto y dgbdr`dro cd mgspdkkmûg, 1) `ícmkj cd troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj y
;) `ícmkj cd troto`mdgtj rdnuhor. Ho cmbdrdgkmo kjg ho ohtdrgotmvo ? ds qud oejro
koco d`phdoco cdh prm`dr  pjjh dfdkuto hos cjs oktmvmcocds (rdkdpkmûg d mgspdkkmûg
rïpmco) dg koco pokmdgtd. Kjg dsto ohtdrgotmvo ko`amo ho korno ugmtormo cdh prm`dr
 pjjh, yo qud oh dfdkutor koco d`phdoco hos cjs oktmvmcocds, su korno ugmtormo ds
cd ;   3  > `mgutjs, y sd `ogtmdgd ho korno ugmtormo cdh  pjjh cd `ícmkjs poro
troto`mdgtj dspdkmohmzocj dg ; `mgutjs y ho cdh  pjjh cd `ícmkjs poro troto`mdgtj
rdnuhor dg 4.3 `mgutjs.
✣

Ho kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs cdpdgcd, ocd`ïs cd ho korno

ugmtormo, cdh tmd`pj dg qud hos ugmcocds cdh  pjjh dstorïg cmspjgmahds poro prjcu-
kmr y cdh gö`drj cd ugmcocds qud koco ugmcoc prjkdso sm`uhtïgdo`dgtd, pjr hj
qud sd cdadg. mgtrjcukmr hjs kjgkdptjs cd cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco  y korno
kjgsjhmcoco
  Ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd ugo ugmcoc cd rdkursjs ds dh tmd`pj qud
ho ugmcoc dstorï cmspjgmahd pjr koco pdrmjcj cd rdbdrdgkmo osà, pjr dfd`phj, ugo
cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd 3 ejros/cào smngm󿬏ko qud ho ugmcoc dstorï cmspjgmahd
sûhj 3 ejros curogtd dh pdrmjcj cd rdbdrdgkmo cd ? cào. Ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro-
`oco cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs ds ho su`o cd hos cmspjgmamhmcocds prjnro`ocos cd
koco ugj cd sus rdkursjs< pjr dfd`phj, ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd ug  pjjh 
qud tmdgd 4 ugmcocds, koco ugo kjg ugo cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd 3 ejros/cào
ds cd 19 ejros/cào.
  Ohnugjs rdkursjs tmdgdg ho kopokmcoc cd prjkdsor dgtmcocds qud kjgstog cd
`ïs cd ugo ugmcoc cd 󿬁ufj. Yjr dfd`phj, dh ejrgj cd ugo pogocdrào pudcd ejrgdor
vormos ejnozos cd pog dg koco ejrgdoco j to`amíg dh trdg cd ho`mgokmûg cd ugo

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?14

‶ Bmnuro 2.;
Jrnogmzokmûg cd ug pjjh
cd ovmjgds cd posofdrjs.

QDKTQ[J KJG[JHMCOCJQ6 ORMÛG

GÖ@DQJ CD TGMCOCD[ DG DH YJJH 0 4

KOQNO TGMSOQMO 0 ? ejro
CM[YJGMAMHMCOC YQJNQO@OCO
YQJNQO@OCO 0 39 ejros/sd`ogo
KOQNO KJG[JHMCOCO 0 ?2 posofdrjs
 ho`mgocjro cd okdrj pudcd ho`mgor rjhhjs cd cmbdrdgtd tjgdhofd. Dsto kopokmcoc cd
kjgsjhmcokmûg cdad tj`orsd dg kudgto poro ogohmzor ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o,
pjr togtj, dgtdgcdrï pjr korno kjgsjhmcoco cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs oh gö`drj cd
ugmcocds qud prjkdso sm`uhtïgdo`dgtd (pjr koco korno ugmtormo), koco ugmcoc cdh
 pjjh cd rdkursjs.

Dfd`phj 2.1. Kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug pjjh cd ovmjgds cd posofdrjs

Ho odrjhàgdo Okopuhkj Dxprdss jpdro ho ruto Okopuhkj-Cmstrmtj Bdcdroh-Okopuhkj
kjg ug  pjjh cd 4 ovmjgds, koco ugj kjg ugo kopokmcoc poro ?2 posofdrjs y ougqud
koco vmofd (yo sdo Okopuhkj-Cmstrmtj Bdcdroh j vmkdvdrso) tj`o ? ejro (mgkhusj kjg
dh oajrcofd y ho prdporokmûg cdh ovmûg), ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco poro koco
ovmûg ds cd 39 ejros/sd`ogo, kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 2.;.
  Kjg hjs cotjs cd ho 󿬏nuro 2.; ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cdh pjjh cd ovmjgds
ds cd 199 ejros/sd`ogo, pjr hj qud sm koco ovmûg jpdro (dg vudhj, oajrcofd j prd-
porokmûg) curogtd dh tjtoh cd ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco y kjg tjcjs sus osmdgtjs
jkupocjs, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko (o ho sd`ogo) cdh  pjjh cd ovmjgds sdrào cd6
(cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco)*(korno
o)*(korno kjgsjhmcoco
kjgsjhmcoco))
Kopokmcoc
Kopok tdûrmko 0
mcoc tdûrmko
korno ugmtormo
ugmtormo
(199)(?2)
0 0 ;199 posofdrj/sd`ogo.
?
✣

  @DCMKMÛG CD HO KOYOKMCOC
KOYOKMCOC
Ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds ho `ïxm`o toso cd 󿬁ufj (prjcukkmûg)
qud pudcd dxpdrm`dgtor dh smstd`o aofj sus kjgcmkmjgds cd jpdrokmûg. Kj`j sd
mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 2.3, cdamcj o qud sûhj ds pjsmahd kjgjkdr dg bjr`o oprjxm`o-
co ho kopokmcoc rdoh cdh smstd`o o `dcmco qud sd eokd dh dsbudrzj pjr ohkogzor ho
`oyjr toso cd 󿬁ufj, ds qud sd eog prjpudstj hjs kjgkdptjs cd kopokmcoc tdûrmko 
y kopokmcoc dbdktmvo (qud sd dxphmkog o kjgtmguokmûg) poro tdgdr ug oprjxm`o-
cj cd ho kopokmcoc rdoh cdh smstd`o, o portmr cd hjs prmgkmpohds dhd`dgtjs qud cd-

?12  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 2.3
Cmbdrdgtds kjgkdptjs
cd kopokmcoc.
Kopokmcoc
tdûrmko Kopokmcoc
dbdktmvo Kopokmcoc
rdoh Soso
cd 󿬁ufj

(Kopokmcoc
utmhmzoco)

tdr`mgog ho kopokmcoc cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg. Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd oajrcog hjs

prmgkmpohds mgcmkocjrds cd ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg y hos tíkgmkos
poro kohkuhor cmkejs mgcmkocjrds.
 Kopokmcoc tdûrmko y kopokmcoc dbdktmvo
Ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds ho toso cd 󿬁ufj `ïxm`o qud
dxpdrm`dgto dh smstd`o, sm sus rdkursjs sd utmhmzog curogtd dh hopsj tjtoh cd tmd`pj
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o su cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco. Ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug sms-
td`o sd kohkuho o portmr cd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud
dfdkutog hos oktmvmcocds cdh smstd`o, kj`j sd dxphmko o kjgtmguokmûg.
  Ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug rdkursj ds ho `ïxm`o toso cd prjcukkmûg sjstdgm-
 ahd pjr ugo ugmcoc cdh rdkursj, sm ísto sd utmhmzo curogtd dh hopsj tjtoh cd tmd`pj
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o su cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco, pjr hj qud sd kohkuho o portmr cd
ho smnumdgtd dkuokmûg6
(cmspjgmamhmcoc
m coc prjn
prjnro
ro`
`oco
oco )*(ko
korn
rnoo kj
kjgs
gsjh
jhmc
mcoc
ocoo )
Kopok
Kopokmco
mcocc tdûrm
tdûrmko rdkursjj 0
ko cd ug rdkurs .   (2.?)
korno ugmtormo
ugmtormo
  Yjr dxtdgsmûg ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs ds ho su`o cd hos
kopokmcocds tdûrmkos cd hos ugmcocds qud kjgstmtuydg dh pjjh y sm hos cmspjgmamhmcocds
prjnro`ocos cd tjcjs hjs rdkursjs cdh  pjjh sjg mnuohds, poro dgkjgtror ho kopokm-
coc tdûrmko cdh  pjjh, aostorï kjg `uhtmphmkor dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds dg dh  pjjh pjr
ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh rdkursj. Dg dh dfd`phj 2.1, ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco
cdh ovmûg cd posofdrjs dro cd 39 ejros/sd`ogo, kjg ugo korno kjgsjhmcoco cd ?2
posofdrjs/vudhj y ugo korno ugmtormo cd ? ejro/vudhj, pjr hj qud ho kopokmcoc tdû-
rmko cd koco ovmûg ds cd 39(?2)/?  239 posofdrjs/sd`ogo, y ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko
cdh  pjjh cd 4 ovmjgds ds cd 4(239)  ; 199 posofdrjs/sd`ogo, kj`j sd ocdhogtû
dg dh dfd`phj.
Dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds dh  pjjh cd rdkursjs kjg
`dgjr kopokmcoc y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, cdtdr`mgo ho kopokmcoc cdh smstd`o< ds pjr
dsto rozûg qud ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh smstd`o ds ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh kudhhj cd
 ajtdhho tdûrmkj (dh pjjh qud tmdgd ho `dgjr kopokmcoc tdûrmko). Hos cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd
hos kopokmcocds cd hjs cmbdrdgtds  pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud portmkmpog dg dh `ms`j
prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg cdtdr`mgog qud hjs rdkursjs dxpdrm`dgtdg cmbdrdgtds gm-
vdhds cd utmhmzokmûg, pjr hj qud kuogcj sd eo dstm`ocj ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o,
ds kjgvdgmdgtd cdtdr`mgor ho kopokmcoc utmhmzoco cd koco  pjjh cd rdkursjs6
  to
toso
so cd bhuf
bhufj  
  Kopokm
Kop okmcoc
coc ut
utmhm
mhmzoc pjjh 0 
zocoo cd ug pjjh *?99%.   (2.1)
 kop
kopokm
okmcoc
coc td
tdûrm
ûrmko pjjh  
ko cdh pjjh  
  Dg dh dfd`phj 2.1 sm ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh pjjh cd ovmjgds sd dstm`o dg 1 399 po-
sofdrjs/sd`ogo, ho kopokmcoc utmhmzoco cdh pjjh sdrào cd (1 399)(?99)/(; 199)  >4%.

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?1>

MC OKSM RMCOC K JG S D GM C J[ C D SQ O AO FJ M C   YJJHD[   CD QDKTQ[J[ ‶ Soaho 2.?

? [dporokmûg cd portds
1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O
; Dgso`ahd torfdto A
3 Yrudao torfdto O
4 Yrudao torfdto A
2 [dhhocj
> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd
Kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj y
? J[DY rdkursjs poro ho `ogubokturo
? JDSO cd ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj.
?.4 JDSA
?.4 JYSO, DYSO
1 JYSA, DYSO
? J[YK, @[DH
?.4 J[YK, DYSO

Yjrtoso
ho öhtm`j, ho kopokmcoc
cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`outmhmzoco
dgtrd hocdh smstd`o tdûrmko
kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg sd kohkuho
cdh smstd`o, kj`j oh
hj cmvmcmr
mhustro
dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj.
 Dfd`phj 2.;. Kopokmcoc tdûrmko poro prjcukmr
ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj
Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cd Cdh`dx cdh
dfd`phj 4.? (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 4.1). Cmkej prjkdsj kjgsto cd > oktmvmcocds, kuyjs kjg-
tdgmcjs cd troaofj, sm sd osu`d ug gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos mnuoh o ? poro koco
oktmvmcoc, sd prdsdgtog cd gudvj dg ho toaho 2.?, fugtj kjg hos mcdgtm󿬏kokmjgds kj-
rrdspjgcmdgtds o hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud tmdgdg o su kornj ho dfdkukmûg cd ho ok-
tmvmcoc kjrrdspjgcmdgtd. Dh gj`ard cdh  pjjh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o koco Mc sd prdsdgto
dg ho toaho 2.1 osà, pjr dfd`phj, ho oktmvmcoc cd sdhhocj ds dfdkutoco dg kjgfugtj pjr
hjs [m ho J[YK
   pjjhds (jpdrormjprjnro`oco
cmspjgmamhmcoc cd sdhhocj ydsprudao) y @[DH
cd 5 ejros pjr (`ïqumgo cd sdhhocj).
turgj, ho korno kjgsjhmco-
co cd kuohqumdr rdkursj ds cd ugo ugmcoc y koco  pjjh cd rdkursjs kjgsto cd ugo
sjho ugmcoc, dg ho toaho 2.1 opordkdg hos kjrrdspjgcmdgtds kornos ugmtormos y kopo-
kmcocds tdûrmkos poro koco  pjjh cd rdkursjs cd dstd prjkdsj prjcuktmvj. Yjr dfd`-
phj, poro dh  pjjh DYSO (dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos), ho korno ugmtormo ds cd
?.4  1  ?.4  4 `mgutjs, cdamcj o qud dh dqumpj sd utmhmzo poro ho prudao cd hos
1 torfdtos y cdh kj`pjgdgtd (oktmvmcocds 3, 4 y >), y kjg ugo korno kjgsjhmcoco cd
ug kj`pjgdgtd, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh rdkursj rdsuhto cd6
(? kj`pjgdgtd)(5 ejros/turgj)(29 `mgutjs/ejro)/(4 `mgutjs)  
=2 kj`pjgdgtds/
kj`pjgdgtds/turgj,
turgj,

KOQNO # CD KOYOKMCOC ‶ Soaho 2.1

MC   YJJH   CD
CD Q D K T Q [ J O K S M R M CO C D [ TGMSOQMO TGMCOCD[ SDÛQMKO Kopokmcoc tdûrmko poro ho
`ogubokturo cd ug kj`pjgdgtd
J[DY Jpdrormj cd sdporokmûg ? ? ? 359 dhdktrûgmkj.
JDSO Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto O 1 ? ? 359
JDSA Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto A ; ?.4 ? ;19
JYSO Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto O 3 ?.4 ? ;19
JYSA Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto A 4 1 ? 139
J[YK Jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao 2, > 1.4 ? ?=1
@[DH @ïqumgo poro sdhhocj 2 ? ? 359
DYSO Dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos 3, 4, > 4 ? =2

?15  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho 2.; MC   YJJH  CD

 C D QD K TQ[ J K O YO K M CO C S D Û Q M K O K O YO K M C O C T S M H M V O C O
Kopokmcocds utmhmzocos
dg ho `ogubokturo cd ug J[DY Jpdrormj cd sdporokmûg 359 19.99%
kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj. JDSO Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto O 359 19.99%
JDSA Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto A ;19 ;9.99%
JYSO Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto O ;19 ;9.99%
JYSA Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto A 139 39.99%
J[YK Jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao ?=1 49.99%
@[DH @ïqumgo poro sdhhocj 359 19.99%
DYSO Dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos =2 ?99.99%

pjr öhtm`j, kj`j dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds dg dh  pjjh ds cd ugj, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko

cdh  pjjh DYSO ds to`amíg cd =2 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.
O portmr cd hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 2.; sd oprdkmo qud dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj
cd dstd prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo ds dh  pjjh DYSO, pjr hj qud ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko
cdh prjkdsj ds cd =2 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj. [m sd dxpdrm`dgto ugo toso cd 󿬁ufj cd =2
 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj (mnuoh o ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko), ho kopokmcoc utmhmzoco cdh prj
kdsj cd `ogubokturo cd kj`pjgdgtds sdrào cd ?99%, pdrj oög osà, kj`j mhustro ho
toaho 2.;, hos kopokmcocds utmhmzocos cd ohnugjs cd hjs  pjjhds sdràog aostogtd aofos.
Yjr dfd`phj, ho kopokmcoc utmhmzoco cd hjs  pjjhds J[DY, JDSO y @[DH sdrào tog sûhj
cd 19%, hj kuoh sd cdad o qud dstd prjkdsj prjcuktmvj dstï `uy `oh aohogkdocj
(vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard cmspjsmkmûg cd hos mgstohokmjgds).
✣

Dg ho prïktmko hjs rdkursjs gj dstïg cmspjgmahds curogtd tjcj dh hopsj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd

o su cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco, yo qud dxpdrm`dgtog pdrmjcjs cd gj cmspjgmamhm-
coc pjr kousos gj prdvmstos, kj`j pjcràog sdr tmd`pjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs,
`ogtdgm`mdgtj prdvdgtmvj, `ogtdgm`mdgtj kjrrdktmvj pjr bohhos m`prdvmstos, j gj
cmspjgmamhmcoc cdh pdrsjgoh, pjr dfd`phj. Ds pjr dsto rozûg qud, dg koco pdrmjcj cd
rdbdrdgkmo, sd cdad cmbdrdgkmor dgtrd ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd ho ugmcoc
cd ug rdkursj y su cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto, qud ds dh hopsj cd tmd`pj dbdktmvj curog-
td dh kuoh sd kudgto kjg ho ugmcoc cd rdkursj poro ho dfdkukmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds
prjcuktmvos. Yoro dstm`or kjg ogtmkmpokmûg ho cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto cd ug rdkursj,
cdad osu`mr qud dxmstd ug boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc, qud dg ho prïktmko
sd dstm`o d`pàrmko`dgtd y qud rdspjgcd o ho smnumdgtd dkuokmûg6
  cmspjgmamhmcoc
gmamhmcoc gdto
gdto  
  Boktj
Boktjrr cd pírcmc
pírcmcoo cd cmspjg
cmspjgmam
mamhmcoc 0  ? ∑
hmcoc   (2.;)
  cmspjgmamh
cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco  
mcoc prjnro`oco  

‶ Soaho 2.3 CM[YJGMAMHMCOC KOYOKMCOC

Kopokmcocds dbdktmvos
 y tdûrmkos poro ho `ogubokturo BOKSJQ KOQNO
cd ug kj`pjgdgtd   YJJH   CD QDKTQ[J YQJNQO@OCO C D Y Í Q C M C O G D SO TGMSOQMO S DÛ QM KO D B D K S M RO
Jpdrormj cd sdporokmûg 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto O 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto A 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4 ;19 142
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto O 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4 ;19 142
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto A 359 9.1 ;53 1 139 ?=1
Jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao 359 9.1 ;53 1.4 ?=1 ?4;.2
@ïqumgo poro sdhhocj 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos 359 9.94 342 4 =2 =?.1

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?1=

  Oh kjgsmcdror ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco y dh boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgm-

 amhmcoc cd koco rdkursj sd kohkuho ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco, hj qud pdr`mtmrï
dstm`or ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj, kj`j sd dxphmko o kjgtmguokmûg.
Ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd ug rdkursj ds ho `ïxm`o toso cd prjcukkmûg sjstd-
gmahd pjr ugo ugmcoc cdh rdkursj, sm ísto sd utmhmzo curogtd dh hopsj tjtoh cd tmd`-
pj kjrrdspjgcmdgtd o su cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto, pjr hj qud sd kohkuho o portmr cd ho
smnumdgtd dkuokmûg6
(cmspjgmamhmcoc
hmcoc gdto)*(
gdto)*(korno
korno kjgsjhmcoc
kjgsjhmcoco)
o)
Kopokm
Kop okmcoc
coc dbdkt
dbdktmv rdkursjj 0
mvoo cd ug rdkurs .   (2.3)
korno ugmtor
ugmtorrrmo
mo
  Ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs ds ho su`o cd hos kopokmcocds
dbdktmvos cd hos ugmcocds qud kjgstmtuydg dh  pjjh, pjr hj qud sm dg dh dfd`phj 2.1
dh boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc sd dstm`o dg 9.3, cdamcj o cd`jros dg dh
odrjpudrtj,
prjnro`oco`ogtdgm`mdgtj
cd koco ovmûg cdkjrrdktmvj
posofdrjs ycdjtrjs m`prdvmstjs, kjg
39 ejros/sd`ogo, ugo cmspjgmamhmcoc
oh cdspdfor ho dkuokmûg
(2.;), rdsuhtorï ugo cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto cd (?  9.3)(39)  13 ejros/sd`ogo. [m
kjgsmcdro qud ho korno kjgsjhmcoco ds cd ?2 posofdrjs/vudhj y ho korno ugmtormo cd
? ejro/vudhj, ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd koco ovmûg sdrào cd 13(?2)/?  ;53 posofd-
 rjs/sd`ogo, y ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh  pjjh cd 4 ovmjgds sdrào cd 4(;53)  ?=19
posofdrjs/sd`ogo.
  Dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds dh  pjjh cd rdkursjs kjg
`dgjr kopokmcoc y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, cdtdr`mgo ho kopokmcoc cdh smstd`o< ds pjr
dsto rozûg qud ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh smstd`o ds ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh kudhhj
cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj (dh  pjjh qud tmdgd ho `dgjr kopokmcoc tdûrmko). Kj`j ds cd ds-
pdror, ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg ds ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo
cdh kudhhj cd ajtdhho dbdktmvj (dh  pjjh cd rdkursjs qud tmdgd ho `dgjr kopokmcoc
dbdktmvo), kj`j mhustro dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj.

Dfd`phj 2.3. Kopokmcoc dbdktmvo poro prjcukmr ug kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj

Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cdh dfd`phj 2.;.
Dh tohhdr poro ho `ogubokturo cdh kj`pjgdgtd tmdgd ugo prjnro`okmûg poro jpdror
ug turgj cd 359 `mgutjs/cào, y hudnj cd jasdrvor dh cdsd`pdÿj cdh tohhdr pjr ug
pdrmjcj cd ; sd`ogos, sd dstm`o qud ho pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc ds cd 9.1 poro hjs
rdkursjs cd tjcjs hjs  pjjhds, dxkdptj poro dh dqumpj cd prudao cd torfdtos (DYSO),
kuyo pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc sd dstm`o dg 9.94.
  Dg ho toaho 2.3 sd prdsdgto ug rdsu`dg cd hjs kïhkuhjs gdkdsormjs poro dg-
kjgtror hos kopokmcocds dbdktmvos cd koco  pjjh cd rdkursjs, dg dh supudstj cd qud
dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds cd rdkursjs dg koco  pjjh ds ugj. Yjr dfd`phj, oh cdspdfor
cd ho dkuokmûg (2.;), ho cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto cdh rdkursj cdh  pjjh jpdrormj cd sdhhocj
y prudao ds cd (?  9.1)(359)  ;53 `mgutjs/cào, pjr hj qud ho kopokmcoc dbdk-
tmvo cdh rdkursj, cd okudrcj kjg (2.3), ds cd (;53)(?)/(1.4)   ?4;.2 kj`pjgdg-
tds/cào y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh  pjjh ds cd (?)(?4;.2)  ?4;.2
kj`pjgdgtds/cào.
  Kj`j pudcd oprdkmorsd cd ho toaho 2.3, dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho dbdktmvj ds gudvo-
`dgtd dh dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos, pjr hj qud ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd dstd
prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo ds ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd cmkej kudhhj cd ajtdhho, qud
ds cd =?.1 kj`pjgdgtd/cào.
✣

Kopokmcocds kjg cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs cd dgtmcocds

Oh ogohmzor ho kopokmcoc cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg dg dh qud mgnrdsog cmbdrdg-
tds tmpjs cd dgtmcocds cd 󿬁ufj (sd prjcukdg prjcuktjs cmbdrdgtds), cdad tdgdr dg

?;9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

kudgto qud, cdamcj o qud hos dgtmcocds cmbdrdgtds tmdgdg cmbdrdgtds kjgtdgmcjs
cd troaofj, sd kohkuhog hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd koco oktmvmcoc kjg ho `dzkho
cd prjcukkmûg. Dg ndgdroh, sm sd prjcukdg g prjcuktjs cmbdrdgtds, ho `dzkho cd
prjcukkmûg dstï cdtdr`mgoco pjr hjs pdsjs w?, w1, …  wg, qud cdadg sotmsbokdr
g

∟w
 f 0?
g 0 ? , y 9   w f     ?, f    ?, 1, …, g, y cocjs hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj KS( m, f )
poro koco prjcuktj  f  kjrrdspjgcmdgtds
  kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o ho oktmvmcoc m, cdad kohkuhorsd dh kjgtd-
gmcj cd troaofj KS(m) poro koco oktmvmcoc m, cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (4.5), cd
`ogdro qud hos kornos ugmtormos cd hjs cmbdrdgtds pjjhds cd rdkursjs sd kohkuhog kjg
dstjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj, y hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos cd koco  pjjh  sd
kohkuhog kj`j dg dh kosj ogtdrmjr. Kjg dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj sd mhustro ho ophmkokmûg
cd dsto dkuokmûg.

Dfd`phj 2.4. Ogïhmsms cd ho kopokmcoc poro ugo `dzkho cd prjcuktjs

[upjgno qud hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd ho toaho 2.? cdh dfd`phj 2.;, kjrrds-
pjgcdg oh `jcdhj [ cdh kj`pjgdgtd y qud ocd`ïs cd dstd `jcdhj sd prjcukd dh
 `jcdhj S, kuyjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj pjr oktmvmcoc sd prdsdgtog dg ho toaho 2.4,
fugtj kjg hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cdh `jcdhj [ y hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud sd
osmngog o koco oktmvmcoc.
  Dg ho toaho 2.4 sd prdsdgtog to`amíg hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro ugo `dzkho
cd prjcukkmûg cd 29% cdh `jcdhj [ y 39% cdh `jcdhj S. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, kjg hjs
pdsjs w?   9.2, w1   9.3, y hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj KS (4,
(4, ?)   1, KS (4,
(4, 1)   ;,
poro ho oktmvmcoc prudao torfdto A, cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (4.5), dh kjgtdgmcj
cd troaofj poro dsto oktmvmcoc rdsuhto 9.2(1)  9.3(;)  1.3 `mgutjs.
  Dg ho toaho 2.2 sd prdsdgtog hos kornos ugmtormos y hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y
dbdktmvo (pjr turgj) poro koco  pjjh cd rdkursjs, kuogcj ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro-
`oco ds cd 359 `mgutjs/turgj, sd tmdgd ugo ugmcoc cd rdkursj dg koco  pjjh y hjs
boktjrds cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc kjrrdspjgcdg o hjs cd ho toaho 2.3. Yjr dfd`-
phj, ho korno ugmtormo cdh  pjjh J[YK (jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao) ds cd ?  ?.4
 1.4 `mgutjs, yo qud dh rdkursj cdh  pjjh J[YK dfdkuto hos oktmvmcocds cd sdhhocj
(? `mgutj) y cd prudao cdh kj`pjgdgtd (?.4 `mgutjs), ho cmspjgmamhmcoc dbdktmvo
cdh rdkursj J[YK rdsuhto cd (?  9.1)359  ;53 `mgutjs, y ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo
cdh  pjjh cd (?)(;53)(?)/1.4   ?4;.2 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.
  Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho toaho 2.2, dh pjjh cd rdkursj dqumpj poro prudao y sdhho-
cj ds togtj dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj kj`j dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho dbdktmvj, pjr togtj
ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo ds cd 51.>
51.>22 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj y ho
kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo ds cd >5.21 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.

‶ Soaho 2.4 cd troaofj poro ugo

Kjgtdgmcjs KJGSDGMCJ[ CD SQOAOFJ MC YJJHD[  
`dzkho cd prjcukkmûg. MC O K S M R M CO C @J CD HJ [ @ JC DH J S @D V K HO CD QDKTQ[J[
? [dporokmûg cd portds ? ?.4 ?.1 J[DY

1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O ? ?.4 ?.1 JDSO

; Dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.4 ?.4 ?.4 JDSA

3 Yrudao torfdto O ?.4 1.4 ?.= JYSO, DYSO

4 Yrudao torfdto A 1 ; 1.3 JYSA, DYSO

2 [dhhocj ? ? ? J[YK, @[DH

> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd ?.4 ?.4 ?.4 J[YK, DYSO

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?;?

C M [ Y J G M A M H M CO C K O YO K M CO C ‶ Soaho 2.2
KOQNO Kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj
YJJH   CD QDKTQ[J TGMSOQMO Y Q J N Q O @ O C O G D SO S DÛ QM KO D B D K S M RO poro ugo `dzkho
Jpdrormj cd sdporokmûg ?.1 359 ;53 399.99 ;19.99 cd prjcukkmûg.
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto O ?.1 359 ;53 399.99 ;19.99
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.4 359 ;53 ;19.99 142.99
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto O ?.= 359 ;53 141.2; 191.??
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto A 1.3 359 ;53 199.99 ?29.99
Jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao 1.4 359 ;53 ?=1.99 ?4;.29
@ïqumgo poro sdhhocj ? 359 ;53 359.99 ;53.99
Dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos 4.5 359 342 51.>2 >5.21

Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, kjg dh usj cd hjs rdkursjs o phdgmtuc curogtd tjco su cmspjgmamhm-

coc gdto, ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o gj pjcrï dxkdcdr hjs >5.21 kj`pjgdgtds/cào,
cocj qud ho `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg ds cd 29% cdh `jcdhj [ y 39% cdh `jcdhj S.
✣
 Kuogcj sd prjkdsog dgtmcocds edtdrjnígdos dg dh `ms`j smstd`o prjcuktmvj, gj
sûhj hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj, smgj to`amíg hos kornos kjgsjhmcocos pudcdg sdr cmbd-
rdgtds. Yjr dfd`phj, ug ovmûg cd posofdrjs gj smd`prd vjhorï kjg tjcjs hjs osmdgtjs
jkupocjs y ug trdg cd ho`mgokmûg cd ugo ho`mgocjro cd okdrj pudcd ho`mgor rjhhjs
cd cmbdrdgtd tjgdhofd, kjg aosd dg ho jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg. Dg dstd kosj, ocd`ïs cd
hjs pdsjs (w f ) kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o hos cmbdrdgtds dgtmcocds (prjcuktjs), poro koco
 pjjh cd rdkursjs sd rdqumdrdg hos kornos kjgsjhmcocos KK (l,  f ) kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o
hos cmbdrdgtds dgtmcocds qud mgnrdsog oh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj. Yoro koco  pjjh cd rd-
kursjs l cdad kohkuhorsd ho korno kjgsjhmcoco dspdroco cd okudrcj kjg6
g
KK(l ) 0 ∟ w f KK(l, f ) ,  (2.4)
   f 0?
hudnj cd kohkuhor hos kornos kjgsjhmcocos dspdrocos poro koco rdkursj, sd kohkuho
ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd kopokmcoc tdûrmko j dbdktmvo cd okudrcj kjg (2.?) j (2.3), sdnög
sdo dh kosj, y sd utmhmzo ho korno kjgsjhmcoco dspdroco dg hunor cd ho korno kjgsj-
hmcoco, prjkdcmdgcj kj`j ogtds poro dgkjgtror ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko j ho dbdktmvo
cd tjcj dh prjkdsj. Ho ophmkokmûg cd ho dkuokmûg (2.4) sdrï mhustroco kjg dh kosj 2.?
oh 󿬏goh cd dstd kopàtuhj.

  @DFJQO CD HO KOYOKMCOC
KOYOKMCOC
Kj`j
cdpdgcdsd dxphmkû oh mgmkmj cd dstd
bugco`dgtoh`dgtd cd kopàtuhj, ho kopokmcoc
ho kogtmcoc cd hjs
y kohmcoc cd ug rdkursjs,
smstd`o y osà
su toso
kj`j󿬁ufj
cd
hos pjhàtmkos cd jpdrokmûg cdh smstd`o. Kjg dstjs boktjrds dg `dgtd y hjs cmbdrdg-
tds kjgkdptjs qud pdr`mtdg ogohmzor ho kopokmcoc, qud rdkmíg sd ogohmzorjg, dsto
sdkkmûg oajrco hjs prmgkmpohds `dkogms`js poro oc`mgmstror ho toso cd 󿬁ufj y ho
kopokmcoc cdh smstd`o.

@dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko

Cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg 2.?, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ug  pjjh cd rdkursjs sd `d-
fjro kjg dh mgkrd`dgtj cd ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco j cd ho korno kjgsjhmcoco,
j amdg kjg ho cms`mgukmûg cd ho korno ugmtormo cd hjs rdkursjs cdh  pjjh. [m tmdgd dg
kudgto, ocd`ïs, qud ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh smstd`o ds mnuoh o ho kopokmcoc tdû-

?;1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

rmko cdh kudhhj cd ajtdhho, mcdgtm󿬏korï hjs smnumdgtds `dkogms`js poro `dfjror ho
kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh smstd`o6
  ?. Cms`mgumr ho korno ugmtormo cd hjs rdkursjs
rdkursjs cdh
cdh kudhhj cd ajtdhho,
ajtdhho, yo
yo sdo kjg ho
cms`mgukmûg cd ho curokmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds cdh  pjjh (troaofor `ïs rïpmcj),
ho cms`mgukmûg cdh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos (troaofor `dfjr), j oh posor
korno cd troaofj o jtrj  pjjh cd rdkursjs qud gj ds kudhhj cd ajtdhho.
  1. Mgkrd`dgtor ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd hjs rdkursjs qud kjgstmtuydg dh
 pjjh kudhhj cd ajtdhho, ds cdkmr, utmhmzor ug hopsj cd tmd`pj `oyjr cdgtrj cdh
pdrmjcj cd rdbdrdgkmo. Yjr dfd`phj, mgkrd`dgtor ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`o-
co cd 5 ejros/cào o ?2 ejros/cào.
  ;. Mgkrd`dgtor dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds dg dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho, yo yo qud oh kjgsdr-
kjgsdr-
vor ho `ms`o cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco poro hos jtros ugmcocds, ou`dgtorï
ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cdh pjjh cdamcj o ho kjgtrmaukmûg cd hos gudvos
ugmcocds.
  3. Mgkrd`dgtor ho korno kjgsjhmcoco cd hjs rdkursjs qud kjgstmtuydg dh pjjh kud-
hhj cd ajtdhho, pjr dfd`phj, posor cd ovmjgds cd ?2 posofdrjs o ovmjgds cd 49
posofdrjs, ougqud dg dstd kosj dh ko`amj tdkgjhûnmkj m`phmko ugo mgvdrsmûg
kjgsmcdroahd.
 Ds gdkdsormj rd`orkor qud oh m`phogtor kuohqumdro cd hjs `dkogms`js ogtd-
rmjrds, dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs kosjs sd mgkurrmrï dg kjstjs ocmkmjgohds. Osà, pjr dfd`-
phj, poro qud hjs rdkursjs troaofdg `ïs rïpmcj sd cdad mgvdrtmr dg kopokmtokmûg
(dg dh kosj cd rdkursjs eu`ogjs), j dg ohnög ko`amj tdkgjhûnmkj qud pdr`mto ho
rdcukkmûg cd hjs tmd`pjs cd dfdkukmûg. Dstos kjgsmcdrokmjgds pdr`mtdg oprdkmor
ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cd eokdr ug dstucmj prdvmj cd hjs kjstjs y adgd󿬏kmjs cdh ko`amj
ogtds cd m`phogtor ohnugj cd hjs `dkogms`js ogtdrmjrds. Oh eokdr cmkej dstucmj,
ds m`pjrtogtd tdgdr dg kudgto qud hudnj cd m`phogtor ohnugo `dfjro dg dh kudhhj
cd ajtdhhokj`j
rdkursjs, tdûrmkj, ds pjsmahd
mhustro qud dhdfd`phj.
dh smnumdgtd kudhhj cd ajtdhho sdo oejro ohnög jtrj  pjjh cd

Dfd`phj 2.2. @dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc cd ug kudhhj cd ajtdhho

Kjgsmcdrd hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd ho toaho 2.? poro ho `ogubokturo cd ug kj`-

pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj. Kj`j rdsuhtû dg dh dfd`phj 2.;, dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj
kjg ugo ugmcoc dg koco ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs kjrrdspjgcào oh dqumpj poro
prudao cd torfdtos (DYSO), kjg ugo kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd =2 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.
Tg `dkogms`j dvmcdgtd poro mgkrd`dgtor ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko (y to`amíg ho dbdk-
tmvo) cdh smstd`o sdrào ocqumrmr jtrj dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos, poro cmspj-
gdr cd cjs ugmcocds dg cmkej  pjjh. Dg ho toaho 2.> sd prdsdgto ug rdsu`dg cd hjs

‶ Soaho 2.> # CD CM[Y. BOKSJQ CD CM[Y. KOQNO KOY. KOY.

Kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo YJJH   CD QDKTQ[J TGMCOCD[ YQJNQO@OCO YÍQCMCO GDSO TGMSOQMO SDÛQMKO DBDKSMRO
poro ho `ogubokturo cd ug
kj`pjgdgtd. Jpdrormj cd sdporokmûg ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto O ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd torfdto A ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4 ;19 142
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto O ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4 ;19 142
Jpdrormj cd prudao torfdto A ? 359 9.1 ;53 1 139 ?=1
Jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao ? 359 9.1 ;53 1.4 ?=1 ?4;.2
@ïqumgo poro sdhhocj ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
Dqumpj poro prudao cd torfdtos 1 359 9.94 342 4 ?=1 ?51.3

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?;;

kïhkuhjs gdkdsormjs poro dgkjgtror hos gudvos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos poro
koco ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs cd dstd prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo.
  Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg ho toaho 2.> 2.>,, kjg cjs ugmcocds dg dh  pjjh cdh dqum-
pj poro prudao cd torfdtos, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj sd mgkrd`dgto o ?=1
kj`pjgdgtds/turgj, y ougqud dh  pjjh DYSO kjgtmgöo kj`j kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdû-
rmkj, dh pjjh jpdrormj cd sdhhocj y prudao (J[YK) sd kjgvmdrtd to`amíg dg kudhhj
cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj. Jasdrvd qud dh  pjjh J[YK ds to`amíg dh ögmkj kudhhj cd ajtdhho
dbdktmvj, hj qud mhustro qud ug kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj (DYSO) gj gdkdsormo`dgtd
ds ug kudhhj cd ajtdhho dbdktmvj.
✣

@dfjro cd ho toso cd bhufj

Kj`j sd `dgkmjgû
kopokmcoc dg ho osdkkmûg
tdûrmko cdamcj ogtdrmjr,
qud jkurrdg ho kopokmcoc
tmd`pjs `udrtjsdbdktmvo ds `dgjr
m`prdvmstjs qud ho
pjr rdstrmk-
kmjgds mgtdrgos cdh prjkdsj, kj`j sjg dh `ogtdgm`mdgtj pjr bohhos j dh ousdgtms`j
y hjs tmd`pjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs. Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud cdad dvmtor
dh kjgtoamhmzor o hjs tmd`pjs `udrtjs prdvmstjs kj`j sm budrog portd cd ho cmspjgm-
  amhmcoc prjnro`oco,
prjnro`oco, yoyo qud dstj
dstj ndgdro
ndgdro cmbdrdgkmos
cmbdrdgkmos mggdkdsormos
mggdkdsormos dgtrd hos cmspjgmam
hmcocds prjnro`oco y gdto. Yjr dfd`phj, hjs `ogtdgm`mdgtjs prdvdgtmvjs gj cdadg
dbdktuorsd cdgtrj cd hjs pdrmjcjs cd cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco, osà kj`j to`pjkj
hjs cdskogsjs jahmnotjrmjs cdh pdrsjgoh (pjr rdbrmndrmj u jtros kousos prdvmstos). O
portmr cd dstos kjgsmcdrokmjgds sd `dgkmjgog ohnugjs `dkogms`js ötmhds poro rd-
cukmr hos cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko y ho dbdktmvo6
  ?. M`phogtor pjhàtmkos ocdkuocos cd `ogtdgm`mdgtj prdvdgtmvj dg hjs rdkursjs
cd kopmtoh poro rdcukmr ho brdkudgkmo cd hos bohhos cdh dqumpj.
  1. Dstoahdkdr phogds
phogds cd
cd kjgtmgndgkmo
kjgtmgndgkmo poro rdcukmr
rdcukmr dh hopsj cd tmd`pj
tmd`pj qud sd
sd cd-
tmdgd ho prjcukkmûg cdamcj o bohhos m`prdvmstos, yo sdo kjg ho dstogcormzokmûg
cdh `ogtdgm`mdgtj kjrrdktmvj y/j ho ophmkokmûg cd `dcmcos cd jpdrokmûg oh-
tdrgos dg kosj cd bohhos.
;. M`phogtor prjnro`os
prjnro`os cd mgkdgtmvjs
mgkdgtmvjs poro
poro rdcukmr ho gj cmspjgmamhmcoc
cmspjgmamhmcoc y `d-
fjror dh o`amdgtd cd troaofj cdh rdkursj eu`ogj.
  3. Dstogcormzor dh phog
phog cd
cd ko`amjs
ko`amjs gdkdsormjs
gdkdsormjs poro ho opdrturo
opdrturo cd
cd prjkdsjs,
prjkdsjs, kjg
dh jafdtj cd rdcukmr hjs tmd`pjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs.
  4. Qdcukmr
Qdcukmr,, dg hj pjsmahd, ho brdkudgkmo cd ko`amjs pjr opdrturo
opdrturo cd prjkdsjs kjg
ugo prjnro`okmûg ocdkuoco cd ho prjcukkmûg cdtohhoco.
  Ho kopokmcoc rdoh cd ug smstd`o prjcuktmvj ds `dgjr qud su kopokmcoc dbdk-
tmvo to`amíg pjr rdstrmkkmjgds mgtdrgos cdh smstd`o, sûhj qud ístos yo gj jadcdkdg
o gj cmspjgmamhmcocds cd hjs rdkursjs, smgj `ïs amdg o mgoktmvmcocds cd hjs `ms`js,
hos qud jkurrdg pjr ahjqudjs dg dh 󿬁ufj cd hos dgtmcocds y qud sjg cd cjs tmpjs6
  ?. Tgo dstokmûg cd troaofj y sus kjrrdspjgcmdgtds rdkursjs dxpdrm`dgtog mgok-
tmvmcoc pjr bohto cd mgsu`js prjvdgmdgtds cd ho dstokmûg ogtdrmjr.
  1. Tgo dstokmûg cd troaofj y sus kjrrdspjgcm
kjrrdspjgcmdgtds
dgtds rdkursjs dstïg mgoktmvjs kuogcj
sd hhdgû dh aubbdr cd ho dstokmûg smnumdgtd y gj sd pudcdg hmadror dgtmcocds pjr
bohto cd dspokmj poro qud dspdrdg pjr su prjkdsj dg ho dstokmûg smnumdgtd.
  Dh prm`dr kosj jkurrd kuogcj dh prjkdsj cd ugo dgtmcoc dg ho dstokmûg og-
tdrmjr jkupû ug hopsj cd tmd`pj cd`osmocj hornj, y dh sdnugcj jkurrd pjr kouso
cd ug to`oÿj mgsu󿬏kmdgtd cd aubbdr, pjr togtj, hjs boktjrds cdtdr`mgogtds poro ho
jkurrdgkmo cd mgoktmvmcocds dg ug prjkdsj prjcuktmvj sjg ho vormoamhmcoc dg hos cu-
rokmjgds cd hos oktmvmcocds y hjs to`oÿjs cd hjs aubbdr qud prdkdcdg o hos dstokmjgds
cd troaofj. Hjs `dkogms`js qud pdr`mtdg rdcukmr ho cmbdrdgkmo dgtrd ho kopokmcoc

?;3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 2.4
Kousos cd hos cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd
kjgkdptjs cd kopokmcoc. Soso cd 󿬁ufj ≣ Kopokmcoc rdoh ≣ Kopokmcoc dbdktmvo ≣ Kopokmcoc tdûrmko
          ⎮ ⎦ ⎦ ⎥ ⎦ ⎦ ⎭ ⎮ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎥ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎦ ⎭

Qdsuhto cd mgd󿬏kmdgkmos Qdsuhto cd mgd󿬏kmdgkmos

 y rdstrmkkmjgds dxtdrgos
dxtdrgos  y rdstrmkkmjgds mgtdrgos
mgtdrgos

dbdktmvo y ho kopokmcoc rdoh cd ug prjkdsj prjcuktmvj sd rdhokmjgog kjg pjhàtmkos

jpdrotmvos cdh prjkdsj qud pdr`mtdg smgkrjgmzor `dfjr hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos,
kj`j sjg dh aohogkdj cd hos dstokmjgds cd troaofj (vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard cmspjsmkmûg
cd hos mgstohokmjgds) y ho ocdkuoco prjnro`okmûg cd hos oktmvmcocds y hjs rdkursjs
(vdo dh kopàtuhj sjard prjnro`okmûg y kjgtrjh cd hos oktmvmcocds prjcuktmvos).
  Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro 2.4, ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg
sudhd sdr `dgjr qud ho kopokmcoc rdoh cdh smstd`o, cdamcj o rdstrmkkmjgds dxtdr-
gos oh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj. Dg dstd kosj, dh smstd`o gj troaofo o su `ïxm`o toso cd
󿬁ufj pjsmahd, cdamcj o qud gj ds kjgvdgmdgtd (pjr bohto cd cd`ogco j dxmstdgkmo
cd mgvdgtormjs) j to`amíg pjr bohto cd mgsu`js, qud sd ndgdro pjr ugo phogdokmûg
 mgocdkuoco cd ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj j pjr ho jkurrdgkmo cd dvdgtjs m`prdvmstjs.
Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, sm ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh smstd`o ds `ukej `dgjr qud su kopokmcoc,
cdadg `dfjrorsd hjs prjkdsjs cd vdgto y prj`jkmûg cd prjcuktjs j dh prjkdsj cd
oaostdkm`mdgtj cd mgsu`js, dg kjgnrudgkmo kjg ho kouso qud jrmnmgo ho mgd󿬏kmdgkmo
dg ho utmhmzokmûg cd hjs rdkursjs cmspjgmahds.

Dfd`phj 2.>. @dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc poro ho `ogubokturo

cd ug kj`pjgdgtd

Kjgsmcdrd
pdrj supjgno dh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo
qud dxmstd rdprjkdsj, kj`jcdh kj`pjgdgtd
sd mhustro dg dhdktrûgmkj
ho 󿬏nuro 2.2,cdh dfd`phj
cjgcd 2.;,
gmgnög
kj`pjgdgtd j torfdto rdqumdrd cd `ïs cd ug rdprjkdsj pjr bohho. Hos curokmjgds,
kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj y  pjjhds poro koco oktmvmcoc, sd prd-
sdgtog dg ho toaho 2.5.
  O portmr cd hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 2.5, kjg ugo cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd 359
`mgutjs/turgj y hjs boktjrds cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc qud opordkdg dg ho toaho
2.=,, sd kohkuhorjg hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (pjr turgj) qud sd prdsdgtog dg
2.=

‶ Bmnuro 2.2
Yrjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cd ug
kj`pjgdgtd kjg rdprjkdsj.
?9%

Mgmkmj
Dgso`ahd Yrudao
cd torfdtos O cd torfdtos O [dhhocj
?9%
[dporokmûg
cd portds

Dgso`ahd Yrudao Yrudao Bmg

cd torfdtos A cd torfdtos A cdh kj`pjgdgtd

?9%

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?;4

CTQOKMÛG # D[YDQOCJ KJGSDGMCJ MC YJJHD[   ‶ Soaho 2.5

MC O K S M R M CO C (@MGTSJ[) CD RM[MSO[ CD SQOAOFJ CD QDKTQ[J[ Kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj poro ho
`ogubokturo cd ug kj`pjgdgtd
? [dporokmûg cd portds ? ? ? J[DY kjg rdprjkdsj.
1 Dgso`ahd torfdto O ? ?.? ?.? JDSO
; Dgso`ahd torfdto A ?.4 ?.? ?.24 JDSA
3 Yrudao torfdto O ?.4 ?.? ?.24 JYSO, DYSO
4 Yrudao torfdto A 1 ?.? 1.1 JYSA, DYSO
2 [dhhocj ? ?.? ?.? J[YK, @[DH
> Yrudao kj`pjgdgtd ?.4 ?.? ?.24 [YK, DYSO

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C ‶ Soaho 2.=

Kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo
# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO poro ho `ogubokturo cd ug
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O@
O@ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S DÛ QM KO D B D K S M RO kj`pjgdgtd.
J[DY ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
JDSO ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.? 3;2.;2 ;3=.9=
JDSA ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.24 1=9.=? 1;1.>;
 JYSO ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.24 1=9.=? 1;1.>;
JYSA ? 359 9.1 ;53 1.1 1?5.?5 ?>3.44
J[YK ? 359 9.1 ;53 1.>4 ?>3.44 ?;=.23
@[DH ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.? 3;2.;2 ;3=.9=
DYSO ? 359 9.94 342 4.4 5>.1> 51.=?

ho toahokj`pjgdgtds/turgj,
5>.1> 2.=. Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg ho toaho,
y ho kopokmcoc ho kopokmcoc
dbdktmvo cd 51.=?tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj ds cd
kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.
  Ds gdkdsormj ogohmzor dh dbdktj dg hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos cd hos
smnumdgtds `dcmcos (ugo o ho vdz)6
  o) Ocqumrmr jtrj dqumpj
dqumpj poro prudao
prudao cd torfdtos y krdor ug pjjh DYOA (dqumpj
poro prudaos O y A) qud sd dgkornud sûhj cd ho prudao cd hos torfdtos O y A,
kjg ug boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc cd 9.94, osà dh  pjjh DYSO sd dg-
kornorào sûhj cd ho prudao cdh kj`pjgdgtd.
  a) Ocqumrmr jtrj dqumpj poro prudao cd cd torfdtos y ocmkmjgorhj
ocmkmjgorhj oh pjjh DYSO, kjg
dh `ms`j boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc.
  k) M`phogtor ug prjnro`o
prjnro`o qud rdcuzko dh rdprjkdsj
rdprjkdsj o 1% dg hjs ; kosjs (torfdto
O, torfdto A y kj`pjgdgtd).
  c) Qdcukmr dh boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc cd hjs pjjhds J[DY
 J[DY,, JDSO JDSA,
JD SA,
JYSO, JYSA y J[YK cd 9.1 o 9.94.
  d) Kopokmtor o hjs rdkursjs cd JDSO,
JDSO, JDSA, JYSO, JYSA y J[YK poro poro qud rdohm-
kdg hos oktmvmcocds 1-> y krdor ug pjjh JDYT (jpdrormj cd dgso`ahd y prudao
ugmvdrsoh) kjg 4 rdkursjs  y dh `ms`j boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc.
  b) Dhdvor o ; hos ugmcocds cdh pjjh DYSO y ophmkor ho `dcmco d), kjg hjs `ms`js
boktjrds cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc.
  Oh ophmkor ho `dcmco cdh mgkmsj o ko`amoràog hos kopokmcocds cdh pjjh DYSO y
sd onrdnorào dh  pjjh DYOA, cd okudrcj kjg ho toaho qud sd `udstro o kjgtmguokmûg.
Cdamcj o qud cms`mguyd ho korno ugmtormo cdh kudhhj cd ajtdhho (DYSO), dh gudvj
kudhhj cd ajtdhho ds dh  pjjh DYOA, kjg ho `dfjro cd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkd-
sj cd 5>.1> o ?13.25 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj, y ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cd 51.=? o ??5.33
kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.

?;2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C

# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O @ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S D ÛQM KO D B D K S M RO
DYOA ? 359 9.94 342 ;.54 ?13.25 ??5.33
DYSO ? 359 9.94 342 ?.24 1=9.=? 1>2.;2

Oh ophmkor ho `dcmco cdh mgkmsj a, gj sd ocmkmjgog gudvjs  pjjhds, pdrj sd obdktog hos
kopokmcocds cdh kudhhj cd ajtdhho (DYSO) kj`j sd `udstro o kjgtmguokmûg6

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C

# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O @ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S D ÛQM KO D B D K S M RO
DYSO 1 359 9.94 342 4.4 ?>3.44 ?24.51

  Ho gudvo kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj ds cd ?> ?>3.44

3.44 kj`pjgdgtds/
kj`pjgdgtds/turgj
turgj y
ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo ds cd ?;=.23 (cdamco oh  pjjh J[YK). Ougqud sd mgkurrd dg ug
kjstj sm`mhor oh cd ho `dcmco o), dsto `dcmco prjcukd `dfjrds kopokmcocds cdamcj
o qud sd oprjvdkeog hjs pjsmahds tmd`pjs `udrtjs qud aofj ho `dcmco o) tdgcrào
dh  pjjh DYSO.
  Ho `dcmco k) obdkto hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd tjcos hos oktmvmcocds (dxkdp-
 tj ho sdporokmûg cd portds) y sd obdktog hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo dg tjcjs
hjs  pjjhds, dxkdptj dh J[DY, kj`j sd `udstro dg ho smnumdgtd toaho. [d `dfjro ho
kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj cd 5>.1> o =3.?1 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj, y ho kopokmcoc
dbdktmvo cd 51.=? o 5=.3? kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C

# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O @ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S D ÛQM KO D B D K S M RO
J[DY ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
JDSO ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.91 3>9.4= ;>2.3>
JDSA ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4; ;?;.>; 149.=5
JYSO ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.4; ;?;.>; 149.=5
JYSA ? 359 9.1 ;53 1.93 1;4.1= ?55.13
J[YK ? 359 9.1 ;53 1.44 ?55.13 ?49.4=
@[DH ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.91 3>9.4= ;>2.3>
DYSO ? 359 9.94 342 4.? =3.?1 5=.3?

Ho `dcmco c) `dfjro hos kopokmcocds dbdktmvos cd tjcjs hjs  pjjhds  cd jpdrormjs,

kj`j sd `udstro dg ho smnumdgtd toaho, pdrj ho kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj gj
sd `dfjro, cdamcj o qud gj sd obdktû dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho (DYSO).

# CD C M [ Y J G M A M H M C O C BOKSJQ KOQNO K O YO K M CO C
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O @ OC OCO C D YÍ YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S D ÛQM KO D B D K S M RO
J[DY ? 359 9.94 342 ? 359 342
JDSO ? 359 9.94 342 ?.? 3;2.;2 3?3.44
JDSA ? 359 9.94 342 ?.24 1=9.=? 1>2.;2
JYSO ? 359 9.94 342 ?.24 1=9.=? 1>2.;2
JYSA ? 359 9.94 342 1.1 1?5.?5 19>.1>
J[YK ? 359 9.94 342 1.>4 ?>3.44 ?24.51

Oh ophmkor ho `dcmco d) sd krdo dh  pjjh cd jpdrormjs JDYT kjg 4 ugmcocds, kjg hos
kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo qud sd `udstrog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho. Dh gudvj  pjjh 

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?;>

ndgdro kornos cd troaofj `ïs ugmbjr`ds, pdrj kj`j gj sd obdktû ho kopokmcoc cdh
kudhhj cd ajtdhho (DYSO), hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj oög sjg
hos `ms`os.

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C

# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O@
O@ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S DÛ QM KO D B D K S M RO
JDYT 4 359 9.1 ;53 =.;4 142.25 194.;4

  Yjr öhtm`j, oh ophmkor ho `dcmco b) qudcoràog sûhj hjs 3 pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud
sd `udstrog o kjgtmguokmûg, y sd pudcd oprdkmor dh dbdktj cd ho `dcmco d), yo qud
ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj `dfjro cd 5>.1> o 142.25 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj, y ho
kopokmcoc dbdktmvo `dfjro cd 51.=? o 194.;4 kj`pjgdgtds/turgj.

CM [YJ GMA MH MCOC K O YO K M CO C

# CD BOKSJQ KOQNO
MC T GM
GM C O C D [ Y Q J NQ
NQ O@
O@ OC
OCO C D YÍ
YÍ Q C M CO G D SO T G M SO Q M O S DÛ QM KO D B D K S M RO
J[DY ? 359 9.1 ;53 ? 359 ;53
JDYT 4 359 9.1 ;53 =.;4 142.25 194.;4
 @[DH ? 359 9.1 ;53 ?.91 3>9.4= ;>2.3>
DYSO ; 359 9.94 342 4.4 12?.51 135.>;

KO[J 2.?6 Kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ugo ho`mgocjro?

Mgtrjcukkmûg cd koco rjhhj pudcd hhdnor o 299 `dtrjs. Dg ho toaho

Qjklhogc [tddh ds ugo d`prdso qud sd cdcmko o ho
prjcukkmûg cd rjhhjs cd hï`mgo cd okdrj qud sd utm-
hmzog kj`j mgsu`j poro ho `ogubokturo cd ugo nrog
vormdcoc cd prjcuktjs. Tgo cd sus phogtos ds ugo
ho`mgocjro dg kohmdgtd qud kjgvmdrtd hos phokos cd
okdrj dg rjhhjs cd hï`mgo. Dh prjkdsj `ogtmdgd ug
ïrdo poro dh dgbrmo`mdgtj cd hjs rjhhjs y jtro poro
oh`okdgor dh mgvdgtormj cd prjcuktj tdr`mgocj
(󿬏nuro 2.>), dh smstd`o cd trogspjrtokmûg qud utm-
hmzo kjgsmstd cd ugo 󿬁jtmhho cd troktjrds kjg korno
outj`ïtmko.
Cdtohhds cd jpdrokmûg
Yrjcukkmûg
Hjs rjhhjs cd hï`mgo kjgstmtuydg ho `otdrmo prm`o
poro boarmkor korrjkdràos cd outj`ûvmhds j dh kudrpj
cd ortdboktjs poro dh ejnor,
ejnor, y ho hjgnmtuc cd ho hï`mgo
2.?9 sd prdsdgtog hos koroktdràstmkos cd hjs trds tmpjs
cd rjhhj qud jbrdkd dg dstd `j`dgtj ho phogto, y
dg ho 󿬏nuro 2.5 sd prdsdgto dh cmonro`o cd 󿬁ufj cdh
prjkdsj.
Ho`mgocjro dg kohmdgtd (HK)
Koco phoko cd okdrj poso o trovís cd ugo sdkudg-
kmo cd ?9 rjcmhhjs cd ho`mgokmûg, poro rdcukmr ho
phoko o ugo hï`mgo horno y cdhnoco, kjg dh ogkej y
dspdsjr gdkdsormj, y oh 󿬏goh sd dgrjhho poro bjr`or
dh rjhhj. Ho HK prjkdso hjs rjhhjs o ugo toso cd 399
tjgdhocos/ejro.
Sroshocj oh ïrdo cd porkeocj (OY)
Tgo nröo cd rmdh rdtmro hjs rjhhjs cd ho HK y hjs trogs-
pjrto o ug ïrdo cd dspdro, oktmvmcoc qud tj`o 9.4
`mgutjs dg prj`dcmj, cjgcd sd kjhjkog porkeds cd
okdrj o koco rjhhj poro `ogtdgdr dh dgrjhhocj.

? Ocoptoco cdh ??te Mgstmtutd jb Mgcustrmoh Dgnmgddrs/Qjklwdhh [jbtword [tucdgt [m`uhotmjg Kjgtdst (Ldhtjg dt oh., 199>).

?;5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 2.>
Cmspjsmkmûg cd ho phogto
cd ho`mgocj cd Qjklhogc.

Ïrdo Ïrdo
cd dgbrmo`mdgtj cd mgvdgtormjs

Ho`mgocjro dg kohmdgtd

Ho`mgokmûg Aogco
 y dgrjhhocj
Yorkeocj

Yorkeocj hhdvog korno y o ?19 `dtrjs/`mgutjs cd rdnrdsj. [mg


Tg sjhj jpdrormj sd dgkorno cdh porkeocj y sm dh rjhhj
ds cdh tmpj ?, 1 j ; sd ophmkog ?, 1 j ; porkeds cd
sdnurmcoc. Koco porked tj`o 19 sdnugcjs dg prj-
`dcmj y dh jpdrormj uso ugo nröo cd rmdh poro `jvdr
dh rjhhj o ugo aogco trogspjrtocjro, oktmvmcoc qud
jkupo 19 sdnugcjs dg prj`dcmj.
Srogspjrtd dg aogco
Ho aogco tmdgd ;9 `dtrjs cd hjgnmtuc y ds ug trogs-
pjrtocjr oku`uhotmvj qud hhdvo outj`ïtmko`dgtd
hjs rjhhjs eokmo ho tdr`mgoh cd sohmco. Hjs rjhhjs sd
kjhjkog oh mgmkmj cd ho aogco, qud tmdgd kopokmcoc
poro ?4 rjhhjs y ugo vdhjkmcoc gjr`oh cd ?1 `dtrjs/
`mgutj. Oh 󿬏goh cd ho aogco, dh rjhhj cdad dspdror
o qud ug troktjr hj rdkjfo poro hhdvorhj oh ïrdo cd
dgbrmo`mdgtj.
Srogspjrtd cd rjhhjs
Dg ho oktuohmcoc sd rdgtog 4 troktjrds qud pdr`mtdg
ho korno, dh trogspjrtd y ho cdskorno outj`ïtmko cd
hjs
cdh rjhhjs.
ïrdo cdKoco troktjr korno
dgbrmo`mdgtj (OD)eosto ; rjhhjs
oh ïrdo y vmofog
cd mgvdgtormjs
(OM) o ugo vdhjkmcoc cd 59 `dtrjs/`mgutj kuogcj
d`aornj, kuogcj vmofog dgtrd dh ïrdo cd ho HK y dh
OD, vmofog o ho `mtoc cd su vdhjkmcoc pjr rozjgds
cd sdnurmcoc. Ho korno tj`o oprjxm`oco`dgtd 9.5
`mgutjs y ho cdskorno 9.4 `mgutjs pjr rjhhj.
  Ho pjhàtmko oktuoh cd jpdrokmûg dstoahdkd qud
koco troktjr rdohmkd ugo cd cjs bugkmjgds6
  • Bugkmûg O6 cjs troktjrds `udvdg hjs rjhhjs
cdscd dh ïrdo cd ho HK eokmo dh OD.
  • Bugkmûg A6 trds troktjrds `udvdg hjs rjhhjs
cdscd dh OD eokmo dh OM.
  Ho cmstogkmo prj`dcmj cd vmofd (cd mco) cdscd
dh ïrdo cd HK eosto dh OD ds cd ?49 `dtrjs y cdscd
dh OD eosto dh OM ds cd >=1 `dtrjs.
Jafdtmvj cdh dstucmj
Dgkjgtror dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho y dstm`or ho kopokmcoc
tdûrmko dg tjgdhocos/sd`ogo.
[jhukmûg cdh kosj
Dg ho ejfo
orkemvj cd kjrrdspjgcmdgtd
Dxkdh kïhkuhj cd gj`ard ‘Qjklhogc‐
o dstd kopàtuhjcdh
sd
prdsdgtog hjs kïhkuhjs kjg hjs qud sd jatuvmdrjg

‶ Soaho 2.?9 YQ JC TK SJ Y D [ J / Q J H H J ( S J G D H O CO [ ) Y J Q K D G SO F D
Koroktdràstmkos cd ho prjcukkmûg
cd ho phogto cd Qjklhogc. ? ?9 19%
1 ?1 ;9%
; ?4 49%

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?;=

‶ Bmnuro 2.5
Ho`mgokmûg Qjhhj dg Cmonro`o cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj
Yhoko  y dgrjhhocj Ho`mgocjro oh`okíg cd ho phogto cd Qjklhogc.
Yhoko

Nröo cd rmdh Sroshocj o OY

Srogspjrtd oh ïrdo Sroktjrds A
cd mgvdgtormjs
Yorkeocjr  Yorkeocj

Aogco Srogspjrtd Srogspjrtd oh ïrdo Sroktjrds O

trogspjrtocjro dg aogco cd dgbrmo`mdgtj

hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos (dg tjgdhocos/sd`ogo) cd
hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho 󿬏nuro
2.=.. Yoro jatdgdr dstjs rdsuhtocjs sd kohkuhorjg kjg-
2.=
tdgmcjs cd troaofj poro ugo `dzkho cd prjcukkmûg
trogspjrtd eokmo dh ïrdo cd dgbrmo`mdgtj< ds cdkmr,
sdrào mgtdrdsogtd mgvdstmnor sm hjs rjhhjs pucmdrog so-
tmsbokdr sus rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd dgbrmo`mdgtj curog-
td hos dspdros y jpdrokmjgds cd trogspjrtd cdscd dh
 cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (4.5) y kornos kjgsjhm-
cocos dspdrocos cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (2.4).
Yjr dfd`phj, poro ho ho`mgocjro ho korno ugmtormo
ds dh kjgtdgmcj cd troaofj dspdrocj cd ho ho`mgo-
kmûg y dgrjhhocj, qud ds cd KT  9.1 (?9/399)(29)
  9.; (?1/399)(29)    9.4 (?4/399)(29)   1.?;
`mgutjs, y ho korno kjgsjhmcoco dspdroco ds cd
KK  9.1 (?9)  9.; (?1)  9.4 (?4)  ?3.1 tjgdho-
cos, pjr togtj, sm ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco ds cd
?9 959 `mgutjs/sd`ogo, ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ho
ho`mgocjro rdsuhto cd (?9 959)(?3.1)/1.?;  2> 199
tjgdhocos/sd`ogo.
  Dh cmonro`o qud rdsuhto, 󿬏nuro 2.=
2.=,, `udstro qud
dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho ds dh pjjh cd troktjrds qud trosho-
cog hjs rjhhjs cdscd dh OD eosto dh OM. Tgo prdnugto
mgtdrdsogtd sjard dstd prjkdsj ds sm ds gdkdsormj dh
󿬏g cd ho ho`mgokmûg eosto su cdskorno dg dh ïrdo cd
mgvdgtormjs, smg posor pjr dh ïrdo cd dgbrmo`mdgtj.
[mg d`aornj, poro rdsjhvdr dsto prdnugto, dh ogïhmsms
tdûrmkj qud opordkd dg dstjs kopàtuhjs ds mgsu󿬏kmdg-
td, ocd`ïs qud sd rdqumdrdg cotjs sjard dh to`oÿj
cd ohnugjs aubbdr qud gj sd eog prjpjrkmjgocj.
Tgo tíkgmko oprjpmoco poro rdsjhvdr dsto prdnugto
ds ho sm`uhokmûg cdh smstd`o pdrj kjg hjs cotjs ocm-
kmjgohds qud sd rdqumdrdg. Yjr jtrj hocj, dh ogïhmsms
tdûrmkj gj cdfo cd sdr ötmh, yo qud pdr`mtd oprdkmor
qud ho `oyjr toso cd prjcukkmûg qud ohkogzo dstd
smstd`o ds cd 2> 199 tjgdhocos/sd`ogo, o `dgjs qud
sd rdd`phokd dh trdg cd ho`mgokmûg, y qud kuohqumdr
`dcmco qud sd ocjptd poro mgkrd`dgtor ho kopokm-
coc cdh prjkdsj cdad `dfjror dh trogspjrtd eokmo
dh OM.

Ho`mgokmûg Qjhhj dg
Yhoko
Yhoko  y dgrjhhocj Ho`mgocjro oh`okíg
2> 199 ‶ Bmnuro 2.=
Kopokmcocds tdûrmkos
Nröo cd rmdh dg ho phogto cd ho`mgocj
Sroshocj o OY cd Qjklhogc.
152 1>1
@ïxm`o Srogspjrtd oh ïrdo Sroktjrds A
kopokmcoc cd mgvdgtormjs 2; ?35
Yorkeocjr  tdûrmko
?;9 ?13 Yorkeocj

Aogco
trogspjrtocjro Srogspjrtd Srogspjrtd oh ïrdo
545 5?2 dg aogco cd dgbrmo`mdgtj Kudhhj cd
ajtdhho
Sroktjrds O
53 2?1

?39  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. Kjgsmcdrd hjs cotjs cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh kj`- CTQOKMÛG YQDCDKD- QDKTQ[J[
pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cdh dfd`phj 2.2, pdrj ocmkmjgd ug M C O K S M R M CO C ([DNTGCJ[) [JQD[ GDKD[OQMJ[
gudvj pjjh J[DK (jpdrormj cd sdhhocj cdh kj`pjgdgtd) ? [dporor portds ?9 Gmgnugj Síkgmkj S
kjg ugo sjho ugmcoc, qud sd jkuporào sûhj cdh sdhhocj,
`mdgtros qud dh ogtmnuj  pjjh J[YK sd jkuporào sûhj cd 1 Yrdgsor photobjr`o ;9 ? Síkgmkj YS,
ho prudao cdh kj`pjgdgtd. prdgso YS
  o) Kohkuhd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo poro koco ; Yrdgsor korrjkdrào ?4 ? Síkgmkj BS,
ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos kopokm- prdgso BS
cocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj. 3 Bjr`or photobjr`o ;4 1 Síkgmkj YA,
  a) Kohkuhd ho kopokmcoc utmhmzoco cd koco  pjjh  cd rd- prdgso YA
kursjs sm ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cdh prjkdsj budro mnuoh o su 4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào ?4 ; Síkgmkj BA,
kopokmcoc dbdktmvo. prdgso BA
  1. Dg ho smnumdgtd toaho sd `udstrog hjs rdkursjs qud rd- 2 Dgso`ahor 19 3,4 Síkgmkj D
qumdrdg koco
cd fjydrào cdhugo cd hos oktmvmcocds
dfdrkmkmj cdh4.prjkdsj cdh tohhdr
? cdh kopàtuhj
> Mgspdkkmjgor 39 2 Mgspdktjr

QDKTQ[J[ KJGSDGMCJ CD   o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj cd

MC O[MNGOCJ[ SQOA
SQOAOFJ
OFJ (@MG
(@MGTS
TSJ[)
J[) YQD
YQDCDK
CDKD[J
D[JQD
QD[[ `ogubokturo (gj mgkhuyo gmgnög aubbdr).
  a) Dg ho oktuohmcoc dh gö`drj dspdrocj cd vmsmtos ds cd ?
? [dkkrd
[d rdttor
ormo
mo 4 Gmgn
Gmgnug
ugj
j
poro koco oktmvmcoc y dxmstd ugo ugmcoc dg koco pjjh 
1 Srjqudhocjr ;99 ? cd rdkursjs, dxkdptj dh cd mgspdktjr, cjgcd dxmstdg
 ; Bugcmcjr 199 ? cjs ugmcocds. Osm`ms`j, ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco
3 Or`ocjr C 29 1 poro koco rdkursj ds cd 5 ejros/cào y ho pírcmco cd
4 Or`ocjr D 19 ;
cmspjgmamhmcoc dg tjcjs hjs  pjjhds ds cd 9.1, dxkdptj
poro hos prdgsos, cjgcd ds cd 9.?. Kohkuhd hos kopokm-
2 Qdhjfdrj ;9 3,4 cocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg ugmcocds/cào) poro koco
  o) Kohkuhd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg rdhjfds/ ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos kopokm-
cào) poro koco ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs, sm koco cocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj.
ugj tmdgd ugo sjho ugmcoc, kjg ugo korno kjgsjhmco-
  k) Tg tíkgmkj dg kjgtrjh gu`írmkj `jcm󿬏kû hos prdgsos

co cd oh
ejros ugocàougmcoc,
y boktjrcmspjgmamhmcoc
cd pírcmco cd prjnro`oco
cmspjgmamhmcoccdcd5 poro
qumgo,qud sd pudco
hudnj prdgsordhykjgtrjh
cd okkmjgor bjr`orkjrrdspjgcmdgtd,
dg ho `ms`o `ï-
9.?14. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo hj qud pdr`mtd qud hos 3 `ïqumgos sd jrnogmkdg dg 1
 pjjhds kjg 1 `ïqumgos koco ugj. Dh prm`dr
prm` dr pjjh prdgso
cd tjcj dh prjkdsj.
  a) Dh cudÿj cdh tohhdr jasdrvo qud hjs or`ocjrds tmdgdg y bjr`o tdkejs, y dh sdnugcj prdgso y bjr`o aosds.
`ukej tmd`pj hmard dg kj`porokmûg kjg dh trjqudhocjr Cd mnuoh `ogdro, 3 tíkgmkjs (YS, BS, YA y BA) rdkmamd-
y dh bugcmcjr, pjr hj qud kopokmto o hjs jpdrormjs poro rjg dgtrdgo`mdgtj poro jrnogmzorsd dg 1 pjjhds kjg 1
bjr`or cjs pjjhds kjg 1 ugmcocds koco ugj, dh prm`dr tíkgmkjs koco ugj, y kj`j dg dh kosj cd hos prdgsos,
 pjjh eorï trjqudhocj y or`ocj C, y dh sdnugcj bugcmcj
dh prm`dr pjjh sd cdcmkorï o prdgsor y bjr`or tdkejs
y or`ocj D. So`amíg cdkmcd qud dh rdhjfdrj tj`d hjs y dh sdnugcj o prdgsor y bjr`or aosds. [m ho pírcmco
pdcmcjs y, pjr togtj, pudcd prdskmgcmr
prdskmgcm r cd ho sdkrdtormo. cd cmspjgmamhmcoc y ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco sd
Kohkuhd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg rdhjfds/cào) `ogtmdgdg kj`j ogtds, cdtdr`mgd hos kopokmcocds
poro koco ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs d mcdgtm󿬏qud tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg ugmcocds/cào) cd hjs gudvjs
 pjjhds cd rdkursjs y cdtdr`mgd ho kopokmcocds tdûrmko
hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj.
  ;. Kjgsmcdrd hjs cotjs cdh prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cdh y dbdktmvo cdh gudvj prjkdsj.
kj`pjgdgtd dhdktrûgmkj cdh dfd`phj 2.>. M`phogtd hos   4. Kjgsmcdrd ho `ogubokturo cd outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd
`jcm󿬏kokmjgds k) o ho b) prjpudstos dg dh dfd`phj, dg cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr,
ogtdrmjr, kjg hjs `ms`js cotjs, pdrj kjg hjs
sdkudgkmo, ugo ocd`ïs cd hos jtros, y dg koco kosj dvo- smnumdgtds gö`drjs dspdrocjs cd vmsmtos pjr oktmvmcoc.
höd dh dbdktj dg hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd
koco ugj cd hjs pjjhds cd rdkursjs y dg dh prjkdsj dg MC O K SM R MCO C GDR
su kjgfugtj. ? [dporor portds ?
  3. @dxSjys ds ug boarmkogtd cd outj`ûvmhds cd funudtd. 1 Yrdgsor photobjr`o ?.1
Dh `jcdhj dstïgcor rdqumdrd cjs suadgso`ahds6 ho pho-
tobjr`o y ho korrjkdrào, y su `ogubokturo sd mgmkmo kjg ; Yrdgsor korrjkdrào ?.?
ho sdporokmûg cd hos portds poro ho photobjr`o y hos cd ho 3 Bjr`or photobjr`o ?.3
korrjkdrào, o kjgtmguokmûg ho photobjr`o y ho korrjkd- 4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào ?.1
rào sd troaofog dg porohdhj, kjg asod dg hos oktmvmcocds, 2 Dgso`ahor ?.?
?.
curokmjgds, prdkdcdgkmos y  pjjhds  cd rdkursjs qud sd
> Mgspdkkmjgor ?.?
cdtohhog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho.

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?3?

  o) Kjg hjs cotjs cdhtdûrmko

hos kopokmcocds mgkmsj aycdh dfdrkmkmj
dbdktmvo (dgogtdrmjr kohkuhd
ugmcocds/cào) KJGSDGMCJ CD SQOAOFJ QDKTQ[J[
MC (@MG
(@MGTS
TSJ[
J[/Y
/YOK
OKMD
MDGS
GSD)
D) YQDC
YQDCDK
DKD[
D[JQ
JQD[
D[ O[MNGOCJ[
poro koco ugj cd hjs pjjhds cd rdkursjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos ? > Gmgnugj Gmgnugj
kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj.
  a) Kjg hjs cotjs cdh mgkmsj k cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr kohkuhd 1 19 Gmgnugj @dgsofdrj
hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg ugmcocds/cào) ; 2 1 Síkgmkj cd royjs U
poro koco ugj cd hjs pjjhds cd rdkursjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos 3 4 ?,; Qdkdpkmjgmsto
kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj. 4 ; 3 [oho cd vdstmcj
  k) Ocd`ïs cd hos kjgsmcdrokmjgds cdh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr, sd
cdkmcmû mgkjrpjror ho prjcukkmûg cdh `jcdhj dkjgû- 2 >.4 4 Síkgmkj cd royjs U,
soho cd royjs U
`mkj, ugo `dzkho cd 29% dstïgcor y 39% dkjgû`mkj.
Cdtdr`mgd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos cd hjs > ?4 2 Síkgmkj cd rdvdhocj,
 pjjhds cd rdkursjs, hos kopokmcocd
kopokmcocdss tdûrmko y dbdktmvo soho cd rdvdhocj
cdh prjkdsj, kjgsmcdrd hjs smnumdgtds cotjs poro dh 5 1.4 > Síkgmkj cd royjs U
`jcdhj dkjgû`mkj. = ; 5 [oho cd vdstmcj
?9 > = Gmgnugj
O K S M R MCO C C D [ K Q M Y K M Û G C TQ O KM Û G ( [ DN TG C J[ ) ?? 19 5 @dgsofdrj
? [dporor portds ?9
1 Yrdgsor photobjr`o 19 Osm`ms`j, hos ugmcocds pjr  pjjh y ho korno ugmtormo cd
; Yrdgsor korrjkdrào ?4 hjs rdkursjs sd prdsdgtog dg ho smnumdgtd toaho6
3 Bjr`or photobjr`o 14
4 Bjr`or korrjkdrào ?4 KOQNO GÖ@DQJ CD

2 Dgso`ahor 19
> Mgspdkkmjgor 39
  2. Ho ugmcoc cd prjcukkmûg cd nohhdtos cd ugo pogocdrào
cdpdgcd cd 1 d`phdocjs6 Fuog y Krmstmgo. Sog prjgtj
kj`j sd rdkmad ug pdcmcj, hos nohhdtos sd prjcukdg dg
hjtds cd ?1 cd ho smnumdgtd `ogdro6 Krmstmgo prdporo ho
`dzkho (oktmvmcoc cd 2 `mgutjs), y hudnj vmdrtd ho `dzkho
dg ug `jhcd poro ?1 nohhdtos (1 `mgutjs). O kjgtmguo-
kmûg Fuog prdporo dh ejrgj y kjhjko dh `jhcd (? `mgutj).
Hos nohhdtos sd ejrgdog pjr = `mgutjs y hudnj sd dgbràog
(budro cdh ejrgj dg ugo `dso o`phmo) pjr 4 `mgutjs.
Yjr öhtm`j, Fuog d`poqudto hos nohhdtos (1 `mgutjs) y
dgtrdno ho jrcdg (? `mgutj). Dh boktjr cd pírcmco cd cms-
pjgmamhmcoc cd koco ugj cd hjs ; rdkursjs (1 d`phdocjs
`ïs dh ejrgj) ds cd 9.?, y ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco
ds cd 5 ejros oh cào.
  o) Kjgstruyo ho rdc cd oktmvmcocds poro dstd prjkdsj cd
`ogubokturo (gj mgkhuyo gmgnög aubbdr).
  a) [m dxmstd ug sjhj ejrgj kjg kopokmcoc poro ug `jhcd,
mcdgtm󿬏qud ho korno kjgsjhmcoco, ho korno ugmtormo y
hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd hjs pjjhds kjrrds-
pjgcmdgtds o Krmstmgo, Fuog y dh ejrgj, y ho kopokmcoc
  k) tdûrmko cdh prjkdsj
[m sd ocqumdrd (dg nohhdtos/cào).
ug gudvj ejrgj (sm`mhor oh ogtdrmjr),
mgcmqud hos gudvos koroktdràstmkos cdh  pjjh cd rdkur-
sjs obdktocj y hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cdh
prjkdsj.
c) [m ocd`ïs cd ho `jcm󿬏kokmûg ogtdrmjr, ho oktmvmcoc
cd cdpjsmtor ho `dzkho dg dh `jhcd sd osmngo o Fuog,
mgcmqud hos gudvos koroktdràstmkos cd hjs pjjhds cd rd-
kursjs obdktocjs y hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo
cdh prjkdsj.
  >. Kjgsmcdrd dh prjkdsj cd ophmkokmûg cd royjs U cdh ejs-
pmtoh Orkïgndh cdh dfdrkmkmj 5 cdh kopàtuhj 4, kjg hjs sm-
numdgtds cotjs6
?31  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[
   n)
e) Mgstohor
Dhm`mgorugo tdrkdro sohomgstohor
oh `dgsofdrj, cd rdvdhocj.
ugo tdrkdro soho cd Mgmkmj
rdvdhocj y dgtrdgor o 5 d`phdocjs (rdkdpkmjgmsto,
tíkgmkjs cd royjs U y tíkgmkjs cd rdvdhocj) poro qud
koco ugj pudco rdohmzor hos ; bugkmjgds (oktmvmcocds
;, 3, 2, > y 5).
  =. Qdpdtmr dh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr, pdrj oejro mgkhuyo koco
`jcmbmkokmûg dg sdkudgkmo, ocmkmjgoh`dgtd o hos
ogtdrmjrds.  
 ?9. Kjgsmcdrd hjs cotjs cdh kosj 2.?, pdrj supjgno qud ugo
sm`uhokmûg cdh prjkdsj pdr`mtd oprdkmor qud hjs rjhhjs
yo dxpdrm`dgtorjg dh dgbrmo`mdgtj gdkdsormj kuogcj
hhdnog oh 󿬏goh cd ho aogco trogspjrtocjro, pjr hj qud sd
pudcdg troshocor cmrdkto`dgtd cdscd HK eosto OM kjg
hjs 4 troktjrds cmspjgmahds.  
  o) Kohkuhd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko poro dh gudvj  pjjh  cd
troktjrds y cdtdr`mgd ho gudvo kopokmcoc tdûrmko cdh  
prjkdsj, dg kosj cd eoadr ko`amocj.
  a) [upjgno qud ho toso cd 󿬁ufj cd ho HK ds cd 299 tj-
gdhocos/ejro d mcdgtm󿬏qud dh `àgm`j gö`drj cd
ugmcocds qud gdkdsmto dh  pjjh cd troktjrds poro qud
dh smstd`o ohkogkd ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko cd ho HK.
 ??. Kjgsmcdrd ug prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo qud kjgsto cd 4  
QDKTQ[J KJG[JHMCOCO TGMCOCD[ DG YJJH
@dgsofdrj ? 2
Qdkdpkmjgmsto ? ?
Síkgmkj cd royjs U ? 3
[oho cd royjs U ? 1
Síkgmkj cd rdvdhocj ? ;
[oho cd rdvdhocj ? 1
[oho cd vdstmcj ? 1
  Ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prjnro`oco cd koco ugj cd hjs rdkur-
sjs ds cd 5 ejros/cào, ougqud koco ugj dxpdrm`dgto ug
boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc cd 9.?4. Kohkuhd hos
kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo (dg pokmdgtds/cào) poro
koco ugj cd hjs  pjjhds cd rdkursjs. Mcdgtm󿬏qud hos ko-
pokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh prjkdsj.
  5. Kjgsmcdrd hjs cotjs cdh prjkdsj cd ophmkokmûg cd royjs
U cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr. Mgtrjcuzko hos smnumdgtd `jcm-
󿬏kokmjgds, ugo o ho vdz, smg kjgsmcdror hos jtros, y poro
koco ugo cd hos `jcm󿬏kokmjgds6 m) kohkuhd dh m`poktj
dg korno ugmtormo, cmspjgmamhmcoc gdto, kopokmcoc tdû-
rmko cdh  pjjh  y kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh  pjjh poro dh(hjs)
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd(s) rdkursj(s) qud sd obdkto(g), mm) kohku-
hd dh m`poktj
dbdktmvo dg ho
cd tjcj dh kopokmcoc
prjkdsj. tdûrmko y dg ho kopokmcoc
  o) Mgstohor gudvj dqumpj poro rdcukmr dh tmd`pj cd rd-
vdhocj cd ?1 o ?9 `mgutjs.
  a) Oprdsuror oh pokmdgtd poro qud dfdkutd hos oktmvmcocds
4 y = dg 1 `mgutjs (koco ugo) dg hunor cd ;.
  k) Ydcmr oh pokmdgtd qud troshocd ho jrcdg (oktmvmcoc 1)
y ho m`prdsmûg (oktmvmcoc ??) íh `ms`j.
  c) M`phogtor ugo tdkgjhjnào qud pdr`mtd rdcukmr dh pjr-
kdgtofd cd phokos bohhmcos cd 14% o 4%.
  d) Qdcukmr ho pírcmco cd cmspjgmamhmcoc cdh tíkgmkj cd
rdvdhocj cd 9.?4 o 9.?9.
  b) Kjgtrotor ugo sdnugco rdkdpkmjgmsto.
[jhcocuro Dgso`ahd D`poqud Bmg
19% ?9%
Qdprjkdsj
Dh prjkdsj eo dxpdrm`dgtocj sdvdrjs prjahd`os cd
kohmcoc jkosmjgocjs pjr ho bohto cd pdrsjgoh cdamco`dg-
td dgtrdgocj. Dg dspdkà󿬏kj, 19% cd hos amkmkhdtos qud
sohdg cd ho dtopo cd sjhcocuro eog prdsdgtogcj bohhos,
pjr hj qud sjg dgvmocos o ugo dstokmûg kjg troaofocjrds
ohto`dgtd kopokmtocjs qud hos kjrrmndg, tdr`mgog cd bo-
armkor ho amkmkhdto y ho d`pokog
d`pokog dg ug tmd`pj prj`dcmj
prj`dcmj
cd 19 `mgutjs.
Dstd `ms`j prjahd`o to`amíg sd prdsdgto dg ho ds-
tokmûg cd dgso`ahd, cjgcd ?9% cd hos amkmkhdtos prdsdg-
tog bohhos y sjg dgvmocos o ho dstokmûg cd rdprjkdsj. Dg
dstd kosj sûhj tj`o ?9 `mgutjs (dg prj`dcmj) kjrrdnmr
dh prjahd`o y d`pokor dh prjcuktj.
O kjgtmguokmûg sd prdsdgtog hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd tro-
aofj y hjs rdkursjs rdqudrmcjs poro koco oktmvmcoc6
 oktmvmcocds dg sdrmd, osjkmocos o 4 pjjhds cd rdkursjs
qud jpdrog 5 ejros pjr cào kjg ug boktjr cd pírcmco cd KJGSDGMCJ[
cmspjgmamhmcoc cd 9.1. [d boarmkog trds tmpjs cd prjcuk- CD SQOAOFJ MC YJJHD[
tjs cmbdrdgtds O, A y K, kjg hjs smnumdgtds kjgtdgmcjs cd OKSMRMCOC (@MGTSJ[) CD QDKTQ[J[
troaofj pjr ugmcoc cdh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd prjcuktj6 [jhcocuro 2 J[, [J
Dgso`ahd 4 JDG, ED
MC CDH YJJH KJGSDGMCJ[ CD SQOAOFJ (@MGTSJ[)
D`poqud 3 JD@
CD QDKTQ[J[ O A K Qdprjkdsj (sm vmdgd cd sjhcocuro) 19 JQ, [J, ED
? 4 4 4 Qdprjkdsj (sm vmdgd cd dgso`ahd) ?1 JQ, ED
1 ; 3 4
; ?4 9 9   Yjr jtrj hocj, sd soad qud ho cmspjgmamhmcoc prj-
3 9 ; ; nro`oco cd tjcjs hjs rdkursjs ds cd 5 ejros pjr cào,
4 2 2 2
kjg hos smnumdgtds ugmcocds y boktjrds cd pírcmco cd
cmspjgmamhmcoc6
  Ocd`ïs, sd soad qud ho `dzkho cd ho prjcukkmûg ds ;9%
Ocd`ïs, BOKSJQ CD
cd O, ;9% cd A y 39% cd K. # CD YÍQCMCO CD
o) Kohkuhd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos cmormos MC YJ J H C D QD KTQ [J TGMCOCD[ CM[YJGMAMHMCOC
poro koco pjjh cd rdkursjs, sm koco ugj cd dhhjs tmdgd
J[ Jpdrocjr cd sjhcocuro ; 9.?4
ugo sjho ugmcoc, kjg ugo korno kjgsjhmcoco cd ugo
ugmcoc. [J @ïqumgo poro sjhcor 3 9.?4
a) Kjg aosd dg hjs rdsuhtocjs cdh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr, mcdg- JDG Jpdrocjr cd dgso`ahd 1 9.?4
tm󿬏qud dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho cdh prjkdsj, osà kj`j hos ED Edrro`mdgtos cd dgso`ahd ; 9.94
JD@ Jpdrocjr cd d`poqud 1 9.?4
  k) kopokmcocds tdûrmko
[m sd ocmkmjgo y dbdktmvo
jtro ugmcoc oh cd tjcj
pjjh cd dhrdkursjs
prjkdsj.cdh
kudhhj cd ajtdhho dgkjgtrocj dg a) ºkuïhds sdràog JQ Jpdrocjr cd rdprjkdsj ? 9.?
hos gudvos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cd tjcj dh
prjkdsj: ºy dh gudvj kudhhj cd ajtdhho:   o) Cdtdr`mgd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cdh
 ?1. Tg prjkdsj cd `ogubokturo cd amkmkhdtos kjgsto cd trds prjkdsj.
dtopos (sjhcocuro, dgso`ahd y d`poqud), kj`j sd prd- a) Mcdgtm󿬏qud dh kudhhj cd ajtdhho tdûrmkj ºds dh `ms`j
sdgto dg ho smnumdgtd 󿬏nuro. kudhhj cd ajtdhho dbdktmvj:
  k) [d eo jasdrvocj qud hjs kjgtdgmcjs cd troaofj cd
rdprjkdsj pudcdg rdcukmrsd 4 `mgutjs sm sd dvmto
d`pokor ho amkmkhdto curogtd dsto bosd y, dg su hunor,
sd dgvào oh ïrdo cd d`poqud. Mgcmqud kû`j sd vd

OGÏHM[M[ CD HO KOYOKMCOC ?3;

obdktoco
phd`dgtohodsto
kopokmcoc dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj sm sd m`-
`jcm󿬏kokmûg.   Hos oktmvmcocds sjg cdsd`pdÿ
rdkursjs6 cdsd`pdÿocos
ocos pjr hjs smnumdgtds
?;. QB Kjgtocjrds ds ugo pdqudÿo 󿬏r`o cd kjgtocjrds qud
prdstog sdrvmkmjs cd osdsjrào 󿬏skoh. Kjg aosd dg sus 13 # YDQ[JGOH
oÿjs cd dxpdrmdgkmo, QB khosm󿬏ko hjs kosjs cd sus khmdgtds Y JJ
JJ H C D Q DK
DK T Q [J
[J O K S M RM
RM C O C O [ T K O Q NJ
NJ CM[YJGMAHD
dg hjs smnumdgtds nrupjs6 Ydrsjgoh Qdkjpmhokmûg cd mgbjr`okmûg, 1
  m. Nrupj ? (khmdgtds gudvjs, bïkmhds cd prjkdsor)6 ?4% oc`mgmstrotmvj dhoajrokmûg cd dskrmtjs
cd hjs kosjs
  mm. Nrupj 1 (khmdgtds gudvjs, kj`phdfjs cd prjkdsor)6 Kjgtoc
Kjgtocjr
jr df
dfdk
dkut
utmv
mvj
j Qdug
Qdugmû
mûgg prd
prdhmhm`m
`mgo
gorr y rd
rdvm
vmsm
smûg
ûg ?
4% cd hjs kosjs Kjgtocjr Fr. (Adkormj) Yrdporokmûg ;
  mmm. Nrupj ; (khmdgtds rdkurrdgtds, bïkmhds cd prjkdsor)6
49% cd hjs kosjs   Sj`ogcj dg kudgto qud dh pdrsjgoh troaofo jkej
  mv. Nrupj 3 (khmdgtds rdkurrdgtds, kj`phdfjs cd prjkd- ejros oh cào y sd dstm`o ug boktjr cd pírcmco cd cmspj-
sor)6 ;9% cd hjs kosjs gmamhmcoc cd 9.3, rdspjgco hjs smnumdgtds mgkmsjs6
  Kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd prdporor hos cdkhorokmjgds, QB   o) Kohkuhd hos kopokmcocds tdûrmkos y dbdktmvos cmormos
cdad kj`phdtor hos smnumdgtds oktmvmcocds, kuyos curo- poro koco ugj cd hjs pjjhds cd rdkursjs.
kmjgds (dxprdsocos dg `mgutjs/cdkhorokmûg) voràog pjr   a) Cdtdr`mgd
kdsj. ho kopokmcoc tdûrmko y dbdktmvo cdh prj-
nrupj.
k) [m sd cdkmcd m`phd`dgtor ug gudvj smstd`o qud rd-
QDKJYMHOKMÛG
cukd 49% dh tmd`pj cd dhoajrokmûg cd hjs dskrmtjs,
CD QDTGMÛG DHOAJQOKMÛG ºkû`j sd vdràog ohtdrocos hos kopokmcocds tdûrmko y
NQTYJ MGBJQ@OKMÛG YQD
YQDHM@
HM@MGO
MGOQQ YQ
YQDY
DYOQ
OQOK
OKMÛ
MÛGG QDR
QDRM[M
M[MÛG
ÛG CD D[KQMSJ[ dbdktmvo cdh prjkdsj:
? 19 ;9 ?19 19 49
1 39 =9 ;99 29 59
; 19 Gj prjkdcd 59 4 ;9
3 39 Gj prjkdcd 1
19
99 ;9 29

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Ogupmgcm Q., [. Kejpro, [.C. [uceolor,
[uceolor, F.O.R
F.O.R.. @mdned`,   3. Ldhtjg ^. C., Q. Y. [ocjwslm y C. S. [turrjkl (199>),
y D. Vd`dh (1992), @ogonmgn ausmgdss prjkdss 󿬁jws, 1o. [m`uhotmjg wmte OQDGO, 3o. dc., @kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo
dc., Yrdgtmkd Eohh, Gudvo Fdrsdy.  ]jrl.
 ]jrl.
  1. Arochdy F. Q. y Y. ^.
^. Nhygg (1991), ‘@ogonmgn
‘@ogonmg n kopokmty   4. Umo K. E., F.F. N. [eogtemlu`or y Y.
Y. ^.
^. Nhygg (1999), ‘Jg
ogc mgvdgtjry fjmgthy mg `ogubokturmgn systd`s‐, @og- ted osy`ptjtmk jptm`ohmty jb ted [YS ruhd bjr ted 󿬁jw
ond`dgt [kmdgkd 35(1), 1>;-155. sejp ovdrond kj`phdtmjg tm`d prjahd`‐, Jpdrotmjgs Qd-
  ;. Njhcrott D. @. (?==>), Krmtmkoh keomg, Gjrte Qmvdr, Nrdot sdorke 35(3), 2?4-211.
Aorrmgntjg.
 

KOYÀSTHJ >

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs

• Kjgkdptjs aïsmkjs
•  Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd
•  Ohnugjs `jcdhjs poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs
 H o oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs ds ugj cd hjs td`os cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd
jpdrokmjgds cdh qud `ïs sd eo cmskutmcj dg oÿjs rdkmdgtds. Tgo cd hos rozjgds
pjr hos qud dstd td`o rdkmad dspdkmoh otdgkmûg, jadcdkd o qud dh kjstj cd hjs
mgvdgtormjs dg `ukeos d`prdsos rdprdsdgto ug pjrkdgtofd ohtj cdh kopmtoh mgvdr-
tmcj (pjr hj ndgdroh dgtrd 19 y 39%), pjr hj qud ugo rdcukkmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs
ds ugo dstrotdnmo mg`dcmoto poro rdcukmr hjs kjstjs dg ho d`prdso. Yjr jtrj hocj,
dh cdsorrjhhj cd prjvddcjrds y cd kocdgos cd su`mgmstrj nhjaohds eo mgkdgtmvocj
ho gdkdsmcoc cd `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs.
  [mg d`aornj, ho dxpdrmdgkmo qud cdsoto ho `oy
`oyjr
jr cmskusmûg sjard dh td`o cd
ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, ds dh edkej cd qud hos d`prdsos qud m`phogtog
󿬏hjsjbàos cd prjcukkmûg tmpj puhh (pjr dfd`phj fustj o tmd`pj), dvmcdgkmog ugo m`-
pjrtogtd rdcukkmûg dg sus mgvdgtormjs cdamcj, dg hj bugco`dgtoh, pjrqud trotog
cd `ogtdgdr ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg 󿬁dxmahd, kopoz cd rdspjgcdr o ho cd`og-
co cd ug `drkocj ko`amogtd. Dg dgtjrgjs cjgcd ho 󿬁dxmamhmcoc d mggjvokmûg sjg
or`os gdkdsormos poro `ogtdgdrsd dg dh `drkocj, ho rdcukkmûg cd mgvdgtormjs ds
gdkdsormo, qumzï yo gj togtj pjr dh kjstj cd `ogtdgdr hjs mgvdgtormjs, smgj `ïs
 amdg pjr dh ohtj kjstj qud m`phmko dh tdgdr qud rd`otor hos dxmstdgkmos pjrqud hos
prdbdrdgkmos cdh kjgsu`mcjr ko`amorjg.
  Kj`j sd opugto dg dstd kopàtuhj, ds gdkdsormj rdkjgjkdr qud sm amdg ds kjgvd-
gmdgtd `ogtdgdr ug gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs aofj, ístjs cdsd`pdÿog ug popdh m`pjr-
togtd
vj, pjrporo osdnuror
hj qud hos vdgtoscdtdr`mgor
ds m`pjrtogtd j, dg su kosj, ho kjgtmgumcoc
y `ogtdgdr cdh cd
hjs gmvdhds prjkdsj prjcuktm-
mgvdgtormj qud
pdr`mtog ho jpdrokmûg sotmsboktjrmo cdh gdnjkmj, o ho vdz qud sd ausko `ogtdgdr dg
ug `àgm`j hjs vjhö`dgds cd mgvdgtormj, poro gj mgkurrmr dg kjstjs dxkdsmvjs. Hos
tíkgmkos khïsmkos poro dh kjgtrjh cd mgvdgtormjs dgbotmzog qud ho cdkmsmûg rokmjgoh
sjard dh gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs o `ogtdgdr, rocmko dg dskjndr ug gmvdh qud ao-
hogkdd oprjpmoco`dgtd dh kjstj pjr prdporor y dxpdcmr ûrcdgds cd oaostdkm`mdgtj
(dh kuoh cms`mguyd o kjsto cd `oyjrds mgvdgtormjs), kjg dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr hos
dxmstdgkmos dg mgvdgtormj (qud ou`dgto kuogcj krdkd dh mgvdgtormj). Dg kuogtj o
ho cms`mgukmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs dg dh fustj o tmd`pj, eoy qud kjgkhumr qud ísto
ds kjgsmstdgtd kjg dstd dgbjqud khïsmkj, yo qud dg hjs o`amdgtds cd mggjvokmûg
cjgcd tmdgd sdgtmcj dh fustj o tmd`pj, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds `uy ?34

?32  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

ohtj, cdamcj oh rmdsnj cd tdgdr qud rd`otor prjcuktjs qud sd eokdg jasjhdtjs dg
kjrtj tmd`pj< pjr jtrj hocj, ho cms`mgukmûg cd hjs kjstjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs
(jrcdgor pdcmcjs dg dh kosj cd ug prjvddcjr), qud ds ugo koroktdràstmko cdh fustj
o tmd`pj, ds kjgsmstdgtd kjg dh edkej cd qud dh `dgjr mgvdgtormj dxmnd ugo `oyjr
brdkudgkmo cd pdcmcjs (cd to`oÿj pdqudÿj), hj qud kjgcukd o trotor cd cms`mgumr
hjs kjstjs cd hjs pdcmcjs, poro gj mgkurrmr dg kjstjs dxkdsmvjs pjr dstd kjgkdptj.
  Dg dh prdsdgtd kopàtuhj sd ogohmzog hjs tmpjs y koroktdràstmkos cd hjs smstd`os
poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs, cdspuís hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos o utmhmzor poro eokdr
d󿬏kmdgtd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd `otdrmohds d mgvdgtormjs dg ho d`prdso. [d oajrco
togtj ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmo prm`o d mgsu`js, kj`j ho oc`m-
gmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktj 󿬏goh, kjg ho cmstmgkmûg dgtrd prjcuktjs cd
vdgto rdnuhor y prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco.

  KJGKDYSJ[ AÏ[MKJ[
Dg ug sdgtmcj o`phmj, ug mgvdgtormj ds kuohqumdr rdkursj `ogtdgmcj dg dxmstdgkmo
qud ds j sdrï utmhmzocj pjr ho d`prdso poro sotmsbokdr ugo gdkdsmcoc cd prjcukkmûg
j cd vdgto. Cdscd dstd pugtj cd vmsto, sd oprdkmo qud dxmstd togtj ugo vormdcoc cd
pugtjs cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg qud dxmndg mgvdgtormjs, kj`j ugo vormdcoc
cd prjcuktjs qud sd oh`okdgog dg mgvdgtormj. Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
pudcd dgtdgcdrsd kj`j ho phogdokmûg, kjjrcmgokmûg y kjgtrjh cd ho ocqumsmkmûg,
 oh`okdgo`mdgtj y `jvm`mdgtj cd mgsu`js, amdgds tdr`mgocjs, rdpudstjs y edrro-
`mdgtos. Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.? sd mhustrog hjs prmgkmpohds pugtjs cdh smstd`o dg hjs qud
ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs ds rdhdvogtd. O kjgtmguokmûg opordkdg cdto-
hhoco`dgtd koco tmpj cd mgvdgtormj.

Smpjs
Smpjs cd mgvdgtormjs
Kj`j hj mhustro ho 󿬏nuro >.1, dxmstdg bugco`dgtoh`dgtd trds tmpjs cd mgvdgtormjs
dg ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg6
  • Mgvdgtormjs cd mgsu`js

‶ Bmnuro >.?
Mgvdgtormjs y kjstjs ndgdrocjs Khmdgtds,
dg ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj. pugtjs cd vdgto
Oh`okdgds
Yhogtos, Oh`okdgds hjkohds
pudrtjs, rdnmjgohds
dtk.

[u`mgmstrj

Kjstjs
cd mgvdgtormj
Kjstj Kjstjs cd trogspjrtd Kjstjs Kjstjs cd trogspjrtd
cd kj`pro cd mgvdgtormj

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?3>

‶ Bmnuro
Smpjs cd>.1
mgvdgtormjs
Mgsu`js Kj`pro Qdkdpkmûg Oh`okdgo`mdgtj Qdkupdrokmûg  y su `ogdfj.

@otdrmoh dg prjkdsj,
edrro`mdgtos y `otdrmohds
Yrjkdsj cd kjgvdrsmûg

Yrjcuktjs
tdr`mgocjs D`poqud Oh`okdgo`mdgtj Qdkupdrokmûg Cmstrmaukmûg

  • Mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj

  • Mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs
Dg ndgdroh kuohqumdr mgvdgtormj tmdgd pjr 󿬏gohmcoc sotmsbokdr ugo cd`ogco. Cd
`jcj qud hjs mgvdgtormjs cd mgsu`js y hjs mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj tmd-
gdg pjr 󿬏gohmcoc otdgcdr hos cd`ogcos cdh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg< dstjs mgvdg-
tormjs pdr`mtdg qud dh prjkdsj cd prjcukkmûg gj sd cdtdgno pjr bohto cd `otdrmo
 prm`o, `otdrmohds y kj`pjgdgtds gdkdsormjs poro prjcukmr hjs amdgds qud jbrdkd
ho d`prdso. Yjr jtrj hocj, hjs mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs tmdgdg pjr 󿬏go-
hmcoc otdgcdr ho cd`ogco cd hjs khmdgtds y pjsmamhmtog otdgcdr hjs pdcmcjs cd hjs
khmdgtds (dxtdrgjs). Dsto prm`dro cmstmgkmûg cdtdr`mgo qud o hjs mgvdgtormjs cd
mgsu`js
mgsu `js sd hds cdgj`mgd to`amíg cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd y o hjs mgvdgtormjs
cd prjcuktj tdr`mgocj cd cd`ogco mgcdpdgcmdgtd, yo qud ho cd`ogco pjr mgsu-
`js cdpdgcdrï cd ho phogdokmûg cdh prjkdsj prjcuktmvj dg ho d`prdso, `mdgtros
qud ho cd`ogco cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs gj sd ndgdro dg ho d`prdso, pjr hj qud
ds mgcdpdgcmdgtd cd ho `ms`o y dgbrdgto ug `oyjr rmdsnj.
  Ho cmstmgkmûg dgtrd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd y cd`ogco mgcdpdgcmdgtd ds m`-
pjrtogtd, yo qud cdtdr`mgo kjgsmcdrokmjgds poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormj
cmbdrdgtds. Yoro sdr `ïs prdkmsjs, cdamcj o qud ho prjcukkmûg pudcd phogdorsd, ho
cd`ogco pjr mgsu`js sd kjgjkd kjg ogtdrmjrmcoc o kjrtj phozj, hj qud pdr`mtd
ho phogdokmûg cd ho hhdnoco cd hjs mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd poro dh `j-
`dgtj dg qud sdrïg rdqudrmcjs. Yjr jtrj hocj, kj`j dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`ard sjard dh
`j`dgtj prdkmsj dg qud hjs khmdgtds cd`ogcorïg hjs prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs, hjs
mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco mgcdpdgcmdgtd cdadg dstor smd`prd prdsdgtds poro pjcdr
otdgcdr d󿬏kmdgtd`dgtd hjs pdcmcjs cd hjs khmdgtds dxtdrgjs.
  Hos tíkgmkos `ïs cmbugcmcos poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs tmdgdg dg kudgto
sm dh mgvdgtormj ds cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd j gj. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, ho phogdokmûg
cd hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds (@QY, `otdrmohs rdqumrd`dgt phoggmgn ),
), qud ds
ugo tíkgmko
`ogtdgdr hjs`uy cmbugcmco
mgvdgtormjs poro (kuogcj
dg kdrj oc`mgmstror
gj sdmgsu`js,
prjcukd)tmdgd pjr jafdtj
y pdr`mtmr trotor cd
su cmspjgmamhm-
coc sûhj dg dh `j`dgtj dg qud sdrïg rdqudrmcjs, `mdgtros qud dh dstoahdkm`mdgtj
cd mgvdgtormjs cd sdnurmcoc, qud ds ugo tíkgmko cd o`phmj usj poro mgvdgtormjs cd
prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs, ausko dstoahdkdr dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs qud cdad dstor smd`-
prd cmspjgmahd poro prjpjrkmjgor ug cdtdr`mgocj gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd.
  Qdspdktjj cd hjs mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj, koad `dgkmjgor qud dg
Qdspdkt
ndgdroh, cdad trotorsd cd `ogtdgdr sus gmvdhds dg dh `àgm`j pjsmahd, yo qud ho
dxmstdgkmo cd dxkdsmvjs mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj gj sûhj rdprdsdgto ug
kjstj, smgj qud dgtjrpdkd hos hoajrds cd prjcukkmûg y oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho kohmcoc,
y ndgdro ug `oyjr dsbudrzj pjr `ogdfj cd `otdrmohds. Dh gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs
cd `otdrmoh dg prjkdsj cdpdgcd dstrdkeo`dgtd cd ho audgo (j `oho) kjjrcmgokmûg

?35  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cdh prjkdsj
tmvos), (vdo
y kj`j dh kopàtuhj
qudcû khorj dgsjard phogdokmûg
dh kopàtuhj y kjgtrjh
ogtdrmjr, cd hos
jadcdkd o hooktmvmcocds prjcuk-
rdnho cd Hmtthd, pjr
hj qud dh mgvdgtormj dg prjkdsj krdkd o `dcmco qud sd mgkrd`dgtog ho toso j dh
tmd`pj cd 󿬁ufj.

Bugkmjgds cd hjs mgvdgtormjs

Kj`j sd `dgkmjgû, ho 󿬏gohmcoc prm`jrcmoh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs ds otdgcdr o ugo
cd`ogco (qud pudcd sdr mgtdrgo j dxtdrgo) y osdnuror ho kjgtmgumcoc cd hos jpd-
rokmjgds cd ho d`prdso. Tgo vdz qud sd rdkohkû qud ísto ds ho rozûg prmgkmpoh pjr
ho qud ds gdkdsormj `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, oejro sd `dgkmjgog hos smnumdgtds bug-
kmjgds qud ku`phdg hjs mgvdgtormjs6
  ?. Cocj qud
qud dh oaostdkm`mdgtj cd prjcuktjs
prjcuktjs (yo sdog mgsu`js
mgsu`js j prjcuktjs tdr-
`mgocjs) tmdgd tàpmko`dgtd
togtj hjs khmdgtds ug hjs
mgtdrgjs kj`j rdtorcj, sm gjtdgcràog
dxtdrgjs sd oh`okdgorog mgvdgtormjs,
qud dspdror poro qud
su cd`ogco budro otdgcmco, pjr hj qud dh mgvdgtormj ds gdkdsormj poro otdg-
cdr kjg d󿬏kmdgkmo hos cd`ogcos cd hjs khmdgtds dxtdrgjs d mgtdrgjs.
  1. Dg `ukeos smtuokmjgds, y sjard tjcj dg dh kosj cd hos tmdgcos
tmdgcos cd prjcuktjs oh
`dgucdj, dxmstd kmdrtj nrocj cd mgkdrtmcu`ard rdspdktj cdh gmvdh cd vdgtos
qud ohkogzorï ug cdtdr`mgocj prjcuktj cdgtrj cdh mgtdrvohj cd tmd`pj dgtrd
pdcmcjs cd oaostdkm`mdgtj kjgsdkutmvjs. Kjg dh jafdtmvj cd gj pdrcdr vdgtos
 j cd gj tdgdr qud cmbdrmr ho dgtrdno cd pdcmcjs, sd `ogtmdgdg mgvdgtormjs cd
sdnurmcoc qud pdr`mtog otdgcdr hos cd`ogcos m`prdvmstos.
  ;. Tgo dstrotdnmo poro dgbrdgtor hos 󿬁uktuokmjgds
󿬁uktuokmjgds cd ho cd`ogco cd hjs
hjs prjcuk-
prjcuk-
tjs smg tdgdr qud mgvdrtmr dg kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg poro hjs pdrmjcjs cd
cd`ogco pmkj, kjgsmstd dg prjcukmr dg dxkdsj curogtd hjs pdrmjcjs cd aofo cd-
`ogco y oh`okdgor dg mgvdgtormj hjs dxkdcdgtds cd prjcukkmûg poro sotmsbokdr
cdspuís ho cd`ogco cdh pdrmjcj pmkj, cd `ogdro qud gj sdrï gdkdsormj `og-
tdgdr ugo kopokmcoc cd prjcukkmûg `uy ohto poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco pmkj.
  3. Hos kj`pros
kj`pros pjr nrogcds hjtds o `dgucj
`dgucj tmdgdg cdskudgtj, cd `ogdro
`ogdro qud
dg `ukeos smtuokmjgds kjgvmdgd jrcdgor pdcmcjs cd kj`pro dg hjtds nrogcds.
Kuogcj sd smnud ugo pjhàtmko cd kj`pro pjr hjtds nrogcds, sd tdgcrïg qud
`ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd hjs prjcuktjs `mdgtros sd vog cd`ogcogcj.
  4. [d pudcd `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs pjr dspdkuhokmûg. Yjr dfd`phj, dg dkjgj`àos
qud dxpdrm`dgtog pdrmjcjs kjg ohtj rmdsnj cd cdvohuokmjgds j mg󿬁okmjgds rd-
pdgtmgos, hos d`prdsos cd ho mgcustrmo eog dgkjgtrocj qud ug ko`mgj sdnurj
poro prjtdndr dh vohjr cd su kopmtoh cd troaofj ds `ogtdgdr dxmstdgkmos dg mg-
vdgtormj, hos qud tdgcdrïg o ou`dgtor cd prdkmj sm jkurrd ugo cdvohuokmûg
rdpdgtmgo cd ho `jgdco.
  2. Hjs mgvdgtormjs cd edrro`mdgtos, rdpudstjs j kmdrtjs kj`pjgdgtds dg prjkdsj
ku`phdg ugo bugkmûg cd prdvdgkmûg, yo qud oh oh`okdgor kmdrtjs rdpudstjs
kràtmkjs j oh tdgdr ugmcocds hmstos poro dgso`ahor sd co ugo rdspudsto rïpmco
o`mtd
hjs cms`mgumr
pdcmcjs cddhprjcukkmûg, dg dstjscd
tmd`pj cd otdgkmûg kosjs
ugo dhbohho
mgvdgtormj cd `otdrmohds
j hjs tmd`pjs pdr-
pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsj.

Dgbjquds poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs

Ougqud yo sd `dgkmjgû oh trotor sjard dh fustj o tmd`pj, sd cdad dgbotmzor qud
dxmstdg cjs pugtjs cd vmsto `uy cmbdrdgtds poro cmrmnmr ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdg-
tormjs6 dh dgbjqud  puse, y dh dgbjqud  puhh. Ogtds cd ocjptor ugo tíkgmko portmkuhor
poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh mgvdgtormj cd ug prjcuktj, ds kjgvdgmdgtd dstoahdkdr
dh dgbjqud qud sd cdsdo ophmkor, yo qud ístd ds bugco`dgtoh poro sdhdkkmjgor ugo
tíkgmko oprjpmoco.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?3=

‶ Bmnuro >.;
MGKDQSMCT@AQD DG HO CD@OGCO Cm`dgsmjgds cd m`pjrtogkmo
poro ocjptor ug dgbjqud puse
j puhh.

YTHH
M6 MM6
KJ@YTSOCJQO[ @TDAHD[

MR6 MMM6
HMAQJ[, KC KJ@D[SMAHD[, @DSOHD[
YT[E 

DKJGJ@ÀO[ CD D[KOHO

YTHH YT[E  

  Kuogcj ho phogdokmûg d`pufo ho prjcukkmûg (dgbjqud puse), hjs to`oÿjs cd

hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg sd aosog dg prjgûstmkjs cd `dcmogj j hornj phozj, pjr
 hj qud ndgdroh`dgtd sjg nrogcds y vormoahds, y ndgdrog ohtjs mgvdgtormjs, kuyj
kjstj sd kj`pdgso pjr hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho cdh prjcuktj. Dstd dgbjqud ds kjg-
vdgmdgtd kuogcj ho `ogubokturo cdh prjcuktj dgbrdgto m`pjrtogtds dkjgj`àos
cd dskoho y, dg portmkuhor, kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds dstokmjgoh sd ophmko ho dstrotdnmo cd
`ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs poro ho td`pjroco pmkj, osà sd dvmto mgvdrtmr dg kopokmcocds
cd prjcukkmûg `uy ohtos. Dh rmdsnj qud dgbrdgto dh dgbjqud  puse rocmko dg ho jku-
rrdgkmo cd ko`amjs rocmkohds dg hjs potrjgds cd cd`ogco, qud eokdg jasjhdtj oh
prjcuktj dg mgvdgtormj, pjr hj qud dstd dgbjqud sûhj bugkmjgor dg kosj cd amdgds
pjkj cmbdrdgkmocjs (kj`drkmoahds) j kuogcj dxmstdg kjgtrotjs cd su`mgmstrj qud
osdnurdg ho vdgto cdh prjcuktj.
  Kuogcj ho cd`ogco cdh prjcuktj cdtdr`mgo kuïgtj prjcukmr (dgbjqud puhh),
hjs to`oÿjs cd hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg sjg pdqudÿjs, sd ndgdrog aofjs kjstjs
pjr mgvdgtormjs, y ug aofj rmdsnj pjr jasjhdskdgkmo cdh prjcuktj. Dstd dgbjqud ds
kjgvdgmdgtd kuogcj sd kj`pmtd pjr mggjvokmûg y 󿬁dxmamhmcoc, y su m`phogtokmûg
rdqumdrd cd mgbjr`okmûg rïpmco cdscd hjs pugtjs cd vdgto, osà kj`j cd ug smstd-
`o cd prjcukkmûg rïpmcj y 󿬁dxmahd. Hos cdsvdgtofos cd dstd dgbjqud sjg ho gdkd-
smcoc cd tdgdr kopokmcoc poro hjs pdrmjcjs cd cd`ogco pmkj, `dgjrds dkjgj`àos
cd dskoho y trogspjrtd qud dh trocmkmjgoh dgbjqud  puse.
  Ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cd ocjptor ug dgbjqud puse j ugj  puhh cdpdgcd bugco`dg-
toh`dgtd cd ho m`pjrtogkmo cd hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho y cd ho mgkdrtmcu`ard dg
ho cd`ogco. Ho dxmstdgkmo cd dkjgj`àos cd dskoho eokd `ïs otroktmvj dh dgbjqud
 puse, qud pdr`mtd ho prjcukkmûg cd hjtds nrogcds, `mdgtros qud ugo `oyjr mgkdr-
tmcu`ard dg ho cd`ogco bovjrdkd dh dgbjqud  puhh, qud `mgm`mzo dh rmdsnj cd pír-
cmcos pjr jasjhdskdgkmo cd hos dxmstdgkmos dg mgvdgtormj.
  Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro >.3, dg ho prïktmko, hjs dshoajgds cd ho kocdgo
cd su`mgmstrj qud eog ocjptocj ug dgbjqud  puhh  sd dgkudgtrog `ïs kdrkogjs
oh kj`procjr 󿬏goh, cdamcj o qud dgbrdgtog ugo `oyjr mgkdrtmcu`ard dg su cd-
`ogco y `dgjrds dkjgj`àos cd dskoho qud hjs dshoajgds cd ho kocdgo qud dstïg
`ïs kdrkogjs o ho prjcukkmûg cd `otdrmo prm`o. Dsto tdgcdgkmo sd prdsdgto mgkhu-
smvd dg cmbdrdgtds prjcuktjs cd ugo `ms`o d`prdso, pjr dfd`phj, Cdhh utmhmzo ug
dgbjqud  puhh poro hos vdgtos aofj pdcmcj cd sus kj`putocjros pdrsjgohds, pdrj
cdamcj o qud sus `jcdhjs tmdgdg portds y kj`pjgdgtds kj`ugds, kuyo `ogubok-
turo dgbrdgto m`pjrtogtds dkjgj`àos cd dskoho, ho ocjpkmûg cd ug dgbjqud  puse 

?49  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro >.3
Dspdkmohmzokmûg cd dgbjquds BQJGSDQO
dg ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj.

DGBJ_TD   YT[E  DGBJ_TD   YTHH

@OSDQMO YQM@O KJ@YQOCJQ BMGOH

ds oprjpmoco poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs cd hos portds y kj`pj-

gdgtds.

Khosmbmkokmûg OAK
Hjs mgvdgtormjs qud cdad `ogtdgdr ugo d`prdso sotmsbokdg cmvdrsos gdkdsmcocds
cd goturohdzo `uy cmbdrdgtd, y sd pudcdg ocjptor cmstmgtjs dgbjquds poro su oc-
`mgmstrokmûg. Ds rozjgoahd pdgsor qud ohnugjs cd hjs mgvdgtormjs tmdgdg ugo m`-
pjrtogkmo kràtmko `oyjr qud jtrjs, pjr dfd`phj, hjs mgvdgtormjs cd ortàkuhjs `ïs
kjstjsjs pjcràog oc`mgmstrorsd kjg `ïs kumcocj, yo qud rdprdsdgtog ug `oyjr
dsbudrzj cd mgvdrsmûg. Ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK ds ugo ophmkokmûg cdh ogïhmsms cd Yo-
 rdtj poro khosm󿬏kor ortàkuhjs sdnög su m`pjrtogkmo. Cd okudrcj kjg dh dgbjqud cd
Yordtj, ds rozjgoahd supjgdr qud sjg pjkjs hjs ortàkuhjs qud tmdgdg ugo `oyjr
m`pjrtogkmo dg dh smstd`o cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, y ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK
kjgsmstd dg dbdktuor ug ogïhmsms cd Yordtj poro khosm󿬏kor hjs ortàkuhjs dg mgvdgtormj
dg kotdnjràos O, A y K, cd okudrcj kjg su m`pjrtogkmo.
  Yoro dbdktuor ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK sd usog cmvdrsos `dcmcos cd vohjr vohjr,, cd-
pdgcd cd hjs jafdtmvjs cd ho khosm󿬏kokmûg, ougqud ho khosm󿬏kokmûg kjg `ïs cmbusmûg
sd aoso dg dh vohjr `jgdtormj cdh ortàkuhj (cd`ogco oguoh pjr kjstj ugmtormj), dg
kuyj kosj ho 󿬏gohmcoc ds mcdgtm󿬏kor hjs pjkjs ortàkuhjs qud kousog dh `oyjr `j-
vm`mdgtj cd cmgdrj. Ohnugjs jtrjs krmtdrmjs qud sd ophmkog kj`j `dcmco cd vohjr
sjg ho utmhmcoc, dh kjstj ugmtormj j ohnugo `dcmco cd rmdsnj. Dh prjkdcm`mdgtj poro
dbdktuor ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK, aosoco dg ohnög krmtdrmj cd vohjr, sd rdsu`d dg hjs
smnumdgtds posjs6
  ?. [dhdkkmjgor dh krmtdrmj cd vohjr (pjr dfd`phj, cd`ogco
cd`ogco oguoh pjr kjstj
ugmtormj).
  1. Jrcdgor hjs ortàkuhjs dg jrcdg
jrcdg cd ho m`pjrtogkmo
m`pjrtogkmo cd su vohjr
vohjr..
  ;. Kohkuhor
Kohkuhor,, poro koco ortàkuhj, su pjrkdgtofd
pjrkdgtofd oku`uhocj cd vohjr
vohjr y su pjrkdg-
pjrkdg-
tofd oku`uhocj cdh gö`drj cd ortàkuhjs.
  3. Kjgstrumr ugo
ugo nrï󿬏ko cdh pjrkdgtofd
pjrkdgtofd oku`uhocj cdh gö`drj
gö`drj cd ortàkuhjs dg
  4. bugkmûg
Khosm󿬏korcdh
hjspjrkdgtofd oku`uhocj
ortàkuhjs dg cdh vohjr
hos kotdnjràos O, A j K.
[d sunmdrd qud ho kotdnjrào O oaorqud dgtrd 4 y 19% cd hjs ortàkuhjs qud ndgdrog
dgtrd 29 y 59% cdh vohjr, ho A ohrdcdcjr cd ;9%, kjg ohrdcdcjr cd ?4% cdh vohjr
y ho K dgtrd 49 y 29%, kjg sûhj 4 j ?9% cdh vohjr.
  Dh jafdtmvj cd ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK ds mcdgtm󿬏kor hjs ortàkuhjs cd `oyjr m`pjr-
togkmo (O), hjs cd m`pjrtogkmo rdhotmvo `dcmo (A) y hjs cd `dgjr m`pjrtogkmo (K).
Dsto khosm󿬏kokmûg pdr`mtd ocjptor pjhàtmkos cmstmgtos poro oc`mgmstror hjs ortàkuhjs
dg hos cmbdrdgtds kotdnjràos (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.4).
  [m hjs pdcmcjs cd hjs ortàkuhjs tmpj O sjg kjstjsjs, yo sdo pjrqud dh vohjr cd
koco ortàkuhj ds ohtj j pjrqud hjs pdcmcjs sjg cd vjhu`dg ohtj, hos oprjaokmjgds

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?4?

‶ Bmnuro >.4
• Oprjaokmûg, gdnjkmokmûg, dspdkuhokmûg Yjsmahds pjhàtmkos
• Kjgtdjs `uy brdkudgtds poro ortàkuhjs O y A.
O O

• Yrjvddcjrds kjg󿬏oahds
A A • Dgbjqud puhh
• Ocdkuoco kjjrcmgokmûg y kj`ugmkokmûg
Rohjr Gö`drj

poro ho kj`pro cd ortàkuhjs O rdqudrmrïg ho oprjaokmûg cdh cmrdktjr cd 󿬏gogzos,

kjg kjgtdjs pdrmûcmkjs brdkudgtds (cmormj j sd`ogoh), y kjg dspdkmoh kumcocj dg dh
prjgûstmkj cd vdgtos poro dvmtor hjs mgvdgtormjs cd sdnurmcoc. Ocd`ïs, pdr`mtdg
jptor pjr prïktmkos oc`mgmstrotmvos kj`j hos smnumdgtds6
  • Hmkmtokmûg. Hos kj`pros kjg aosd dg hmkmtokmjgds cdadg mgcmkor hos dspdkm-
󿬏kokmjgds tíkgmkos cdh prjcuktj (prjpmdcocds bàsmkos j kjgtdgmcjs quà`m-
kjs), dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds cd cdsd`pdÿj (kjg󿬏oamhmcoc, tosos cd sohmco, dtk.).
Hos dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds sjg gdkdsormos poro cdskortor o hjs prjvddcjrds cd aofo
kohmcoc.
  • Kdrtm󿬏kokmûg. [d pudcdg dxmnmr kdrtm󿬏kokmjgds o hjs prjvddcjrds, tohds kj`j
 kohmcoc dg dh cmsdÿj, dgtrdgo`mdgtj, tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno, dtkítdro.
  • Gdnjkmokmûg. Dg kosj cd cmspjgdr cd prjvddcjrds kjg󿬏oahds, dg hunor cd
mgvmtorhjs o ug prjkdsj cd hmkmtokmûg, dxmstd ho vdgtofo cd gdnjkmor pdrmûcmko-
`dgtd hjs prdkmjs, ko`amjs dg dh cmsdÿj y tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno.
  • Dspdkuhokmûg. Dg dh kosj cd jasdrvorsd ug potrûg cd vormokmûg kàkhmko cd hjs
prdkmjs, ds prdbdrmahd jptor pjr oprjvdkeor hjs kmkhjs dg hjs qud dh prdkmj cms-
`mguyd, y eokdr hos kj`pros dg hjs pdrmjcjs cd aofo poro oejrror kjstjs.
Hjs pdcmcjs cd hjs ortàkuhjs tmpj A tmdgdg vohjr `jcdrocj, yo sdo pjrqud sd troto
cd prjcuktjs cd dspdkm󿬏kokmjgds dstïgcor poro `ogtdgm`mdgtj, rdporokmûg y jpd-
rokmûg, j sdrvmkmjs cd usj rdnuhor, j pjrqud sdog prjcuktjs qud rdqumdrdg dspdkm-
󿬏kokmjgds, pdrj qud su vohjr gj fustm󿬏ko dh dsbudrzj cd m`pjgdr hmkmtokmjgds poro
ho kj`pro. Hos oprjaokmjgds poro kj`pro cd ortàkuhjs A rdqudrmrïg ho oprjaokmûg
cdh ndrdgtd cd kj`pros, hjs kjgtdjs pdrmûcmkjs pudcdg sdr `dgsuohds, hjs prjgûs-
tmkjs cd vdgtos pudcdg aosorsd dg tdgcdgkmos, y sd pudcdg tdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd
sdnurmcoc pdqudÿjs (pjr dfd`phj, poro ugo sd`ogo). Ocd`ïs, ds pjsmahd jptor pjr
prïktmkos oc`mgmstrotmvos kj`j hos smnumdgtds6
• Hmsto cd prjvddcjrds. [d `ogtmdgd ugo hmsto cd prjvddcjrds kjg aosd dg dh
cdsd`pdÿj cdh prjvddcjr j dg ug dstucmj cd kdrtm󿬏kokmûg.
  • Kj`pro
qud pjr hjpjr kotïhjnj
ndgdroh . Dxmstdg
`ogtmdgdg ugnrogcds
kotïhjnjprjvddcjrds cd ortàkuhjs
kjg mgcmkokmjgds dstïgcor,
cd hos koroktdràs-
tmkos cd hjs prjcuktjs.
  • Kjgtrotjs. [m dh ortàkuhj tmdgd ugo cd`ogco rdnuhor curogtd dh oÿj, sd ds-
toahdkdg kjgtrotjs kjg hjs prjvddcjrds poro norogtmzor ug oaostdkm`mdgtj
pdrmûcmkj aofj hos kjgcmkmjgds qud dstoahdkdg prdkmjs y dgtrdnos pdrmûcmkos.
Dstjs kjgtrotjs pjr hj ndgdroh tmdgd ug pdrmjcj dstoahdkmcj, hudnj cdh kuoh sd
gdnjkmo jtrj kjgtrotj.
Hjs pdcmcjs cd hjs ortàkuhjs tmpj K tmdgdg pjkj vohjr y sjg ortàkuhjs cd dspdkm󿬏ko-
kmjgds dstïgcor, pjr togtj, hos kj`pros sd eokdg kjg ug sûhj prjvddcjr kjg󿬏oahd
j sd dhmnd dgtrd ugo hmsto cd prjvddc
prjvddcjrds
jrds okdptocjs. Hos oprjaokmjgds poro kj`pro

?41  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cd ortàkuhjs
kj`pros, hjsKkjgtdjs
sd dstogcormzog
pdrmûcmkjsy sjg
sûhjoguohds,
rdqumdrdg
hjs ho oprjaokmûgcdcdvdgtos
prjgûstmkjs ug d`phdocj
sd aosog cd
dg
ho dxpdrmdgkmo y ds pjsmahd tdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd sdnurmcoc poro pdrmjcjs o`phmjs
(pjr dfd`phj, ug `ds).

Dfd`phj >.?. Khosm﬏kokmûg OAK

Srogs@dx ds ugo d`prdso qud sd cdcmko oh dgso`ahd cd dqumpj dspdkmohmzocj poro

dh trogspjrtd cd `otdrmohds. Cmkeo d`prdso tmdgd ug smstd`o cd vdgto aofj pdcmcj,
cd `ogdro qud cdad oh`okdgor kmdrtos portds y kj`pjgdgtds kràtmkjs poro prj-
vddr hjs pdcmcjs kjg prjgtmtuc. Dg dh prdsdgtd oÿj ho cd`ogco pjr sus prjcuktjs
sd mgkrd`dgtû, rozûg qud ho hhdvo o dgbrdgtor kmdrtjs prjahd`os hjnàstmkjs, kjg ho
kjgsdkudgtd cd`jro dg ho otdgkmûg cd hjs pdcmcjs, pjr hj qud cdsdo rdjrnogmzor
ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hos kj`pros d mgvdgtormjs cd hos portds y kj`pjgdgtds gdkd-
sormos poro rdspjgcdr cd bjr`o ocdkuoco o hjs pdcmcjs cd prjcukkmûg. Cdamcj o
qud dxmstd `oyjr `jvm`mdgtj cd ohnugos portds, ho d`prdso cdad mcdgtm󿬏kor dsd
mgvdgtormj qud m`phmko ugo `oyjr mgvdrsmûg, poro osà pjgdr `oyjr ígbosms dg sus
pjhàtmkos cd kj`pros d mgvdgtormjs, pjr hj qud cdkmcd dbdktuor ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK
sustdgtoco dg hjs cotjs cd hos portds, sus cd`ogcos (oguohds) y kjstjs ugmtormjs
(dg kmdgtjs cd $) qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho toaho >.?.
  Dh prm`dr posj poro kjgstrumr ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK sdrï kohkuhor hjs vohjrds
(cd`ogco pjr kjstj ugmtormj) poro koco portd y jrcdgor hos portds kjg aosd dg su
 vohjr. Dg ho toaho >.1 opordkdg dstjs vohjrds jrcdgocjs, osà kj`j hjs pjrkdgtofds
oku`uhocjs cdh gö`drj tjtoh cd portds y hjs pjrkdgtofds oku`uhocjs cdh vohjr
tjtoh.
  Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.2 opordkd ho korto cd Yordtj kjrrdsp
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd
jgcmdgtd o ho khosm󿬏k
khosm󿬏kokmûg
okmûg
OAK, ds cdkmr, ho nrï󿬏ko qud `udstro dh ortàkuhj dg bugkmûg cd su kjrrdspjgcmdgtd
vohjr oku`uhocj. Oh ogohmzor hjs cotjs sd cdkmcmû qud hjs ortàkuhjs tmpj O sdog hjs
qud tmdgdg ug vohjr mgcmvmcuoh cd eosto $4 999 999, hjs tmpj A tmdgdg ug vohjr mg-
cmvmcuoh cd eosto $499 999, y hjs tmpj K ug vohjr mgcmvmcuoh `dgjr qud $499 999.
Cd dsto `ogdro hjs ortàkuhjs tmpj O sjg hjs ortàkuhjs 14, 1;, 19, 11 y 13, y kjgstm-
tuydg dh 19% cd hjs ortàkuhjs y tdgmdgcj ug 2>.3% cdh vohjr tjtoh cd hjs ortàkuhjs.

‶ Soaho >.? KJ[SJ KJ[SJ

Cd`ogcos y kjstjs ugmtormjs YO QS D C D @ O G CO T G M SO Q M J YO QS D C D @ O G CO TGMSOQMJ
cd portds.
? 39 ;49 ?2 29 299
1 499 ;4 ?> ?19 14
; 49 14 ?5 ;99 ?1
3 ;99 49 ?= 34 49
4 ?4 1 999 19 19 ; 999
2 399 ?9 1? ? 999 1
> >99 3 11 ?9 4 999
5 >9 ;9 1; 14 ; ?99
= ;99 ;9 13 14 1 999
?9 >9 399 14 599 ?49
?? 499 1 12 149 19
?1 249 ;9 1> >49 ?4
?; =9 49 15 39 ?99
?3 19 ; 1= 39 ?49
?4 599 ? ;9 ?49 14

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?4;

‶ Soaho >.1
% CDH
GÖ@DQJ % CDH
ROHJQ % CDH
GÖ@DQJ % CDH
ROHJQ  Rohjrds y pjrkdgtofds
YO QS D RO H J Q CD YOQSD[ S JSO H YO QS D RO H J Q CD YOQSD[ SJSOH oku`uhocjs cd portds.
14 ?19 999 ;.;; 19.44 12 4 999 4;.;; =;.==
1; >> 499 2.2> ;;.5; ?; 3 499 42.2> =3.>2
19 29 999 ?9.99 33.?9 2 3 999 29.99 =4.33
11 49 999 ?;.;; 41.2> 15 3 999 2;.;; =2.?;
13 49 999 ?2.2> 2?.1; ;9 ; >49 22.2> =2.>>
?2 ;2 999 19.99 2>.39 ?5 ; 299 >9.99 =>.;=
4 ;9 999 1;.;; >1.4; ?> ; 999 >;.;; =>.=9
?9 15 999 12.2> >>.;; > 1 599 >2.2> =5.;5
?1 ?= 499 ;9.99 59.2> ?= 1 149 59.99 =5.>>
1 ?> 499 ;;.;; 5;.2> 5 1 ?99 5;.;; ==.?1
3 ?4 999 ;2.2> 52.13 1? 1 999 52.2> ==.3>
? ?3 999 39.99 55.2; ; ? 149 =9.99 ==.25
1> ?? 149 3;.;; =9.42 ?? ? 999 =;.;; ==.54
= = 999 32.2> =1.?9 ?4 599 =2.2> ==.==
1= 2 999 49.99 =;.?; ?3 29 ?99.99 ?99.99
 Hjs tmpj A sjg hjs ?2, 4, ?9, ?1, 1, 3, ?, 1>, =, 1= y 12, kjgstmtuydgcj dh ;;.;;% cd
ístjs y tmdgdg 12.4=% cdh vohjr tjtoh cd hjs ortàkuhjs. Dh rdstj sdrïg kjgsmcdrocjs
tmpj K, kjgstmtuydgcj dh 32.2>% cd hjs ortàkuhjs y tmdgdg 2.9?% cdh vohjr tjtoh cd
hjs ístjs.
✣

‶ Bmnuro >.2
Nrï󿬏ko cd ho khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK.
?19.99
O A K
?= 5 1? ; ?? ?4 ?3
?99.99 15 ;9 ?5 ?> >
1= 12 ?; 2
=
? 1>
3
1
?1
59.99 ?9
4
?2
13
29.99 11

19

39.99 1;

14
19.99

9.99

?43  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[
CD CD@OGCO CDYDGCMDGSD
Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd eokd ug ogïhmsms kjgkmsj cd hos tíkgmkos cmspjgmahds y hjs dhd`dg-
tjs dg qud sd cdad pjgdr ígbosms poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco
cdpdgcmdgtd. Kj`j sd mgcmkû oh mgmkmj cd dstd kopàtuhj, hjs mgvdgtormjs cd cd`og-
cd`og-
co cdpdgcmdgtd sjg hjs mgvdgtormjs cd mgsu`js, portds y kj`pjgdgtds qud sjg
gdkdsormjs poro prjcukmr hos `ogubokturos y/j sdrvmkmjs qud jbrdkd ho d`prdso<
pjr dfd`phj, sm sd prjcukdg hmarjs, hjs mgvdgtormjs cd popdh, tmgto, d`postds, nj`o,
dtk., sdrïg hjs mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd. O dstjs mgvdgtormjs sd hds
ophmko dstd tír`mgj cdamcj o qud sjg gdkdsormjs poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco mgtdrgo
cd ho d`prdso, pjr togtj, ho cd`ogco cd dstjs mgvdgtormjs cdpdgcd cd hjs phogds cd
prjcukkmûg. Yjr dfd`phj,
dfd`phj, hjs mgvdgtormjs
m gvdgtormjs cd popdh poro prjcukmr hmarjs cdpdgcdrïg
cdh phog cd prjcukkmûg ocdkuocj, dgtjgkds sd cdad prjkuror qud dh mgvdgtormj gd-
kdsormj dstí cmspjgmahd poro hos fjrgocos dg hos qud sd prjcukmrïg hjs hmarjs.
  O cmbdrdgkmo cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco mgcdpdgcmdgtd,
dg ho qud sd cdad kjgsmcdror ho mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`ogco, dg ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd, hjs phogds cd prjcukkmûg sd kjgjkdg
kjg kmdrto ogtmkmpokmûg, y gj ds gdkdsormj qud sd `ogtdgnog mgvdgtormjs dg bjr`o
kjgstogtd, `ïs oög, hjs `ítjcjs cd prjcukkmûg oktuohds tmdgcdg o dgbotmzor ho gd-
kdsmcoc cd ho kjjrcmgokmûg dgtrd dh prjvddcjr y dh kj`procjr, cd `ogdro qud hos
dgtrdnos cd `otdrmohds, mgsu`js y kj`pjgdgtds sd dstoahdzkog kjg aosd dg hjs rd-
qudrm`mdgtjs (o vdkds ko`amogtds) cd prjcukkmûg. Ds dg bugkmûg cd hjs ocdkuocjs
 `dkogms`js cd kjjrcmgokmûg dgtrd prjvdd
prjvddcjr
cjr y kj`procjr, qud hos d`prdsos hjnrog
m`pjrtogtds rdcukkmjgds dg dh kopmtoh cd troaofj rdqudrmcj, o ho vdz qud cms`mgu-
ydg dh rmdsnj qud rdprdsdgtog hjs mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs sufdtjs o ko`amjs dg dh
cmsdÿj, cdamcjs o ug ko`amj dg hos prdbdrdgkmos cdh kjgsu`mcjr.
  Yjr hos rozjgds dxpudstos, hos tíkgmkos poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco
cdpdgcmdgtd tmdgdg pjr 󿬏hjsjbào rdcukmr hjs mgvdgtormjs oh `àgm`j< auskog ho `oy`oyjr
jr
kjjrcmgokmûg dgtrd dh smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg y dh smstd`o cd pdcmcjs, poro qud dh
mgvdgtormj dxmsto sûhj kuogcj hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd prjcukkmûg osà hj cd`ogcog.
Yjr jtrj hocj, dg phogtos cjgcd sd smnud ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg pjr hjtds, hjs
rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd prjcukkmûg cd ug prjcuktj portmkuhor voràog kjgsmcdroahd`dgtd
dgtrd sd`ogos y `dsds, pjr hj qud gj ds kjgvdgmdgtd usor `jcdhjs kjg to`oÿj
cd pdcmcj kjgstogtd, kj`j sà hj ds utmhmzor tíkgmkos poro cd`ogco cmgï`mko (qud
sd rdvmsog oh 󿬏goh cd dsto sdkkmûg).
  O kjgtmguokmûg ug kj`dgtormj ardvd okdrko cd hos cjs tíkgmkos `ïs ötmhds poro
oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd6 ho phogdokmûg cd rdqudrm`mdg-
tjs cd `otdrmohds (@QY, `otdrmohs rdqumrd`dgt phoggmgn ), ), y dh logaog, `dkogms`j
poro kjjrcmgor ho prjcukkmûg, cdsorrjhhocj aofj ho 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg fustj o
tmd`pj.

Yhogdokmûg cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds

Ho phogdokmûg cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds (@QY) ds ugo tíkgmko qud kjgsmstd
dg cdtdr`mgor hos kogtmcocds cd hjs mgsu`js y hos bdkeos (hà`mtds) dg hos qud cdadg
dstor cmspjgmahds poro norogtmzor dh ku`phm`mdgtj cdh prjnro`o `odstrj cd prj-
cukkmûg. Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.> sd mgcmko kû`j sd rdhokmjgo ho @QY kjg jtros oktmvmcocds
cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd jpdrokmjgds< dh prjnro`o `odstrj cd prjcukkmûg (vdo dh
kopàtuhj sjard phogdokmûg cd ho prjcukkmûg) ds dh mgnrdcmdgtd mgcmspdgsoahd poro
mgmkmor ho @QY, kuyj prjcuktj 󿬏goh sdrvmrï cd sjpjrtd poro dh ku`phm`mdgtj cdh
phog `odstrj cd prjcukkmûg. Dh prjnro`o rdsuhtogtd cd ugo @QY sd utmhmzo poro
qud hjs mgsu`js, portds y kj`pjgdgtds dstíg cmspjgmahds kuogcj dh prjkdsj cd
prjcukkmûg hjs cd`ogcd, pdrj smg oh`okdgor mgvdgtormjs mggdkdsormjs cd mgsu`js,
m gsu`js,
ds cdkmr, qud dstíg cmspjgmahds fustj
 fustj   poro kuogcj sjg rdqudrmcjs.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?44

‶ Bmnuro >.>
 Oktmvmcocds rdhokmjgocos
kjg ho @QY.
Yhogdokmûg onrdnoco

Kjgtrjh y prjnro`okmûg Yrjnro`o 󿬏goh

Yrjnro`o `odstrj
cd jpdrokmjgds cd dgtrdnos

@QY6 Yhogdokmûg
cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds

  Yjr hj ndgdroh, ugo @QY sd m`phogto o trovís cd ug prjnro`o cd kj`puto-

cjro, qud cdad tdgdr okkdsj o hjs orkemvjs cjgcd sd dgkudgtro ho mgbjr`okmûg gd-
kdsormo (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.5), dgtrd ho qud cdad dstor6
  • Yhog `odstrj cd prjcukkmûg.
  • Korto cd `otdrmohds cd hjs ortàkuhjs o prjcukmr
prjcukmr..
   • Cd`jro cdh pdcmcj sm dh mgsu`j, portd j kj`pjgdgtd
kj`pjgdgtd sd kj`pro, y tmd`pj
tmd`pj cd
prjcukkmûg sm dh mgsu`j, portd j kj`pjgdgtd sd prjcukd dg ho `ms`o phogto
(poro koco dhd`dgtj cd ho korto cd `otdrmohds).
  • Mgvdgtormjs cmspjgmahds cd hjs mgsu`js, portds y kj`pjgdgtds.
  • Dstocj cd hos ûrcdgds dg trïgsmtj.
  Ho sohmco tàpmko cd ugo @QY sjg hos kogtmcocds gdkdsormos cd hjs mgsu`js,
portds y kj`pjgdgtds (qud sd mgcmkog dg ho korto
kort o cd `otdrmohds) qud sjg gdkdsormjs
poro ku`phmr kjg dh prjnro`o `odstrj y hos bdkeos (hà`mtd) dg hos qud sd rdqumdrdg
cmkeos kogtmcocds. Kjg aosd dg dsto mgbjr`okmûg y ho cd hjs mgvdgtormjs cmspjgmahds
(y dg trïgsmtj), sd cdtdr`mgog hos bdkeos y kogtmcocds cd hjs pdcmcjs qud cdadg
jrcdgorsd, j ho dxmstdgkmo cd ohnög kjg󿬁mktj kjg dh phog `odstrj (sm ds dh kosj). Ho

‶ Bmnuro >.5
Mgbjr`okmûg gdkdsormo poro
m`phogtor ug @QY.
Yrjnro`o `odstrj
Dstocj cd ûrcdgds Kortos cd `otdrmohds
dg trïgsmtj

@QY6 Yhogdokmûg
Mgvdgtormjs cmspjgmahds Cd`jros cd hjs pdcmcjs
cd rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd `otdrmohds

• Bdkeos y to`oÿjs cd pdcmcjs

• Kjgbhmktjs kjg dh phog `odstrj

?42  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

dhoajrokmûg
ndgdror ugo cd ug rdqumdrd
@QY, prjnro`obugco`dgtoh`dgtd
pjr kj`putocjro cd
qudhjsrdohmkd cmkeos
cjs posjs bugkmjgds poro
smnumdgtds6
  ?. Kjg aosd dg ho korto cd `otdrmohds y hos cd`jros cd hjs pdcmcjs sd kjgstruyd
kjgstruyd
ug prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds qud mgcmqud hos bdkeos (hà`mtd) dg hos qud cdadg
jrcdgorsd hjs pdcmcjs cd koco dhd`dgtj cd ho korto cd `otdrmohds, poro qud
sd dgtrdnud dh pdcmcj cd prjcukkmûg o tmd`pj. Dstd prjnro`o sd rdsu`d dg
ugo korto cd Nogtt kjg tmd`pjs cd mgmkmokmûg torcào (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.?9), qud
sd mcdgtm󿬏kog kjg dh `ítjcj cd ho ruto kràtmko, o portmr cd ho bdkeo cd dgtrdno
cdh pdcmcj y kjg ug ovogkd eokmo otrïs dg dh tmd`pj qud kjgsmcdrd hos cd`j-
ros cd hjs pdcmcjs cd prjcukkmûg cd hjs dhd`dgtjs cd ho korto cd `otdrmohds
y hos dkuokmjgds (4.3) y (4.4).
  1. Kjg aosd
aosd dg hjs mgvdgtormjs
mgvdgtormjs cmspjgmahds
cmspjgmahds y dg dh dstocj cd
cd hos ûrcdgds dg trïg-
trïg-
smtj sd cdtdr`mgog hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs gdtjs cd koco dhd`dgtj cd ho korto cd
`otdrmohds, tj`d dg kudgto qud6
  Qdqudrm`mdgtjj gdtj  Qdqudrm`mdgtj arutj  mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd  kog-
Qdqudrm`mdgt
tmcoc cd hos ûrcdgds dg trïgsmtj cmspjgmahds.
  [m dh rdqudrm`mdgtj gdtj ds gdnotmvj, gj sd rdqumdrd jrcdgor dh mgsu`j< dg
ko`amj, sm ds pjsmtmvj cdadrï jrcdgorsd oh `dgjs dso kogtmcoc poro ho bdkeo
dg qud sd rdqumdrd dh mgsu`j.
  Kjg dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj sd mhustrog kjg cdtohhd dstjs cjs posjs gdkdsormjs
poro prjcukmr ho sohmco cd ugo @QY.
 Dfd`phj >.1. Dhoajrokmûg cd ugo @QY
Tgo d`prdso qud prjcukd edrro`mdgtos y dqumpj poro troaofj cj`ístmkj, cdad
prjcukmr ? 499 kjrtocjros cd kíspdc cd su `jcdhj KK-91?9, hos qud cdadg dgtrd-
norsd oh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo ?3 (ejy mgmkmo ho sd`ogo ?). Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.= sd prdsdgto
ho korto cd `otdrmohds poro dsto kjrtocjro, kuyj dgso`ahd 󿬏goh (kj`j sd oprdkmo
cd ho 󿬏nuro) cd`ogco cd kuotrj kj`pjgdgtds6 kudrpj, keosms, `jtjr y smstd`o cd
`ogdfj. Dh dgso`ahd
dgso`ah d cdh keosms rdqumdrd ocd`ïs cd ug dgso`ahd cd kukemhhos y cd cjs
rudcos, `mdgtros qud dh dgso`ahd cdh `jtjr rdqumdrd cd ug hm`pmocjr cd omrd, qud
o su vdz rdqumdrd cd ugo kofo cdh 󿬏htrj.

‶ Bmnuro >.=
Korto cd `otdrmohds
cd ugo kjrtocjro. Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh
cd ho kjrtocjro Gmvdh 9

Dgso`ahd Dgso`ahd Dgso`ahd Dgso`ahd smstd`o

Gmvdh ?
cdh kudrpj (?) cdh keosms (?) cdh `jtjr (?) cd `ogdfj (?)

Dgso`ahd Hm`pmocjr  Gmvdh 1

Qudcos (1)
cd kukemhhos (?) cd omrd (?)

Kofo
cdh 󿬏htrj (?) Gmvdh ;

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?4>

K J @Y JG D GS D CD@JQO M G R D G SO Q M J ‶ Soaho >.;

Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh ? sd`ogo 149 Mgvdgtormjs y cd`jros cd hjs
kj`pjgdgtds cd ugo kjrtocjro.
Dgso`ahd cdh kudrpj ; sd`ogos 399
Dgso`ahd cd keosms ? sd`ogo 199
Dgso`ahd cd kukemhhos 1 sd`ogos 599
Qudcos ? sd`ogo 1;99
Dgso`ahd cdh `jtjr 3 sd`ogos 349
Hm`pmocjr cd omrd ? sd`ogo 149
Kofo cdh 󿬏htrj 1 sd`ogos 499
Dgso`ahd smstd`o cd `ogdfj ? sd`ogo 399

  Dg ho toaho >.; sd prdsdgtog hos cd`jros cd hjs pdcmcjs poro koco kj`pjgdgtd
y sus mgvdgtormjs< ocd`ïs sd soad qud gj dxmstdg ûrcdgds dg trïgsmtj poro gmgnugj
cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds. O portmr cd dstjs cotjs, sd cdsdo dgkjgtror hos kogtmcocds cd
koco kj`pjgdgtd qud sd cdadg jrcdgor (rdqudrm`mdgtjs gdtjs) y hos bdkeos (hà-
`mtd) dg hos qud cdadg jrcdgorsd hjs pdcmcjs, sm sd cdsdo sotmsbokdr dh pdcmcj cd
? 499 kjrtocjros poro dh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo ?3.
  Kj`j sd sunmdrd dg dh posj ?, poro dhoajror ho sohmco cd ugo @QY ds kjgvd-
gmdgtd kjgstrumr dh prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds, kjg aosd dg ho korto cd `otdrmohds y
dg hos cd`jros cd hjs pdcmcjs. Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?9 opordkd dh prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds
 rdsuhtogtd cd hjs cotjs prjpjrkmjgocjs, dg dh qud sd jatuvmdrjg hos bdkeos hà`mtd
(SMSO) `dcmogtd hos dkuokmjgds (4.3) y (4.4), sd d`pdzû cdh 󿬏goh eokmo dh mgmkmj.
Yjr dfd`phj, cdamcj o qud ho dgtrdno sdrï oh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo ?3 y ho cd`jro cdh
dgso`ahd 󿬏goh ds cd ? sd`ogo, ho bdkeo hà`mtd poro mgmkmor dh dgso`ahd 󿬏goh sdrï
dh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo ?3   ?  ?;< cd okudrcj kjg ho korto cd `otdrmohds, dh 󿬏goh
cd ho sd`ogo
y kjg ?; sdrïcdho;bdkeo
ugo cd`jro hà`mtdhoporo
sd`ogos, tdr`mgor
bdkeo dh dgso`ahd
hà`mtd poro cdh kudrpj
mgmkmor (SMSO) (SSSO),
dh dgso`ahd
cdh kudrpj sdrï dh 󿬏goh cd ho sd`ogo ?;   ;  ?9. Oh prjkdcdr cd dsto `ogdro,
ds khorj (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.?9) qud sm euamdro ho gdkdsmcoc cd jrcdgor kofos cd 󿬏htrj
poro dsto jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg, dh pdcmcj tdgcrï qud eokdrsd, kuogtj `ïs torcd,
oh mgmkmj cd ho sd`ogo >.

‶ Bmnuro >.?9
Yrjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds poro
Dgso`ahd cdh kudrpj boarmkor kjrtocjros.

Dgso`ahd cd kukemhhos
Dgso`ahd
cd keosms
Qudcos
Dgso`ahd
Hm`pmocjr  󿬏goh
Kofo cd 󿬏htrj cd omrd Dgso`ahd cdh `jtjr  
Dgso`ahd
smstd`o
cd `ogdfj

> 5 = ?9 ?? ?1 ?; ?3 ?4
Mgmkmj cd sd`ogo

?45  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho >.3 K J @Y JG D G SD QD_ T DQ M@ M DG SJ A QT SJ M G R D G SO Q M J Q D_ T DQM @ MD G SJ G DS J

Qdqudrm`mdgtjs arutjs y gdtjs Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh ? 499 149 ? 149
poro hjs kj`pjgdgtds cd ugo
kjrtocjro. Dgso`ahd cdh kudrpj ? 149 399 549
Dgso`ahd cd keosms ? 149 199 ? 949
Dgso`ahd cd kukemhhos ? 949 599 149
Qudcos 1 ?99 1 ;99 9
Dgso`ahd cdh `jtjr ? 149 349 599
Hm`pmocjr cd omrd 599 149 449
Kofo cdh 󿬏htrj 449 499 49
Dgso`ahd smstd`o cd `ogdfj ? 149 399 549

  (cdJasdrvd
cj qud hos
prjcukkmûg bdkeos
j cd cd ho
oaostj) 󿬏nurojrcdgorsd
pudcd >.?9 sjg bdkeos hà`mtd,
ogtds cd sm sd cdsdo,
dso bdkeo< dh pdcm-
smg d`aornj,
gj cdad eokdrsd cdspuís, yo qud dg dsd kosj gj sd pjcrào tdr`mgor dh pdcmcj 󿬏goh
o tmd`pj. Yjr jtrj hocj, sm pjr ohnugo rozûg sd tmdgd qud tdr`mgor ho jrcdg cd oh-
nugj cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds ogtds cd ho bdkeo hà`mtd, cdadrïg ocdhogtorsd hos bdkeos
hà`mtd cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds gdkdsormjs cd ho korto cd `otdrmohds.
  Dh sdnugcj posj poro ndgdror ho sohmco cd ho @QY kjgsmstd dg cdtdr`mgor hjs
rdqudrm`mdgtjs gdtjs, qud sd rdsu`dg dg ho toaho >.3. Jasdrvd, pjr dfd`phj, qud
dh rdqudrm`mdgtj gdtj cd dgso`ahds 󿬏gohds ds cd ? 149 pjrqud sd rdqumdrdg ? 499
ugmcocds y sd cmspjgdg cd 149< pjr jtrj hocj, dstd rdqudrm`mdgtj gdtj sd kjgvmdrtd
 dg dh rdqudrm`mdgtj arutj cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds qud hd smnudg dg gmvdh dg ho korto
cd `otdrmohds, qud sjg6 dgso`ahd cdh kudrpj, dgso`ahd cd keosms, dgso`ahd cdh
`jtjr y dgso`ahd cdh smstd`o cd `ogdfj. Dh rdqudrm`mdgtj arutj cd rudcos ds cd
1(? 949)  1 ?99 cdamcj o qud sd rdqumdrdg 1 rudcos pjr koco dgso`ahd cd keosms
(vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.=). Jasdrvd to`amíg qud kuogcj dh rdqudrm`mdgtj arutj `dgjs dh
mgvdgtormj (`dgjs hos kogtmcocds dg trïgsmtj, sm budro dh kosj) ds gdnotmvj, dh rdqud-
rm`mdgtj gdtj ds kdrj, yo qud dhhj mgcmko qud dg ho bdkeo gdkdsormo sd cmspjgcrï
cd `ïs ugmcocds qud hos rdqudrmcos. Jtrj dhd`dgtj o kjgsmcdror ds qud sm euamdro
kogtmcocds dg trïgsmtj, cdadrïg rdstorsd sûhj hos qud hhdnorïg dg j ogtds cd ho
h o bdkeo
gdkdsormo (jatdgmco dg dh prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds) poro jatdgdr dh rdqudrm`mdgtj
gdtj.
  Yjr öhtm`j, dh rdsuhtocj cd ho @QY sd rdsu`d dg ho toaho >.4. Jasdrvd qud ho
mgbjr`okmûg ds sûhj ho mgbjr`okmûg rdhdvogtd cd ho @QY, kj`j ds ho bdkeo (hà`mtd)
cd hjs pdcmcjs y dh rdqudrm`mdgtj gdtj poro koco kj`pjgdgtd.
  Ho mgbjr`okmûg qud sd jatmdgd cd ugo @QY smrvd cd cmbdrdgtds `ogdros,
cdpdgcd cd hos pjhàtmkos cd jpdrokmûg cd ho d`prdso. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, sd pudcdg

‶ Soaho
Bdkeos>.4
y kogtmcocds cd pdcmcj K J @Y JG D G SD BDKE O HÀ @MSD ( MGM KMJ CD [D@OGO) QD _T DQ M@ M DG SJ G DSJ
poro hjs kj`pjgdgtds cd ugo Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh ?3 ? 149
kjrtocjro. Dgso`ahd cdh kudrpj ?? 549
Dgso`ahd cd keosms ?; ? 949
Dgso`ahd cd kukemhhos ?? 149
Qudcos ‛ 9
Dgso`ahd cdh `jtjr ?9 599
Hm`pmocjr cd omrd = 449
Kofo cdh 󿬏htrj > 49
Dgso`ahd smstd`o cd `ogdfj ?; 549

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?4=

prjcukmr (jrcdgor) hjs pdcmcjs (outj`ïtmko`dgtd) dg ho bdkeo hà`mtd qud rdpjrto

ho @QY,
@QY, sm ho d`prdso kjgsmcdro qud gj dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`ard dg kuogtj o hos cd`j-
ros cd hjs pdcmcjs, cd `ogdro qud eoyo ugo kjjrcmgokmûg pdrbdkto cdh prjnro`o
cd prjcukkmûg kjg dh prjnro`o cd dgtrdnos. Yjr jtrj hocj, sm dxmstd ohnög nrocj cd
mgkdrtmcu`ard dg hos cd`jros y/j hjs tmd`pjs cd dfdkukmûg cd hjs pdcmcjs, ho d`-
prdso pudcd utmhmzor ho mgbjr`okmûg cd ho @QY kj`j opjyj poro ho tj`o cd cdkm-
smjgds< dg dstd kosj ho mgbjr`okmûg sdrvmrï poro prdvdgmr oh pdrsjgoh cd kj`pros
y/j prjcukkmûg cd qud gj cdad dxkdcdr kmdrtos bdkeos poro jrcdgor hjs pdcmcjs
cd prjcukkmûg y/j oaostdkm`mdgtj, sm cdsdo ku`phmr kjg dh prjnro`o `odstrj cd
prjcukkmûg.
✣

Ds kjgvdgmdgtd rd`orkor qud dg dh dfd`phj ogtdrmjr sd supusj qud hos cd`jros cd

hjs pdcmcjs dstïg cocos (dg ho toaho >.;) y dg ho prïktmko sd kohkuhog kjgsmcdrogcj
gj sûhj dh tmd`pj gdkdsormj poro prjcukmr j rdkmamr ho jrcdg sjhmkmtoco, smgj to`-
 amíg hjs pjsmahds tmd`pjs `udrtjs cdamcjs o qud ohnög rdkursj dstï jkupocj. Dg
dstd kosj, poro dhoajror ho @QY sdrï gdkdsormj mgtdroktuor kjg ho prjnro`okmûg cd
hos jpdrokmjgds prjcuktmvos.

[mstd`os logaog 
Ougqud sd rdpjrtog kosjs dg qud ugo @QY sd utmhmzo kj`j edrro`mdgto cdgtrj
 cd ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh, gj ds dh kosj `ïs kj`ög< ho tíkgmko poro
oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs cd mgsu`js, kjgjkmco kjg dh gj`ard cd logaog, ds ho qud
kjgvmdgd o hjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh  kj`j dh fustj o tmd`pj, y ds ho
tíkgmko cd `oyjr ophmkokmûg dg dstjs smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg. Ougqud yo sd emzj
rdbdrdgkmo oh logaog dg dh kopàtuhj ;, ds gdkdsormj rd`orkor dg dstd kopàtuhj hos
koroktdràstmkos
cd prmgkmpohds cdh logaog kj`j tíkgmko poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs
cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd.
  Dh logaog ds ug `dkogms`j poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cd-
pdgcmdgtd qud dhm`mgo ho gdkdsmcoc cd phogdor dh oaostdkm`mdgtj cd mgsu`js kjg
 aosd dg ug prjnro`o cd prjcukkmûg (kj`j hj eokd ho @QY). Dg tdjrào dh logaog 
ds ug `dkogms`j cmgï`mkj cd kj`ugmkokmûg, qud tmdgd ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd kjjrcmgor
ho prjcukkmûg cd mgsu`js, portds y kj`pjgdgtds, kjg hos gdkdsmcocds cdh khmdgtd
qud cd`ogco dstjs prjcuktjs.
  Tg smstd`o tmpj logaog utmhmzocj curogtd `ukej tmd`pj dg hos bor`okmos,
kjgsmstd dg osmngor o koco prjcuktj ug torfdtdrj, y koco vdz qud sd rdtmro (cdamcj
o ho kj`pro cd ug khmdgtd) ugo ugmcoc cdh prjcuktj, sd cdpjsmto ugo torfdto dg
dh torfdtdrj< cd dsto `ogdro, kuogcj dxmstd ug gö`drj su󿬏kmdgtd cd torfdtos dg dh
torfdtdrj, dh smstd`o kj`ugmko qud cdad jrcdgorsd ug pdcmcj cd oaostdkm`mdgtj
cdh prjcuktj (yo qud dstï pjr onjtorsd dh mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd). Kjg dstd dfd`phj
sdgkmhhj sd `udstro kû`j dh torfdtdrj smrvd cd `dkogms`j cd kj`ugmkokmûg dgtrd
dh khmdgtd y dh prjcuktjr, yo qud kuogcj dxmstdg torfdtos dg dh torfdtdrj sd mgcmko
qud dh prjcuktj eo smcj cd`ogcocj y qud ds gdkdsormj ‘prjcukmr‐ `ïs ugmcocds
poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco cdh khmdgtd. Yjr jtrj hocj, cdad gjtor qud ístd ds ug
smstd`o tmpj  puhh, yo qud ds ho cd`ogco cdh khmdgtd ho qud ndgdro hos ûrcdgds cd
prjcukkmûg.
  Dg ndgdroh, ug `dkogms`j tmpj logaog ds ug smstd`o cd kj`ugmkokmûg dgtrd
hjs khmdgtds y dh prjcuktjr cd ug ortàkuhj, qud tmdgd pjr 󿬏gohmcoc dh mgcmkor oh prj-
cuktjr kuïgcj ds gdkdsormj prjcukmr dh ortàkuhj cdamcj o qud ho cd`ogco cd hjs
khmdgtds dstï pjr onjtor dh mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd. Tg `dkogms`j logaog opjyo o
ugo 󿬏hjsjbào cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puhh, yo qud pdr`mtd qud ho cd`ogco cd hjs khmdg-
tds mgcmqud oh smstd`o kuïgcj sd cdad prjcukmr.

?29  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  Tg `dkogms`j logaog dhm`mgo dh rmdsnj cd prjcukmr pjr ocdhogtocj, kj`j

jkurrd dg smstd`os cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puse, dg hjs qud prm`drj sd phogdo ho prj-
cukkmûg y hudnj sd ausko qud hjs khmdgtds cd`ogcdg dh prjcuktj. Oh pdr`mtmr qud
sd kj`ugmqud oh prjcuktjr qud dh mgvdgtormj cdh ortàkuhj dstï pjr onjtorsd cdamcj
o ho cd`ogco cdh `ms`j, dh smstd`o logaog pdr`mtd qud sd prjcuzko sûhj kuogcj
ds gdkdsormj y dhm`mgo ho gdkdsmcoc cd phogdor ho prjcukkmûg qud sd prdsdgto dg
ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg tmpj  puse.
  Hjs `dkogms`js logaog qud bugkmjgog dg ho oktuohmcoc dg hos d`prdsos, gj
gdkdsormo`dgtd smnudg dh smstd`o mgmkmoh cd torfdtos y torfdtdrjs6
  • @dgsofd dskrmtj. [d utmhmzo ug `dgsofd dskrmtj poro jrcdgor ug pdcmcj cd
oaostdkm`mdgtj o ug prjvddcjr j poro mgcmkor o ohnög tohhdr cd ho phogto qud
sd rdqumdrd ho prjcukkmûg cd ug ortàkuhj j kj`pjgdgtd. Ougqud
Ougqud hjs `dgsofds
dskrmtjs pordkdg ohnj aurjkrïtmkjs, dg ho oktuohmcoc ho tdkgjhjnào cd Mgtdrgdt j
cd box bokmhmto ho dxpdcmkmûg cd `dgsofds dskrmtjs y eokd vmoahd ho kj`ugmkokmûg
pjr dskrmtj dgtrd d`prdsos, nrokmos oh mgtdrko`amj dhdktrûgmkj cd cotjs.
  • @dgsofd eoahocj. [d utmhmzo dh hdgnuofd eoahocj poro kj`ugmkor ho gdkdsm-
coc cd oaostdkm`mdgtj y/j prjcukkmûg cd ug ortàkuhj y su trogs`msmûg ds dg
bjr`o cmrdkto j pjr vào tdhdbûgmko. Yjr dfd`phj, hos sjhmkmtucds cd tohjgormjs
cd kedquds sd dbdktöog pjr vào tdhdbûgmko dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs aogkjs.
  • Jtros sdÿohds. Hjs `dkogms`js logaog `ïs cmbugcmcjs eokdg usj cd jtros
sdÿohds poro kjhjkor ugo jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg, pjr dfd`phj, eoy `dkogms`js
logaog aosocjs dg hukds (cmbdrdgtds kjhjrds mgcmkog ortàkuhjs y/j to`oÿjs cd
hjtd cmstmgtjs), pdhjtos cd njhb, torfdtos, y kjgtdgdcjrds (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.??).
Yoro utmhmzor sdÿohds qud gj sdog `dgsofds eoahocjs j dskrmtjs, pjr hj ndgdroh
 ds gdkdsormj qud sd eoyo hjnrocj ugo ohto dstogcormzokmûg cdh prjkdsj prj-
cuktmvj< pjr dfd`phj, dh to`oÿj cd hjs hjtds cdad kjgjkdrsd cd ogtd`ogj.
  Dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?? opordkd dh bugkmjgo`mdgtj cd ug `dkogms`j logaog aosocj
dg
kjgkjgtdgdcjrds.
ugo kopokmcocDgdstïgcor
dh `dkogms`j qud sd mhustro
cd 3 ortàkuhjs. dxmstdg sjg
Hjs ortàkuhjs ; kjgtdgdcjrds, koco
prjcukmcjs dg ugj
dh prj-
kdsj O (dh prjcuktjr) y sjg kjgsu`mcjs dg dh prjkdsj A (dh khmdgtd), kuogcj dg dh
prjkdsj A sd eog usocj tjcjs hjs ortàkuhjs cd ug kjgtdgdcjr, ístd sd rd`mtd oh prj-
kdsj O poro qud ohhà sd hhdgd dh kjgtdgdcjr kjg ho prjcukkmûg cd O. Dg ug logaog 
kj`j dh qud sd mhustro, ho sdÿoh poro mgmkmor ho prjcukkmûg ds dh `ms`j kjgtdgdcjr

‶ Bmnuro >.??
Logaog  kjg dh `ms`j
kjgtdgdcjr kj`j sdÿoh.

Yrjkdsj A Yrjkdsj O

Rokàj

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?2?

vokàj, y kj`j sd pudcd oprdkmor, poro qud dstd `dkogms`j bugkmjgd ds gdkdsormo ho
dstogcormzokmûg cdh prjkdsj (kjgtdgdcjrds smd`prd kjg kopokmcoc cd 3). Dh to`oÿj
cd hjs kjgtdgdcjrds tmdgd m`pjrtogkmo pjrqud cdad fustm󿬏kor ugo kjrrmco cd prjcuk-
kmûg poro dh ortàkuhj (dg ho 󿬏nuro sd utmhmzo ug to`oÿj cd 3 sûhj pjr kj`jcmcoc).
Yjr jtrj hocj, dh gö`drj cd kjgtdgdcjrds dg kmrkuhokmûg to`amíg sdrï m`pjrtogtd,
cdamcj o qud cdtdr`mgo dh mgvdgtormj cd ortàkuhjs dg prjkdsj. Dg ndgdroh, ug ocd-
kuocj gö`drj cd kjgtdgdcjrds dg dh smstd`o cdpdgcd cd ho vdhjkmcoc kjg qud sd
kjgsu`dg hjs ortàkuhjs< dh gö`drj cd kjgtdgdcjrds cdadrï cms`mgumrsd kuogcj sd
jasdrvd ug mgvdgtormj mggdkdsormo`dgtd ohtj y cdadrï ou`dgtorsd sm sd jasdrvo
qud dh prjkdsj sd cdtmdgd pjrqud dh khmdgtd gj tmdgd ortàkuhjs poro kjgsu`mr.

  OHNTGJ[ @JCDHJ[ YOQO

YOQO OC@MGM[SQOQ MGRDGSOQMJ[
MGRDGSOQMJ[
O `dgucj hjs mgvdgtormjs kjgstmtuydg ug ohtj pjrkdgtofd cdh kopmtoh qud mgvmdrtd
ugo d`prdso poro osdnuror ho kjgtmgumcoc cd sus jpdrokmjgds, y ds ug mgcmkocjr
cd ho d󿬏kmdgkmo kjg qud ho d`prdso oc`mgmstro sus rdkursjs. Ds toh ho m`pjrtogkmo
cdh vohjr cd hjs mgvdgtormjs, qud ugo `dcmco m`pjrtogtd cdh rdgcm`mdgtj sjard ho
mgvdrsmûg ds dh vohjr cd hos vdgtos cmvmcmcj dgtrd dh kopmtoh mgvdrtmcj dg mgvdgto-
rmjs. Yjr dstos rozjgds, dxmstd ugo nrog vormdcoc cd `jcdhjs poro opjyor ho tj`o
cd cdkmsmjgds dg kuogtj o ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs, hjs qud dg ndgdroh
cm󿬏drdg dg kuogtj oh gö`drj cd prjcuktjs o kjgsmcdror (poro ug sjhj prjcuktj j
`uhtmprjcuktjs) y dg kuogtj oh troto`mdgtj cd ho cd`ogco (cdtdr`mgmsto j ohdo-
tjrmo), pjr hj qud o kjgtmguokmûg sd ogohmzo dh usj cd ohnugjs cd dstjs `jcdhjs.
Ougqud dsto sdkkmûg sd dgbjko dg hos ophmkokmjgds cd dstjs `jcdhjs poro oc`mgms-
 tror mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd, dg dh smnumdgtd kopàtuhj sd oajrcog hos
ophmkokmjgds cd hjs `jcdhjs poro oc`mgmstror prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs.

Kjstj cd hjs mgvdgtormjs

Ho prmgkmpoh rozûg poro `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktj tdr`mgocj ds cmspjgdr
cd hjs prjcuktjs poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco cdh khmdgtd smg qud sd dxpdrm`dgtd ug
rdtrosj dg ho otdgkmûg cd hjs pdcmcjs. Yjr dsto rozûg, `ogtdgdr ug gmvdh ohtj cd mg-
vdgtormj pudcd sdr kjgvdgmdgtd cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd ho otdgkmûg cd hjs pdcm-
cjs cdh khmdgtd, smg d`aornj, ugo pjhàtmko cd dstd tmpj ds kjstjso, yo qud sd mgkurrd
dg kjstjs ohtjs pjr `ogtdgdr hjs mgvdgtormjs, jasdrvd qud sûhj dh dspokmj gdkdsormj
poro `ogtdgdr ortàkuhjs dg mgvdgtormj tmdgd ug kjstj smngm󿬏kotmvj< dstd kjstj ds ho
prmgkmpoh budgtd cd kjstj qud kjgsmcdrog hjs `jcdhjs poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgto-
rmjs. Yjr jtrj hocj, sm sd rdcukdg hjs gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj, dxmstdg jtros budgtds cd
kjstj qud sd cdadg kjgsmcdror kuogcj sd cdsdo cdtdr`mgor pjhàtmkos ûptm`os poro
ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs. O kjgtmguokmûg sd mgcmkog kjg `oyjr cdtohhd hjs
kj`pjgdgtds cd kjstj qud sd mgkhuydg dg hjs prmgkmpohds `jcdhjs cd mgvdgtormjs6
  • Kjstj vormoahd cd ho `drkogkào. Ds dh kjstj cd hjs prjcuktjs qud vorào kjg
dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj. Yjr hj ndgdroh sd jatmdgd oh `uhtmphmkor dh kjstj ugm-
tormj pjr dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds qud sd jrcdgog< dg dh kjstj ugmtormj cdad
mgkhumrsd dh kjstj ugmtormj pjr trogspjrtd y `ogdfj cdh prjcuktj. Dstd kjstj
ocqumdrd portmkuhor m`pjrtogkmo kuogcj dxmstdg dkjgj`àos cd dskoho j dh to-
`oÿj cdh pdcmcj mg󿬁uyd dg dh kjstj ugmtormj cdh prjcuktj.
  • Kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs. Dstd kjstj tmdgd cjs kj`pjgdgtds, dh kjstj
cd jpjrtugmcoc y dh kjstj bàsmkj. Dh prm`drj kjrrdspjgcd oh adgd󿬏kmj qud
ndgdro dh kopmtoh mgvdrtmcj dg dh mgvdgtormj, cdamcj o qud ho prjcukkmûg cd
hjs ortàkuhjs dg mgvdgtormj tmdgd ug kjstj yo kuamdrtj pjr ho d`prdso y rdprd-
sdgto ug kopmtoh cd troaofj. Dh kjstj bàsmkj kjrrdspjgcd oh nostj ocmkmjgoh dg
qud sd mgkurrd poro kjgsdrvor ho mgtdnrmcoc cdh mgvdgtormj, yo qud sd rdqumdrd

?21  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cdh usj cd dspokmj (dg rdgto j prjpmj), dh ocdkuocj kumcocj dg dh d`poqud,

d`aohofd y `ogdfj cd hjs `otdrmohds poro dvmtor dh cdtdrmjrj cdh mgvdgtormj y
dh prjkdsj oc`mgmstrotmvj poro rdnmstror hos dgtrocos y sohmcos. Dh kjstj bàsmkj
to`amíg mgkhuyd dh kjstj cdh rmdsnj pjr sdnurjs, jasjhdskdgkmo, cdtdrmjrj y
`dr`os. Yjr hj ndgdroh, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cmrdkto`dgtd
prjpjrkmjgoh oh kjstj, vjhu`dg y tmd`pj qud sd oh`okdgo dh mgvdgtormj.
  • Kjstj pjr jrcdgor. Ds dh kjstj 󿬏fj (qud gj cdpdgcd cdh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj)
dg qud sd mgkurrd koco vdz qud sd jrcdgo ug pdcmcj. Dstd kjstj sd osjkmo kjg
dh prjkdcm`mdgtj oc`mgmstrotmvj y hjnàstmkj qud m`phmko
m `phmko jrcdgor ug pdcmcj cd
oaostdkm`mdgtj, mgkhuyd dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr ndstmjgor ho prjcukkmûg j ho kj`pro
y hjs kjstjs 󿬏fjs pjr trogspjrtd, d`aohofd, rdkdpkmûg, mgspdkkmûg y `ogdfj cdh
`otdrmoh.
  • Kjstj pjr cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj. Dstd kjstj sd otrmauyd oh kosj dg qud ug khmdgtd
gj dgkudgtro mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd poro sotmsbokdr su cd`ogco y sd pmdrcd ho
vdgto j sd tmdgd qud pjgdr ugo jrcdg poro otdgcdr oh khmdgtd kjg rdtorcj. Dh
kjstj cmrdktj
ugo vdgto, smgpjr cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj
d`aornj, ds ho
cdad tdgdr dg pírcmco
kudgto qudcdkuogcj
adgd󿬏kmj pjr gjgj
dh khmdgtd eokdr
so-
tmsbokd su cd`ogco, sd mgkurrd dg bohto cd sdrvmkmj oh khmdgtd, qud rdcugco
dg ho pírcmco cd vdgtos buturos pjr ho mgsotmsbokkmûg cdh khmdgtd. Ds pjr dsto
rozûg qud dh kjstj pjr cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj o `dgucj ds `ïs cmbàkmh cd dstm`or
qud hjs kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs j hjs kjstjs pjr jrcdgor, y dg ohnu-
gjs kosjs sd dstoahdkd suafdtmvo`dgtd. [d okdpto qud dstd kjstj krdkd kjg dh
vjhu`dg cdsoaostdkmcj, pjr hj qud ndgdroh`dgtd sd dstoahdkd o portmr cd ug
kjstj pjr ugmcoc bohtogtd.
 Dh `jcdhj DJ_
Dh `jcdhj DJ_ (dkjgj`mk jrcdr quogtmty ),
), j cd to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd pdcmcj, rdkmad
dstd gj`ard pjrqud
oc`mgmstrokmûg aofj dstd `jcdhj
cd mgvdgtormjs sd bjr`uho
kj`j bugkmûg cd ho dh kjstj (oguoh)
kogtmcoc qud sd cd ho pjhàtmko
jrcdgo dg kococd
pdcmcj, hj qud pdr`mtd dgkjgtror dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj qud `mgm`mzo dh kjstj cd ho
pjhàtmko. Yoro dgkjgtror ugo dxprdsmûg ogohàtmko cdh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd pdcmcj
 aofj dh `jcdhj DJ_, cdad portmrsd cd kmdrtjs supudstjs (vdo ho h o 󿬏nuro >.?1)6
  ?. Ho cd`ogco pjr dh ortàkuhj jkurrd o ugo toso kjgstogtd curogtd tjcj dh
oÿj.
  1. Sjcjs hjs pdcmcjs cd oaostdkm`mdgtj tmdgdg dh `ms`j to`oÿj _   cd
ortàkuhjs.
  ;. Koco vdz qud
qud sd onjto dh mgvdgtormj, dg
dg dsd `j`dgtj hhdno ug gudvj
gudvj pdcmcj
pdcmcj
cd oaostdkm`mdgtj y dh mgvdgtormj sd dhdvo cd mg`dcmotj oh to`oÿj cd pdcm-
cj _ (kj`j dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?1). Jasdrvd qud aofj dsto supjsmkmûg gj dxmstd
cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj.

  Hjs supudstjs 1 y ; cdh `jcdhj DJ_ gj pordkdg sdr `uy rdstrmktmvjs, yo qud
sm ho cd`ogco ds dstoahd, ds rozjgoahd dgsoyor pdcmcjs cdh `ms`j to`oÿj curogtd
dh oÿj, pjr jtrj hocj, aofj ug `dkogms`j cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo cd hjs mgvdgtormjs,
gj ds `uy cmbàkmh kjjrcmgor hjs pdcmcjs poro qud hhdnudg o tmd`pj y gj jkurro ug
cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj. Dh prm`dr supudstj pordkd sdr dh `ïs rdstrmktmvj y ds pjr dsto
rozûg qud gj sd okjgsdfo utmhmzor dh `jcdhj DJ_ kuogcj ho cd`ogco tmdgd ugo
`orkoco dstokmjgohmcoc, `ïs ocdhogtd sd `dgkmjgog ohnugjs `jcdhjs qud pdr`m-
tdg dgbrdgtor potrjgds cd cd`ogco cmgï`mkjs.
  Jasdrvd qud aofj hjs supudstjs cdh `jcdhj DJ_, ho nrï󿬏ko cdh gmvdh cd mg-
vdgtormjs sd kj`pjrto kj`j dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?1, cjgcd ho vormoahd rdhdvogtd ds dh to-
`oÿj cd pdcmcj _< ocd`ïs, dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj ds cd _/1, pjr hj qud sm cdgjto

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?2;

‶ Bmnuro >.?1
Mgvdgtormj Gmvdh
dg dh cdh mgvdgtormj
`jcdhj DJ_.

_/1

t9 1t 9 Smd`pj

kjg K  M  kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj, dh kjstj
(oguoh) ohpjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs sdrï cd K  M _/1. Yjr jtrj hocj, sm cdgjto kjg K 9 
oh kjstj pjr pjgdr ugo jrcdg cd oaostdkm`mdgtj y kjg  C o ho cd`ogco oguoh cdh
ortàkuhj, dg prj`dcmj sdrïg pudstos  C/_ ûrcdgds (j pdcmcjs) cd oaostdkm`mdgtj,
pjr hj qud dh kjstj (oguoh) pjr jrcdgor sdrï cd K J C/_. Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, cocj qud
 aofj dstd `jcdhj gj dxmstd cdsoaostdkm`mdgtj, dh kjstj (oguoh) cd ugo pjhàtmko cd
to`oÿj cd pdcmcj _ aofj dh `jcdhj DJ_ dstorï cocj pjr6
K M _ K9 C
  K(_ ) 0 + . (>.?)
1 _
 Ho bugkmûg cd󿬏gmco dg (>.?) (kj`j bugkmûg cd _) tmdgd cdrmvoco poro _   9 y oh-
kogzo ug `àgm`j dg dh vohjr qud sd jatmdgd oh mnuohor o kdrj ho prm`dro cdrmvoco
rdspdktj cd _. Dstd vohjr ûptm`j dstï cocj pjr6
1 CK 9
  _* 0 . (>.1)
K  M 

Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud sm dh kjstj ugmtormj cdh prjcuktj ds K , ug supudstj

rozjgoahd ds qud dh kjstj K  M , pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug
oÿj, tmdgd ho bjr`o6
  K  M    ( r    e)K , (>.;)
cjgcd rK   ds dh kjstj cd jpjrtugmcoc, y eK   ds dh kjstj bàsmkj, pjr `ogtdgdr ugo
ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj. Dg dstd kosj, sd okjstu`aro mcdgtm󿬏kor o
K  M kjg ug pjrkdgtofd, pjr dfd`phj, ug kjstj cd mgvdgtormj cd 19% smngm󿬏ko qud
K  M     9.1K . O kjgtmguokmûg sd prdsdgto ug dfd`phj qud mhustro ho ophmkokmûg cdh
`jcdhj DJ_.

Dfd`phj >.;. Ophmkokmûg cdh `jcdhj DJ_

Tgo kocdgo cd bor`okmos cdkmcd dstucmor dh kosj cd ho posto cdgtoh poro cdtdr`m-
gor sm ugo `dfjro dg dh smstd`o cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd dstd prjcuktj
smrvd kj`j `jcdhj poro hjs jtrjs prjcuktjs. Ho cd`ogco cd posto cdgtoh dg hjs
öhtm`js 2 `dsds bud ho smnumdgtd6
@ds ? 1 ; 3 4 2
Cd`ogco (kofos) ; 914 1 =49 ; ?99 ; 949 1 =>4 1 =99

?23  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Kj`j pudcd oprdkmorsd, ho cd`ogco ds `ïs j `dgjs dstoahd, kjg ug prj`dcmj cd

; 999 kofos oh `ds. Dh kjstj cd ho posto cdgtoh ds cd $49.99 pjr kofo y sd dstm`o qud
dh kjstj cd kopmtoh ds cd ?1%, pjr hj qud oh ocmkmjgor dh kjstj cd oh`okdgo`mdgtj,
`ogdfj, sdnurjs d m`pudstjs, sd dstm`o qud dh kjstj cdh mgvdgtormj ds cd ?5% cdh
kjstj cd ho kofo (pjr `ogtdgdr ugo kofo dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj).
  Hudnj cd ogohmzor hjs kjstjs cd trogspjrtd, cjku`dgtokmûg y jtrjs rdhokmjgo-
cjs kjg hjs pdcmcjs, sd dstm`o qud dh kjstj pjr eokdr ug pdcmcj ds cd K 9  $?99.99,
y sd cdsdo rdspjgcdr o hos smnumdgtds prdnugtos (`dcmogtd dh `jcdhj DJ_)6
  o) ºKuïh ds dh kjstj pjr
pjr `ogtdgdr ugo kofo
kofo cd posto cdgtoh dg mgvdgtormj curogtd
ug oÿj (dg $):
  a) ºKuïh ds dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj (DJ_):
  k) ºKuïh ds dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko cd
cd oc`mgmstrokmûg
oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs kjg dh to`o-
ÿj DJ_:
  c) ºKû`j sd cdsd`pdÿorào
cdsd`pdÿorào ho pjhàtmko DJ_ brdgtd o ho pjhàtmko cd d`mtmr ugo
jrcdg
dspokmjkoco
poro`ds, cdscd dh pugtj
oh`okdgo`mdgtj cd vmsto cd m) dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko, y mm) dh
gdkdsormj.
Cd okudrcj kjg ho dkuokmûg (>.;) y hjs cotjs prjpjrkmjgocjs, r  9.?1, e   9.92
y K    49, pjr hj qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug
oÿj sd dstm`o dg K  M    49(9.?5)  =. Kj`j ocd`ïs soad qud ho cd`ogco prj`d-
cmj (`dgsuoh) ds cd ; 999 kofos, ho cd`ogco oguoh sd dstm`o dg  C   ?1(; 999)
 ;2 999 kofos. Yjr öhtm`j, dh kjstj pjr pjgdr ugo jrcdg sd dstm`o dg K 9   ?99,
oejro sd cmspjgd cd tjcjs hjs cotjs gdkdsormjs poro dgkjgtror dh to`oÿj ûptm`j
cd pdcmcj DJ_ (cd okudrcj kjg >.1)6
 1(;2 99
999)(?99)
_* 0 0 5=3
5=3.3;,
=
kogtmcoc qud sd rdcjgcdo o _*  5=3 poro cmspjgdr cd ugo pjhàtmko qud sd pudco
m`phogtor. Yoro rdspjgcdr oh mgkmsj k), utmhmkd ho dkuokmûg (>.?), dgtjgkds dh kjstj
(oguoh) cd ho pjhàtmko DJ_ ds6
K M _ * KJ C =(5=3) ?99
?99(;2999
;2999)
K(_*) 0 + 0 + ≅ 594 99..
1 _* 1 5=3
Jasdrvd qud dg dstd kjstj gj mgkhuyd dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào, sûhj hjs kjstjs pjr
oc`mgmstror dh mgvdgtormj (kjstj pjr jrcdgor `ïs kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs).
Yjr öhtm`j, poro rdspjgcdr oh mgkmsj c, oprdkmd hos vdgtofos cdh to`oÿj DJ_ brdg-
td o jtrj to`oÿj cd pdcmcj. [m d`mtd ugo jrcdg koco `ds, dh to`oÿj cd ho jrcdg
cdadrï sdr cd ; 999 kofos poro sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco cdh `ds. Aofj dstd to`oÿj cd
pdcmcj dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko sdrï cd6
K M _ =(; 99
KJ C999) ?99 (;2 999)
K(_ ) 0 1 + _ 0 1 + ;999 ≅ ?3>999
[m kj`poro dstd vohjr kjg dh kjstj cd $5 949 cd ho pjhàtmko DJ_, oprdkmorï qud dh
kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko cd jrcdgor `dgsuoh`dgtd ds supdrmjr dg `ïs cd 59% oh kjstj
cd ho pjhàtmko DJ_. Yjr jtrj hocj, cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cdh dspokmj poro oh`o-
kdgo`mdgtj, ho pjhàtmko DJ_ to`amíg ds supdrmjr dg dstd kosj, yo qud ho `ms`o
rdqumdrd cd ug dspokmj prj`dcmj cd 33> kofos, `mdgtros qud ho pjhàtmko cd jrcdgor
`dgsuoh`dgtd rdqumdrd cd ug dspokmj prj`dcmj cd ? 499 kofos. Dg dstd kosj, ho
pjhàtmko DJ_ rdqumdrd cd `ïs jrcdgds oh oÿj qud ho pjhàtmko cd jrcdgor `dgsuoh-
`dgtd, cdamcj o qud dh kjstj cd kjhjkor ûrcdgds ds rdhotmvo`dgtd aorotj dg kj`-
porokmûg kjg dh kjstj cd `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs. Dg ndgdroh, ho utmhmcoc cdh `jcdhj

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?24

DJ_ rocmko dg qud aohogkdo hjs kjstjs pjr jrcdgor kjg hjs kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr
mgvdgtormjs oh `mgm`mzor hjs kjstjs tjtohds.
✣

Kj`j sd oprdkmo dg dh dfd`phj ogtdrmjr, ho ophmkokmûg cdh `jcdhj DJ_ ds aostogtd

sdgkmhho y toh kj`j opordkd eosto dh `j`dgtj, rdsuhto goturoh dg dh kosj cd ug ds-
toahdkm`mdgtj cd vdgto oh pöahmkj (kj`j dg dh dfd`phj ogtdrmjr). Kjg dh jafdtj cd
ophmkor hjs `ms`js prmgkmpmjs cdh `jcdhj DJ_ o smtuokmjgds `ïs ndgdrohds, sd eog
prjpudstj ohnugos vormogtds. O kjgtmguokmûg opordkdg cjs cd hos `ïs kjgjkmcos.

@jcdhj cdh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd

Aofj dh `jcdhj DJ_ dh pdcmcj kj`phdtj hhdno dg ug `j`dgtj cdtdr`mgocj, kj`j
jkurrd kuogcj dh oh`okíg cd ugo phogto rdkmad ug pdcmcj cd oaostdkm`mdgtj cd ug
prjvddcjr dxtdrgj,
ho 󿬏nuro >.?1. Kuogcjrozûg
hjs pjr ho kuoh
pdcmcjs sd dh gmvdh cd mgtdrgo`dgtd,
sotmsbokdg mgvdgtormjs sd kj`pjrto kj`j dg
ds cdkmr, kuogcj ho
prjpmo d`prdso `ogubokturo dh prjcuktj dg mgvdgtormj, gj dxmstd ho gdkdsmcoc cd
dgtrdnor dh pdcmcj kj`phdtj dg ug `j`dgtj cdtdr`mgocj, smgj qud dh pdcmcj sd
sotmsbokd kjg aosd dg ho toso cd prjcukkmûg cmspjgmahd, pjr hj qud dh gmvdh cd hjs
mgvdgtormjs sd kj`pjrto kj`j dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?;.
Aofj dh `jcdhj cdh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd dstï dh supudstj cd qud sd prj-
cukd dh ortàkuhj o ugo toso cd prjcukkmûg cd p ugmcocds pjr cào, cjgcd ho cd`ogco
cdh prjcuktj jkurrd o rozûg cd c ugmcocds pjr cào. [d osu`d qud dstos tosos sjg
kjgstogtds (kj`j dg dh `jcdhj DJ_), y qud ho toso cd prjcukkmûg p ds `oyjr qud
ho toso cd cd`ogco c (cd jtro bjr`o gj sd pjcrào sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco). Dstd `j-
 cdhj ds oprjpmocj kuogcj sd prjcukdg cmbdrdgtds ortàkuhjs (pjr hjtds) dg dh `ms`j
smstd`o (kíhuho j tohhdr), cd `ogdro qud ds pdrtmgdgtd trotor cd cdtdr`mgor dh to-
`oÿj cd hjtd qud ds `ïs kjgvdgmdgtd poro koco ortàkuhj o prjcukmr dg dh smstd`o.
Kj`j sd mhustro dg ho 󿬏nuro >.?;, curogtd dh pdrmjcj dg qud dh smstd`o prjcukd
dh ortàkuhj, dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj krdkd o rozûg cd ( p  c) ugmcocds pjr cào, `mdg-
tros qud kuogcj dh smstd`o prjcukd jtrjs ortàkuhjs (cdskogso dg ho prjcukkmûg cdh
ortàkuhj),
or tàkuhj), dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj cdkrdkd o ugo toso cd c ugmcocds pjr cào. Jasdrvd
qud poro prjcukmr _ ugmcocds, sd rdqumdrdg _/p càos, pjr hj qud dh gmvdh cd mg-
vdgtormj `ïxm`j sdrï cd ( p  c)(_/p)  (?    c/p )_ ugmcocds, kuogcj dh to`oÿj
cdh hjtd ds _.
  Kj`j dh `jcdhj DJ_ cdgjto kjg K  M  oh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg
mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj y kjg K 9 oh kjstj pjr jrcdgor, qud dg dstd kjgtdxtj ds
dh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsj, dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd

‶ Bmnuro >.?;
Gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs poro
Yrjcukkmûg6 Mgvdgtormj krdkd o toso  p  c dh `jcdhj cdh hjtd dkjgû`mkj.

Mgvdgtormj Cdskogsj6 Mgvdgtormj cdkrdkd o toso c

(?-c/p)_

(?-c/p)_/1

t9 1t 9 Smd`pj

?22  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

K  M (?   c/p)_/1  K  M (?   C/Y )_/1 (cjgcd  C ds ho cd`ogco oguoh y  Y  ds

 ds ho toso cd
prjcukkmûg oguoh) y dh kjstj oguoh pjr jrcdgor ds cd K 9 C/_, pjr hj qud dh kjstj
oguoh cd ho pjhàtmko cd jrcdgor hjtds cd to`oÿj _ aofj dstd `jcdhj ds6
K M  (? ∑ C/Y )_ K9 C
  K H (_ ) 0 + .  (>.3)
1 _

Jasdrvd qud dsto bugkmûg cd kjstj tmdgd ho `ms`o bjr`o qud ho bugkmûg (>.?) cdh
`jcdhj DJ_, sûhj eoy qud rdd`phozor ho kjgstogtd K  M  pjr K  M (?  C/Y ),
), pjr hj qud
dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd ds sm`mhor o (>.1)6

  1K9 C   (>.4)
_ H* 0 .
K M (? ∑ C/Y )

Dfd`phj >.3. So`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd

Tgo bïarmko cd kohzocj tmdgd ugo sjho kíhuho poro ho prjcukkmûg cd kohzocj cd
vdstmr poro ej`ards, y cdsdo dstoahdkdr su pjhàtmko cd prjcukkmûg poro dh `jcdhj
O`írmko, qud tmdgd ugo cd`ogco kjgstogtd curogtd tjcj dh oÿj. Cmkej `jcdhj sd
vdgcd o rozûg cd ?9 999 pords oh oÿj y ho kíhuho tmdgd ugo kopokmcoc cd prjcuk-
kmûg cd 49 999 pords cd dstd `jcdhj oh oÿj. Dh kjstj cd prjcukkmûg cd koco por ds
cd $199, sm sd dstm`o qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ug por cd kohzocj dg mgvdgtormj
(curogtd ug oÿj) ds 19% cdh kjstj cd prjcukkmûg. Koco vdz qud sd jrcdgo prjcu-
kmr ug hjtd cdh `jcdhj O`írmko dg ho kíhuho, sd mgkurrd dg ug kjstj pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsj (hm`pmdzo, prdporokmûg y ofustd), qud sd dstm`o dg $1 999. Ho d`prdso
 cdsdo m`phogtor ugo pjhàtmko cd prjcukkmûg o portmr cdh gö`drj cd càos ötmhds qud
cdad curor koco kjrrmco cd prjcukkmûg, pjr hj qud cdsdo rdspjgcdr o hos smnumdg-
tds prdnugtos6

  o) ºKuïh ds dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj

dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd poro
poro dh `jcdhj O`írmko:
O`írmko:
  a) ºKuïgtjs càos ötmhds cdad curor ugo kjrrmco cd prjcukkmûg:
prjcukkmûg: (sd rdqumdrd cd
ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd càos).
  k) ºKuïh sdrào dh to`oÿj cd hjtd ofustocj
ofustocj m`phogtogcj
m`phogtogcj ho pjhàtmko
pjhàtmko jatdgmco
dg a):
  c) ºOprjxm`oco`dgtd kuïgtjs càos càos ötmhds curorào dh pdrmjcj cd cdskogsj
cdskogsj dg ho
prjcukkmûg cd dstd `jcdhj:
d) ºKuïhds sdràog hjs kjstjs
kjstjs cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgtormjs aofj dh to`oÿj
jatdgmcj dg o) y dh to`oÿj ofustocj jatdgmcj dg k):
Yoro rdspjgcdr dh mgkmsj o sd mgmkmo kjg dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj, qud ds
19% cdh kjstj cdh kohzocj, pjr hj qud K  M    199(9.19)   $39. Yjr jtrj hocj, kjg
 aosd dg hjs cotjs prjpjrkmjgocjs sd tdgcrï qud  Y    49 999,  C   ?9 999 y K 9   
1 999, oejro cmspjgd cd hjs cotjs gdkdsormjs poro dgkjgtror dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj
cd hjtd, cd okudrcj kjg (>.4)6
1(?9 99
9 99)(1 99999)
_ H* 0   0 ???
???55 porddss cd ko
kohz
hzocj
ocj..
39(? ∑ ?9 99999 / 49 99999)
Yoro rdspjgcdr o hjs smnumdgtds mgkmsjs, kjgsmcdrd pjr kj`jcmcoc qud dxmstdg 149 càos
ötmhds oh oÿj. Cd dsto `ogdro, ho toso cd prjcukkmûg cmormo sdrï cd  p  49 999/149
 199 pords oh cào, y ugo kjrrmco cd ? ??5 pords rdqudrmrào cd ? ??5/199  4.4=
càos ötmhds. Cocj qud sd rdqumdrd ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd càos, rdcjgcdd ho kjrrmco
cd prjcukkmûg o 2 càos, kjg hj qud dh to`oÿj cd hjtd ofustocj sdrï cd 2(199)  
? 199 pords cd kohzocj.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?2>

  Yjr jtrj hocj, cocj qud ho cd`ogco cmormo ds cd c   ?9 999/149  39 pords
cd kohzocj, ugo kjrrmco cd ? 199 pords sd onjtorï dg ? 199/39  ;9 càos. Dg kjg-
sdkudgkmo, koco kmkhj prjcukkmûg  cdskogsj curorï ;9 càos ötmhds, cd hjs kuohds 2
sdrïg poro ugo kjrrmco cdh `jcdhj O`írmko y 13 sdrïg cd cdskogsj dg ho prjcuk-
kmûg cd dstd `jcdhj.
  Yjr öhtm`j, kjg ho rdspudsto cdh mgkmsj d sd mgvdstmno quí togtj mgkrd`dgtû dh
kjstj cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cdh mgvdgtormj oh ofustor dh to`oÿj cd hjtd. Kjg dh to`o-
ÿj dkjgû`mkj cd hjtd (cd ? ??5 pords) dh kjstj oguoh sdrï (cd okudrcj kjg >.3)6
K M  (? ∑ C/Y )_ KJ C 39 (? ∑ ?9 99
999 /49 99
999)(???5
???5) 1999
1999(?9999)
K H (_H* ) 0 + 0 + 0 ;4>>>,
1 _ 1 ???5
`mdgtros qud kjg dh to`oÿj ofustocj (cd ? 199 pords) dh kjstj oguoh sdrï cd6
39 (? ∑ ?9 99999 /49 99
999)(? 11999) 1 999(?9 999)
K  H (?199 ) 0 + 0 ;452>,
1 ?199
kjg ug mgkrd`dgtj `dgjr o 9.;%, dh ofustd gj mg󿬁uyd `ukej dg dh kjstj. Ds kjg-
vdgmdgtd mgcmkor qud dh `jcdhj DJ_ y sus vormogtds dg ndgdroh sjg aostogtd rj-
 austjs, y hjs ofustds pjr rdcjgcdj u jtros rozjgds tmdgdg pjkj dbdktj dg dh kjstj
cd ho pjhàtmko cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs.
✣

@jcdhj DJ_ kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds

 Kuogcj dh vohjr ugmtormj j dh vjhu`dg cd hjs ortàkuhjs dg mgvdgtormj ds `uy nrogcd,
gj smd`prd kjgvmdgd tdgdr mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd poro otdgcdr cd mg`dcmotj ohnög
pdcmcj, dg dstd kosj, kuogcj ug khmdgtd
khm dgtd gj dgkudgtro dh mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd poro
otdgcdr su pdcmcj pdr`mtd qud sd hd dgtrdnud cdspuís, dsto prïktmko ds usuoh dg
ho vdgto cd outj`ûvmhds, `udahds j dhdktrjcj`ístmkjs, pjr dfd`phj. Kuogcj dstj
jkurrd, ho d`prdso rdnmstrorï dh pdcmcj cdh khmdgtd y eorï dgtrdno cdh ortàkuhj hudnj
cdh prûxm`j oaostdkm`mdgtj cd mgvdgtormj< hjs pdcmcjs osà pudstjs dg dspdro sjg
hho`ocjs pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds. Dsto smtuokmûg jkurrd kuogcj ho dstrukturo cdh `dr-
kocj hj pdr`mtd, ds cdkmr, ho kj`pdtdgkmo cd ho d`prdso to`amíg smnud ugo pjhàtmko
cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds, yo qud cd jtro bjr`o sd pdrcdrào oh khmdgtd sm ístd tmdgd ho
jpkmûg cd otdgcdr su pdcmcj cd mg`dcmotj kjg ohnög jtrj kjgkdsmjgormj, dsto sm-
tuokmûg jkurrd, pjr dfd`phj, kjg hjs kjgkdsmjgormjs cd vdgto cd outj`ûvmhds.
  Kuogcj ho d`prdso smnud ugo pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds kj`j ho ogtdrmjr
ogtdrmjr,,
sd utmhmzo ugo vormogtd cdh `jcdhj DJ_ poro cdkmcmr togtj dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj
cdh pdcmcj kj`j dh gmvdh ocdkuocj cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds o pdr`mtmr, sm dh pdcmcj
pdgcmdgtd ndgdro ohnugo pírcmco, cdamcj oh rdtorcj dg ho dgtrdno cdh prjcuktj. Aofj
dh `jcdhj DJ_ kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds (vdo ho 󿬏nuro >.?3) dh mgvdgtormj pudcd sdr
gdnotmvj, dg portmkuhor, ug gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs cd [ kjrrdspjgcd o ug gmvdh [ cd
ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds
Dh `jcdhj DJ_ cd
kjgdgtrdno.
pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds ophmko kuogcj ocd`ïs cd hjs kjstjs
K  M  (pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj) y K 9 (pjr jrcdgor ug
pdcmcj cd oaostdkm`mdgtj), sd cmspjgd cd ugo pdgohmcoc (oguoh) pjr `ogtdgdr ugo
ugmcoc pdgcmdgtd cd dgtrdno (ho qud cdgjto K [). [d cdad mgcmkor qud dsto pdgohm-
coc gj ds bïkmh cd dstm`or dg ho prïktmko, yo qud cdpdgcd cd ho pírcmco cd m`ondg
ogtd hjs khmdgtds (pírcmco pjtdgkmoh cd khmdgtds) y cd hos pjhàtmkos cd ho kj`pdtdg-
kmo. Kj`j sd vdrï `ïs ocdhogtd, hjs gmvdhds ûptm`js poro dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd
hjtd y poro dh gmvdh `ïxm`j cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds, cdpdgcdg cd ho `ongmtuc cd K [ 
dg kj`porokmûg kjg K  M , pjr hj qud dg ho prïktmko K [ pudcd dstoahdkdrsd cd bjr`o
suafdtmvo kjgsmcdrogcj su `ongmtuc dg rdhokmûg o K  M .

?25  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro >.?3
Gmvdh cdh mgvdgtormj poro dh
`jcdhj DJ_ kjg pdcmcjs Mgvdgtormj
pdgcmdgtds.
_-[

 
t1

9
t? Smd`pj

 [

  Kj`j ds pjsmahd mgtumr kjg hj cdskrmtj eosto dh `j`dgtj, dh `jcdhj DJ_

kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds tmdgd trds budgtds cd kjstj6 pjr oh`okdgor mgvdgtormjs, pjr
`ogtdgdr pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds y pjr jrcdgor. Jasdrvd qud sm dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
ds _ y sd pdr`mtd ug `ïxm`j gmvdh cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd [ (kj`j dg ho 󿬏nu-
ro >.?3), dh `ïxm`j mgvdgtormj sdrï cd _  [, yo qud [ ugmcocds sdrïg kjgsu`mcos
cd mg`dcmotj poro sotmsbokdr hjs pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds. Yjr jtrj hocj, jasdrvd dg ho
󿬏nuro >.?3 qud sd `ogtdgcrï ug mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd (_  [ )/1 curogtd kmdrtj
pdrmjcj (t ?) y ug gmvdh prj`dcmj cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd [/1 curogtd jtrj pdrmj-
 cj ( t 1), cjgcd t ? ds prjpjrkmjgoh o _  [  y t 1 ds prjpjrkmjgoh o [, dh kjstj (oguoh)
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs sdrï cd6
(_ ∑ [ ) (_ ∑ [ ) K M  (_ ∑ [ )1
K  0 ,
 M 
1 _ 1_
dh kjstj (oguoh) pjr `ogtdgdr pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds sdrï cd6
[[ K[ [ 1
K [ 0 ,
1_ 1_
y oh ocmkmjgor dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor,
jrcdgor, sd jatmdgd dh kjstj (oguoh) poro dh `jcdhj DJ_
kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds6
K M  (_ ∑ [ )1 K[ [ 1 KJ C
  K B (_, [ ) 0 + + ,  (>.2)
1_ 1_ _
cjgcd C ds ho cd`ogco oguoh. Jasdrvd qud dg dsto dkuokmûg dxmstdg cjs mgkûngmtos
o cdtdr`mgor, _ y [, pjr jtrj hocj, ho bugkmûg tmdgd cdrmvoco poro _, [  9, dgtjg-
kds hjs vohjrds ûptm`js sd dgkudgtrog oh mnuohor hos cdrmvocos porkmohds o kdrj6
* 0
  J (K M + K [ )
1 CK    K  M    *
  _ B  , [ B * 0  _ .  (>.>)
K  M  K [  K M + K [  
   B 
Dg (>.>) sd prd󿬏rmû phogtdor dh vohjr ûptm`j cd [ dg bugkmûg cdh vohjr ûptm`j cd
_, pjr hj qud ístd cdadrï kohkuhorsd prm`drj poro hudnj kohkuhor [ B 
*.

Dfd`phj >.4. So`oÿj dkjgû`mkj kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds

Tgo d`prdso qud kj`drkmohmzo ortàkuhjs dhdktrûgmkjs tmdgd kmdrto
kmdrt o prdjkupokmûg pjr
ug rdpudstj poro tdhdvmsjr qud tmdgd ug kjstj `uy ohtj. Dh kjstj cdh rdpudstj ds cd

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?2=

$?14, kjg ug kjstj cd mgvdgtormj cd 19% oguoh. Dh kjstj cdh pdcmcj sd dstm`o dg
$39, kjg ugo cd`ogco o ugo tosot oso kjgstogtd cd 599 ugmcocds oh oÿj. O ho d`prdso hd
mgtdrdso kj`poror dh kjstj cd `ogtdgdr ugo pjhàtmko DJ_ (smg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds)
brdgtd oh kjstj cd `ogtdgdr ugo pjhàtmko DJ_ kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds. [d dstm`o
qud dh kjstj cd ug pdcmcj pdgcmdgtd pjcrào dstor dgtrd $? y $?.14 pjr sd`ogo cd
dspdro, pjr hj qud sd cdkmcmû qud pjcrào 󿬏forsd dg $29 pjr ugmcoc oh oÿj.
  Cd okudrcj kjg hjs cotjs dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj
curogtd ug oÿj rdsuhto K  M   (9.1)(?14)  14, pjr hj qud ho pjhàtmko DJ_ aofj dstos
kmrkugstogkmos mgcmko ug to`oÿj cd pdcmcj cd6
1(599)(39)
_* 0 ≅ 4? rdpudstjs
rdpudstjs ,
14
kjg ug kjstj oguoh cd6

K(_* ) 0 (14)(4?) + ( 39 )(599) ≅ ?124.

1 4?
Yjr jtrj hocj, aofj ho pjhàtmko DJ_ kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds sd jatmdgd dh to`oÿj
dkjgû`mkj cd pdcmcj y dh `ïxm`j gö`drj cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds6
1(599) (39 )(
) (14 + 29)   14
14  
_ B* 0 ≅ 29 rdpudstjss, [B * 0 
rdpudstj 2 9 ≅ ?5 rdpudstjs,
14 29  14 + 29  
 
kjg ug kjstj oguoh cd6
1 1
 14(  29 ?5) 29(?5) 39(
39(599)
K B (_B* , [*B ) 0 + + 0 ?92;,
1(29) 1(29) 29
qud ds ohrdcdcjr cd ?2% `dgjr qud dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko DJ_ (smg pdcmcjs
pdgcmdgtds). Jasdrvd to`amíg qud dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdg-
tds ds cd (29-?5)1/1(29)   ?3.>, `dgjr qud dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd ho pjhàtmko
DJ_ (smg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds), qud ds cd 4?/1  14.4, pjr togtj, ho mgvdrsmûg dg
mgvdgtormj to`amíg ds smngm󿬏kotmvo`dgtd `dgjr aofj ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdg-
cmdgtds.
✣

Síkgmkos poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs kjg cd`ogco cmgï`mko

Hudnj cdh ogïhmsms (dg ho sdnugco sdkkmûg) cd hos prmgkmpohds tíkgmkos poro oc`mgms-
tror mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd, ds kj`prdgsmahd qud ugo cd hos khovds
cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd cd`ogco cdpdgcmdgtd ds trotor cd rdcukmr
hjs mgvdgtormjs cd `otdrmohds, portds y kj`pjgdgtds, kjg aosd dg ho mgbjr`okmûg
cmspjgmahd sjard hoshjnror
sdgtmcj ds pjsmahd bdkeos y kogtmcocds
`ïs oejrrjs, sm cdh phog `odstrj
oh ndgdror dh phogcd prjcukkmûg.
`odstrj Dg dstd
sd `mgm`mzog
hjs kjstjs kj`amgocjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs y pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs.
  Kuogcj sd kjgstruyd ug phog `odstrj cd prjcukkmûg, hos kogtmcocds o dgtrd-
nor cd ug ortàkuhj dg portmkuhor voràog `ukej dg dh tmd`pj, dg dspdkmoh kuogcj sd
troaofo aofj ug smstd`o cd prjcukkmûg qud prjcukd (pjr hjtds) cmbdrdgtds cmsdÿjs,
yo qud pjr dkjgj`àos cd dskoho hjs kj`procjrds kjgnhj`drog dgtrdnos curogtd
kmdrtjs pdrmjcjs. Dg dstos smtuokmjgds dh `jcdhj cdh hjtd dkjgû`mkj cd prjcuk-
kmûg rdsuhto mgocdkuocj, yo qud supjgd ugo cd`ogco kjg ugo toso kjgstogtd,
kuogcj dg rdohmcoc ho cd`ogco (dgtrdnos cdh prjcuktj) ds `uy mrrdnuhor dg dh
tmd`pj.

?>9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho >.2 [d`ogo (m ) ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 = ?9 ??

?? ?1
?1
Yrjnro`o cd dgtrdnos cd pords
cd zopotjs. Cd`ogco (_m ) ;9 19 ;9 39 ?39 ;99 499 499 329 ?19 39 ;9

  Kuogcj cdsdd cdtdr`mgor ugo pjhàtmko cd prjcukkmûg d mgvdgtormjs y kjgjz-

ko hos kogtmcocds prjnro`ocos poro dgtrdno cdh prjcuktj dg kmdrtj ejrmzjgtd cd
tmd`pj, y dstos kogtmcocds tmdgdg ug kj`pjrto`mdgtj mrrdnuhor (gj jkurrdg o toso
kjgstogtd), ds kjgvdgmdgtd utmhmzor ohnugo tíkgmko poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs kjg
cd`ogco cmgï`mko, td`o qud sd oajrco o kjgtmguokmûg.
  [upjgno qud sd cmspjgd cd ug prjnro`o cd dgtrdnos dg ug ejrmzjgtd cocj
cd g sd`ogos y _m ds ho kogtmcoc cdh prjcuktj prjnro`oco poro dgtrdnor oh 󿬏goh cd
ho sd`ogo m. Yjr dfd`phj, dg ho toaho >.2 opordkd dh prjnro`o cd dgtrdnos cd pords
cd zopotjs (cd kmdrtj `jcdhj) poro hos prûxm`os g  ?1 sd`ogos, dg ugo d`prdso
prjcuktjro cd kohzocj, y kj`j sd oprdkmo dg ho toaho, hos kogtmcocds prjnro`ocos
 poro su
Oh dgtrdno
prjcukmrsjg `uy vormoahds
dh ortàkuhj dg ugocd sd`ogo
sd`ogo o sd`ogo. sd mgkurrmrï dg ug kjstj
cdtdr`mgoco,
pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs, yo qud cdadrï ofustorsd dh smstd`o poro prjcukmr dh or-
tàkuhj< cdgjtd kjg K 9 oh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs. [m dxmstd ugo ohto kopo-
kmcoc cd prjcukkmûg sd`ogoh, ds pjsmahd prjcukmr ho cd`ogco cd vormos sd`ogos
dg ugo sjho kjrrmco cdgtrj cd ho sd`ogo. [m kjgsmcdro sûhj dstd kjstj pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsjs, kjgvdgcrï trotor cd prjcukmr tjco ho cd`ogco dg ugo sjho kjrrmco cd
prjcukkmûg, pdrj dstj rdsuhtorï pjkj dkjgû`mkj cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd hjs mg-
vdgtormjs. [upjgno qud dh kjstj dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr koco ugmcoc qud sd oh`okdgo
dg mgvdgtormj oh 󿬏goh cd koco sd`ogo ds cd K  M . Dh prjahd`o ds cdtdr`mgor hos kog-
tmcocds o prjcukmr dg koco sd`ogo, cd `ogdro qud sd `mgm`mkdg hjs kjstjs tjtohds
(hjs kjstjs pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsj `ïs hjs kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs).
   Dg prm`dr hunor
hunor,, ho sjhukmûg oh prjahd`o sd dgkudgtro oh ophmkor dh ohnjrmt-
`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg (?=45), qud ds ug ohnjrmt`j cd prjnro`okmûg cmgï`mko.
Ougqud ho ophmkokmûg cd dstd ohnjrmt`j gj ds `uy kj`phmkoco, to`amíg sd eog
prjpudstj ohnugjs `ítjcjs eduràstmkjs poro otokor dh prjahd`o. Dstos eduràstmkos
gj gdkdsormo`dgtd prjpjrkmjgog ho sjhukmûg ûptm`o, pdrj sjg aostogtd bïkmhds cd
ophmkor y pjr hj ndgdroh prjpjrkmjgog sjhukmjgds kdrkogos oh ûptm`j, pjr hj qud su
usj ds okjgsdfoahd sm gj sd cmspjgd cd ug prjnro`o poro ophmkor dh ohnjrmt`j cd
^ongdr y ^emtmg.
  Ogtds cd prdsdgtor dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg, y cjs cd hos eduràstmkos
`ïs kjgjkmcos (aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj y [mhvdr-@doh), o `ogdro cd kj`poro-
kmûg, jasdrvd dh kjstj dg qud sd mgkurrmrào sm sd trotoro cd ophmkor ohnög `ítjcj
cdrmvocj cdh `jcdhj DJ_.
  [upjgno qud cdsdo ophmkor dh `jcdhj DJ_ o hjs cotjs cd ho toaho >.2, kjg ug
kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs cd K 9  599 y ug kjstj cd mgvdgtormjs (pjr sd`ogo)
cd K  M   1.4 pjr sd`ogo. Dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko cd eokdr pdcmcjs o mgtdrvohjs rdnu-
hords sd cdtdr`mgo kjg aosd dg dh `jcdhj DJ_, dg kjgkrdtj sd kohkuho dh to`oÿj
dkjgû`mkj cd pdcmcj (jasdrvd qud ho cd`ogco dg hos ?1 sd`ogos ds cd 1 1?9, y
qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs pjr ?1 sd`ogos ds cd ?1(1.4)  ;9)6
1 *(1 ?99)(599)
_* 0 ≅ ;3;,
;9
sm ho cd`ogco pjr pdrmjcj ds cd 1 ?99/?1  ?53, dh gö`drj cd pdrmjcjs dgtrd pd-
cmcjs sdrï oprjxm`oco`dgtd cd ;3;/?53   ?.52, qud sd rdcjgcdo o 1. Ds cdkmr,
 aofj ho pjhàtmko DJ_ sd jrcdgorào prjcukmr koco cjs sd`ogos, kj`j sd mgcmko dg ho
toaho >.>. So`amíg sd pudcd oprdkmor dg dsto toaho qud aofj dsto pjhàtmko dh mgvdg-
tormj tjtoh ds cd ? 9?9 pords cd zopotjs y sd jrcdgo prjcukmr 2 vdkds, pjr hj qud dh
kjstj cd dsto pjhàtmko ds cd 2(599)  (1.4)(? 9?9)  > ;14.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?>?

[d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 = ?9 ?? ?1 Sjtoh ‶ Soaho >.>

Mgvdgtormjs aofj ugo pjhàtmko
Cd`ogco ;9 19 ;9 39 ?39 ;99 499 499 329 ?19 39 ;9 1 1?9 pdrmûcmko aosoco dg dh DJ_.
Yrjcukkmûg 49 9 >9 9 339 9 ? 999 9 459 9 >9 9 1 1?9
Mgvdgtormj 19 9 39 9 ;99 9 499 9 ?19 9 ;9 9 ? 9?9

Ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg

Dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg prjpjrkmjgo ho sjhukmûg ûptm`o cdh prjahd`o y
utmhmzo prjnro`okmûg cmgï`mko< sd soad qud ho sjhukmûg ûptm`o cd dstd prjahd`o
ku`phd qud ds mgkjgvdgmdgtd prjcukmr ho cd`ogco cd ugo sd`ogo dg kjrrmcos cd
prjcukkmûg cmbdrdgtds, ds cdkmr,
cdkmr, kjgvmdgd qud j amdg sd jrcdgd prjcukmr ho cd`ogco
kj`phdto cd ugo sd`ogo j amdg sd cdfd pdgcmdgtd (tjco ho cd`ogco) poro jtro jrcdg
cd prjcukkmûg. Dstd ohnjrmt`j sd cdskrmad `dcmogtd dh prjtjkjhj cd bjr`uhokmûg
bjr`uh okmûg cd ug
prjahd`o dg prjnro`okmûg cmgï`mko, poro dh qud sd cd󿬏gd ho bugkmûg cd vohjr
ûptm`j6
  K m   Kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko cd prjcukkmûg ûptm`o kuogcj sd mgmkmo ho sd`ogo m 
smg mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd (m   ?, 1, ..., g?).
Ho rdhokmûg cd rdkurrdgkmo ds6

  Km 0 K9 + `mg
`m g
0 , +?,
 f m m
{K +? + K
…g
 f M
_m +? + 1_m +1 + … + ( f ∑ m )_ f  }, (>.?1)

ho kuoh cdad dvohuorsd cdscd m  g eosto m  ? (qud ds ho sjhukmûg), kjg ho kjgcmkmûg
mgmkmoh K g?   9. Jasdrvd qud dh àgcmkd  f  qud
  qud rdkjrrd ho `mgm`mzokmûg dg (>.?1) ds
 dh pdrmjcj eosto ogtds cdh kuoh sd vo o prjcukmr dg ho kjrrmco qud sd mgmkmo (yo qud
sm dh mgvdgtormj ds kdrj, gdkdsormo`dgtd cdad prjcukmrsd)< pjr jtrj hocj, ds kjgvd-
gmdgtd oh`okdgor dh àgcmkd ( f ) ûptm`j kj`j pjhàtmko, poro osà rdkupdror ho pjhàtmko
ûptm`o.
ho O kjgtmguokmûg
toaho >.> (rdkudrcd qud sd K 
mhustro ho ophmkokmûg
9   599 y K 
cd dstd ohnjrmt`j kjg hjs cotjs cd
 M    1.4).
  Yoro ophmkor dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg, g   ?1 dg dh dfd`phj, dgtjg-
kds K ?;  9 y sd ophmko (>.?1) poro jatdgdr (eoy ug sjhj dhd`dgtj dgtrd kjrkedtds)
K ?1   599,  Y ?1   ?;, pjstdrmjr`dgtd6

K ?? 0 599 + `mg 

K ?1  0 5>4,  Y  0 ?;,

K ?; + 1.4(;9) ??

K ?? 
K ?9 0 599 + `mg K ?1 + 1.4(39)  0 ? 949,  Y ?9 0 ?;,
K ?; + 1.4(39
39 + 1 * ;9)

K ?9 
K ?? ++ 11..44((??1
K = 0 599 + `mg  19)  0 ? 414,  Y = 0 ?;,
K 
 ?1 ? 19 + 1 * 39 ) 
?; + 1.4( ?1
K ?; ?19 + 1 * 39 + ;* ;9)

K = 
K ?9 + 1.4(329) 
  0 1 ;14, 0 =,
K 5 0 599 + `mg K ?? + 1.4(32
329 + 1 *?19)   Y 5
K ?1
?1 + 1.4(32
329 + 1 *?19 + ; * 39) 
K ?; + 1.4(32
329 + 1 * ?19 + ; * 39 + 3 * ;9)

?>1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho >.5 [d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 = ?9 ?? ?1 Sjtoh

Sj
Mgvdgtormjs aofj ho pjhàtmko
ûptm`o. Cd`ogco ;9 19 ;9 39 ?39 ;99 499 499 329 ?19 39 ;9 1 1?9
Yrjcukkmûg ?19 9 9 9 339 9 499 499 249 9 9 9 1 1?9
Mgvdgtormj =9 >9 39 9 ;99 9 9 9 ?=9 >9 ;9 9 >=9

oh kjgtmguor osà sd jatmdgdg6

K 5   1 ;14,  Y 5   =, K >   ; ?14,  Y >   5, K 2   ; =14,  Y 2   >
 >,, K 4   3 2>4, Y 4   >
 >,,
K 3   4 9>4,  Y 3   2, K ;   4 414,  Y ;   2, K 1   4 >49,  Y 1   4, K ?   4 =>4,  Y ?   4.

Ho sjhukmûg tmdgd ug kjstj cd 4 =>4, y ho prm`dro pjhàtmko mgcmko prjcukmr poro hos
 
prm`dros 3 cd
cd`ogcos sd`ogos ( Y ?   4),
hos sd`ogos 4  hudnj
4 y Y 2),  > (ho sdnugco kjrrmco
 Y >   5 (ho cd kjrrmco
tdrkdro prjcukkmûg kuarmrï hos
cd prjcukkmûg
sdrï pjr ho sd`ogo > ögmko`dgtd) y 󿬏goh`dgtd  Y 5  = y  Y =  ?;, ho kuorto kjrrmco
sdrï pjr ho sd`ogo 5 y ho qumgto y öhtm`o poro kuarmr ho cd`ogco cd hos sd`ogos
= o ho ?1. Dg ho toaho >.5 opordkd ug rdsu`dg cd hos koroktdràstmkos cd ho sjhukmûg
ûptm`o qud prjpjrkmjgo dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr y ^emtmg. Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor
dg ho toaho, dh kjstj cd dsto pjhàtmko ds dbdktmvo`dgtd 3(599) 1.4(>=9)  4 =>4.

Eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj

Ho eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj, kj`j su gj`ard hj mgcmko, troto cd
 aohogkdor hjs
h js kjstjs pjr eokdr ug pdcmcj kjg hjs kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj
 (dg dh `jcdhj DJ_ dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds mnuoh oh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgto-
rmj). Yoro ophmkor ho eduràstmko sd oprjvdkeo ho prjpmdcoc cd qud gj ds kjgvdgmdg-
td prjcukmr ho cd`ogco cd ug pdrmjcj dg cjs kjrrmcos cmbdrdgtds, hj qud mgcmko ho
sjhukmûg cd prjaor sm kjgvmdgd jrcdgor poro ugo sd`ogo, poro cjs, dtk.< dg koco
prudao sd kj`poro dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj kjg dh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd
prjkdsj y sm ho cmbdrdgkmo (dg vohjr oasjhutj) cdkrdkd, sd kjgsmcdro ugo sd`ogo
`ïs dg ho jrcdg, cd jtro bjr`o sd qudco ugj kjg ho jrcdg ogtdrmjr. Ho eduràstmko
ds aostogtd bïkmh cd m`phogtor y sd pudcd ophmkor cmgï`mko`dgtd, ds cdkmr, kjgbjr-
`d hhdnudg hjs cotjs cd cd`ogco, hj kuoh ds ugo vdgtofo, yo qud gj sd rdqumdrd
cd ug ejrmzjgtd o`phmj cd phogdokmûg. O kjgtmguokmûg sd mgcmko kû`j ophmkor ho
eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj poro dh prjahd`o cd ho toaho >.2
>.2 (rdkudrcd
qud K 9   599 y K  M    1.4).
  Oh kjgsmcdror qud dh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsj ds 599 y sd d`pmdzo kjg
ho prm`dro sd`ogo, sd mgmkmo kjg ugo jrcdg poro ugo sjho sd`ogo y pudstj qud dh
kjstj pjr mgvdgtormj ds cd 9, pjr hj qud ho cmbdrdgkmo (kjg dh kjstj pjr opdrturo)
ds cd 599, sm onrdno ho sdnugco sd`ogo (prjcukmrï 49) dh mgvdgtormj sdrï cd 19, dh
kjstj cd 1.4(19)  49, y ho cmbdrdgkmo cd |599-49| >49, dgtjgkds cms`mguyd, pjr
hj qudcdonrdno
kjstj jtro
1.4(59) sd`ogo
 199, y hoycmbdrdgkmo
prjcukd 59, dh mgvdgtormj
cd |599-199| sdrï
 299, cdsmnud
qud 19 cms`mguydgcj
 1(;9)  59, dh,
cms`mguydgcj,
pjr hj qud onrdno jtro sd`ogo y prjcukd ?19, dh mgvdgtormj sdrï cd 19  1(;9)  
;(39)  199, dh kjstj cd 1.4(199)  499, y ho cmbdrdgkmo cd |599-499|  ;99, qud
smnud cms`mguydgcj, pjr hj qud onrdno jtro sd`ogo y prjcukd 129, dh mgvdgtormj
sdrï cd 19  1(;9)  ;(39)   3(?39)   >29, dh kjstj cd 1.4(199)  ? =99, y ho
cmbdrdgkmo cd |599-? =99| ? ?99, qud oejro sà ou`dgto, pjr hj qud rdnrdso y cd-
kmcd jrcdgor poro 3 sd`ogos (vdo ho toaho >.=). O portmr cd ho sd`ogo 4 sd pudcd
rdpdtmr dh prjkdcm`mdgtj, y osà sukdsmvo`dgtd. Tg rdsu`dg cd ho ophmkokmûg cd ho
eduràstmko sd `udstro dg ho toaho >.=, cjgcd sd mgcmkog dh mgvdgtormj tjtoh kuogcj
sd oku`uho ho cd`ogco cdh pdrmjcj dg ho jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg (dg ho 󿬏ho mgvdg-

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?>;

[d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 = ?9 ?? ?1 Sjtoh ‶ Soaho >.=

Mgvdgtormjs aofj ho eduràstmko
Cd`ogco ;9 19 ;9 39 ?39 ;99 499 499 329 ?19 39 ;9 1 1?9 cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj.
Yrjcukkmûg ?19 9 9 9 339 9 ? 999 9 249 9 9 9 1 1?9
Mgvdgtormj =9 >9 39 9 ;99 9 9 499 ?=9 >9 ;9 9 ? 1=9
Mgvdgtormj
oku`. 9 19 59 199 9 ;99 9 499 9 ?19 199 1=9
Kjstj
mgvdgtormj 9 49 199 499 9 >49 9 ? 149 9 ;99 499 >14
Cmbdrdgkmo 599 >49 299 ;99 599 49 599 349 599 499 ;99 >4

tormj oku`.), dh kjstj cd cmkej mgvdgtormj (dg ho 󿬏ho kjstj mgv.), y ho cmbdrdgkmo (dg
vohjr oasjhutj) cdh kjstj cd mgvdgtormj kjg dh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsj (dg ho
󿬏ho cmbdrdgkmo). Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dh kjstj cd ho sjhukmûg qud prjpjrkmjgo dsto
eduràstmko ds cd 3(599)  1.4(? 1=9)  2 314 (qud ds supdrmjr oh cd ho sjhukmûg
ûptm`o, pdrj mgbdrmjr oh cd ho pjhàtmko aosoco dg pdcmcjs pdrmûcmkjs kjg aosd dg dh
to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj DJ_).

Eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh
Oh mnuoh qud ho eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj, ho eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh
oprjvdkeo ho prjpmdcoc cd qud gj ds kjgvdgmdgtd prjcukmr ho cd`ogco cd ug pd-
rmjcj dg kjrrmcos cmbdrdgtds, pjr hj qud ho sjhukmûg sd ausko prjaogcj sm jrcdgor
poro ugo sd`ogo, poro cjs, dtk. Dg hunor cd trotor cd aohogkdor hjs kjstjs pjr eokdr
ug pdcmcj kjg hjs kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj (qud eokd ho eduràstmko ogtdrmjr),
  aofj ho eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh sd kohkuho dh kjstj tjtoh (dh kjstj cd ho jrcdg `ïs
dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj) dg koco prudao, y sd hd cmvmcd dgtrd dh gö`drj
cd pdrmjcjs cd cd`ogco qud sd eog oku`uhocj, kohkuhogcj osà ug kjstj prj`dcmj.
[m dh kjstj prj`dcmj cdkrdkd, sd kjgsmcdro ugo sd`ogo `ïs dg ho jrcdg, cd jtro
bjr`o sd qudco ugj kjg ho jrcdg ogtdrmjr. Ho eduràstmko ds aostogtd bïkmh cd m`-
phogtor y sd pudcd ophmkor cmgï`mko`dgtd, ds cdkmr, kjgbjr`d hhdnudg hjs cotjs
cd cd`ogco, oh mnuoh qud ho eduràstmko ogtdrmjr, smg d`aornj, pordkd sdr qud dsto
eduràstmko sd kj`pjrto pjr hj ndgdroh `dfjr qud ho eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-
mgvdgtormj. O kjgtmguokmûg sd mhustro ho ophmkokmûg cd ho eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh
kjg hjs cotjs cd ho toaho >.2 (rdkudrcd qud K 9   599 y K  M    1.4).
  [m dh kjstj pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsj ds 599, y d`pmdzo dg ho prm`dro sd`ogo,
oh mgmkmj jrcdgo poro ugo sjho sd`ogo kjg dh kjstj pjr mgvdgtormj cd 9, pjr hj qud
dh kjstj prj`dcmj sdrï cd (9  599)/?  599. [m sd onrdno ho sdnugco sd`ogo (prj-
cukd 49) dh mgvdgtormj tjtoh sdrï cd 19, kjg ug kjstj cd 1.4(19)  49, y ug kjstj
tjtoh prj`dcmj cd (49  599)/1  314, qud cms`mguyd, pjr hj qud sd onrdno jtro
sd`ogo y sd prjcukdg 59, dh mgvdgtormj sdrï cd 19  1(;9)  59, kjg ug kjstj cd
1.4(59)  199, y ug kjstj tjtoh prj`dcmj cd (199  599)/;  ;;;.;;, qud smnud
cms`mguydgcj, pjr hjqud
sdrï cd 19  1(;9) sd onrdno
 ;(39)  199, jtro
kjg sd`ogo
ug kjstjy cd
sd prjcukdg
1.4(199) ?19, dh ymgvdgtormj
 499, ug kjstj
tjtoh prj`dcmj cd (499  599)/3  ;14, qud smnud cms`mguydgcj, pjr hj qud sd
onrdno jtro sd`ogo y sd prjcukdg 129, dh mgvdgtormj sdrï cd 19  1(;9)  ;(39)  
3(?39)  >29, dh kjstj cd 1.4(199)  ? =99, y ug kjstj tjtoh prj`dcmj cd (? =99  
599)/4  439, qud oejro sà ou`dgto, pjr hj qud rdnrdso y jrcdgo poro 3 sd`ogos.
O portmr cd ho sd`ogo 4 sd pudcd rdpdtmr dh prjkdcm`mdgtj, y osà sukdsmvo`dgtd.
Tg rdsu`dg cd ho ophmkokmûg cd ho eduràstmko sd `udstro dg ho toaho >.4, cjgcd sd
mgcmko (dg ho 󿬏ho mgv. ok.) dh mgvdgtormj tjtoh kuogcj sd oku`uho ho cd`ogco cdh
pdrmjcj dg ho jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg, dh kjstj cd cmkej mgvdgtormj (dg ho 󿬏ho kjstj
mgvdgtormj) y dh kjstj tjtoh prj`dcmj (dg ho 󿬏ho KS prj`dcmj). Kj`j pudcd oprd-

?>3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Soaho >.?9 [d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 = ?9 ?? ?1 Sjtoh

Mgvdgtormjs aofj ho eduràstmko
cd [mhvdr-@doh. Cd`ogco ;9 19 ;9 39 ?39 ;99 499 499 329 ?19 39 ;9 1 1?9
Yrjcukkmûg ?19 9 9 9 339 9 499 499 249 9 9 9 1 1?9
Mgvdgtormj =9 >9 39 9 ;99 9 9 9 ?=9 >9 ;9 9 >=9
Mgvdgtormj
oku`. 9 19 59 199 9 ;99 9 9 9 ?19 199 1=9
Kjstj
mgvdgtormj 9 49 199 499 9 >49 9 9 9 ;99 499 >14
KS prj`dcmj 599 314 ;;; ;14 599 >>4 599 599 599 449 3?> ;5?

kmor cd ho toaho >.?9, dh kjstj cd ho sjhukmûg qud prjpjrkmjgo dsto eduràstmko ds cd

3(599)  1.4(>=9)  4 ?>4, y ho sjhukmûg kjmgkmcd kjg ho sjhukmûg ûptm`o qud sd
dgkjgtrû `dcmogtd ho prjnro`okmûg cmgï`mko.

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. Tgo d`prdso qud bugkmjgo kj`j ejtdh y kdgtrj cd kjg-  
vdgkmjgds oh`okdgo cmvdrsjs
cmvdrsjs ortàkuhjs poro dh kjgsu`j
cd sus khmdgtds, dgtrd hjs qud sd mgkhuydg ortàkuhjs poro
dskrmtjrmj, osdj, cmvdrsmûg y cdpjrtd. Kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd
cmsdÿor ugo pjhàtmko ocdkuoco poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd hjs mgvdgtormjs qud rdqumdrd, ho d`prdso cdsdo utmhmzor
1. Tgo kj`poÿào kjgstruktjro oaostdkd sus pdcmcjs cd
mgvdgtormj cdscd su oh`okíg kdgtroh, cjgcd sd rdkmadg
hjs pdcmcjs cd oaostdkm`mdgtj y sd dxpmcdg hos ûrcdgds
cd kj`pro. [m amdg `ukejs pdcmcjs cd `otdrmohds y or-
tàkuhjs qud sd sjhmkmtog dg hjs prjydktjs tmdgdg koroktd-
ràstmkos `uy portmkuhords, dxmstd ug kjgfugtj cd ortàkuhjs
 ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK cd hjs prjcuktjs dg mgvdgtormj. Dg qud tmdgd ugo cd`ogco kjgstogtd, kuyj oaostdkm`mdgtj
ho smnumdgtd toaho sd prdsdgto ugo hmsto cd hjs ortàkuhjs sd pudcd `dfjror kjg ugo ocdkuoco supdrvmsmûg dg dh
qud sd oh`okdgog, kjg sus rdspdktmvos cd`ogcos (`dg- `ogdfj cd sus kj`pros d mgvdgtormjs. Dg ho smnumdgtd
suohds) y kjstjs ugmtormjs (dg cdkdgos cd $). toaho sd prdsdgto ugo hmsto cd dstjs ortàkuhjs, kjg sus
kjrrdspjgcmdgtds kjstjs ugmtormjs (dg kmdgtjs cd $) y
KJ[SJ KJ[SJ cd`ogcos oguohds.
O QS À KT
KT HJ
HJ C D@
D@ OG
OG CO
CO T G M SO Q M J O QS À K T H J C D @ O G C O TGMSOQMJ
? ?13 ?.4 ?2 3;1 9.4 KJ[SJ KJ[SJ
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CO T G M SO Q M J O QS À K T H J C D @ O G C O TGMSOQMJ
1 ?;1 1.3 ?> ;= ?.4
? 34 39 ?? ?1 ;49
; ?4 ;9.5 ?5 1> 3.=
1 413 3 ?1 =49 3
3 15 1=9.9 ?= 3> ;.5
; 41 1 ?; 34 3
4 1 499 9.? 19 1 ;54 9.4
3 159 4 ?3 19 ?9
2 349 ?.5 1? 31 4
4 12 199 ?4 149 ;
> 299 9.1 11 4= ?.?
2 349 ?4 ?2 39 =
5 ?54 ?.? 1; 241 9.4
> 534 ?9 ?> 159 4
= 142 1.; 13 >32 2.>
?9 ;3= ;.3 14 5=3 ;.2 5 =9 ?9 ?5 34 19
= 19 39 ?= 49 ?9
?? ? 144 1.1 12 4> ?9.?
?9 >99 3 19 21 ?2
?1 19 4=.4 1> 35 4.;
?; 1>= ;.= 15 >4 1.4   o) Kjg aosd dg dh vohjr cd ho cd`ogco oguoh, kjgstruyo
?3 432 2.5 1= 21 ?.4 ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK poro hjs ortàkuhjs qud opordkdg
?4 2;5 4.3 ;9 ?9= 3;.1 dg ho toaho.
  a) Ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd ho d`prdso sd cmj kudgto cd
  Kjgstruyo ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK poro hjs ortàkuhjs qud qud tmdgd kmdrtjs prjahd`os poro oh`okdgor hjs prj-
opordkdg dg ho toaho, kjgsmcdrd dh vohjr cd ho cd`ogco cuktjs, cdamcj o ho dskosdz cd dspokmj dg su oh`o-
`dgsuoh kj`j krmtdrmj cd khosm󿬏kokmûg. kíg, cd `ogdro qud to`amíg qumsmdro khosm󿬏kor sus

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?>4

ortàkuhjs kjg aosd dg dh dspokmj qud jkupog, poro osà cd oaostdkm`mdgtj, cdamcj oh trï`mtd y sdnum`mdgtj, pjr
cdkmcmr sjard dh dspokmj cdcmkocj poro koco ortàkuhj. jtrj hocj, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs sd dstm`o
Kjgstruyo ugo khosm󿬏kokmûg OAK (kjg aosd oh dspokmj dg 1% cdh kjstj cd ho tdho pjr koco `ds dg mgvdgtormj
qud rdqumdrd ho cd`ogco oguoh), kjgsmcdrogcj hjs (dh `dtrj cd `dzkhmhho sd kj`pro o $49).
smnumdgtds cotjs cd dspokmj rdqudrmcj (dg ugmcocds   o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj qud kjgvmdgd o ho
cd dspokmj cdh oh`okíg). bïarmko poro jrcdgor ho tdho cd `dzkhmhho (rdcjgcdd
o ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd `dtrjs).
D[YOKMJ D[YOKMJ D[YOKMJ   a) [m sd cdkmcd eokdr pdcmcjs cd `dzkhmhho kjg aosd dg
YJQ YJQ YJQ dh to`oÿj DJ_, cdtdr`mgd dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd
OQSÀKTHJ T G M CO C O QS À K T H J T G M CO C O QS À K T H J TGMCOC pdcmcjs qud sd eorïg oh oÿj, y dh kjstj prj`dcmj
? 4 5 4 ?4 ; oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrmrï pjr eokdrhjs.
1 ? = 199 ?2 1
  k) [m sd cdkmcd eokdr pdcmcjs cd `dzkhmhho kjg aosd dg
dh to`oÿj DJ_, cdtdr`mgd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh
; ? ?9 3 ?> 4 dg qud sd mgkurrmrï pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs.
3 1 ?? 49 ?5 ;   2. Kjgsmcdrd dh dfdrkmkmj ; y supjgno qud dxmstd ohnj cd
4 ?9 ?1 ? ?= 1 mgkdrtmcu`ard (kj`j ds usuoh) dg hjs kjstjs dstm`ocjs
2 1 ?; ? 19 ?9 (pjr jrcdgor y pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj), pjr hj qud sd
> 1 ?3 19 cdsdo
cd hjs dstm`or ho sdgsmamhmcoc
kjstjs dstm`ocjs. Yorocdh
hjsto`oÿj DJ_kohkuhd
smnumdgtds rdspdktj
dh
(gudvj) to`oÿj DJ_ y dh (gudvj) kjstj tjtoh< ocd`ïs,
  ;. Tgo dcmtjrmoh cd hmarjs y rdvmstos poro dh pöahmkj dg ndgd- kj`pord hjs gudvjs rdsuhtocjs cdtdr`mgogcj dh pjrkdg-
roh, pjr hj rdnuhor kjgsu`d popdh dg rds`os, qud hudnj tofd cd vormokmûg rdspdktj cd ho sjhukmûg dgkjgtroco dg
kjrto kjg aosd dg sus rdqudrm`mdgtjs. Yoro dh prdsdgtd dh dfdrkmkmj ;.
oÿj sd dspdro ug kjgsu`j (o toso `ïs j `dgjs kjgstog-   o) Dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds ?=% cdh kjstj
td) cd 299 999 `dtrjs cd popdh. Ho d`prdso kjgsmcdro cdh ortàkuhj y dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds cd $1 549.
qud pjgdr ugo jrcdg cd prjcukkmûg hd jkosmjgo ug kjstj   a) Dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds 1?% cdh kjstj
cd $1 999, cdamcj oh trï`mtd y sdnum`mdgtj gdkdsormj, cdh ortàkuhj y dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds cd $; ?49.
`mdgtros qud oh`okdgor ug `dtrj cd popdh (curogtd ug   k) Dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds ?5% cdh kjstj
oÿj) hd jkosmjgo ug kjstj cd $9.?9. cdh ortàkuhj y dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds cd $1 >99.
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj (dg `dtrjs)   c) Dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds ?4% cdh kjstj
poro jrcdgor dh oaostdkm`mdgtj cd popdh (rdcjgcdd

o ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd `dtrjs).
  a) ºKuïgtjs pdcmcjs sd eorïg (dg prj`dcmj) oh oÿj, sm
  3. Tgosdcmstrmaumcjro
jrcdgog pdcmcjs cdh to`oÿj
cd dqumpj dgkjgtrocj
poro j󿬏kmgo cdsdodgcdtdr-
o):
`mgor su pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs d mgvdgtormj poro sus dsto-
 amhmzocjrds cd kjrrmdgtd `jcdhj TAU. [d dstm`o qud ho
cd`ogco pjr cmkej `jcdhj jkurrd o toso kjgstogtd, o
rozûg cd 1 999 dstoamhmzocjrds pjr `ds. Dh prjcuktj sd
m`pjrto cdscd [mgnopur o ug kjstj cd $499 pjr ugmcoc,
y sd dstm`o qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg
mgvdgtormj pjr ug oÿj ds cd 19% cdh kjstj cdh prjcuktj,
pjr jtrj hocj, dh kjstj pjr pjgdr ugo jrcdg cd oaostd-
km`mdgtj cdh prjcuktj sd dstm`o dg $; 999.
o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj `dcmogtd dh
`jcdhj DJ_ (rdcjgcdd sm ds gdkdsormj).
  a) ºKuïgtjs pdcmcjs sd dspdro jrcdgor (dg prj`dcmj)
oh oÿj, sm sd utmhmzo dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_: ºKuïh
sdrào dh kjstj oguoh pjr eokdr pdcmcjs:
  k) ºKuïh sdrào dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs
sm sd utmhmzo dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_:
  c) Kj`pord dh kjstj cd ho pjhàtmko DJ_ kjgtro dh kjstj
cd eokdr pdcmcjs `dgsuohds.
  4. Tgo bïarmko cd kjgbdkkmjgds tdxtmhds tmdgd ugo hàgdo cd
prjcukkmûg cdcmkoco sûhj o prjcukmr fdogs poro ugo
`orko cd prdstmnmj. Cocj qud ho hàgdo cd prjcukkmûg prj-
cukd kjgstogtd`dgtd, ho cd`ogco pjr tdho cd `dzkhmhho
jkurrd o toso kjgstogtd y sd dstm`o dg 49 999 `dtrjs
cd tdho oh oÿj. Dh oc`mgmstrocjr dstm`o qud sd mgkurrd
dg ug kjstj cd $4 999 koco vdz qud sd eokd ug pdcmcj
?>2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[
oguoh cd ho phogto ds cd ;9 999 nohjgds y gj ds dstokmj-
goh (jkurrd o toso kjgstogtd curogtd dh oÿj), `mdgtros
qud ho kopokmcoc mgstohoco hd pdr`mtd prjcukmr o rozûg
cd 399 nohjgds cd ïkmcj suhbörmkj pjr cào ötmh (sd jpdro
ohrdcdcjr cd ;99 càos ötmhds oh oÿj), pjr hj qud cdad
prjcukmr pjr hjtds, yo qud sûhj sd prjcukd poro sotmsbo-
kdr ho cd`ogco mgtdrgo. Kuogcj sd jrcdgo ugo kjrrmco
cd prjcukkmûg, sd mgkurrdg dg kjstjs pjr opdrturo cd
prjkdsj cd $4 999, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj pjr oh`okdgor
ug nohûg cd ïkmcj suhbörmkj ds cd $4 pjr `ds (sd mgkhuyd
oquà dh kjstj 󿬏gogkmdrj).
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j (dg nohjgds) cd ho kjrrm-  
co cd prjcukkmûg cd ïkmcj suhbörmkj. Qdcjgcdd dstd
to`oÿj ûptm`j poro qud pudco sdr prjcukmcj dg ug
gö`drj dgtdrj cd càos.
  a) ºYoro kuïgtjs càos (ötmhds) cd cd`ogco ohkogzorï ugo  
kjrrmco cd prjcukkmûg aofj dh to`oÿj dgkjgtrocj dg
o): ºKuïh sdrào dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd kjrrmcos cd
prjcukkmûg oh oÿj:
  k) ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh mgvdgtormj `ïxm`j cd ïkmcj  
suhbörmkj sm sd m`phogto dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco dgkjg-
trocj dg o):
  =. Dg ho phogto cd ugo kj`poÿào bor`okíutmko sd cmspjgd
cd ugo `ïqumgo poro eokdr toahdtos. Dh `dcmko`dgtj  
Ohmvmoh, aofj su bjr`o cd prdsdgtokmûg dg toahdtos, ocd`ïs
cd jtrjs `dcmko`dgtjs sd prjcukdg dg dsto `ïqumgo,
cjgcd sd dxpdrm`dgto ugo toso cd prjcukkmûg cd 499
broskjs cd Ohmvmoh pjr ejro. Dh `dcmko`dgtj Ohmvmoh sd  ??. Dh oc`mgmstrocjr cd ugo tmdgco cdporto`dgtoh cdsdo
vdgcd sûhj dg dh `drkocj hjkoh y tmdgd ugo cd`ogco
kjgstogtd curogtd dh oÿj, o rozûg cd 199 999 broskjs oh
oÿj. Ogtds cd mgmkmor ho prjcukkmûg cd ug hjtd cd Ohmvmoh,
cdh ortàkuhj y dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds cd $1 149.
>. Dh oh`okíg kdgtroh cd ugo m`pjrtogtd j󿬏kmgo cdh nj-
 amdrgj dxpdrm`dgto ugo cd`ogco cd popdh korto
kort o `ïs
jnmstrjs
`dgjs kjgstogtdho curogtd
kjgtoahds, cd`ogcodhdstorï
oÿj. Kjg aosd dg
ohrdcdcjr cdhjs rd-
3 599
kofos dg dstd oÿj, o ug kjstj cd $399 pjr kofo. Dh cmrdk-
tjr cd kj`pros cd ho j󿬏kmgo cdsdo m`phogtor ugo pjhà-
tmko cd pdcmcjs cd 199 kofos dg koco qumgkdgo cdh `ds
(13 pdcmcjs oh oÿj) qud hd prjpjrkmjgd kmdrto kj`jcm-
coc poro prjnro`or hjs pdcmcjs. Dh cmrdktjr cd 󿬏gogzos,
smg d`aornj, jpmgo qud sd cdad sdnumr ugo pjhàtmko cd
to`oÿj cd pdcmcj sdnög dh `jcdhj DJ_.
  o) [m sd dstm`o qud koco pdcmcj jkosmjgo ug kjstj cd
$1 999 pjr trï`mtds, sdnum`mdgtj y rmdsnjs cd cd`j-
ro, sm dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs (curogtd ug
oÿj) ds cd ;9%, cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd
pdcmcj DJ_ (rdcjgcdor sm ds gdkdsormj).
  a) Cdtdr`mgd dh kjstj (oguoh) dg qud sd mgkurrmrï pjr
eokdr pdcmcjs aofj ho pjhàtmko DJ_, y kj`pord dh rd-
suhtocj kjg dh kjstj qud sd jatdgcrào aofj ho pjhàtmko
sundrmco pjr dh cmrdktjr cd kj`pros.
  k) Cdtdr`mgd dh kjstj (oguoh) pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs
 aofj ho pjhàtmko DJ_ y kj`pord dh rdsuhtocj kjg dh
kjstj qud sd jatdgcrào aofj ho pjhàtmko sundrmco pjr
dh cmrdktjr cd kj`pros.
  c) Mgcmqud kû`j sd pjcrào fustm󿬏kor (dg tír`mgjs sdg-
kmhhjs) dh usj cdh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_ dg dstd
kosj.
  5. Tgo rd󿬏gdrào pjhm`dtïhmko prjcukd ïkmcj suhbörmkj poro
sdr utmhmzocj dg sus prjkdsjs prjcuktmvjs. Ho cd`ogco
prjcuktjs (yo qud ho dgvosocjr
dgvosocjroo outj`ïtmko ds aostogtd
rïpmco) y cdad cdkmcmr sjard dh to`oÿj ocdkuocj cd kj-
rrmco poro dgvosor arogcy, poro hj qud dh ndrdgtd cd jpd-
rokmjgds rdkjhdktû ho smnumdgtd mgbjr`okmûg. [d dstm`o
dstm `o
qud ho cd`ogco cd arogcy sdrï cd 399 999 kofos dg dstd
oÿj, `mdgtros qud ho hàgdo cd dgvosocj pudcd prjcukmr
3 999 kofos pjr turgj (dg ho phogto sd troaofog cjs tur-
gjs oh cào, ;99 càos ötmhds oh oÿj). Dh kjstj pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsjs sd dstm`o dg $2 999, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd $39 pjr koco kofo dg
mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj.
o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco (dg kofos) qud ds
`ïs kjgvdgmdgtd poro prjcukmr dh arogcy. Qdcjgcdd
dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco poro qud ístd sd prjcuzko dg
ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd càos.
a) [m sd m`phogtog kjrrmcos cdh to`oÿj dgkjgtrocj dg
o) ºporo kuïgtjs càos cd cd`ogco ohkogzorï ugo kj-
rrmco cd prjcukkmûg: (kjgsmcdrd cd`ogco sûhj dg
càos ötmhds).
k) [m sd utmhmzo dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco dgkjgtrocj dg o),
ºkuïh sdrï dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd kjrrmcos oh oÿj:,
ºkuïh sdrï dh kjstj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrmrï pjr opdr-
turo cd prjkdsjs:
c) [m sd m`phogto dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco dgkjgtrocj dg o),
ºo kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh `ïxm`j mgvdgtormj (dg kofos)
cd arogcy:, ºo kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj`dcmj
oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd arogcy:
m`phogtor ugo pjhàtmko cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds poro dh dqumpj cd dfdrkmkmjs y
pdsos `jcdhj _U?, poro hj kuoh eo jatdgmcj ho smnumdgtd
 togtj ho `ïqumgo poro eokdr toahdtos kj`j ho kíhuho cd
`ogubokturo cdadg prdpororsd kumcocjso`dgtd, yo qud
gj cdad qudcor
ko`dgtj, pjr hj rdsmcuj ohnugj
qud dh kjstj pjrcdopdrturo
kuohqumdrcdjtrj `dcm-
prjkdsjs
ds rdhotmvo`dgtd ohtj (sd dstm`o dg $19 999). Yjr jtrj
hocj, dh kjstj pjr okorrdor mgvdgtormjs cd Ohmvmoh sd ds-
tm`o dg $9.? pjr koco broskj dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ugo
sd`ogo.
  o) [m ho `ïqumgo poro eokdr toahdtos troaofo ug sjhj  
turgj oh cào, curogtd oprjxm`oco`dgtd ;99 càos ötmhds
oh oÿj, ºkuïgtjs broskjs cd Ohmvmoh sd prjcukmràog oh
oÿj sm ho `ïqumgo sd cdcmko sûhj o prjcukmr toahdtos  
cd Ohmvmoh:
  a) Kohkuhd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j (dg broskjs) cd ho kjrrmco
cd prjcukkmûg cd Ohmvmoh (kjgsmcdrd 43 sd`ogos oh
oÿj).  
  k) [m sd m`phogto dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco dgkjgtrocj dg a)
ºo kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh `ïxm`j mgvdgtormj (dg bros-
kjs) cd Ohmvmoh:, ºo kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj-
`dcmj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd toahdtos
cd Ohmvmoh:  
  c) ºO kuïgtj broskjs cdadrào ofustorsd dh to`oÿj ûptm-
`j cd kjrrmco sm sd cdsdo qud ístd sd prjcuzko dg
ug gö`drj dgtdrj cd càos ötmhds:
  d) ºKuïh sdrào dh hopsj (dg càos ötmhds) dgtrd kjrrmcos
cd prjcukkmûg, kjg dh to`oÿj cd kjrrmco jatdgmcj
dg c):
 ?9. Tgo d`prdso qud prjcukd vmgjs y jtrjs hmkjrds cd uvo,
cmspjgd
cmspjgd cd ugo sjho hàgdo cd dgvosocj poro tjcjs sus
mgbjr`okmûg. Ho cd`ogco cd dqumpjs _U? jkurrd o toso
kjgstogtd curogtd dh oÿj, o rozûg cd 1 999 ugmcocds oh
oÿj.
dstm`oDh kjstj 󿬏fjpjr
dg $599 pjrpdcmcj,
jrcdgordhugkjstj
hjtd pjr
cd dqumpjs _U?ugo
`ogtdgdr sd
ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug `ds sd dstm`o dg $?9,
sd eo dstm`ocj dg $39 dh kjstj dg qud sd mgkurrmrào pjr
koco `ds qud sd `ogtmdgd ugo ugmcoc cdh `jcdhj _U?
pdgcmdgtd cd dgtrdno
o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd hjs pdcmcjs y dh gmvdh
`ïxm`j cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd dgtrdno poro dh
`jcdhj _U?, qud hd kjgvmdgd pdr`mtmr o ho tmdgco.
a) ºKuïgtjs pdcmcjs oh oÿj (dg prj`dcmj) sd jrcdgoràog
sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dgkjg-
dgkj g-
troco dg o): ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj`dcmj
oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr jrcdgor pdcmcjs:
k) ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh gmvdh `ïxm`j cd mgvdgtormjs
sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dg-
kjgtroco dg o): ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj-
`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdg-
tormjs:
c) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd
pjr `ogtdgdr ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd dgtrdno, sm sd
m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dgkjgtro-
co dg o).
?1. Tgo tmdgco cd amkmkhdtos cdsdo m`phogtor ugo pjhàtmko
cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs poro su `jcdhj OAU,
qud tmdgd ugo cd`ogco kjgstogtd curogtd dh oÿj o
rozûg cd ?;9 ugmcocds `dgsuohds. Dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr jr-
cdgor ug hjtd cd amkmkhdtos OAU sd dstm`o dg $499 pjr

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?>>

pdcmcj, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc  ?3. Dg ho smnumdgtd 󿬏nuro sd prdsdgto ho korto cd `otdrmohds
dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug `ds sd dstm`o dg $4. poro boarmkor ug ohtdrgocjr.
  o) Kohkuhd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj poro dh `jcdhj
OAU.
Ohtdrgocjr 
  a) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr (?)
jrcdgor pdcmcjs, sm sd jrcdgog pdcmcjs cdh to`oÿj
dgkjgtrocj dg o).
  k) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd Dgso`ahd
Koahd
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, sm sd jrcdgog pdcmcjs cdh kjgdktjr (1) D? (?)
to`oÿj dgkjgtrocj dg o).
  c) Cocj qud dh `jcdhj OAU sd boarmko dxkhusmvo`dgtd
poro dsto tmdgco, sd cdsdo dxphjror ho kjgvdgmdgkmo Dgso`ahd Kjadrturo
cd m`phogtor ugo pjhàtmko cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mg- D1 (?) (?)
vdgtormjs kjg pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds. [m sd dstm`o dg $?9
dh kjstj pjr koco `ds qud sd `ogtmdgd ugo ugmcoc
cdh `jcdhj OAU pdgcmdgtd cd dgtrdno, cdtdr`mgd Sjrgmhhjs Kuamdrto Dgso`ahd Kuamdrto
dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd hjs pdcmcjs y dh gmvdh `ïxm`j (1) pjstdrmjr (?) D; (?) brjgtoh (?)
cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd dgtrdno qud hd kjgvmdgd
pdr`mtmr o ho tmdgco.
  d) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd Dskjamhho Dgso`ahd
`ongítmko (1) D3 (?)
pjr jrcdgor pdcmcjs, sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd
pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dgkjgtroco dg c). Kj`pord dstd
kjstj kjg dh jatdgmcj dg a).
  b) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd Or`ocuro Ejnor cd ho
(?) or`ocuro (?)
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko
cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dgkjgtroco dg c). Kj`pord
dstd kjstj kjg dh jatdgmcj dg k).   Dxmstd ug pdcmcj cd 499 ohtdrgocjrds poro dh 󿬏goh cd ho
  n) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd sd`ogo 19 y sd tmdgd ho smnumdgtd mgbjr`okmûg sjard hos
pjr `ogtdgdr pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds, sm sd m`phogto ho portds cmspjgmahds6
pjhàtmko dgkjgtroco dg c). Kj`pord dh kjstj tjtoh cd
dsto pjhàtmko (jrcdgor  `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs  `og- BDKEO CD MGRDG-
 tdgdr ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds) kjg dh kjstj tjtoh oguoh CD@JQO QDKMAJ[ QDKMAJ[ SOQMJ
cd ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs (smg pdgcmdgtds) dgkjgtroco CDH YDCMCJ DG (MGMKMJ CD CM[YJ- SO@OßJ

 ?;. Dgdg o).tmdgco cd `udahds sd cdsdo m`phogtor ugo pjhà-

ugo KJ@YJGDGSD ([D@OGO[) KO@MGJ [D@OGO) GMAHD CD HJSD
 Ohtdrgocjr ? ‛ ‛ 9 ?
tmko cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs kjg pdcmcjs pdg- Dgso`ahd D? 1 ‛ ‛ >9 ?
cmdgtds poro ug fudnj cd cjr`mtjrmj qud sd cd`ogco o
rozûg cd 1 999 fudnjs oh oÿj. Dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr jrcdgor Kjgdktjr ? 49 1 =9 49
ug hjtd cd fudnjs cd cjr`mtjrmj sd dstm`o dg $3 999 pjr Dgso`ahd D1 ; ‛ ‛ 199 ?
pdcmcj, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgto- Kjadrturo ? ‛ ‛ 49 49
rmj curogtd ug `ds sd dstm`o dg $;99 y dg $49 dh kjstj Dgso`ahd D; ; ‛ ‛ ‛ ?
dg qud sd mgkurrmrào pjr koco `ds qud sd `ogtmdgd ug
fudnj cd cjr`mtjrmj pdgcmdgtd cd dgtrdno. Kuamdrto 1 ?99 ? 29 ?99
pjstdrmjr
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd hjs pdcmcjs y dh gmvdh
`ïxm`j cd ugmcocds pdgcmdgtds cd dgtrdno poro dh Kuamdrto brjgtoh 1 49 1 ?49 ?99
fudnj cd cjr`mtjrmj, qud hd kjgvmdgd pdr`mtmr o ho Sjrgmhhj ? 199 1 199 ?99
tmdgco. Dgso`ahd D3 ? ‛ ‛ ‛ ?
  a) ºKuïgtjs pdcmcjs oh oÿj (dg prj`dcmj) sd jrcdgoràog Dskjamhho 1 ‛ ‛ ‛ ?99
sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds
pdgcmdgt ds dgkjg- `ongítmko
troco dg o): ºO
º O kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj`dcmj  Or`ocuro 1 ‛ ‛ ?99 49
oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr jrcdgor pdcmcjs:
  k) ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh gmvdh `ïxm`j cd mgvdgtormjs Ejnor cd ho 1 ‛ ‛ 49 49
sm sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs pdgcmdgtds dg- or`ocuro
kjgtroco dg o): ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh kjstj prj-
`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdg-   Mgvdgtormjs y cmspjgmamhmcoc cd kj`pjgdgtd
kj`pjgdgtdss
tormjs:   o) Kjgstruyo dh prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds poro sotmsbokdr
  c) Kohkuhd dh kjstj prj`dcmj oguoh dg qud sd mgkurrd dh pdcmcj cd 499 ohtdrgocjrds.
pjr `ogtdgdr ugmcocds dg pdgcmdgtds cd dgtrdno, sm   a) [m hjs pdcmcjs cd prjcukkmûg y/j kj`pro cdadg eo-
sd m`phogto ho pjhàtmko dgkjgtroco dg o). kdrsd dg `öhtmphjs cdh to`oÿj cd hjtd dspdkm󿬏kocj

?>5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

dg ho toaho, kjgstruyo ugo toaho qud mgcmqud ho bdkeo   Ho `ogubokturo cdh hmardrj rdqumdrd cd trds jpdrokmjgds
hà`mtd cd hjs pdcmcjs y hos kogtmcocds o jrcdgor poro cd dgso`ahd6
koco ugj cd hjs kj`pjgdgtds cd ho toaho, gdkdsormjs   • Dgso`ahd cd hos potos kjrtos
poro ku`phmr kjg dh pdcmcj cd 499 ohtdrgocjrds.   • Dgso`ahd cd hos potos hornos
 ?4. Tgo d`prdso prjcuktjro cd dqumpj poro onrmkuhturo   • Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh
boarmko ug ophmkocjr cd bugnmkmcos cd okudrcj kjg ho   Dh dgso`ahd cd hos potos kjrtos rdqumdrd cd hos potos
korto cd `otdrmohds cd ho 󿬏nuro smnumdgtd. Ho hàgdo cd ocd`ïs cd 3 aorros trogsvdrsohds y 5 tjrgmhhjs, `mdg-
dgso`ahd 󿬏goh prjcukd o rozûg cd 199 ugmcocds cmormos tros qud dh dgso`ahd cd hos potos hornos rdqumdrd cd hos
y rdqumdrd cd ug cào ocmkmjgoh poro jrnogmzor ho hàgdo potos, hos kuamdrtos poro hos potos y to`amíg cd 3 aorros
aor ros
koco vdz qud mgmkmo dh prjkdso`mdgtj cd ug hjtd. Hos jtros trogsvdrsohdss y 5 tjrgmhhjs. Yjr öhtm`j, dh dgso`ahd 󿬏goh
trogsvdrsohd
jpdrokmjgds cd dgso`ahd troaofog dg porohdhj y ho hàgdo rdqumdrd cd hjs dgso`ahds cd potos, ocd`ïs cd hjs 1 to-
dstï amdg aohogkdoco, pjr hj qud ho cd`jro cd koco ugo  ahdrjs y cd hjs sjstdgdcjrds poro hjs toahdrjs.
cd dstos jpdrokmjgds pudcd kjgsmcdrorsd cd ug sûhj cào,   o) Kjgstruyo ugo korto cd `otdrmohds poro dstd hmardrj.
qud ds dh tmd`pj su󿬏kmdgtd poro qud ho prjcukkmûg cd   a) Kjg dh smnumdgtd kuocrj, qud prdsdgto hjs mgvdgtormjs
ugo dstokmûg cd troaofj dstí cmspjgmahd dg ho smnumdgtd. cd kj`pjgdgtds y hos cd`jros cd hos jpdrokmjgds cd
Hos rudcos, dg ko`amj, sjg kj`procos o ug prjvddcjr y `ogubokturo j dgso`ahd, kjgstruyo ug kuocrj @QY
kuohqumdr pdcmcj dxpdrm`dgto ugo cd`jro cd cjs càos. qud mgcmqud hos bdkeos (hà`mtd) cd hos ûrcdgds cd
Hos ûrcdgds cd prjcukkmûg y/j kj`pro poro kuohqumdr prjcukkmûg, osà kj`j hjs rdqudrm`mdgtjs gdtjs pjr
kj`pjgdgtd cdadg sdr cd oh `dgjs 199 ugmcocds. [d kj`pjgdgtd, sm dh phog `odstrj mgcmko ho gdkdsmcoc
tmdgd ug pdcmcj cd ? 999 ophmkocjrds qud cdadrïg dg- cd >99 poro dh 󿬏goh cdh cào vmdrgds cd ho sd`ogo 1.
trdnorsd oh mgmkmj cdh cào =. [upjgno qud ejy cào sd mgmkmo dh turgj cdh hugds cd
ho sd`ogo ? y dg ho d`prdso sd troaofo 4 càos pjr
Ophmkocjr  sd`ogo, cd hugds o vmdrgds.
(?)
KJ@YJ GDGSD M G R D G SO Q M J CD@JQO (CÀO[)
Dgso`ahd 󿬏goh 199 ;
Dgso`ahd cdh Dgso`ahd cdh Dgso`ahd cdh
`ogmpuhocjr (?) kudrpj (?) kjgtdgdcjr (?) Dgso`ahd potos hornos ?49 4
Dgso`ahd potos kjrtos 199 4
Yoto horno ? 599 2
Dgso`ahd cd
Yoto kjrto ? 599 2
 rudcos (?)
Aorro trogsvdrsoh 2 999 4

Qudcos [jstdgdcjr toahdrj `dcmj 499 1

[jstdgdcjr toahdrj supdrmjr 399 1
(1)
Soahdrj 149 2
Sjrgmhhj 4 999 ?
  o) Kjgstruyo dh prjnro`o cd jpdrokmjgds poro sotmsbokdr
dh pdcmcj cd ? 999 ophmkocjrds. Kuamdrto poro poto 2 999 1
  a) Kjg hjs smnumdgtds mgvdgtormjs cmspjgmahds (gj sd
tmdgdg rdkmajs prjnro`ocjs), kjgstruyo ugo toaho  ?>. Dg ho smnumdgtd toaho sd prdsdgtog hos dgtrdnos cd fud-
@QY qud mgcmqud ho bdkeo hà`mtd cd hjs pdcmcjs y njs cd kj`dcjr `jcdhj Ohturo, prjnro`ocos poro hos
hos kogtmcocds o jrcdgor poro koco ugj cd hjs kj`- prûxm`os 2 sd`ogos dg ugo phogto cd `udahds.
pjgdgtds gdkdsormjs poro ku`phmr kjg dh pdcmcj cd
? 999 ophmkocjrds.
[d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 2
DG[O@AHD DG[O@AHD DG[O@AHD Cd`ogco ?99 29 39 ?19 =9 ?99
CDH @OGM- CDH DG[O@AHD CDH KJG-
OYHMKOCJQ YTHOCJQ KTDQYJ CD QTDCO[ S D G D C J Q Q T D C O   Koco sd`ogo qud sd jrcdgo ho prjcukkmû
prjcukkmûgg cd ug hjtd cd
?99 399 499 399 ?99 599 fudnjs cd kj`dcjr,
kj`dcjr, sd mgkurrd dg ug kjstj pjr opdrturo
cd prjkdsjs cd $? 499, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj pjr koco
 ?2. Tg hmardrj kjgsto cd hos smnumdgtds portds6 fudnj qud qudco dg mgvdgtormj poro ho sd`ogo smnumdgtd
ds cd $49. Oktuoh`dgtd sd tmdgd dg mgvdgtormj 4 fudnjs
• 3 potos hornos • 5 aorros trogsvdrsohds cd kj`dcjr Ohturo.
• 3 sjstdgdcjrds poro
poro dh • ?2 tjrgmhhjs   o) Ttmhmkd dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr-^mtemg poro cdtdr`m-
toahdrj supdrmjr gor hos kogtmcocds o prjcukmr y dh mgvdgtormj qud sdrï
• 3 potos kjrtos • 3 sjstdgdcjrds poro dh okorrdocj poro ho sd`ogo smnumdgtd, poro koco ugo
toahdrj `dcmj cd hos sdms sd`ogos, sm sd cdsdo `mgm`mzor dh kjstj
tjtoh pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs d mgvdgtormjs.
• 1 to
toahdrjs cd vmcrmj • 3 ku
kuamdrtos poro hos potos

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ ?>=

  a) Ophmqud ho eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj opdrturo cd prjkdsjs cd $3 999, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj
poro rdsjhvdr dh prjahd`o ogtdrmjr y kohkuhd dh kjstj pjr koco amkmkhdto qud qudco dg mgvdgtormj poro ho sd-
cd ho sjhukmûg. Kj`pord dh kjstj cd dsto sjhukmûg kjg `ogo smnumdgtd ds cd $19. Oktuoh`dgtd gj sd tmdgdg
dh kjstj jatdgmcj dg o).  amkmkhdtos Smnrd dg mgvdgtormj.
  k) Ophmqud ho eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh poro rdsjhvdr dh   o) Ttmhmkd dh ohnjrmt`j cd ^ongdr-^mtemg poro cdtdr`m-
prjahd`o ogtdrmjr y kohkuhd dh kjstj cd ho sjhukmûg. gor hos kogtmcocds o prjcukmr y dh mgvdgtormj qud sdrï
Kj`pord dh kjstj cd dsto sjhukmûg kjg dh kjstj jatd- okorrdocj poro ho sd`ogo smnumdgtd, poro koco ugo
gmcj dg o). cd hos kmgkj sd`ogos, sm sd cdsdo `mgm`mzor dh kjstj
 ?5. Dg ho smnumdgtd toaho sd prdsdgtog hos dgtrdnos cd amkm- tjtoh pjr opdrturo cd prjkdsjs d mgvdgtormjs.
khdtos `jcdhj Smnrd, prjnro`ocos poro hos prûxm`os 4   a) Ophmqud ho eduràstmko cd aohogkd pdcmcj-mgvdgtormj
sd`ogos dg ugo phogto cd amkmkhdtos. poro rdsjhvdr dh prjahd`o ogtdrmjr y kohkuhd dh kjstj
cd ho sjhukmûg. Kj`pord dh kjstj cd dsto sjhukmûg kjg
[d`ogo ? 1 ; 3 4 dh kjstj jatdgmcj dg o).
Cd`ogco 299 =9 599 49 =9
  k) Ophmqud ho eduràstmko cd [mhvdr-@doh poro rdsjhvdr dh
prjahd`o ogtdrmjr y kohkuhd dh kjstj cd ho sjhukmûg.
  Koco sd`ogo qud sd jrcdgo ho prjcukkmû
prjcukkmûgg cd ug hjtd Kj`pord dh kjstj cd dsto sjhukmûg kjg dh kjstj ja-
cd amkmkhdtos cd dstd `jcdhj, sd mgkurrd dg ug kjstj pjr tdgmcj dg o).

AMAHMJNQOBÀO
  ?. Kejpro [. y Y. @dmgch (1993), [upphy keomg `ogond`dgt ,
`ogond`dgt    3. ^otdrs K. C. F. (?==1), Mgvdgtjry kjgtrjh
kjgtrjh ogc `ogond`dgt ,
`ogond`dgt 
1o. dc., Yrdgtmkd Eohh, Gudvo Fdrsdy.  Fjeg ^mhdy,
^mhdy, Gudvo ]jrl.
]jrl.
  1. Goe`mos [ (1994),  Yrjcuktmjg ogc jpdrotmjgs ogohysms,
4o. dc., @kNrow-Emhh, Gudvo ]jrl.
  ;. ^ongdr E. @. y S. @. ^emtmg (?=45), ‘Cygo`mk vdrsmjg
jb ted dkjgj`mk hjt smzd `jcdh‐, @ogond`dgt [kmdgkd,
4(?), 5=‛=2.
 

KOYÀSTHJ 5

Oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs

• Mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor

•  Onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj y dkjgj`àos cd dskoho
• Mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco

D
 
gtrd hjs cmbdrdgtds tmpjs cd mgvdgtormjs vmstjs eosto dh `j`dgtj, hjs mgvdg-
tormjs cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs, sjg hjs qud tmdgdg `oyjr vohjr, yo qud kjg-
tmdgdg dh vohjr onrdnocj cd ho d`prdso, y ds pjr dsto rozûg qud dh prdsdgtd
kopàtuhj sd jkupo dxkhusmvo`dgtd cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs `ms`js.
Kjg ho 󿬏gohmcoc cd bokmhmtor dh usj cd hos tíkgmkos poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs
cd prjcuktjs tdr`mgocjs, sd eokd ho cmstmgkmûg dgtrd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco,
 qud sd jrcdgog ugo sjho vdz, y prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor, kuyos ûrcdgds
cd oaostdkm`mdgtj
prjpudstjs sd rdpmtdgmgvdgtormjs
poro oc`mgmstror sjard kmdrtj
cd ejrmzjgtd
prjcuktjs cd tmd`pj. Cd
cd kjgsu`j hjs `jcdhjs
rdnuhor, sjg hjs
 aosocjs dg dh `jcdhj DJ_ hjs qud eog tdgmcj `oyjr cmbusmûg. Dstjs `jcdhjs sjg
pjkj kj`phmkocjs y su ophmkokmûg rdsuhto aostogtd sdgkmhho dg ho prïktmko, pjr hj qud
ohnugos cd hos tíkgmkos qud sd prdsdgtog sd aosog dg dstd `jcdhj DJ_. Yoro oc`m-
gmstror mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco, hos tíkgmkos sd aosog dg dh `jcdhj
cdh prjahd`o cdh vjkdocjr, kjgjkmcj dg mgnhís kj`j dh gdwsvdgcjr prjahd`.

MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ CD KJG[T@J QDNTHOQ

Cdscd dh pugtj cd vmsto cd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs, hjs prjcuktjs cd kjg-
su`j rdnuhor sd koroktdrmzog pjrqud ho d`prdso d`mtd kjg rdnuhormcoc hos ûrcd-
gds cd oaostdkm`mdgtj cd cmkejs prjcuktjs, pjr ho qud ho phogdokmûg cd hos ûrcdgds
cdad kjgsmcdror ug ejrmzjgtd cjgcd sd rdpmtdg hos ûrcdgds cd oaostdkm`mdgtj (kj`j
dg dh `jcdhj DJ_). Yjr jtrj hocj, hos pjhàtmkos poro oc`mgmstror hjs mgvdgtormjs cd
dstjs prjcuktjs cdpdgcdg cdh `dkogms`j cd kjgtrjh qud sd ocjpto< o kjgtmguokmûg
sd rdvmsog hjs cjs `dkogms`js cd kjgtrjh `ïs utmhmzocjs, poro cdskrmamr cdspuís
hos tíkgmkos oprjpmocos poro cdtdr`mgor hos pjhàtmkos cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdg-
tormjs dg koco kosj.

@dkogms`js cd kjgtrjh poro prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor

Tgo audgo oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs rdqumdrd cd ho m`phogtokmûg cd ug ocd-
kuocj kjgtrjh y sdnum`mdgtj cd hjs `ms`js, qud pdr`mto kjgjkdr ho dvjhukmûg ?5?

?51  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cdh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs, kjg dh jafdtmvj cd tj`or cdkmsmjgds mgbjr`ocos. Yoro dh

sdnum`mdgtj cdh gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs cd kjgsu`j rdnuhor, sd utmhmzog cjs `í-
tjcjs cmbdrdgtds6
  • [mstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo. Aofj dstd smstd`o sd rdvmso dh gmvdh cd mgvdg-
tormjs koco vdz qud jkurrd ugo kj`pro y sd eokd ug pdcmcj cd oaostdkm`mdgtj
sm dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormjs ohkogzû dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg, qud ds dh gmvdh kràtmkj
cd mgvdgtormjs oh qud cdad kjhjkorsd ugo jrcdg cd oaostdkm`mdgtj. Hos cd-
kmsmjgds rdhdvogtds aofj dstd smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg sjg dh to`oÿj cd ho jrcdg
(kuïgtj jrcdgor) y dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg. Dstd smstd`o dxmnd qud sd `ogtdg-
nog rdnmstrjs kjgtmgujs cd hos dgtrocos y sohmcos cd mgvdgtormj (pjr `dcmj cd
ug smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg), cd `ogdro qud hjs gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormj pudcdg
kjgjkdrsd kjg aostogtd prdkmsmûg, y hos cmbdrdgkmos dgtrd dh mgvdgtormj cmspj-
gmahd y dh mgvdgtormj rdoh sûhj sd pudcdg otrmaumr o drrjrds dg dh rdnmstrj cd
ho mgbjr`okmûg, `dr`os j coÿjs.
• [mstd`o cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko. Aofj dstd smstd`o sd rdvmso dh gmvdh cdh mg-
vdgtormj koco kmdrtj pdrmjcj 󿬏fj (pjr dfd`phj, koco sd`ogo j koco `ds) y,
cd okudrcj kjg dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj, sd kjhjko j gj ug pdcmcj cd oaostdkm-
`mdgtj. Ho prïktmko `ïs kj`ög poro kjhjkor hjs pdcmcjs aofj dstd smstd`o,
sd aoso dg dh dstoahdkm`mdgtj cd cjs gö`drjs s   [, y kjgsmstd dg ‘jrcdgor
[   s ugmcocds, sûhj sm sd jasdrvû ug mgvdgtormj `dgjr j mnuoh qud s oh `j-
`dgtj cd ho rdvmsmûg‐, o dstd tmpj cd oc`mgmstrokmûg sd hd kjgjkd kjg dh gj`-
 ard cd pjhàtmko ( s, [) (Mnhdeort, ?=2;).
Kj`j pjcrï m`onmgor, dh smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo ds `ïs prdkmsj qud dh cd
rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko, yo qud dh sdnum`mdgtj cdh mgvdgtormj ds kjgstogtd, pdrj o `d-
gucj rdqumdrd cd ugo mgvdrsmûg `ïs kjstjso qud dh smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko,
yo qud cdad m`phogtorsd ug smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg. Yjr jtrj hocj, ho cmbusmûg cd
hos tdkgjhjnàos cd mgbjr`okmûg y cd mcdgtm󿬏kokmûg outj`ïtmko (kûcmnj cd aorros,
 QBMC) bokmhmtog ho jpdrokmûg cd hjs smstd`os cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo, pjr hj qud dstd
tmpj
coc. cd
Dgsmstd`os poro dg
dstd sdgtmcj, dh kjgtrjh cd mgvdgtormjs
hjs smstd`os cd rdvmsmûgdspdrmûcmko
dh qud prdcj`mgo
gj sûhj sddgtmdgd
ho oktuohm-
mgbjr-
`okmûg mgkj`phdto, smgj qud to`amíg sd kjrrd dh rmdsnj cd pdrcdr vdgtos, yo qud
sd pudcd mngjror qud dh mgvdgtormj sd onjtû dg ohnög mgtdrvohj dgtrd rdvmsmjgds
sukdsmvos. Dh usj cd ug pugtj cd rdjrcdg eokd qud dh rmdsnj cd pdrcdr vdgtos sdo
`dgjr aofj ho rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo.
  So`amíg sd cdad `dgkmjgor
`dgkmjgor,, smg d`aornj, qud ho rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko prdsdgto
ho vdgtofo cd pdr`mtmr, cd `ogdro goturoh, qud vormjs prjcuktjs pudcog jrcdgorsd
dg dh `ms`j pdcmcj, poro oprjvdkeor dkjgj`àos cd dskoho dg dh trogspjrtd y dh
prjkdso`mdgtj
prjkd so`mdgtj cd pdcmcjs. Yjr jtrj hocj, smg m`pjrtor dh smstd`o cd kjgtrjh cd
mgvdgtormjs qud sd usd, smd`prd ds gdkdsormo ugo rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko cdh gmvdh cd
hjs mgvdgtormjs. Dstos vdrm󿬏kokmjgds, hho`ocos kjgtdjs pdrmûcmkjs, sjg gdkdso- gdkdso-
rmos poro prjkuror qud hjs rdnmstrjs cdh mgvdgtormj qud sd dgkudgtrog dg dh sms-
td`o cd mgbjr`okmûg rd󿬁dfdg kjg ho `oyjr prdkmsmûg dh vdrcocdrj dstocj cd hjs
mgvdgtormjs
mgvdgto rmjs bàsmkjs, yo qud sd cdad rdkjgjkdr ho dxmstdgkmo cd cmvdrsos rozjgds pjr
hos qud ho mgbjr`okmûg rdnmstroco dg dh smstd`o cd mgbjr`okmûg pudcd cmbdrmr cd
ho rdohmcoc bàsmko, pjr dfd`phj, dxmstd pjsmamhmcoc cd `dr`o, coÿj, j dxtro
dxtrovàj
vàj cd hos
dxmstdgkmos, j sm`phd`dgtd sd pudcdg eoadr kj`dtmcj drrjrds dg ho kopturo cd ho
mgbjr`okmûg.
  Yoro dstoahdkdr pjhàtmkos cd oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd
kjgsu`j rdnuhor,
rdnuhor, ocd`ïs cd hjs prjgûstmkjs cd ho cd`ogco, sd cdad tdgdr dg kudgto
qud dh oaostdkm`mdgtj cd prjcuktjs gugko ds mg`dcmotj, smd`prd dxmstd ug hopsj cd
tmd`pj gdkdsormj dgtrd ho kjhjkokmûg cdh pdcmcj y ho rdkdpkmûg cdh `ms`j (qud sd
kjgjkd kj`j ho cd`jro  cdh pdcmcj, vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.?). O kjgtmguokmûg sd dxphmko
dh tmpj cd pjhàtmkos sdnög dh smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg qud sd usd.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?5;

‶ Bmnuro 5.?
?1 Dhd`dgtjs o kjgsmcdror poro

DGRÀJ[ YQJGÛ[SMKJ[
CD HO CD@OGCO ?9 jrcdgor prjcuktjs cd kjgsu`j
rdnuhor.
5
2
3
YDCMCJ[ 1
9
1 3 2 5 ?9
CD@JQO6 HOY[J CD SMD@YJ DGSQD HO
YTD[SO ] HO DGSQDNO CD HO JQCDG

Yjhàtmko cd mgvdgtormjs kjg rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo

Tgo pjhàtmko poro oc`mgmstror mgvdgtormjs aofj dh smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo, cdad
pjcdr mgcmkordg
tormjs kràtmkj kuïgtj jrcdgor
dh kuoh (dh jrcdgor
sd cdad to`oÿj cd ho jrcdg),
dh pdcmcj (dh osà kj`j
pugtj cddhrdjrcdg).
gmvdh cd mgvdg-
Kj`j
mhustro dh dfd`phj 5.?, sm dxmstdg audgjs dstm`ocjrds cd ho cd`ogco oguoh y cd hjs
kjstjs pjr jrcdgor y pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, dh `jcdhj DJ_ oyuco o dstoahdkdr
ug to`oÿj cd jrcdg oprjpmocj. O kjgtmguokmûg sd dxphmko kû`j sd cdtdr`mgog
hjs pugtjs cd rdjrcdg.
  Ho prmgkmpoh rozûg poro dstoahdkdr ug pugtj cd rdjrcdg ds qud sm dh ortàkuhj
dg mgvdgtormj dstï sufdtj o ugo cd`ogco kjgtmguo, sd cdad tdgdr ho prdkoukmûg cd
gj dspdror qud sd onjtd dh mgvdgtormj poro jrcdgor dh pdcmcj, yo qud cd jtro bjr`o
sd pdrcdràog vdgtos curogtd ho cd`jro (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.?). Sros dsto jasdrvokmûg,
sm ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj ds cd  H pdrmjcjs (poro sm`phm󿬏kor sdrïg càos), y gj dxmstd
mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`ogco cdh ortàkuhj, dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg sd cdtdr`mgo kjg
bokmhmcoc kj`j r   HH, cjgcd  ds ho cd`ogco cmormo. Dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg osà ds-
 toahdkmcj ds ho cd`ogco qud sd dspdro cdh ortàkuhj curogtd ho cd`jro, y oh jrcdgor
dh pdcmcj dg dstd gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj sd osdnuro cd otdgcdr ho cd`ogco.
  Kuogcj eoy mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`ogco cdh ortàkuhj dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg sd
okjstu`aro 󿬏for kjg aosd dg ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj, qud ds ho prjaoamhmcoc cd otdg-
cdr tjco ho cd`ogco curogtd ho cd`jro, ds cdkmr, sm r ds dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg y  C H 
ds ho cd`ogco curogtd ho cd`jro, poro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd ?99 % sd ku`phd
 Y \ C H    rP    (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.1).

‶ Bmnuro 5.1
Cmstrmaukmûg cd ho cd`ogco curogtd ho cd`jro Dh gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj y dh pugtj
cd rdjrcdg.

Gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj ο

Yugtj cd rdjrcdg

9 r

?53  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  [m sd `jcdho ho cd`ogco curogtd ho cd`jro kj`j ugo vormoahd ohdotjrmo

 C H    U  U 1    …    U  H, cjgcd  U  f   ds ho cd`ogco cdh cào  f , y sd pudcd osu`mr,
U ?    U 
kjg aosd dg `ítjcjs cd prjgûstmkjs, qud hos cd`ogcos cmormos tmdgdg dspdrogzo
 y vormogzo 1, y sjg mgcdpdgcmdgtds, ho dspdrogzo y ho vormogzo cd ho cd`ogco
curogtd ho cd`jro sdrïg  H    HH, y   H1    HH 1, rdspdktmvo`dgtd. Tgo supjsmkmûg
rozjgoahd ds qud  C H  smnud ugo cmstrmaukmûg  G ( H,   H1)(gjr`oh kjg dspdrogzo  H y
vormogzo   H1 ) y, dg dstd kosj, dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg ds6
  r 0 H + z H  ,  (5.?)
cjgcd  z  ds dh vohjr qud sotmsbokd  Y \ G (9,
(9, ?)  z P   . Ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor
qud hjs vohjrds  z , poro cmbdrdgtds vohjrds cd , sd pudcdg jatdgdr cd ugo ejfo
cd kïhkuhj kj`j Dxkdh< ohnugjs vohjrds `uy usocjs sjg  z 9.=4   ?.234 y  z 9.=   ?.15
 

poro gmvdhds cd sdrvmkmj cd =4% y =9%, rdspdktmvo`dgtd.

  Cdamcj o qud ho cd`ogco dspdroco curogtd ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj ds sûhj
 H    H
H, oh utmhmzor ug pugtj cd rdjrcdg `oyjr qud ho cd`ogco dspdroco, kj`j
dg ho dkuokmûg
ugmcocds, (5.?), sd mgkrd`dgto
oprjxm`oco`dgtd dh gmvdh
(vdo ho 󿬏nuro prj`dcmj
5.;). cd rozûg
Ds pjr dsto mgvdgtormjs
qud hodg
r    H 
cmbdrdgkmo
r    H rdkmad dh gj`ard cd mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc, qud dg dh kosj cd ho dkuo-
kmûg (5.?) rdsuhto6

 M[ 0 z     H ,   (5.1)

 
y pjr ho `ms`o rozûg, sm K  M  ds dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj cu-
rogtd ug oÿj (kj`j dg dh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr), dh kjstj ocmkmjgoh pjr m`phogtor ug
mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc kj`j dg ho dkuokmûg (5.1), dstï cocj pjr6

  K M[ 0 K M z H . (5.;)

   Yjr öhtm`j, hos d`prdsos rdkjgjkdg dh dbdktj gdnotmvj qud tmdgd ho mgkdrtm
cu`ard dg
tmdgcdg ho cd`jro
o rdsohtor kj`jcdhugo
pdcmcj, pjr dsj hos
m`pjrtogtd tdgcdgkmos
hoajr `jcdrgos
cdh cdsorrjhhj dg prjcukkmûg
cd prjvddcjrds, dh
trotor cd dvmtor ho vormoamhmcoc dg hjs tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno, cd `jcj qud pudcdg dvm-
torsd kjg ugo ocdkuoco kjjrcmgokmûg dgtrd prjvddcjr y kj`procjr. [mg d`aornj,
hjs dgvàjs qud rdkjrrdg hornos cmstogkmos y ho jkurrdgkmo cd dvdgtjs m`prdvmstjs,
pjcràog bjrzorhd o osu`mr qud ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj to`amíg ds ohdotjrmo. Dg dstd
kosj, sm kjg ho mgbjr`okmûg cmspjgmahd pudcd supjgdr qud ho cd`jro tmdgd dspd-
rogzo  H y vormogzo   H1, ho cd`ogco curogtd ho cd`jro `ogtdgcrï ugo dspdrogzo

‶ Bmnuro 5.;
Gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs Mgvdgtormj _ 
kjg mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc M[. Mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj 0 + M[ 
1

_ + M[ 

r 

M[ 0 r - H´ 

H H Smd`pj

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?54

 H    H
H,
pdrj ho vormogzo rdsuhto   H1    HH 1    1  H1, pjr hj qud, dg dh supudstj
cd gjr`ohmcoc, dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg, dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc y dh kjstj ocmkmjgoh
pjr m`phogtor dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc rdsuhtog6

r 0 H + z H 1 +  1 H 1 , M[ 0 z H 1 +  1 H1 ,   1  H1,(5.3)
y  K M[ 0 K M z H 1 + 

rdspdktmvo`dgtd, smdgcj qud dh kjstj pudcd tdgdr ug mgkrd`dgtj ohtj dg rdhokmûg

kjg dh kosj dg qud gj dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`jro, kj`j mhustro dh smnumdg-
td dfd`phj.

Dfd`phj 5.?. Tgo pjhàtmko poro rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo

Ahud`dx ds ug cmstrmaumcjr osjkmocj o ug m`pjrtogtd nrupj tdxtmh, qud tmdgd phog-
tos cd `ogubokturo dg vormos kmucocds y pjsdd ug oh`okíg kdgtroh dg _udrítorj,
@íxmkj poro ho cmstrmaukmûg gokmjgoh cd sus prmgkmpohds prjcuktjs. Kjg dh 󿬏g cd
kjgtrjhor hjs mgvdgtormjs cd su `jcdhj `ïs vdgcmcj cd fdogs, ocjptû ug smstd`o
cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo y cdsdo dstoahdkdr ugo pjhàtmko poro hos ûrcdgds cd fdogs cdscd
dh oh`okíg kdgtroh cd Ahud`dx, o portmr cd hjs cotjs cd cd`ogco (dg kmdgtjs cd ugm-
cocds) cd ho toaho 5.?, ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4% y ugo cd`jro cd H  1 sd`ogos.
[d soad ocd`ïs qud dh kjstj pjr koco kmdg ugmcocds ds cd K   $? 999, y sd dstm`o
qud dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ds cd K 9  $? 499, dh kjstj bàsmkj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj
ds cd ;% oguoh y dh kjstj cd jpjrtugmcoc pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd 5% oguoh.
  Yoro cdtdr`mgor ho pjhàtmko sd cdad dspdkm󿬏kor dh prjgûstmkj cd ho cd`og-
co sd`ogoh o trovís cd ug prj`dcmj y ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor, smg m`pjrtor dh
`ítjcj cd prjgûstmkj utmhmzocj (sjard dh td`o kjgsuhtd @olrmcolms dt oh.,  ?==5).
Yjr kj`jcmcoc osu`o qud ho dspdrogzo y ho cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd ho cd`ogco
sd`ogoh kjrrdspjgcdg o ho dspdrogzo y cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd hjs cotjs6   1=.3,
    2.94.
   O portmr cd hjs cotjs, sd dstm`og hjs porï`dtrjs cdh `jcdhj DJ_, kjg ho 󿬏go-
hmcoc cd cdtdr`mgor ug to`oÿj ocdkuocj cd pdcmcj. Cd dsto `ogdro, K 9  ? 499,
K  M    ? 999(9.??)  ??9, y kjg 41 sd`ogos dg dh oÿj, ho cd`ogco oguoh ds  C   
41(1=.3)  ? 41=41=,, pjr hj qud dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj ds _* 0 1(? 41
41=)(? 499) / ??9 ≅ 193 .

[D @OG O CD @ O GCO [ D@OGO C D @ O G CO [D@OGO C D @ O G CO [D@OGO CD @OG CO ‶ Soaho 5.?

Cd`ogco sd`ogoh cd fdogs.
? ;2 ?2 14 ;? 3; 32 1>
1 ;3 ?> 1= ;1 ;= 3> ;9
; ;1 ?5 11 ;; ;> 35 ;2
3 3? ?= 19 ;3 1= 3= ;?
4 ;; 19 1; ;4 15 49 ;3
2 ;9 1? 1> ;2 1> 4? 15

> 13 11 15 ;> ;? 41 1>

5 1> 1; 12 ;5 1=
= 1> 13 14 ;= 3?
?9 11 14 1= 39 ;9
?? 1? 12 ;1 3? 39
?1 ?> 1> ;9 31 ;4
?; 1; 15 15 3; 15
?3 1= 1= 1> 33 11
?4 12 ;9 3; 34 1?

?52  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  Yoro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%, cd okudrcj kjg (5.?) y (5.1), dh mgvdg-

 M[ 0 (?.2 34 ) 1 ( 2.9

tormj
r 0 (1  )cd1= sdnurmcoc
( 1= .3 ) + M[ ≅ >;rdsuhto
. Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, (   )pjhàtmko
ugo   4) ≅ oprjpmoco
?3 , y dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg
cd rdvmsmûg kjgtm-
guo poro hjs fdogs sdrï jrcdgor 193 kmdgtjs koco vdz qud dh mgvdgtormj ohkogkd dh
gmvdh cd >; kmdgtjs.
  Kjg dh jafdtmvj cd kj`poror dh dbdktj cd ho mgkdrtmcu`ard dg hjs tmd`pjs cd
dgtrdno, supjgno qud ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj tmdgd dh `ms`j prj`dcmj  H  1, pdrj
  H   ?. Dg dstd kosj, dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc ou`dgtorào o
  1   1 1  
  M[ 0 (?.2 34)    1 (2. 94)   + (1= .3 )   (?  )   ≅ 49,
   
y dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg o r 0 ( 1  )( 1= .3 ) + M[ ≅ ?9=. Cd okudrcj kjg (5.;) y (5.3),
dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc ou`dgtorào cd (??9)(?3)  $? 435
o (??9)(49)   $4 499 (`ïs cd ;49%), y dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj ho pjhàtmko
cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo ou`dgtorào cd \(193/1)?3P   ??2 o \(193/1)49P   ?41
kmdgtjs.
✣

Yjhàtmko cd mgvdgtormjs kjg rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko

Yoro cdtdr`mgor ugo pjhàtmko poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs aofj rdvmsmûg
pdrmûcmko, sd cdad tdgdr dg kudgto ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj, cdgjtd kjg  H oh gö`d-
rj cd pdrmjcjs qud torco ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj, y kjg  Y  oh   oh gö`drj cd pdrmjcjs
(dg càos) dgtrd rdvmsmjgds pdrmûcmkos. [d eo dgkjgtrocj (Mnhdeort, ?=2;) qud aofj
kjgcmkmjgds `uy ndgdrohds, ho pjhàtmko ûptm`o kjgsmstd dg jrcdgor [  M  ugmcocds
 ugmcocds
hudnj cd eokdr ho rdvmsmûg, cjgcd  M  ds
 ds dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj dgkjgtrocj y [ ds ugo
kogtmcoc 󿬏fo qud rdkmad dh gj`ard cd gmvdh aosd cd ho pjhàtmko.
Yoro dgkjgtror dh gmvdh aosd, [, sd cdad tj`or dg kudgto ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj
cdsdocj cdh ?99%, y pudstj qud dh gmvdh aosd cdadrào sotmsbokdr ho cd`ogco cd
  H  Y  càos
 càos (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.3), ístd cdadrï tj`or dh vohjr6
  [ 0 ( H +  Y )   + z  H + Y ,   (5.4)
cjgcd   ds ho cd`ogco dspdroco pjr pdrmjcj y   ds   ds ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd cdsvmo-
kmûg dstïgcor.
dstïgcor. Dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj dsto pjhàtmko cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko ds cd

‶ Bmnuro 5.3
Gmvdh cd hjs mgvdgtormjs kjg JQCDGOQ EO[SO DH GMRDH
rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko. AO[D
Mgvdgtormj
[ 0 (H + Y)´  +
 + z ο ϋ H + Y 

Y  MGRDGSOQMJ @ÀGM@J
YQJ@DCMJ

Smd`pj

H H

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?5>

 M 0   ( Y  / 1) + z  H + Y  ugmcocds, oprjxm`oco`dgtd, pjr hj qud dh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd

kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd6
  K YD 0 K M   ( Y  / 1) +  z  H + Y ,
   (5.2)
cjgcd K  M  ds dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj. Kj`j
mhustro dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj, dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, kjrrdspjg-
cmdgtd o ho pjhàtmko cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo kjg pugtj cd rdjrcdg y to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
_, cd󿬏gmcj pjr6

KKJ 0 K M  (_  / 1 ) +   z  H  , (5.>)

   
pudcd sdr smngm󿬏kotmvo`dgtd `ïs aofj qud dh cd ho rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko cd󿬏gmcj dg
(5.2).

Dfd`phj 5.1. Tgo pjhàtmko poro rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko

Kjgsmcdrd ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd fdogs cd ho d`prdso Ahud`dx cdh
dfd`phj 5.?, kjg hjs `ms`js cotjs cd kjstjs, cd`ogco y cd`jro cd  H   1  sd`o-
gos, pdrj supjgno qud sd cdsdo dstoahdkdr ho pjhàtmko cd mgvdgtormjs poro rdvmsmûg
pdrmûcmko koco  Y   > sd`ogos.
Cd okudrcj kjg hjs cotjs cdh dfd`phj
dfd`ph j 5.?, sd tmdgd qud   1=
 1=.3,
.3,    2.94,   9.=4, pjr
hj qud dh gmvdh aosd cd mgvdgtormjs rdsuhto [ 0 (1 +  >)(1= .3 ) + (?.2 34)(2.9  4)  1 + > ≅ 1=3  
kmdgtjs. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, sm oh `j`dgtj cd eokdr ho rdvmsmûg sd dgkudgtro ug mg-
vdgtormj cd  M   ;9 kmdgtjs, cdad jrcdgorsd cd mg`dcmotj ug pdcmcj cd 1=3   ;9
 123 kmdgtjs.
  O kjgtmguokmûg sd kj`porog hjs mgvdgtormjs qud sd jatdgcràog usogcj rdvmsmûg
kjgtmguo6 kj`j sd vmj dg dh dfd`phj 5.?, aofj rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo sd tdgcrào ug to`oÿj
cd pdcmcj cd _  193, kjg ug mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc M[  ?3 ?3,, pjr hj qud dh mgvdg-
 tormj prj`dcmj sdrào cd ?3  (193/1)  ??2, kjg ug kjstj oguoh cd K KJ
KJ   (??9)(??2)

 $?1 >29, cd okudrcj kjg (5.>). Yjr jtrj hocj, cd okudrcj kjg (5.2), aofj rdvmsmûg
pdrmûcmko, dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj sdrào cd ( 1= .3 )( > /  1) + (?.2 34)( 2.9  4)  = ≅ ?;;, kjg
ug kjstj oguoh cd K  YD    (??9)(?;;)   $?3 2;9, qud ds smngm󿬏kotmvo`dgtd `oyjr
(kdrko cd ?4%) qud dg ho rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko.
✣

  ONQDNOKMÛG CDH QMD[NJ ] DKJGJ@ÀO[ CD D[KOHO

Kj`j sd dxphmkû dg dh kopàtuhj 1, ohnugjs cd hjs pmhords cd ho dstrotdnmo kj`pdtm-
tmvo cd ^oh-@ort poro hjnror prdkmjs aofjs cd sus prjcuktjs –kj`j sjg dh usj cd
oh`okdgds kdgtrohmzocjs (trogsajrcj) y smstd`os cd mgbjr`okmûg poro ho oc`mgmstro-
kmûg cd mgvdgtormjs– sd rdhokmjgog kjg hjs td`os cd dstd kopàtuhj. Dg dsto sdkkmûg
sd ogohmzo, o ho huz cd hjs `jcdhjs cd mgvdgtormjs dstucmocjs, dh dbdktj cd ohnugos
pjhàtmkos qud eog tdgmcj íxmtj dg hos d`prdsos, kj`j sjg ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj
o trovís cd ho kdgtrohmzokmûg cd oh`okdgds y dh oprjvdkeo`mdgtj cd dkjgj`àos cd
dskoho o trovís cd cdskudgtjs y onrdnokmûg cd ûrcdgds.

Onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj

Ho cmstrmaukmûg cd `drkogkàos poro ug kjgfugtj cd tmdgcos pudcd kdgtrohmzorsd
dg ug sjhj oh`okíg cd cmstrmaukmûg, y ougqud cd dsto `ogdro hos cmstogkmos qud
rdkjrrdg hos `drkogkàos pudcdg mgkrd`dgtorsd –yo qud ho `drkogkào prm`drj sd

?55  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 5.4
[mstd`os cd cmstrmaukmûg
kdgtrohmzocjs y cdskdgtrohmzocjs. [M[SD@O KDGSQOHMVOCJ
Smdgco ?

Yrjvddcjr  Oh`okíg
kdgtroh
Smdgco g

[M[SD@O CD[KDGSQOHMVOCJ

Oh`okíg ?
Smdgco ?

Yrjvddcjr 

Oh`okíg g Smdgco g

troshoco oh oh`okíg kdgtroh– pdr`mtd m`pjrtogtds dkjgj`àos. Oquà sd usorï dh

tír`mgj onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj (cdh mgnhís rmsl pjjhmgn ) poro eokdr rdbdrdgkmo o ho
kdgtrohmzokmûg cd ho cmstrmaukmûg cd `drkogkàos, rdkjgjkmdgcj qud ísto to`amíg
pudcd sdr vmrtuoh, ds cdkmr, sd pudcd kdgtrohmzor ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd hjs mgvdgto-
rmjs smg qud dxmsto ug oh`okíg ögmkj, pjr dfd`phj, `dcmogtd pdcmcjs onrdnocjs y
kjg ug mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc kj`ög poro tjcos hos tmdgcos.
  Ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj pdr`mtd rdcukmr togtj hjs to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj kj`j
hjs mgvdgtormjs cd sdnurmcoc qud sd jatdgcràog aofj dh smstd`o cdskdgtrohmzocj, pjr
hj qud sd ndgdrog `dgjrds mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, `dgjrds kjs-
tjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs. Yjr dfd`phj, sm kjgsmcdro ho dkuokmûg (5.>), oprdkmorï
 qud dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj ug smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo cdpdgcd togtj
cdh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj (_) kj`j cdh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc, hjs qud sd rdcukdg
kjg ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.4), kj`j sd dxphmko o kjgtmguokmûg.
Ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj pdr`mtd rdcukmr hjs to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj, yo qud sd
rdcukd dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor y, dg kjgsdkudgkmo, dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd ugo cd`ogco
onrdnoco ds `dgjr qud ho su`o cd hjs to`oÿjs ûptm`js cd hos cd`ogcos mgcmvm-
cuohds. Yjr jtrj hocj, dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc to`amíg cms`mguyd kjg ho onrd-
nokmûg cdh rmdsnj, cdamcj o qud ho cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd ho cd`ogco onrdnoco
ds `dgjr qud ho su`o cd hos cdsvmokmjgds dstïgcor cd hos cd`ogcos mgcmvmcuohds
(vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.2), y ho `ongmtuc cd dsto cms`mgukmûg cdpdgcd togtj cd ho vormo-

‶ Bmnuro 5.2
Dbdktjs cd ho kdgtrohmzokmûg
dg dh gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj. So`oÿj cdh pdcmcj

_ 
Kdgtrohmzokmûg M0 + z ο ϋ H
1
Mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc

• Kjdbmkmdgtds cd vormokmûg
• Kjrrdhokmjgds cd ho cd`ogco

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?5=

[D @OG O ? 1 ; 3 4 2 > 5 YQJ @DC MJ C D [ R. D [ S. K . R. ‶ Soaho 5.1

Cd`ogcos cd cjs `jcdhjs
@JCDHJ O GJQSD ;; 34 ;> ;5 44 ;9 ?5 45 ;=.14 ?;.?5 9.;3 cd vdstmcj dg cjs tmdgcos.
@JCDHJ O [TQ 32 ;4 3? 39 12 35 ?5 44 ;5.2; ?1.94 9.;?
SJSOH @JCDHJ O >= 59 >5 >5 5? >5 ;2 ??; >>.55 19.>? 9.1>
@JCDHJ A GJQSD 9 1 ; 9 9 ? ; 9 ?.?; ?.;2 ?.1?
@JCDHJ A [TQ 1 3 9 9 ; ? 9 9 ?.14 ?.45 ?.12
SJSOH @JCDHJ A 1 2 ; 9 ; 1 ; 9 1.;5 ?.=1 9.5?

 amhmcoc cd ho cd`ogco kj`j cd hos kjrrdhokmjgds dgtrd hos cd`ogcos mgcmvmcuohds.

O `oyjr vormoamhmcoc oasjhuto y `dgjrds kjrrdhokmjgds (`dfjr sm sjg gdnotmvos),
kjrrdspjgcdg `oyjrds cms`mgukmjgds cd ho cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor onrdnoco, kj`j
mhustro dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj. Ho `dcmco cd ho vormoamhmcoc oasjhuto ds dh kjd󿬏kmdgtd
cd vormokmûg, qud ds dh kjkmdgtd dgtrd ho cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor y dh prj`dcmj.
Dfd`phj 5.;. Dbdktjs cd ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj
Ho kocdgo Ok`dx tmdgd cjs tmdgcos, ugo dg dh gjrtd cd ho kmucoc y ho jtro dg dh sur.
Dg dstd `j`dgtj tmdgd cjs oh`okdgds, ugj poro koco tmdgco, y cdsdo dxphjror ho
kjgvdgmdgkmo cd `ogtdgdr ug sjhj oh`okíg kdgtroh. Kjg dh jafdtmvj cd dvohuor hjs
gmvdhds cd mgvdgtormjs qud tdgcrào kjg ug sjhj oh`okíg, sd eog rdnmstrocj hjs cotjs
cd cd`ogco qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho toaho 5.1, kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o cjs `jcdhjs cd
vdstmcj. Kj`j pudcd jasdrvor dg ho toaho, sm amdg hos cd`ogcos poro dh `jcdhj O
sjg rdhotmvo`dgtd `oyjrds qud hos cdh `jcdhj A, hjs kjd󿬏kmdgtds cd vormokmûg cdh
`jcdhj A sjg `oyjrds.
  Kjg aosd dg hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 5.1, y kjg ug kjstj pjr jrcdgor cd K 9   
19, ug kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj pjr ugo sd`ogo cd K  M   9.4,
 ugo cd`jro
prdsdgtog hjscd
 H   ? sd`ogo, y ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%, dg ho toaho 5.; sd
mgvdgtormjs qud sd jatmdgdg kuogcj sd oc`mgmstrog pjr sdporocj hjs
mgvdgtormjs dg cjs oh`okdgds y kuogcj sd utmhmzo ug sjhj oh`okíg kdgtroh, aofj pj-
hàtmkos cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo. Dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj DJ_ sd kohkuhû cd okudrcj kjg
(>.1),
(>.1), dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc (M[) cd okudrcj kjg (5.?), y dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj
kj`j  M[    DJ_
DJ_/1.
  Kj`j pudcd jasdrvor dg ho toaho 5.;, hjs mgvdgtormjs prj`dcmj (y hjs kjrrds-
pjgcmdgtds kjstjs pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs) cms`mguydg smngm󿬏kotmvo`dgtd, 13%
poro dh `jcdhj O y ;?% poro dh `jcdhj A kuogcj sd utmhmzo ug sjhj oh`okíg kdg-
troh. Ho `oyjr cms`mgukmûg rdhotmvo dg dh kosj cdh `jcdhj A jadcdkd oh edkej cd
qud hos cd`ogcos poro dh `jcdhj A tmdgdg `oyjrds kjd󿬏kmdgtds cd vormoamhmcoc.
✣

MGR. MGR. ‶ Soaho 5.;

C J[ OH@ OKDGD[ D J_ M[ YQ J@. TG O H@ O KÍ G DJ _ M[ YQJ@. % @DF JQ O Kj`porokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs
kjg cjs y ug oh`okíg.
@JCDHJ O GJQSD 42.93 1?.2> 3=.2=
@JCDHJ O [TQ 44.4= ?=.51 3>.2?
SJSOH @JCDHJ O ???.21 3?.3= =>.;9 @jcdhj O >5.=; ;3.9> >;.4; 13.3;
@JCDHJ A GJQSD =.3= 1.1; 2.=>
@JCDHJ A [TQ ?9.99 1.29 >.29
SJSOH @JCDHJ A ?=.3= 3.5; ?3.4> @jcdhj A ?;.>5 ;.?2 ?9.94 ;?.91

?=9  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Yjr öhtm`j, ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud sm amdg hjs tmd`pjs y kjstjs vormoahds
pjr trogspjrtd sd mgkrd`dgtog oh utmhmzor ug oh`okíg kdgtroh cd cmstrmaukmûg, dg
ko`amj sd pudcdg jatdgdr rdcukkmjgds cd kjstjs cdamcos o dkjgj`àos cd dskoho
dg dh trogspjrtd y hjs nostjs ndgdrohds, pjr hj qud ho onrdnokmûg cdh rmdsnj rdcu-
kd hjs kjstjs cd cmstrmaukmûg, sm hos cmstogkmos cdh trogspjrtd gj sd mgkrd`dgtog
dxondroco`dgtd.

Onrdnokmûg cd pdcmcjs
Dxmstdg cmvdrsos rozjgds poro jatdgdr dkjgj`àos cd dskoho dg ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd mgvdgtormjs, y ugo cd dhhos ds ho onrdnokmûg cd pdcmcjs cd cmbdrdgtds ortàkuhjs
dg ho `ms`o jrcdg. Yoro mhustror kû`j sd jatmdgdg dkjgj`àos oh sjhmkmtor vormjs
prjcuktjs dg ho `ms`o jrcdg, supjgno qud ugo d`prdso vdgcd trds `jcdhjs cmbd-
rdgtds cd kj`putocjros qud tmdgdg ugo cd`ogco cd  C   ?1 999 ugmcocds oh oÿj
poro koco `jcdhj, kjg ug kjstj pjr jrcdgor cd K 9  399, y cd K  M   ?99, pjr koco
ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj. Dg dstos kjgcmkmjgds, dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
DJ_ poro koco `jcdhj sdrào cd _* 0   1(?1  99 999 )(399) / ?99 ≅ ;?9  ugmcocds oprjxm-
`oco`dgtd, dg ko`amj, sm sd onrdnog hjs pdcmcjs dg ho `ms`o jrcdg, kjg hjs
cd`ïs cotjs mnuohds, ho cd`ogco ou`dgtorào o C  ;2 999, y dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
onrdnocj sdrào cd _* 0  1( ;2  99
999 )(399) / ?99 ≅ 4;>  poro hjs trds `jcdhjs, ds cdkmr
cd ?1= ugmcocds poro koco `jcdhj, qud ds `dgjr qud hos ;?9 ugmcocds ogtdrmjrds.
ogtdrmjrds.
Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, gj sûhj sd rdcukmrào dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor, smgj to`amíg dh kjstj
tjtoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs. Dg dstd kosj sm`phm󿬏kocj, gj dxmstd `ukej prj-
 ahd`o poro onrdnor hjs pdcmcjs, cdamcj o qud tjcjs hjs ortàkuhjs tmdgdg ho `ms`o
cd`ogco y kjstjs pjr mgvdgtormjs, hj qud pdr`mtd to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj mnuohds. Dg
ndgdroh, kuogcj sd onrdnog hjs pdcmcjs cd ortàkuhjs edtdrjnígdjs prm`drj sd cdad
 auskor kuïh ds dh pdrmjcj kj`ög dgtrd pdcmcjs, qud kjgvmdgd osmngor o hjs cmbd-
rdgtds ortàkuhjs, kj`j sd dxphmko o kjgtmguokmûg.
  Yoro pdr`mtmr ugo ophmkokmûg `ïs ndgdroh, supjgno qud koco pdcmcj onrdno-
 cj cd g ortàkuhjs tmdgd ug kjstj cd K 9    [    [?    …   [g, cjgcd [m ds dh kjstj
ocmkmjgoh (pjsmahd`dgtd pjr `ogdfj y trogsokkmûg) qud jrmnmgo dh onrdnor dh prj-
cuktj m dg dh `ms`j pdcmcj. [m  G  ds  ds dh gö`drj cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj, dh kjstj oguoh
pjr jrcdgor sdrï cd K 9 G . Yjr jtrj hocj, sdog  Cm  ho cd`ogco oguoh cdh ortàkuhj m,
y K  M m  dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc cdh ortàkuhj m  dg mgvdgtormj pjr ug oÿj
(m   ?, 1, …,  g), dgtjgkds ho kogtmcoc o jrcdgor cdh ortàkuhj m sdrï _m    C
C/ G , y dh
kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs cd ortàkuhj m sdrï K  M _m/1   K  M  Cm/(1 G), pjr
m m

togtj, dh kjstj oguoh cd ho pjhàtmko cd jrcdgor  G  pdcmcjs

  pdcmcjs oh oÿj kjg kogtmcocds
_m    C Cm/ G  sdrï6
 sdrï6
K ? C +  + K M g Cg
  K G  ( G  ) 0 K9 G +    M ? , (5.5)
1 G 
qud tmdgd ho `ms`o bjr`o cd ho dkuokmûg (>.?)
(>.?) cdh `jcdhj DJ_, dgtjgkds dh gö`d-
rj ûptm`j cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj rdsuhto6
 C ?K M? +  + CgK M g
   G * 0 . (5.=)
1K 9
  Dg rdsu`dg, poro cdtdr`mgor hjs to`oÿjs ûptm`js cd pdcmcj kuogcj sd
onrdnog g ortàkuhjs dg ho `ms`o jrcdg, prm`drj cdad cd󿬏gmrsd dh gö`drj ûptm`j
cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj  G  cd
 cd okudrcj kjg (5.=), y ho kogtmcoc o jrcdgor cdh ortàkuhj m ds
_m    C
C/ G , oprjxm`oco`dgtd. Jasdrvd qud  G  cdtdr`mgo
  cdtdr`mgo to`amíg dh pdrmjcj ûptm-
`j dgtrd pdcmcjs.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?=?

CD[ L H MSD @DC ‶ Soaho 5.3

So`oÿjs cd pdcmcj y kjstjs
Cd`ogco oguoh ?1 999 ? 199 ?19 kjg ûrcdgds mgcdpdgcmdgtds.
Kjstj ugmtormj 499 499 499
Kjstj cd mgvdgtormj (ugmcoc/oÿj) ?99 ?99 ?99
Kjstj ugmtormj pjr jrcdgor 499 499 499
So`oÿj cd pdcmcj djq ;32 ??9 ;4
Kjstj oguoh pjr mgvdgtormj ?> ;1? 4 3>> ? >;1
Kjstj oguoh pjr jrcdgor ?> ;1? 4 3>> ? >;1
Kjstj tjtoh ;3 23? ?9 =43 ; 323 3= 929

Dfd`phj 5.3. So`oÿjs cd pdcmcj poro ugo jrcdg onrdnoco

Cdhh`dx ds ugo d`prdso qud kj`drkmohmzo trds `jcdhjs cd kj`putocjros pdrsj-
gohds6 Cdsl, Hmtd y @dc, kjg hjs cotjs cd cd`ogco y kjstjs qud sd prdsdgtog dg
ho toaho 5.3. Hjs to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj y hjs kjstjs kjrrdspjgcdg oh `jcdhj DJ_,
kjg ho ophmkokmûg cd hos dkuokmjgds (>.?) y (>.1), kuogcj hos ûrcdgds poro koco
`jcdhj dstïg cdsonrdnos, ds cdkmr, sd mgkhuyd ug sjhj prjcuktj dg koco jrcdg.
Kj`j pudcd oprdkmorsd cd ho toaho, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugmcoc dg mgvdg-
tormj pjr ug oÿj ds cd 19% cdh kjstj cdh ortàkuhj, y dh kjstj tjtoh cd dsto pjhàtm-
ko ds cd $3= 929. [d cdsdo dstm`or dh gö`drj cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj, hjs to`oÿjs cd
pdcmcj pjr `jcdhj y dh kjstj tjtoh oguoh, sm sd onrdnog hjs trds prjcuktjs dg ho
`ms`o jrcdg, kjgsmcdrogcj qud dh kjstj kj`ög pjr jrcdgor ds cd [    399, y
qud pjr koco prjcuktj qud sd mgkhuyd dg ho jrcdg dxmstd ug kjstj ocmkmjgoh cd
[m   ?99, m   ?,1,;, (o dhhj sd cdad qud dh kjstj ugmtormj pjr jrcdgor dg ho toaho
5.3 ds cd 499).
  Kjg dstjs cotjs y ho bûr`uho (5.=), dh gö`drj ûptm`j cd pdcmcjs pjr oÿj
 kuogcj sd onrdnog hjs trds ortàkuhjs dg ho jrcdg ds cd6
9  99 )?9  9 + (? 1 99 )?9  9 + (?1  9 )?99
  (?1 99
 G * 0 ≅ ;?54
. ,
1K 9
y hjs kjstjs rdsuhtogtds, cd okudrcj kjg (5.5), sd prdsdgtog dg ho toaho 5.4, cjgcd
sd eog j`mtmcj cdkm`ohds pjr kj`jcmcoc. Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor, dh kjstj tjtoh sd
rdcukd o $3; ?5; (?1% `dgjs qud ho pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs mgcdpdgcmdgtds).
✣

CD [L HM SD @DC ‶ Soaho 5.4

So`oÿjs cd pdcmcj y kjstjs
Cd`ogco oguoh ?1 999 ? 199 ?19 onrdnogcj trds ortàkuhjs
Kjstj ugmtormj 499 499 499 dg hos ûrcdgds.

Kjstj cd mgvdgtormj (ugmcoc/oÿj) ?99 ?99 ?99

Kjstj ugmtormj pjr jrcdgor >99
So`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_ ;5= ;= 3
Kjstj oguoh pjr mgvdgtormj ?= 341 ? =34 ?=4
Kjstj oguoh pjr jrcdgor 1? 4=1
Kjstj tjtoh 3; ?5;

?=1  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

Cdskudgtjs pjr to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj

Tgo `jcohmcoc
kjgsmstd dg qudcd
dh cdskudgtj
prjvddcjrpjr vjhu`dg
jbrdkd cd kj`pro
ug prdkmj kjg `ukeo
cmbdrdgkmocj pjr cmbusmûg oktuoh
koco kotdnjrào
cd to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj (vdo dh dfd`phj 5.4). Kuogcj ds dh kosj, dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd
pdcmcj gj pudcd cdtdr`mgorsd oh ophmkor cmrdkto`dgtd ho dkuokmûg (>.1) cdh to`o-
ÿj dkjgû`mkj DJ_ pjr vormos rozjgds. Dg prm`dr hunor, dh kjstj K  M  pjr ugmcoc dg
mgvdgtormj gj ds dh `ms`j dg koco kotdnjrào, yo qud dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào ds
cmbdrdgtd, y pjr dsto `ms`o rozûg, dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào cdadrào kjgsmcdrorsd
oh trotor cd `mgm`mzor dh kjstj tjtoh, jasdrvd qud dh kjstj tjtoh cd ho `drkogkào gj
sd kjgsmcdro dg dh kjstj cdh `jcdhj DJ_ (>.?).
  [mg d`aornj, kj`j mhustro dh dfd`phj, pudcd sdnumr dh smnumdgtd prjkdcm`mdg-
tj poro cdtdr`mgor dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj, kjg hjs `ms`js dhd`dgtjs cdh
`jcdhj DJ_6
  • Kohkuhor dh to`oÿj
to`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_ poroporo koco kotdnjrào cd prdkmj, kjg dh kjstj
pjr jrcdgor K 9 y dh kjrrdspjgcmdgtd kjstj K  M  pjr ugmcoc dg mgvdgtormj oh oÿj
dg koco kotdnjrào.
  • [m dh to`oÿj DJ_ dg dg kuohqumdr kotdnjrào ds cd`osmocj pdqudÿj poro kohm󿬏kor
oh prdkmj cd ho kotdnjrào, ístd cdad ofustorsd oh vohjr `ïs pdqudÿj qud pudco
kohm󿬏kor oh prdkmj cd ho `ms`o.
  • Yoro koco kotdnjrào m, kohkuhor dh kjstj tjtoh oguoh kjgsmcdrogcj dh kjstj cd
ho `drkogkào, ds cdkmr6
K9 C K M m_m
K S m 0 + + Ym Cm , (5.?9)
  _m 1
cjgcd K 9 ds dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor, K  M m, Cm, _m y  Y m sjg dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo ugm-
coc dg mgvdgtormj pjr ug oÿj, ho cd`ogco oguoh, dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj ofustocj, y
dh prdkmj kjrrdspjgcmdgtds o ho kotdnjrào m, rdspdktmvo`dgtd.
  • [dhdkkmjgor dh to`oÿj _  qud prjpjrkmjgo dh `dgjr kjstj.
 m

Dfd`phj 5.4. So`oÿj dkjgû`mkj kjg cdskudgtjs pjr to`oÿj

Ho kocdgo Qopmcbor` eokd kj`pros rdnuhords cd `ognj kjgndhocj, dg ajhsos cd
? ln, o ug prjvddcjr nhjaoh cd ohm`dgtjs prjkdsocjs. Ho cd`ogco oguoh cd Qo-
pmcbor` sd dstm`o dg ?19 999 ln, y ougqud dh prdkmj cdh prjcuktj dg dh `drkocj
ds cd $;.99 pjr ln, dh prjvddcjr jbrdkd ug cdskudgtj cd $9.93 pjr ln sm dh pdcmcj
ds `oyjr qud 4 999 ln, y cd $9.93 ocmkmjgohds sm dh pdcmcj ds `oyjr qud ?9 999
ln, pjr hj qud Qopmcbor` cdsdo cdtdr`mgor kuïh ds su to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj,
kjgsmcdrogcj togtj dh cdskudgtj kj`j hjs kjstjs pjr jrcdgor y pjr `ogtdgdr mg-
vdgtormjs, osà kj`j qud dh kjstj cd koco jrcdg ds cd K 9   $?99, y pjr `ogtdgdr
ug ln dg mgvdgtormj pjr ug oÿj ds cd 19% cdh kjstj cdh prjcuktj.
  Dg ho toaho 5.2 sd rdsu`dg hjs kïhkuhjs poro cdtdr`mgor dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd
pdcmcj poro Qopmcbor`. Yjr dfd`phj, poro to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj dgtrd 4 99? y ?9 999

‶ Soaho 5.2 KJ[SJ KJ[SJ KJ[SJ

Cdtdr`mgokmûg cdh to`oÿj SO@OßJ DJ_ OGTOH YJQ OGTOH CDH OGTOH CD HO KJ[SJ
ûptm`j cd pdcmcj kjg C DH YD CM CJ Y Q D K M J   K M  DJ__
DJ OFT[SOCJ JQCDGOQ MGRDGSOQMJ @DQKOGKÀO SJSOH
cdskudgtjs pjr to`oÿj.
9 o 4999 ;.99 9.29 2 ;14 2 ;14 ? 5=> ? 5=5 ;29 999 ;2; >=4
499? o ?9 999 1.=2 9.4= 2 ;2> 2 ;2> ? 554 ? 554 ;44 199 ;45 =2=
@ïs cd ?9 999 1.=1 9.45 2 3?? ?9 99? ? 199 1 =19 ;49 399 ;43 419

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?=;

ln, dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ug ln dg mgvdgtormj pjr ug oÿj ds cd K  M   9.1(;)  9.4=,

y dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj DJ_ rdsuhto cd 2 ;2> ln, qud kohm󿬏ko oh cdskudgtj, pjr hj
qud
ln dhdhDJ_
DJ_dsofustocj
cd 2 3??dsln
dh y`ms`j. Dg ko`amj,
gj kohm󿬏ko poro ho pjr
oh cdskudgtj, kotdnjrào
hj qudcdcdad
`ïsofustorsd
cd ?9 999o
?9 99? ln poro kohm󿬏kor. Hjs kjstjs pjr jrcdgor y pjr mgvdgtormjs sd kohkuhorjg cd
okudrcj kjg (5.?9), y oh ocmkmjgor dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào sd jatuvj dh kjstj tjtoh
dg koco kotdnjrào. Kj`j pudcd jasdrvor dg ho toaho 5.2, dh `dgjr kjstj sd jatmd-
gd dg ho tdrkdro kotdnjrào, pjr hj qud dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj `ïs kjgvdgmdgtd poro
Qopmcbor` ds cd ?9 99? ln.
✣

Dg dh dfd`phj ogtdrmjr sd oprdkmo qud dh cdskudgtj dg dh prdkmj bud cdtdr`mgogtd

poro dhdnmr dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj, hj qud ds `uy kj`ög dg dstd tmpj cd cdskudg-
tjs, cdamcj o qud dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào cdad mgkhumrsd dg dh kjstj o `mgm`mzor.
Dstd edkej tmdgd dh dbdktj cd qud dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj tmdgcd o mgkrd`dgtorsd y
ndgdro
gj mgvdgtormjs
sd rdpmtdg dg dhmggdkdsormjs
oÿj) tmdgdgdg
ughodbdktj
kocdgo. Hjs cdskudgtjs
pordkmcj, yo qud pjr prj`jkmjgds
sd tmdgcd (qud
(kjg `oyjr
rozûg) o oprjvdkeor dh cdskudgtj. Dg ko`amj, kuogcj dh cdskudgtj ds pjr vjhu`dg
cd kj`pro oh oÿj, yo gj ds gdkdsormj kjgsmcdror dh kjstj cd ho `drkogkào (yo qud
ístd sd gdnjkmû kjg dh vjhu`dg cd kj`pro) poro cdtdr`mgor dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cdh
pdcmcj y dhhj tmdgd pjr kjgsdkudgkmo qud gj sd ndgdrdg mgvdgtormjs mggdkdsormo-
`dgtd ohtjs. Ds pjr dsto rozûg qud hjs cdskudgtjs pjr vjhu`dg cd kj`pro oh oÿj,
o trovís cd kjgtrotjs cd su`mgmstrj, sjg prdbdrmahds o hjs cdskudgtjs pjr vjhu`dg
cdh pdcmcj y pjr prj`jkmjgds.

  MGRDGS
MGRDGSOQMJ[
OQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ CD SD@YJQOCO
Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd mcdgtm󿬏kog kj`j prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco o hjs ortàkuhjs kuyj
dxkdsj cd jbdrto poro ug pdrmjcj cd vdgto (kuogcj dh pdcmcj cd oaostdkm`mdgtj
 dxkdcd ho cd`ogco), gj pudcd oh`okdgorsd poro dh smnumdgtd (j ds `uy kjstjsj), y
tmdgd qud sdr cdsdkeocj j rd`otocj. Kj`j dfd`phjs dstïg ho vdgto cd pdrmûcmkjs
j cd ortàkuhjs kuyo cd`ogco jkurrd sûhj dg ugo bdkeo j pdrmjcj dstoahdkmcj, cd
 amdgds pdrdkdcdrjs (ohm`dgtjs), cd amdgds cd td`pjroco (rjpo cd aoÿj, oarmnjs,
povjs
pov js poro govmcoc, dtk.), j cd prjcuktjs cd `jco (`jcdhjs cd `orko, `jcdhjs kjg
prjcukkmûg hm`mtoco). Aofj dstos kmrkugstogkmos, dh `jcdhj DJ_ rdsuhto mgoprjpmo-
cj poro tj`or cdkmsmjgds sjard dh to`oÿj
t o`oÿj cdh pdcmcj, yo qud ístd kjgsmcdro qud hjs
pdcmcjs sd rdpmtdg dg ug ejrmzjgtd cd tmd`pj cdtdr`mgocj, pjr dfd`phj, ug oÿj.
Ho cdkmsmûg rdhdvogtd dg ho oc`mgmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd
td`pjroco ds dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj, y dg portmkuhor ds cdsdoahd qud ístd sd oprjxm-
`d hj `dfjr pjsmahd o ho cd`ogco qud sd jasdrvorï curogtd dh pdrmjcj cd vdgto. Ds
pjr dsto rozûg qud dh prjgûstmkj cd ho cd`ogco poro dh pdrmjcj cd vdgto ocqumdrd
portmkuhor m`pjrtogkmo, y ougqud dg dstd hmarj gj sd ogohmzog hjs `ítjcjs cd prj-
gûstmkj, sd cdad `dgkmjgor qud dxmstdg audgos rdbdrdgkmos sjard dh td`o (@olrm-
colms dt oh., ?==5), y qud dg dh ï`amtj cdh prjgûstmkj cd ho cd`ogco dg kocdgos
cd su`mgmstrj sd prjpjgdg `ítjcjs gjvdcjsjs qud mgkjrpjrog cdtohhds sjard ho
dstrukturo cd `drkocj (Lohkeskec`mt dt oh., 1992) j gudvos tíkgmkos aosocos dg
sm`uhokmûg dstjkïstmko y dstocàstmko aoydsmogo (@uÿjz, 199;).
  Dg dsto sdkkmûg sd osu`d ho dxmstdgkmo cd ug prjgûstmkj poro ho cd`ogco
cdh prjcuktj curogtd dh pdrmjcj cd vdgto, y qud dstd prjgûstmkj sd mcdgtm󿬏ko kjg
ugo bugkmûg cd cdgsmcoc (prjaoamhmcoc dg dh kosj cmskrdtj)  b  C( x ) (vdo dh Opígcmkd
O). Dg prm`dr hunor sd ogohmzo kû`j ho cdkmsmûg sjard dh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj poro
prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco tj`o ho bjr`o cd ugo pjhàtmko (s, [). O kjgtmguokmûg sd
prjpjgd kû`j cdtdr`mgor ho pjhàtmko ûptm`o kjg aosd dg ho sjhukmûg cdh prjahd`o

?=3  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

cdh vjkdocjr y, 󿬏goh`dgtd, sd prdsdgtog ophmkokmjgds ocmkmjgohds poro ogohmzor dh

dbdktj cd hjs kjgtrotjs cd su`mgmstrj.

Ho pjhàtmko ( s , [ )

[m cdsdo cdtdr`mgor dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj poro ug prjcuktj cd td`pjroco, sjard ug
pdrmjcj amdg cd󿬏gmcj cd vdgto, cdad tdgdr dg kudgto qud sm dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
ds `uy nrogcd, tdgcrï ug dxkdsj cd jbdrto qud cdadrï rd`otorsd j sm`phd`dgtd
cdsdkeorsd (kjg ho kjrrdspjgcmdgtd pírcmco osjkmoco) oh 󿬏goh cdh pdrmjcj cd vdgto<
pjr jtrj hocj, sm dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj rdsuhto `dgjr qud ho cd`ogco jasdrvoco, hd
pdsorï gj eoadr vdgcmcj `ïs. Yjr supudstj, sm pucmdro kjgjkdr pjr ogtmkmpocj dh
vjhu`dg cd ho cd`ogco, jrcdgorào ug to`oÿj cd pdcmcj mnuoh o ho cd`ogco, smg
ndgdror pírcmco ohnugo poro ho d`prdso< pdrj, kj`j jkurrd dg ho `oyjrào cd hjs
kosjs, dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`ard sjard dh vjhu`dg cd cd`ogco qud sd dxpdrm`dgtorï dg
dh pdrmjcj cd vdgto, pjr hj qud cdad tj`or ugo cdkmsmûg kjg aosd dg dh prjgûstmkj
cd vdgto, dxprdsocj pjr `dcmj cd ugo bugkmûg cd cdgsmcoc  b  C( x ).
). Kjg dh smnumdgtd
dfd`phj
dh sdcd
to`oÿj mhustro kû`j
pdcmcj utmhmzor
poro ug prjgûstmkj
ug prjcuktj  b  C( x ) poro tj`or ugo cdkmsmûg sjard
cd td`pjroco.

Dfd`phj 5.2. So`oÿj cd prjcukkmûg poro ug ortàkuhj cd `jco

Ho kocdgo Dh Vor cmsdÿo y prjcukd rjpo poro ho vdgto dxkhusmvo dg sus tmdgcos y
cdsdo tj`or ugo cdkmsmûg sjard dh gö`drj cd ugmcocds o prjcukmr cd su trofd cd-
pjrtmvj Brdd poro ho prûxm`o td`pjroco cd vdrogj. Dh Cdporto`dgtj cd prjgûstmkjs
ndgdrû hos prjaoamhmcocds qud sd prdsdgtog dg ho toaho 5.>, sjard hjs cmbdrdgtds ds-
kdgormjs cd cd`ogco poro dstd `jcdhj. Osà, pjr dfd`phj, dh dskdgormj cd cd`ogco
cd 5 999 ugmcocds ds dh `dgjr, y tmdgd ugo prjaoamhmcoc cd 9.??, y dh dskdgormj cd
cd`ogco cd ?5 999 ds dh `oyjr y tmdgd ugo prjaoamhmcoc cd 9.?9.
  [m cdkmcd prjcukmr dh `jcdhj Brdd, mgkurrd dg ug kjstj 󿬏fj cd $?99 999 `ïs
ug kjstj cd $59 pjr ugmcoc prjcukmco (sm gj sd prjcukd dh kjstj ds 9), y koco ugm-
 coc
rogtdsdhovdgcdrï o $?14.
td`pjroco, Yjrsdr
cdadrï jtrj hocj, sm ougo
rd`otoco ug ugmcoc cdh `jcdhj
prdkmj dstm`ocj gj sdKjg
cd $19. vdgcd
aosdcu-
dg
dstjs cotjs, dg ho toaho 5.> sd prdsdgtog to`amíg hjs adgd󿬏kmjs qud sd jatdgcràog
 aofj hjs cmbdrdgtds dskdgormjs cd cd`ogco, kuogcj sd prjcukdg ?1 999 ugmcocds
cdh `jcdhj. Yjr dfd`phj, sm ho cd`ogco budro cd ?9 999 ugmcocds, sd vdgcdràog
?9 999 y sd tdgcràog qud rd`otor 1 999 ugmcocds, pjr hj qud dh adgd󿬏kmj sdrào cd
(?14   59)(?9 999)  (19  59) (1 999)  ?99 999  $1;9 999. Dg bjr`o sd`d-
fogtd, sm ho cd`ogco budro cd ?5 999 ugmcocds, sûhj sd pjcràog vdgcdr ?1 999, y dh
 adgd󿬏kmj sdrào cd (?14  59)(?1 999)  ?99 999  $339 999.
  Kj`j dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`ard sjard dh adgd󿬏kmj qud sd jatdgcrào kuogcj sd
prjcukdg ?1 999 ugmcocds, sd tj`o dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj kj`j ug audg krmtdrmj
poro `dcmr ho kjgvdgmdgkmo cd prjcukmr ?1 999 ugmcocds. Dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj sd

‶ Soaho 5.> CD@OGCO ( f )   b C ( f )    Y \ C      f f P R D G SO [ Q D [ K OS D AD GDBM KMJ
Yrjaoamhmcocds poro hjs
cmbdrdgtds dskdgormjs cd 5 999 9.?? 5 999 3 999 19 999
cd`ogco cdh `jcdhj Brdd. ?9 999 9.?? ?9 999 1 999 1;9 999
?1 999 9.15 ?1 999 9 339 999
?3 999 9.11 ?1 999 9 339 999
?2 999 9.?5 ?1 999 9 339 999
?5 999 9.?9 ?1 999 9 339 999
YQJCTKKMÛG  ?1 999 D[YDQ OGVO   ;>9
;>9 >99

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?=4

‶ Bmnuro 5.>
399 999 Adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj poro
cmbdrdgtds dskdgormjs
  j
;49 999
   c
  o
  r ;99 999 cd prjcukkmûg.
  d
  p
  s 149 999
  d
  j
   m 199 999
  k
   m
   b
  d ?49 999
  g
  d
   A
?99 999
49 999
9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
 
  4   5   9
  ?    1
  ?   3
  ?   2
  ?   5
  ?   9
   1

Yrjcukkmûg

rdpjrto dg ho toaho 5.> y ds6 (9.??)(19 999)   …   (9.?9)(339 999)  $;>9 >99.
Kjg ugo ejfo cd kïhkuhj (vdo dh orkemvj kop5.xhs), sd kohkuhog hjs adgd󿬏kmjs dspd-
rocjs poro hjs cmbdrdgtds dskdgormjs, `ms`js qud sd rdpjrtog dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.>
5.>.. Kj`j
pudcd oprdkmor,
oprdkmor, dh `oyj
`oyjrr adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj sd jatmdgd prdkmso`dgtd poro ug gmvdh
cd prjcukkmûg cd ?1 999 ugmcocds, pjr hj qud, cd okudrcj kjg hjs prjgûstmkjs cd
Dh Vor y dh krmtdrmj cdh vohjr dspdrocj, kjgvmdgd prjcukmr ?1 999 ugmcocds cdh `j-
cdhj Brdd.
  [upjgno oejro qud, poro mgmkmor ho prj`jkmûg cdh `jcdhj Brdd yo sd eoaàog
prjcukmcj ?9 999 ugmcocds cdh `jcdhj y sd cdsdo soadr sm kjgvmdgd j gj jrcdgor
ho prjcukkmûg cd hos 1 999 ugmcocds qud bohtog poro hhdnor oh ûptm`j cd ?1 999.
Yoro rdspjgcdr o dsto prdnugto, jasdrvd qud dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj kjrrdspjgcmdg-
td o ?9 999 ugmcocds dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.> ds cd $;12 =99, dg dh qud yo sd cdskjgtû dh
kjstj cd prjcukkmûg, pjr hj qud sm gj jrcdgo prjcukmr, gj sd mgkurrd dg dh kjstj
cd ?99 999  59(?9 999), y dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj dg dstd kosj sdrào cd ;12 =99  
 ?99 999  59(?9 999)  ? 112 =99. Dg ko`amj, sm jrcdgo ho prjcukkmûg cd hos 1 999
ugmcocds rdstogtds, sà sd mgkurrd dg dh kjstj 󿬏fj cd $?99 999, y dh adgd󿬏kmj dspd-
rocj sdrào cd ;>9 >99  59(?9 999)  $? ?>9 >99, `dgjr qud dh adgd󿬏kmj kuogcj
gj sd prjcukd. Dg dstd kosj, gj kjgvmdgd jrcdgor ho prjcukkmûg cd hos 1 999 ugm-
cocds rdstogtds. Yudcd kj`prjaorhj kjg ug prjkdcm`mdgtj sm`mhor sm sd euamdrog
prjcukmcj mgmkmoh`dgtd 4 999 ugmcocds, sà kjgvdgcrào prjcukmr hos > 999 ugmcocds
rdstogtds poro hhdnor oh ûptm`j.
  Jasdrvd dg hjs cotjs cd ho 󿬏nuro 5.>
5.>,, qud ho cmbdrdgkmo dgtrd dh adgd󿬏kmj ds-
pdrocj kjg dh ûptm`j cd ?1 999 ugmcocds y dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj kjg ?9 999 ugm-
cocds ds ;>9 >99  ;12 =99  $3; 599, `dgjr qud dh kjstj 󿬏fj cd $?99 999, y ísto
ds ho rozûg pjr ho qud gj kjgvmdgd prjcukmr hos ugmcocds rdstogtds. Aofj dh krmtdrmj
cdh vohjr dspdrocj, dg ndgdroh, sm dh to`oÿj ûptm`j ds cd _* ugmcocds y tmdgd ug
mgvdgtormj mgmkmoh cd _9    _* ugmcocds, kjgvmdgd prjcukmr hos _*   _9 ugmcocds
rdstogtds sûhj sm dh adgd󿬏kmj ocmkmjgoh A(_*)   AA(_9) ds `oyjr j mnuoh qud dh kjstj

󿬏fj pjr prjcukmr.

✣

Hos smnumdgtds kjgkhusmjgds cdh dfd`phj 5.> sjg vïhmcos, dg ndgdroh, poro ho oc`m-
gmstrokmûg cd mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco6
  • Dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj gj ds gdkdsormo`dgtd ho cd`ogco prj`dcmj,
smgj qud cdpdgcd cdh adgd󿬏kmj `ornmgoh pjr vdgcdr y cd ho pírcmco `ornmgoh
pjr gj vdgcdr (y tdgdr qud rd`otor).

?=2  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  • Dh kjstj
kjstj 󿬏fj pjr jrcdgor gj mg󿬁uyd dg dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj, pdrj sà
dg ho cdkmsmûg cd jrcdgor j gj.
  • Kjgvmdgd jrcdgor sûhj sm dh adgd󿬏kmj ocmkmjgoh ds `oyjr
󿬏fj pjr jrcdgor. `oyjr j mnuoh
mnuoh qud dh kjstj
kjstj
  • [m sd cdkmcd jrcdgor
jrcdgor,, kjgvmdgd jrcdgor hj gdkdsormj
gdkdsormj poro hhdnor oh to`oÿj
ûptm`j cd pdcmcj.
Hos kjgkhusmjgds pdr`mtdg oprdkmor qud hos pjhàtmkos ûptm`os poro ho oc`mgmstrokmûg
cd mgvdgtormjs cd prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco, sjg pjhàtmkos ( s, [), ds cdkmr, kjgvmdgd
jrcdgor [   s ugmcocds sûhj sm dh mgvdgtormj cmspjgmahd ds `dgjr j mnuoh qud s. Dg
dh dfd`phj 5.> pudcd kj`prjaorsd qud dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj kjg 5 ;?5 ugmcocds
ds oprjxm`oco`dgtd cd ;>9 >99  ?99 999   1>9 >99, pjr hj qud dg dstd kosj
s   5 ;?5 y [   ?1 999.

Dh prjahd`o cdh vjkdocjr

O kjgtmguokmûg sd ogohmzo dh prjahd`o cd cdtdr`mgor dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcm-
cj poro prjcuktjs cd td`pjroco, qud sd kjgjkd kj`j dh prjahd`o cdh vjkdocjr 
(cdh mgnhís gdwsvdgcjr prjahd`), pjr su sm`mhmtuc kjg dh prjahd`o qud dgbrdgto (oh
mgmkmj cdh cào) dh vdgcdcjr cd pdrmûcmkjs, oh tdgdr qud cdkmcmr sjard dh vjhu`dg cd
dfd`phords o rdkmamr poro su vdgto curogtd dh cào.
  Cdgjtd kjg C ho cd`ogco cdh ortàkuhj curogtd dh pdrmjcj cd vdgto y sdo  b  C( x )
su bugkmûg cd cdgsmcoc (dh ogïhmsms ds sm`mhor poro dh kosj cmskrdtj). [m ^    9 cd-
gjto ho pírcmco pjr ugmcoc gj vdgcmco oh 󿬏goh cdh pdrmjcj (ho pírcmco `ornmgoh),
y T    9 cdgjto dh adgd󿬏kmj pjr koco ugmcoc vdgcmco dg dh pdrmjcj (dh  adgd󿬏kmj
`ornmgoh), dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj poro ug to`oÿj cd pdcmcj cd _ ugmcocds ds6
_ ∗ _

∬9 _
∬ 
 A(_ ) 0 T xb C ( x )cx + T_ b C ( x )cx ∑ ^ ∬ 9 (_ ∑  x ) b
 C ( x )c x . (5.??)
 
Dsto bugkmûg tmdgd cdrmvoco poro _   9, y sd pudcd cdtdr`mgor dh ûptm`j oh mnuo-
 hor ho prm`dro cdrmvoco o kdrj, dg kuyj kosj sd dgkjgtrorï qud dh to`oÿj ûptm`j
cd pdcmcj _*qud `oxm`mzo  A(_) sotmsbokd6
T 
 Y  C ≣  _*  0 .
(5.?1)
  T + ^ 
Jasdrvd qud sm ho bugkmûg  B ( x )   Y 
Y \ C   x 
x P ds kjgtmguo, ho kjgcmkmûg (5.?1) ds su󿬏-
kmdgtd poro dgkjgtror dh vohjr ûptm`j _*. Dg kosj cd qud ho cd`ogco sdo cmskrdto,
x 1   …, ho bugkmûg B ( x ) gj ds kjgtmguo, y ho dkuokmûg (5.?1)
tj`ogcj vohjrds  x ?   x 
pjcrào gj tdgdr sjhukmûg, dg cmkej kosj cdad auskorsd dh vohjr  x l qud sotmsbokd6
T 
 Y  C ≣  x l  ≣   ≣ Y  C ≣ x l+?  , (5.?;)
  T + ^ 
dvohuor  A( x l) y  A( x l?), cjgcd6

 A(_ ) 0 T fY  C  0 f  + T_Y  C 7  _   ∑ ^ (_  ∑ f ) Y   C 0 f  , (5.?3)

 f∟
≣_  ∟
f 8_
   f

y dh ûptm`j sdrï _*   x  x l sm A( x l)   A

A( x l?), j _*   x 
x l? sm  A( x l)   A
A( x l?). Jasdrvd
qud (5.?3) ds dh dqumvohdgtd cd (5.??) poro dh kosj cmskrdtj, y qud dg o`aos dkuo-
kmjgds gj sd kjgsmcdro gmgnög kjstj 󿬏fj pjr jrcdgor.
  Yoro mhustror ho ophmkokmûg cd (5.?;), kjgsmcdrd dh dfd`phj 5.2 y gjtd qud
T    ?14  59  34, y ^    59  19  29, pjr hj qud T /( /(T    ^ )  9.3;. Kjg hjs 

cotjs cd ho toaho 5.> pudcd jatdgdr hos prjaoamhmcocds oku`uhocos qud sd `uds-
trog dg ho toaho 5.5, cjgcd dh vohjr  x l   ?9 999 sotmsbokd (5.?;), y utmhmzogcj (5.?3)

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?=>

CD@OCO ( f )   b C ( f )    Y \ C     f f P

   Y \ C     
 f P   Y \ C     f P
‶ Soaho 5.5
Yrjaoamhmcocds oku`uhocos poro
5 999 9.?? 9.?? 9.5= ho cd`ogco cdh `jcdhj Brdd.
?9 999 9.?? 9.11 9.>5
?1 999 9.15 9.49 9.49
?3 999 9.11 9.>1 9.15
?2 999 9.?5 9.=9 9.?9
?5 999 9.?9 ?.99 9.99

y hjs cotjs cd ho toaho, pudcd kj`prjaor qud  A( x l)   A(?9 999)  312 =99, y
 A( x l?)   A
A(?1 999)  3>9 >99, kj`prjaogcj qud dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj ds
cd _* ?1 999 ugmcocds.
  Ds kjgvdgmdgtd rd`orkor qud, kj`j sd vmj ogtds, sm dxmstd ug mgvdgtormj mgm-
kmoh _9, gj sd cdad jrcdgor kuogcj _9    _*, y cd jtro bjr`o sd cdadg jrcdgor
_*   _9  ugmcocds sûhj sm  A(_*)   A(_9)   K 9, cjgcd K 9  ds dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr
jrcdgor.

Dfd`phj 5.>. So`oÿj cd pdcmcj kjg cd`ogco ugmbjr`d

Tgo d`prdso cd kohzocj prjcukd sûhj poro vdgcdr dg ugo tmdgco prjpmo y cdad ds-
toahdkdr ho pjhàtmko cd prjcukkmûg poro su hàgdo cd sogcohmos cd vdrogj poro co`o.
Kjg aosd dg sus prjgûstmkjs cd vdgto, sd dstm`o qud dh gö`drj cd sogcohmos cd
vdrogj poro co`o, qud sd vdgcdrïg dg ho prûxm`o td`pjroco, pudcd `jcdhorsd
kj`j ugmbjr`d`dgtd cmstrmauyo dgtrd ;49 y 249 pords. [d soad ocd`ïs qud dh kjstj
cd prjcukkmûg cd koco por cd sogcohmos ds cd $399 y ho d`prdso vdgcd koco por
o $299. Yjr dxpdrmdgkmo prdvmo, sd dstm`o qud oh prdkmj cd jbdrto cd $;99 pjcrào
rd`otor dh dxkdsj cd jbdrto oh 󿬏goh cd ho td`pjroco cd vdrogj.
Kjg aosd dg hjs cotjs prjpjrkmjgocjs, dh adgd󿬏kmj `ornmgoh ds cd T   299  
399  $199, y ho pírcmco `ornmgoh ds cd ^    399  ;99  $?99. Cd okudrcj kjg
 199
 Y  C ≣  _*  0   0 1 / ;,
199 + ?99
y soamdgcj qud poro ugo cmstrmaukmûg ugmbjr`d dgtrd o y a, ho bugkmûg cd cmstrmau-
kmûg oku`uhotmvo ds  B ( x  ) 0 Y  C ≣  x  0 ( x ∑  o ) / ( a ∑  o ),  poro o  x 
  x   a , dgtjgkds _*
_* ∑ ;49
cdad sotmsbokdr   0 1 / ;,  qud oh rdsjhvdr sd jatmdgd _*  449, pjr hj qud
249 ∑ ;49
ds kjgvdgmdgtd jrcdgor ho prjcukkmûg cd 449 pords cd sogcohmos poro ho td`pjroco
cd vdrogj.
  Yjr jtrj hocj, sm gj dxmstmdro kjstj pjr jrcdgor K 9  9, y ho d`prdso cmspusmdro
cd ;99 pords cd sogcohmos dg mgvdgtormj, sdrào kjgvdgmdgtd sûhj jrcdgor ho prjcuk-
kmûg cd 149 pords cd sogcohmos (hhdnogcj osà oh gmvdh ûptm`j cd 449), dg ko`amj,
sm sd tuvmdrog
prjcukmr, 299sdpords
yo qud tmdgdcd
ugsogcohmos dg`oyjr
mgvdgtormj mgvdgtormj,
qud dhgjûptm`j
sdrào kjgvdgmdgtd
(cd 449). jrcdgor
✣

Kjgtrotjs cd su`mgmstrj
Kjg dh jafdtmvj cd rdcukmr hjs rmdsnjs qud ndgdro ho mgkdrtmcu`ard dg hos cd`jros,
kohmcoc, prdkmjs y/j tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno, sd pudcdg 󿬏r`or kjgtrotjs dgtrd dh prj-
vddcjr y dh kj`procjr dg ugo kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj. Dg ug kjgtrotj sd dstoahd-

?=5  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

kdg cmvdrsjs kj`prj`msjs, kj`j pjcràog sdr prdkmjs y cdskudgtjs pjr vjhu`dg,
kogtmcocds `ïxm`o y `àgm`o o kj`pror, tmd`pjs cd dgtrdno, rdqudrm`mdgtjs cd
kohmcoc
  Tgcdh prjcuktj
audg j pjhàtmkos
kjgtrotj pdr`mtd cd
qudcdvjhukmûg, dgtrd (kj`procjr
hjs cjs ondgtds jtrjs. y vdgcdcjr) ja-
tdgnog `oyjrds adgd󿬏kmjs cd hjs qud pjcràog jatdgdr smg dh kjgtrotj, y dg dstd
kosj sd cmkd qud sd dstï jatdgmdgcj ug `oyjr adgd󿬏kmj cd ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj.
O kjgtmguokmûg sd ophmkog hjs kjgkdptjs cdsorrjhhocjs dg ho prdsdgtd sdkkmûg poro
ogohmzor dh dbdktj pjsmtmvj qud tmdgdg ohnugjs kjgtrotjs dg ho kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj,
dg dh supudstj cd qud dh kj`pjrto`mdgtj rokmjgoh cd hjs ondgtds mgvjhukrocjs dg
dh kjgtrotj ds `oxm`mzor su adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj.
  [d cmkd qud dh jafdtj cd ug kjgtrotj ds cd rdkj`pro sm dg íh sd okudrco qud
dh prjvddcjr vudhvo o kj`pror hos ugmcocds gj vdgcmcos pjr dh kj`procjr o ug
prdkmj dstoahdkmcj dg dh kjgtrotj. Dg dh smnumdgtd dfd`phj sd ogohmzo dh pjsmahd dbdk-
tj cd ug kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro.

Dfd`phj 5.5. Tg kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro

[upjgno qud ho kocdgo Dh Vor cdh dfd`phj 5.2 yo gj prjcukd hjs ortàkuhjs qud
vdgcd y hjs kj`pro o ug prjvddcjr. Hjs prjgûstmkjs cd ho cd`ogco sjg hjs `ms-
`js qud dg ho toaho 5.>, y to`amíg dh prdkmj cd vdgto cd $?14 pjr ugmcoc, kjg ug
prdkmj cd rd`otd cd $19. Dh prjvddcjr vdgcd dh prjcuktj o Dh Vor dg $59 pjr ugm-
coc (mnuoh qud ogtds), kjg ug kjstj 󿬏fj cd prjcukkmûg cd $?99 999, `ïs $;4 pjr
ugmcoc prjcukmco (vdo ho 󿬏nuro 5.5). Jasdrvd qud dstos kjgcmkmjgds pordkdg sdr
fustos, yo qud dh adgd󿬏kmj poro dh prjvddcjr sdrào cd 59   ;4  $34 pjr ugmcoc,
oh mnuoh qud ?14  59  $34 poro ho tmdgco.
  [m gj euamdro gmgnög kjgtrotj, ho tmdgco cdkmcmrào kuïgtj kj`pror kjg aosd
dg su adgd󿬏kmj `ornmgoh T    ?14   59  34, y su pírcmco `ornmgoh ^     59  
19  29, y oh sdr hos `ms`os qud dg dh dfd`phj 5.2, sd jatdgcrào ug to`oÿj cd
pdcmcj cd _*  ?1 999. Kj`j mgcmkog hjs kïhkuhjs porkmohds cd ho toaho 5.=, dg dstd
kosj dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj cd ho tmdgco sdrào cd $3>9 >99 y poro ho bïarmko sdrào
cd $339 999. Jasdrvd qud kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds cd ?9 999 ugmcocds, dh adgd󿬏kmj
poro ho tmdgco sdrï cd 34(?9 999)  29(1 999)  ;;9 999 y dh adgd󿬏kmj poro ho bï-
 ‶ Bmnuro 5.5
Kjstjs cd prjcukkmûg y vdgto Yrdkmj cd ho tmdgco 0 $?14
poro ugo bïarmko y ugo tmdgco.
Kjstj bmfj pjr prjcukmr 0 $?99 999
Yrdkmj cd rdskotd 0 $19
Kjstj cd prjcukkmûg 0 $;4

Yrdkmj cd ho bïarmko o
ho tmdgco 0 $59

Smdgcos
Oh`okíg cd ho
bïarmko
Oh`okíg cd ho
tmdgco

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ ?==

ADGDBMKMJ ADGDBMKMJ ‶ Soaho 5.=

CD@OGCO ( f )   Y \ C     f f P
 R D G SO [ (SMDGCO) (BÏAQMKO) Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs
smg kjgtrotj.
5 999 9.?? 5 999 ?19 999 339 999
?9 999 9.?? ?9 999 ;;9 999 339 999
?1 999 9.15 ?1 999 439 999 339 999
?3 999 9.11 ?1 999 439 999 339 999
?2 999 9.?5 ?1 999 439 999 339 999
?5 999 9.? ?1 999 439 999 339 999
Yrjcukkmûg  ?1 999 Dspdrogzo  3>9 >99 Dspdrogzo  339 999

 armko smd`prd ds cd 34(?1 999)  ?99 999  339 999, yo qud dh rmdsnj hj osu`d ho
tmdgco.
  Oejro supjgno qud kjg ho mgtdgkmûg cd mgkdgtmvor o ho tmdgco o pdcmr `ïs
ugmcocds, sd 󿬏r`o ug kjgtrotj kuyj jafdtj ds ho rdkj`pro cd hos ugmcocds qud gj
sd vdgcmdrjg o ug prdkmj cd $44 (oejro ho bïarmko rdkmad dh vohjr cd rdskotd, dg su
kosj). Dg dstd kosj ho tmdgco jatmdgd su `oyjr adgd󿬏kmj poro ug to`oÿj cd pdcm-
cj cd _*  ?3 999, dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj cd ho tmdgco sdrào cd $4?; 599 y poro ho
bïarmko cd $3>? =99, kj`j mgcmkog hjs kïhkuhjs porkmohds cd ho toaho 5.?9. Yjr dfd`-
phj, kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds cd ?1 999 ugmcocds, dh adgd󿬏kmj poro ho tmdgco sdrï cd
34(?1 999)  14(1 999)  3=9 999 y dh adgd󿬏kmj poro ho bïarmko sdrào cd 34(?1 999)
 (59  44  19  ;4)(1 999)  ?99 999  329 999, kj`j sd mgcmko dg ho toaho.
  Ds m`pjrtogtd sdÿohor qud aofj dh kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro, o`ajs ondgtds mg-
krd`dgtog su adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj, ho tmdgco cd $3>9 >99 o $4?; 599, y ho bïarmko cd
$339 999 o $3>? =99, qud ds kjgsdkudgkmo cd eoadr mgkrd`dgtocj dh to`oÿj cdh
pdcmcj. Dg dstd kosj, ho bïarmko sokrm󿬏ko adgd󿬏kmjs kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds pdqud-
ÿo, pjr ug `oyjr adgd󿬏kmj kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds ohto. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.= opordkdg
hos nrï󿬏kos cd hjs adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs kjg dh kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro, poro cmbdrdg-
tds vohjrds cdh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj, cjgcd sd oprdkmo qud dh ûptm`j poro ho tmdgco
sd jatmdgd dg _*  ?3 999 (hjs kïhkuhjs porkmohds pudcdg vdrm󿬏korsd dg dh orkemvj
 kop5.xhs).
✣

Dgtjgkds, kuogcj dh jafdtj cd ug kjgtrotj ds cd rdkj`pro, dh kjgtrotj `dfjro dh

 adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj cdh prjvddcjr y cdh kj`procjr o ho vdz, y dxmstdg jtrjs jafdtjs
cd kjgtrotj qud hjnrog ug dbdktj sm`mhor6
  • Mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs. Kuogcj dh prjvddcjr okudrco rdcukmr dh prdkmj cd
vdgto oh kj`procjr, o ko`amj cd qud dh kj`procjr kj`porto portd cd su mg-
nrdsj pjr ho vdgto cdh prjcuktj oh kjgsu`mcjr 󿬏goh.

ADGDBMKMJ ADGDBMKMJ ‶ Soaho 5.?9

CD@OGCO ( f )   Y \ C     f f P
 R D G SO [ (SMDGCO) (BÏAQMKO) Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs
kjg kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro.
5 999 9.?? 5 999 1?9 999 ;19 999
?9 999 9.?? ?9 999 ;49 999 ;=9 999
?1 999 9.15 ?1 999 3=9 999 329 999
?3 999 9.11 ?3 999 2;9 999 4;9 999
?2 999 9.?5 ?3 999 2;9 999 4;9 999
?5 999 9.? ?3 999 2;9 999 4;9 999
Yrjcukkmûg  ?3 999 Dspdrogzo  4?; 599 Dspdrogzo  3>?
3>? =99

199  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 5.=
Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs kjg
kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro poro
cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj.   j
   c
  o 299 999
  r
  d
  p
  s 499 999
  d
  j
   m 399 999
  k
   m
   b
  d ;99 999
  g
  d
   A
199 999
?99 999
9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
 
  4   5   9
  ?    1
  ?   3
   ?   2
  ?   5
  ?   9
   1

Yrjcukkmûg
Smdgco
Bïarmko

  • Kogtmcoc 󿬁dxmahd. Kuogcj dh prjvddcjr rdd`ajhso oh kj`procjr dh `jgtj

cd hos ugmcocds qud gj sd pucmdrjg vdgcdr (oh kj`procjr 󿬏goh) curog-
td dh pdrmjcj. Dstd kosj pudcd kjgsmcdrorsd kj`j dh dxtrd`j cd ho rd-
kj`pro.
• Cdskudgtj sjard vdgtos. Kuogcj dh prjvddcjr okudrco cdvjhvdr portd cdh
prdkmj cdh prjcuktj, pjr koco ugmcoc vdgcmco dg dxkdsj cd kmdrtj vjhu`dg.
Dstd kjgtrotj tmdgd pjr 󿬏gohmcoc mgkdgtmvor dh kjgsu`j cdh prjcuktj.

Dfd`phj 5.=. Tg kjgtrotj cd mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs

Kjgsmcdrd dh kosj cd ho kocdgo Dh Vor cdh dfd`phj 5.5, kjg hjs `ms`js cotjs cd ho
󿬏nuro 5.5, dxkdptj qud oejro sd cdkmcd rdcukmr dh prdkmj cd vdgto o ho tmdgco, cd
 $59 o $29, o ko`amj cd qud ho tmdgco dgtrdnud oh prjvddcjr ?4% cd sus mgnrdsjs
pjr ho vdgto 󿬏goh cdh prjcuktj. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.?9 opordkd ugo nrï󿬏ko kjg hjs adgd-

‶ Bmnuro 5.?9
Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs kjg
mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs poro
cmbdrdgtds to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj.   j
>99 999
   c
  o
  r 299 999
  d
  p
  s 499 999
  d
  j
   m 399 999
  k
   m
   b
  d ;99 999
  g
  d
   A 199 999
?99 999
9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
 
  4   5   9
  ?    1
  ?   3
  ?   2
  ?   5
  ?   9
   1

Yrjcukkmûg
Smdgco
Bïarmko

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ 19?

ADGDBMKMJ ADGDBMKMJ ‶ Soaho 5.??

CD@OGCO ( f )   Y \ C      f f P R D G SO [ MGN QD [J (SMDGCO) (BÏAQMKO) Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs
kjg mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs.
5 999 9.?? 5 999 ? 999 999 ?;9 999 399 999
?9 999 9.?? ?9 999 ? 149 999 ;91 499 3;> 499
?1 999 9.15 ?1 999 ? 499 999 3>4 999 3>4 999
?3 999 9.11 ?3 999 ? >49 999 23> 499 4?1 499
?2 999 9.?5 ?3 999 ? >49 999 23> 499 4?1 499
?5 999 9.? ?3 999 ? >49 999 23> 499 4?1 499
Yrjcukkmûg  ?3 999 Dspdrogzo  493 ;14 35? ;>4

󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs qud rdsuhtog, dg dstd kosj, poro ho tmdgco y ho bïarmko (hjs kïhkuhjs
porkmohds sd pudcdg rdprjcukmr kjg dh orkemvj kop5.xhs).
  Kj`j pudcd oprdkmor dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.?9, dh `dfjr adgd󿬏kmj poro ho tmdgco sd jatmdgd
poro ug to`oÿj cd pdcmcj cd _*  ?3 999. Kj`j mgcmkog hjs kïhkuhjs porkmohds cd
ho toaho 5.??, dg dstd kosj dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj cd ho tmdgco sdrào cd $493 ;14 y poro ho
bïarmko cd $35? ;>4. Yjr
Yjr dfd`phj, kuogcj ho cd`ogco ds cd ?1 999 ugmcocds, dh mgnrdsj
mgn rdsj
pjr hos vdgtos sdrào cd ?14(?1 999)  ? 499 999, dh adgd󿬏kmj poro ho tmdgco sdrào cd
(?  9.?4)(? 499 999)  19(1 999)  29(?3 999)  3>4 999 y dh adgd󿬏kmj poro ho
bïarmko sdrào cd 14(?3 999)  9.?4(? 499 999)  ?99 999  3>4 999, kj`j sd mg-
cmko dg ho toaho.
  Kjg mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs, o`ajs ondgtds to`amíg mgkrd`dgtog su adgd󿬏kmj
dspdrocj, ho tmdgco cd $3>9 >99 o $493 ;14, y ho bïarmko cd $339 999 o $35? ;>4,
qud ds kjgsdkudgkmo cd eoadr mgkrd`dgtocj dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj. Jasdrvd qud dh
 adgd󿬏kmj tjtoh ds cd $=54 >99, >99, mnuoh qud kjg dh kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro cdh dfd`phj
5.5, kjgsdkudgkmo cd qud dg o`ajs kosjs _*  ?3 999.
✣

Dqumhmarmjs y ûptm`js nhjaohds

 Kj`j eo pjcmcj oprdkmor cd hjs dfd`phjs 5.5 y 5.=, ug kjgtrotj ndgdro `oyjrds
 adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs poro o`ajs ondgtds, prjvddcjr y kj`procjrkj`procjr,, y ugo prm`dro
mgtdrrjnogtd ds ºeosto kuïgtj sd pjcrï mgkrd`dgtor dh adgd󿬏kmj kj`amgocj cd hjs
ondgtds: Ho rdspudsto sd rdhokmjgo kjg dh edkej cd qud dh adgd󿬏kmj kj`amgocj
cdpdgcd cdh to`oÿj cdh pdcmcj _*, kj`j yo eo pjcmcj oprdkmor dg hjs dfd`phjs
5.5 y 5.=, hjs adgd󿬏kmjs kj`amgocjs kjmgkmcdg o pdsor cd qud hjs adgd󿬏kmjs mgcmvm-
cuohds cd hjs ondgtds sjg cmbdrdgtds. Oh soadr qud dh adgd󿬏kmj kj`amgocj cdpdg-
cd cdh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj, poro dgkjgtror dh adgd󿬏kmj kj`amgocj `ïxm`j, aostorï
kjg mgvdstmnor kuïh ds dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj dg ho kocdgo (rdsjhvmdgcj dh
kjrrdspjgcmdgtd prjahd`o cdh vjkdocjr), kj`j sd mhustro o kjgtmguokmûg. Kuogcj
sd jamdgd dh `ïxm`j adgd󿬏kmj dg dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj _* sd cmkd qud ho kocdgo
ohkogzo su ûptm`j nhjaoh dg _*.
  Yoro dgkjgtror dh ûptm`j nhjaoh cd ho kocdgo cd hjs dfd`phjs 5.5 y 5.= 5.=,, gj sd
tj`o dg kudgto dh prdkmj cd vdgto cdh prjvddcjr oh kj`procjr,
kj`procjr, pjr hj qud dh adgd-
󿬏kmj `ornmgoh ds T   ?14  ;4  =9, y ho pírcmco `ornmgoh ds ^   ;4  19  ?4.
Dg kjgsdkudgkmo, T /(/(T  ^ )  9.52 d mgspdkkmjgogcj hjs cotjs cd ho toaho 5.> sd


jasdrvo qud dh vohjr  x l  ?3 999 sotmsbokd (5.?;). Oh utmhmzor (5.?3) y hjs cotjs cd ho
toaho 5.>, sd kj`prudao qud A( x l)  A
  A(?3 999)  ? 954 >99, y A( x l?)  A
  A(?2 999)  
? ??3 499, ho kocdgo ohkogzo su ûptm`j nhjaoh dg _*  ?2 999, y dh `ïxm`j ad-
gd󿬏kmj kj`amgocj qud pudcd jatdgdrsd ds cd ? ??3 499  ?99 999  $? 9?3 499
(kjgsmcdrogcj dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr prjcukmr).

191  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

‶ Bmnuro 5.??
Adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs y ûptm`j
nhjaoh kjg rdkj`pro.
  j
>99 999
   c
  o
  r 299 999
  d
  p
  s 499 999
  d
  j
   m 399 999
  k
   m
   b
  d ;99 999
  g
  d
   A
199 999
?99 999
9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9   9   9   9   9   9   9   9
  9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
    9
 
  4   5   9
  ?    1
  ?   3
  ?   2
  ?   5
  ?   9
   1

Yrjcukkmûg
Smdgco
Bïarmko

  Tgo vdz cdtdr`mgocj dh ûptm`j nhjaoh cd ho kocdgo, sd oprdkmo qud dg hjs

kjgtrotjs cd hjs dfd`phjs 5.5 y 5.= gj sd ohkogzo dh ûptm`j nhjaoh. Dg ho 󿬏nuro 5.??
sd `udstro ho nrï󿬏ko cd hjs adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs kjg ug kjgtrotj cd rdkj`pro, dg
dh qud sd okudrco ug prdkmj cd vdgto o ho tmdgco cd $>4, y ug prdkmj cd rdkj`pro
cd $24. Kj`j pudcd jasdrvor dg ho nrï󿬏ko, dh to`oÿj ûptm`j poro dh kj`procjr
ds cd _*   ?2 999 , y pudcd kj`prjaorsd qud, dg dstd kosj, dh adgd󿬏kmj dspdrocj
poro ho tmdgco ds cd $2?3 999 y poro ho bïarmko ds cd $399 499, kjg ug adgd󿬏kmj
kj`amgocj `ïxm`j cd $? 9?3 499.
  Jtro koroktdràstmko m`pjrtogtd cd ho nrï󿬏ko cd ho 󿬏nuro 5.??
5.??,, ds qud o`ajs
ondgtds (prjvddcjr y kj`procjr) ohkogzog sus adgd󿬏kmjs dspdrocjs `ïxm`js dg
*
_    ?2
dqumhmarmj999 ugmcocds,
dg dh y kuogcj
to`oÿj cd pdcmcj dstj jkurrd, sd dhcmkd
_*, rd󿬁dfogcj qudcd
edkej ho qud
kocdgo ohkogzo
gmgnugj cd ug
hjs
 cjs ondgtds pudcd `dfjror su adgd󿬏kmj kjg jtrj to`oÿj cd pdcmcj.
  Yjr öhtm`j ds kjgvdgmdgtd `dgkmjgor qud dxmstd ugo cmvdrsmcoc cd kosjs cd
íxmtj dg hjs qud ug kjgtrotj cd kjhoajrokmûg dgtrd prjvddcjr y kj`procjr pdr`m-
tmû mgkrd`dgtor hjs adgd󿬏kmjs cd o`ajs, dgtrd hjs kuohds ds m`pjrtogtd `dgkmjgor
dh kosj cd Ahjklaustdr dg ?==5, qud sd kj`dgto o kjgtmguokmûg.
Ho cd`ogco cd ugo pdhàkuho gudvo ds `uy ohto dg bdkeos kdrkogos o su hog-
zo`mdgtj, y cdkod `uy prjgtj, pjr hj qud kjgvmdgd tdgdr `ukeos kjpmos oh mgmkmj,
ougqud sd vudhvdg jasjhdtos dg kjrtj tmd`pj. Eosto ?==5, Ahjklaustdr kj`proao
koco kjpmo cdh dstucmj pjr $24, y hos rdgtoao o $;, oprjxm`oco`dgtd, pjr hj qud
cdaào rdgtor ugo kjpmo oh `dgjs 11 vdkds poro jatdgdr nogogkmos. Dsto smtuokmûg
gj hd pdr`mtào rdgtor `ukeos kjpmos poro kuarmr ho ohto cd`ogco cd hjs prm`drjs
càos, y ho kjgsdkudgkmo bud qud `ukejs khmdgtds gj pucmdrjg rdgtor ho pdhàkuho qud
cdsdoaog.
  Dg ?==5, Ahjklaustdr 󿬏r`û kjgtrotjs cd mgnrdsjs kj`portmcjs kjg hos prmg-
kmpohds d`prdsos prjcuktjros, dg hjs qud sd rdcukào dh prdkmj cd kj`pro cd koco
kjpmo (oprjxm`oco`dgtd o $5), o ko`amj cd qud Ahjklaustdr kj`portmdro kjg
hos prjcuktjros dgtrd ;9 y 34% cd hjs mgnrdsjs pjr rdgto cd pdhàkuhos. Aofj dstos
kjgcmkmjgds, dh pugtj cd dqumhmarmj poro Ahjklaustdr sd rdcukd o `dgjs cd 2 rdg-
tos pjr kjpmo, pjr hj qud bud kopoz cd kj`pror `ïs kjpmos poro sotmsbokdr ho cd-
`ogco pmkj. Dh m`poktj cd dstjs kjgtrotjs bud `uy ohtj d mgkrd`dgtû smngm󿬏ko-
tmvo`dgtd hos rdgtos cd pdhàkuhos, hjs adgd󿬏kmjs y ho pdgdtrokmûg cd `drkocj cd
Ahjklaustdr.

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ 19;

DFDQKMKMJ[
  ?. oTgo
suskocdgo cdyhmardràos
khmdgtds vdgcdcdscd
sd oaostdkd popdhsuy dqumpj
oh`okígporo j󿬏kmgo
prmgkmpoh
poro ho rdnmûg, `dcmogtd ug smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtm-  
guo. Yoro dh kosj cd ho vdgto cd popdh to`oÿj korto dg
ugj cd sus hjkohds, sd dstm`o qud dh kjstj cd kjhjkor ug  
pdcmcj ds cd $499, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj cd koco po-
qudtd ds cd $;59, kjg ug kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormj
cd 19% (oguoh). Dg dstd `j`dgtj ho cd`ogco jkurrd
dg càos ötmhds, o rozûg cd ?99 poqudtds cmormjs, y sd eo
jasdrvocj qud ho cd`ogco cmormo prdsdgto ugo cdsvmo-
kmûg dstïgcor cd 19 poqudtds y ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj
ds cd 1 càos ötmhds (kjgsmcdror 149 càos ötmhds oh oÿj). Dh  
oc`mgmstrocjr cdh hjkoh cdsdo cdtdr`mgor6
  o) Dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc gdkdsormj poro osdnuror
ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =9%.
  a) Dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg y dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cdh pd-  
cmcj qud
1. Qdtj`d cdad jrcdgor.
dh prjahd`o ; cdh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr.
  o) [m dh oaostdkm`mdgtj cd ug pdcmcj cd`jro dxokto-  
`dgtd 4 càos ötmhds (kjgsmcdrd 149 càos ötmhds oh oÿj),  
ºkuïgtjs `dtrjs cd popdh cdadrïg dxmstmr dg mgvdg-
tormj oh kjhjkor ugo jrcdg, poro qud ístd gj sd onjtd
curogtd ho cd`jro:
a) [m ho cd`ogco jkurrd sûhj dg càos ötmhds, kjg ugo ds-
pdrogzo cd 1 399 `dtrjs oh cào y ug kjd󿬏kmdgtd cd  
vormokmûg cd 19%, cdtdr`mgd dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurm-
coc y dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg poro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj
cd =4%, aofj ug smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo.
  k) [m ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj ds ohdotjrmo, kjg dspdrogzo
cd 4 càos ötmhds y kjd󿬏kmdgtd cd vormokmûg cd ?9%,  
cdtdr`mgd dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc y dh pugtj cd
rdjrcdg poro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%.
  ;. Tgo bor`okmo dxpdrm`dgto ugo cd`jro cd 4 càos ötm-
hds cdscd ho kjhjkokmûg cdh pdcmcj eosto ho dgtrdno cdh  
smûg pdrmûcmko cd okudrcj kjg su rdspudsto oh mgkmsj
ogtdrmjr.
k) ºO kuïgtj oskdgcdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj ho
pjhàtmko cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko cdh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr:
4. Qdtj`d dh prjahd`o 4 cdh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr.
o) Cd okudrcj kjg dh kjgtrotj dstoahdkmcj kjg dh prjvd
prjvdd-
d-
cjr cd `dzkhmhho, hjs pdcmcjs cdadrïg dgtrdnorsd
dgtrdnorsd o hjs
?9 càos ötmhds cd eoadrsd jrcdgocj. [m dh kjgtrotj sd
ku`phd kjg prdkmsmûg y sd kjgtrjho dh mgvdgtormj cd
`ogdro kjgtmguo, cdtdr`mgd o quí gmvdh cd mgvdgtormj
(pugtj cd rdjrcdg) cdadrïg eokdrsd hjs pdcmcjs.
a) Qdspjgco hj `ms`j qud dg dh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr sm gj
dxmstmdro kjgtrotj, poro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%
y ugo cd`jro kjg prj`dcmj cd ?9 càos ötmhds y cds-
vmokmûg dstïgcor cd 1.
k) ºDg kuïgtj sd mgkrd`dgto dh kjstj oguoh pjr `og-
tdgdr mgvdgtormjs
pjgcmdgtd oh mgkmsjdgo:dh mgkmsj a rdspdktj cdh kjrrds-
2. Qdtj`d dh prjahd`o > cdh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr.
o) [m dh prjvddcjr cd popdh cd`jro dxokto`dgtd 3 càos
eïamhds dg otdgcdr ug pdcmcj y gj dxmstd mgkdrtmcu`-
 ard dg ho cd`ogco (smd`prd sd cd`ogcog ?= ?=.1 kofos
oh cào), cdtdr`mgd dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg (kjgsmcdrd
149 càos ötmhds oh oÿj).
a) Qdspjgco hj `ms`j qud dg dh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr sm ho
cd`ogco cmormo tuvmdro ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd
3 kofos, poro ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%, ºdg kuïgtj
sd mgkrd`dgto dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgto-
rmjs, dg kj`porokmûg kjg dh mgkmsj o:
k) Qdspjgco hj `ms`j qud dg dh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr sm ho
cd`jro budro cd 4 càos eïamhds, ºdg kuïgtj sd mgkrd-
`dgto dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, dg
kj`porokmûg kjg dh mgkmsj a:
c) Qdspjgco hj `ms`j qud dg dh mgkmsj ogtdrmjr sm ho
 `ms`j poro kmdrtj `dcmko`dgtj dg o`pjhhdtos. [d
cdsdo `ogtdgdr ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =9%, y ho cd-
`ogco cdh `dcmko`dgtj pudcd kjgsmcdrorsd gjr`oh-
`dgtd cmstrmaumco kjg `dcmo cd ?9 y cdsvmokmûg dstïg-
cor cd 4.  
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc gdkdsormj.
  a) Dstoahdzko dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg.
  k) [m dh `dcmko`dgtj hd kudsto $199 o ho bor`okmo y dh
oc`mgmstrocjr kjgsmcdro qud dh kjstj pjr okorrdor
mgvdgtormjs (pjr ug oÿj) ds 19% cdh kjstj cdh prj-
cuktj, cdtdr`mgd dh kjstj ocmkmjgoh (dg prj`dcmj oh
oÿj) dg qud sd mgkurrd pjr `ogtdgdr dh mgvdgtormj
cd sdnurmcoc.
  3. Qdtj`d dh prjahd`o 3 cdh kopàtuhj ogtdrmjr.
o) [m ho d`prdso cdsdo m`phogtor ugo pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs
pdrmûcmkjs kjg aosd dg dh to`oÿj DJ_ ºKuïh sdrào dh
gö`drj cd càos ötmhds dgtrd pdcmcjs: (kjgsmcdrd 149
càos ötmhds oh oÿj y rdcjgcdd sm ds gdkdsormj).  
  a) [m ho cd`ogco jkurrd sûhj dg càos ötmhds, kjg ugo
dspdrogzo cd =2 ugmcocds oh cào y ugo cdsvmokmûg  
dstïgcor cd ?9, cdtdr`mgd dh mgvdgtormj aosd gdkd-
sormj poro osdnuror ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4% kjg
ugo cd`jro cd 1 càos ötmhds y ug smstd`o cd rdvm-
cd`jro budro cd 4 càos ötmhds, kjg ugo cdsvmokmûg
dstïgcor cd ? cào, ºdg kuïgtj sd mgkrd`dgto dh kjstj
oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs, dg kj`porokmûg kjg
dh mgkmsj a:
>. Ho cd`ogco sd`ogoh pjr cmsqudtds dg Hu@dx sd cms-
trmauyd gjr`oh`dgtd kjg prj`dcmj cd ? 999 kofos, y
cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd ?49. Hu@dx jrcdgo sus pdcm-
cjs pjr Box oh cmstrmaumcjr, y osu`mdgcj 41 sd`ogos
oh oÿj, kjgsmcdrd hjs smnumdgtds cotjs. Koco kofo cd
cmsqudtds kudsto $?9, dh kjstj 󿬏fj pjr pdcmcj (trï`mtd,
mgspdkkmûg y 󿬏fj pjr trogspjrtd) ds cd $? 999, dh kjstj
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd 14% (cdh kjstj cdh prj-
cuktj) oh oÿj. Ho cd`jro cd koco pdcmcj ds cd 1 sd`o-
gos, y oktuoh`dgtd sd utmhmzo ugo pjhàtmko cd rdvmsmûg
kjgtmguo, kjgsmstdgtd dg jrcdgor ug pdcmcj cd 19 999
kofos cd cmsqudtds kuogcj dh mgvdgtormj ds cd 1 199
kofos.
o) ºKuïh ds dh kjstj oguoh pjr jrcdgor y pjr `ogtdgdr
mgvdgtormjs aofj ho pjhàtmko oktuoh:
a) Kjgsmcdrd ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj, ºo kuïgtos kofos
oskmdgcd dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc cd Hu`dx, kuïh
sdrào dh gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj y dh kjstj oguoh prj`dcmj
pjr `ogtdgdr cmkej mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc:

193  OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD JYDQOKMJGD[

  k) [m Hu@dx cdsdo ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%, cdtdr-  
`mgd ug to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj, dh mgvdgtormj
cd sdnurmcoc y dh pugtj cd rdjrcdg oprjpmocj poro
dsto pjhàtmko. prj`dcmj,
dh mgvdgtormj Aofj dsto gudvo
dh kjstjpjhàtmko,
oguoh pjrºkuïh sdrào
jrcdgor  
y pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs (mgkhusj dh cd sdnu-
rmcoc):
  c) [m sd cdsdo m`phogtor ug smstd`o DCM qud rdcuzko ho
cd`jro cd hjs pdcmcjs o ? sd`ogo, ºo kuïgtj oskmdg-  
cdg hjs adgd󿬏kmjs oguohds dg tír`mgjs cd kjstjs d
mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc cd hjs ortàkuhjs, rdspdktj cd
ho pjhàtmko jatdgmco dg k: (kjgsmcdrd dh `ms`j gmvdh
cd sdrvmkmj).
  5. [upjgno qud ho d`prdso Hu@dx, cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr,
dgbrdgto mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`jro poro ho dgtrdno cd
sus pdcmcjs, yo qud sm amdg dh prj`dcmj cd ho cd`jro  
ds cd 1 sd`ogos, sd eo jasdrvocj ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïg-
cor cd 9.4 sd`ogos. [m sd cdsdo tdgdr ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj  
cd =4% curogtd ho cd`jro.
  o) ºKuïgtos kofos cdadrào eoadr dg dxmstdgkmo kuogcj
sd eokd ug pdcmcj:  
  a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj dsto pjhà-
tmko cd pdcmcjs y kjg dh `ms`j to`oÿj cd pdcmcj
dgkjgtrocj dg dh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr:, ºdg kuïgtj sd
rdcukd j sd mgkrd`dgto dh kjstj oguoh pjr `ogtdgdr
mgvdgtormjs:
  =. Oejro supjgno qud Hu@dx cdsdo ko`amor su smstd`o  
cd rdvmsmûg kjgtmguo, pjr ugj cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko,
ho cd`ogco sd`ogoh cd cmsqudtds kjgtmgöo dg ug prj-  
`dcmj cd ? 999 kofos, kjg ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor
cd ?49.
  o) Kjg aosd dg dh to`oÿj dkjgû`mkj cd pdcmcj jatd-
gmcj, cdtdr`mgd dh pdrmjcj cd rdvmsmûg dg sd`ogos  
(rdcjgcdor sm ds gdkdsormj).
  a) [m ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj ds cd (dxokto`dgtd) 1 sd-
`ogos, kohkuhd dh gmvdh aosd cd mgvdgtormjs aofj ug
smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko kjg gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj
k) [m sd jrcdgog to`oÿjs cd pdcmcj ûptm`js y koco so-
ho`m sd vdgcd o $;9, kohkuhd dh adgd󿬏kmj oguoh qud
sd dspdrorào pjr ho vdgto cd soho`ms.
c) [m hjs soho`ms
`ogos tmdgdg ug tmd`pj
dg dh rdbrmndrocjr, cd vmcoqud
ºsd tdgcrào ötmhofustor
cd 3 sd-
dh
to`oÿj cd pdcmcj jatdgmcj dg o):, y sm ds osà ºkuïh
sdrào ho gudvo pjhàtmko ûptm`o y dh adgd󿬏kmj oguoh
dspdrocj:
??. Ho pogocdrào Bànorj cdh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr cdsdo mg-
kjrpjror ho mgkdrtmcu`ard dg ho cd`ogco dg su pj-
hàtmko cd pdcmcjs y eo jasdrvocj qud ho cd`ogco sd-
`ogoh cd soho`ms tmdgd ug prj`dcmj cd 39 ugmcocds,
kjg ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd ?9. [m sd cdsdo tdgdr
ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =9% curogtd ho cd`jro cd ;
sd`ogos6
o) ºKuïgtjs soho`ms cdadrào eoadr dg dxmstdgkmo kuogcj
sd eokd ug pdcmcj o Yor`o:
a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd soho`ms aofj
dsto pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs kjg dh `ms`j to`oÿj cd
pdcmcj dgkjgtrocj dg dh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr:
?1. [upjgno qud ho pogocdrào Bànorj dgbrdgto mgkdrtmcu`-
 ard dg ho cd`jro dg ho dgtrdno cd sus pdcmcjs, yo qud
sm amdg dh prj`dcmj cd ho cd`jro ds cd ; sd`ogos, sd
jasdrvo ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor cd ?.4 sd`ogos. [m
sd cdsdo tdgdr ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =9% curogtd ho
cd`jro.
o) ºKuïgtjs soho`ms cdadrào eoadr dg dxmstdgkmo kuogcj
sd eokd ug pdcmcj o Yor`o:
a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd soho`ms aofj
dsto pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs y kjg dh `ms`j to`oÿj cd
pdcmcj dgkjgtrocj dg dh dfdrkmkmj ogtdrmjr (mgkmsj
o):
?;. Ho pogocdrào Bànorj cdsdo ko`amor su smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg
kjgtmguo pjr ugj cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko, koco ?3 sd`o-
gos, y ho cd`ogco sd`ogoh cd soho`ms kjgtmgöo dg ug
prj`dcmj cd 39 ugmcocds, kjg ugo cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor
cd ?9.
 cd =4%.
  k) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj dh smstd`o cd
rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko:
  c) ºDg kuïgtj sd rdcukd j sd mgkrd`dgto dh kjstj oguoh
pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs dg kj`porokmûg kjg dh cdh  
mgkmsj k cdh prjahd`o 2:
  d) [m oktuoh`dgtd cdad jrcdgor y dxmstdg ; 999 kofos  
dg mgvdgtormj ºkuïgtos kofos cdadrào jrcdgor poro
`ogtdgdr ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =4%:
 ?9. Ho pogocdrào Bànorj vdgcd soho`ms troàcjs cmrdkto`dgtd  
cdscd Yor`o, Mtohmo, o rozûg
rozû g cd ?>4 ugmcocds oh `ds. Koco
soho`m kudsto $?5.4 pudstj dg @íxmkj, `mdgtros qud sd
mgkurrd dg ug kjstj cd $199 pjr koco pdcmcj qud sd eokd
o Yor`o,
dh pdcmcj.yDhhokjgtocjr
dgtrdno jkurrd o hos ; sd`ogos
cd ho d`prdso cd eokdr
rdkj`mdgco utmhm-
zor ug kjstj cd jpjrtugmcoc cdh kopmtoh cd ?9% oguoh,
cd dspokmj y rdbrmndrokmûg cd ;% oguoh y cd sdnurjs d
m`pudstjs cd 1% oguoh.
  o) ºKuïgtjs soho`ms kjgvmdgd jrcdgor o Yor`o koco  
vdz qud sd eokd ug pdcmcj y kuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj
prj`dcmj aofj dsto pjhàtmko cd pdcmcjs:
  a) ºKuïgtjs soho`ms cdadràog eoadr dg dxmstdgkmo kuog-  
cj sd eokd dh pdcmcj o Yor`o:
  o) [m ho cd`jro cdh pdcmcj ds cd (dxokto`dgtd) ; sd-
`ogos, kohkuhd dh gmvdh aosd cd mgvdgtormjs aofj ug
smstd`o cd rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko kjg gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj
cd =9%.
a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj aofj dh smstd`o cd
rdvmsmûg pdrmûcmko:
k) [m oktuoh`dgtd cdad jrcdgor, y dxmstdg ?49 soho`ms
dg mgvdgtormj, ºkuïgtjs soho`ms cdadrào jrcdgor poro
`ogtdgdr ug gmvdh cd sdrvmkmj cd =9%:
?3. Kjgsmcdrd ugo kocdgo cd su`mgmstrj kjgsmstdgtd dg
ugo phogto cd `ogubokturo, ug kdgtrj cd trogsajrcj
y cjs tmdgcos cd cdskudgtj. Hjs ortàkuhjs sd dgvàog cd
ho phogto oh kdgtrj cd trogsajrcj y cd ohhà o hjs oh`okd-
gdsphogto
ho cd hoseokmo
tmdgcos. [do H?cdhotrogsajrcj
dh kdgtrj cd`jro cdhy pdcmcj cdscd
H1 ho cd`jro
cdscd dh kdgtrj cd trogsajrcj eokmo koco oh`okíg. Yoro
hos smnumdgtds prdnugtos cdgjtd H   H?  H1, 󿬏fd H y
eono vormor H? y H1.
o) Kj`pord ho kogtmcoc tjtoh cd mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc
dg cjs smstd`os, dg dh prm`drj H1  9 y H?  H, y
dg dh sdnugcj H?  9 y H1  H.
a) Kjg dh jafdtj cd rdcukmr dh mgvdgtormj cd sdnurmcoc,
dh kdgtrj cd trogsajrcj ºcdad dstor `ïs kdrko cd ho

OC@MGM[SQOKMÛG CD MGRDGSOQMJ[ CD YQJCTKSJ[ SDQ@MGOCJ[ 194

phogto j `ïs kdrko cd hos tmdgcos: [undrdgkmo6 ogohmkd  
dh m`poktj oh mgkrd`dgtor H? y cdkrdkdr H1.
 ?4. Dh cmrdktjr cd kj`pros cd ho Tgmvdrsmcoc Gokmjgoh cdad  
cdkmcmr sjard dhkorto.
popdh to`oÿj to`oÿj cd pdcmcjoskmdgcd
Ho cd`ogco poro hosokj`pros cd
1 999 kofos
 
cd popdh oh oÿj, dstm`d qud dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdg-
tormjs dstï ohrdcdcjr cd 19% cdh kjstj cd ho kofo pjr ug
oÿj dg mgvdgtormj, `mdgtros qud dh kjstj pjr eokdr koco
pdcmcj sd dstm`o dg $;99. Dh prjvddcjr oktuoh vdgcd o
$399 ho kofo cd popdh, smg m`pjrtor ho kogtmcoc qud sd
jrcdgd dg dh pdcmcj, `mdgtros qud sd eo rdkmamcj ugo
kjtmzokmûg cd ug prjvddcjr m`pjrtogtd, dg ho qud to`-
 amíg sd jbrdkd ho kofo cd popdh
popdh o $399,
$399, pdrj sd mgcmko qud
sd ophmkorï ug cdskudgtj cd 1% poro pdcmcjs cdscd 199
kofos, cd 3% poro pdcmcjs cdscd 399 kofos y cd 4% poro
pdcmcjs cd 299 kofos j `ïs.
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j cd pdcmcj sm dh cmrdktjr
cd kj`pros cdkmcd sdnumr kjg dh prjvddcjr oktuoh,
ºkuïgtjs pdcmcjs (dg prj`dcmj) jrcdgorào oh oÿj:
  a) º_uí to`oÿj cd pdcmcj kjgvdgcrào jrcdgor sm sd cd-
kmcd kjgsmcdror hos kjgcmkmjgds cdh gudvj prjvddcjr:
ºsdrào kjgvdgmdgtd ko`amor cd prjvddcjr: ºkuïgtjs
pdcmcjs oh oÿj (dg prj`dcmj) sd dstoràog jrcdgogcj
kjg dh gudvj prjvddcjr:
 ?2. Tgo cmskjtdko dxpdrm`dgto ugo cd`ogco oguoh oguoh cd ? 199  
 aorrmhds cd kdrvdzo oh oÿj y sd oaostdkd cd ug prjvdd-
cjr hjkoh, qumdg hd vdgcd ho kdrvdzo o $1 999 pjr aorrmh.
Dh oc`mgmstrocjr dstm`o qud dh kjstj pjr jrcdgor ugo  
prjvmsmûg cd kdrvdzo oskmdgcd o $? 499, `mdgtros qud
dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr mgvdgtormjs ds cd $?4% cdh kjstj  
pjr aorrmh (pjr ugmcoc oh oÿj).
  o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj ûptm`j (dg aorrmhds) cd hjs pd-  
cmcjs cd kdrvdzo poro ho cmskjtdko.
  a) [m dh cmstrmaumcjr jbrdkd oh oc`mgmstrocjr cd ho cmskj-
tdko ug cdskudgtj cd ?% dg dh prdkmj poro hjs pdcmcjs
cd ;99 j `ïs aorrmhds, ºkjgvmdgd okdptor ho jbdrto:
ºcd quí to`oÿj kjgvdgcrào jrcdgor hjs pdcmcjs dg
a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd `ocdro cd pmgj
 aofj dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj dgkjgtrocj dg o:
k) ºKuïh sdrào dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj
 aofj
?5. Tgo dh to`oÿj
d`prdso cd pdcmcj
prjcukd hocrmhhjdgkjgtrocj dg o:ejrgjs o
rdbroktormj poro
portmr cd ug `mgdroh qud hd prjvdd ug nrupj cd d`prdsos
`mgdros. Cdamcj o dkjgj`àos cd dskoho dg dh trogspjr-
td y o hjs kjstjs qud jkosmjgo dh trï`mtd, sd mgkurrd dg
ug kjstj 󿬏fj cd $4 999 pjr koco korno cd oaostdkm`mdg-
tj qud sd jrcdgd (ocmkmjgoh oh kjstj pjr vjhu`dg), sd
dstm`o dg $? 999 dh kjstj pjr `ogtdgdr ugo tjgdhoco
cd `mgdroh dg mgvdgtormj curogtd ug oÿj, smdgcj qud
ho d`prdso cd`ogco ohrdcdcjr cd ; 999 tjgdhocos cd
`mgdroh oh oÿj. Cdamcj o qud dh nrupj qud vdgcd dh `m-
gdroh cdsdo oprjvdkeor `dfjr hos dkjgj`àos cd dskoho,
jbrdkd prdkmjs cmbdrdgkmocjs kjg aosd dg dh vjhu`dg cdh
pdcmcj cd kj`pro, cd okudrcj oh smnumdgtd kuocrj6
SO @ O ß J CD
CD Y D C M C J (S(S J G . ) Y Q D K M J ($
($ / S J G . )
?-?49 1 999
?49-1== ? =99
;99 j `ïs ? 599
o) Cdtdr`mgd dh to`oÿj `ïs kjgvdgmdgtd (dg tjgdhocos)
poro jrcdgor hjs pdcmcjs cd `mgdroh poro dh boarmkogtd
cd rdbroktormjs.
a) ºKuïh sdrào dh mgvdgtormj prj`dcmj cd `mgdroh aofj
dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj dgkjgtrocj dg o):
k) ºKuïh sdrào dh gö`drj prj`dcmj cd pdcmcjs oh oÿj
 aofj dh to`oÿj cd pdcmcj dgkjgtrocj dg o):
?=. Ho kogtmcoc cd cmgdrj qud cmspjgd ug kofdrj outj`ïtmkj
sd rdvmso tjcos hos `oÿogos y sd hd korno cmgdrj eosto
ohkogzor ug gmvdh prdcdtdr`mgocj. Ho cd`ogco (cmormo)
cd dbdktmvj dg cmkej kofdrj smnud ug potrûg sm`ítrmkj y
sd pudcd `jcdhor kj`j gjr`oh`dgtd cmstrmaumco, kjg
`dcmo cd $? 199 999, y cdsvmokmûg dstïgcor
dstïgcor cd $349 999.