English Quick Practice Book

MDCAT
English
Quick Practice Book
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Chapter 01
Sentence Completion
2
Sentence Completion
Sentence completions test your ability to use the information found in complex, but
incomplete, sentences in order to correctly complete the sentences.
What do Sentence Completions test?

Sentence completions test three major aspects of your language skills:
Ability to follow
Grammar Vocabulary the internal logic of
sentences
Direction in Question Paper

Each sentence below has one or two blanks, each blank indicating that something has
been omitted. Beneath the sentence are FOUR words or set of words labeled A, B, C,
& D. Choose the word or set of words that, when inserted in the sentence best fits the
meaning of the sentence.
Example:
His neighbors found his manner bossy and irritating, and they stopped inviting him to
backyard barbeques.
A. lifeless
B. magisterial
C. reparatory
D. restorative
Types of Questions
Sentence completion questions can be SOLVED on two bases.
1. Grammar based
2. Vocabulary in context based
3. Logic based
1. Grammar Based
Grammar based questions assess the basic grammatical knowledge of the student.
Following Categories can be assessed by Grammar based questions:
3
1) Use of Prepositions
2) Grammatical categories (Noun, Verb, Adjective and Adverb)
3) Forms of Verbs
4) Degrees of Adverbs and Adjectives
These questions can be answered with the basic knowledge of intermediate grammar.
Example:
I like to study science fiction whereas my brother is fond ______ poetry.
A. At
B. of
C. in
D. with
2. Vocabulary in Context Based

Vocabulary in context questions ask to choose the correct word for the context of the
sentence. Their difficulty level is derived from the vocabulary.
Example: Your knowledge of

Aliyan would her little sister into an argument by vocabulary and context
of the sentence leads
teasing her and calling her names.
you to the correct
A. advocate answer.
B. provoke
C. perforate
D. lamented
3. Logic Based
Logical based questions ask to find the correct word or words for the context of a
complicated and logically complex sentence constructions. The difficulty of these
questions is derived from the twist and turns of their logic.
Example:
Since you want a refrigerator for a long run, you should buy it from a company that
provides ________ for at least 10 years.
A. electronics
B. appliances
C. warranty
4
D. issuance
Strategies to Attend Sentence Completion

Following strategies, if followed in a sequence, can help you attend the sentence
completion correctly:
1. Choose the transitional device

2. Pick a clue word/words
3. Check polarity
4. Process of elimination
1. Transitional Devices
Transitional words and phrases connect and relate ideas, sentences and paragraphs.
They assist in the logic flow of the ideas as they signal the relationship between
sentences and paragraphs.
Example:
Ali could not be promoted to next class because of his ________ behavior towards his
studies and multiple F grades in last exam.
A. negligent
B. vigilant
C. respectful
D. rude
Types of Transitional Devices:

1) Support Signals
2) Contrast Signals
3) Cause and Effect
4) Appositions/ Definitions
5
1. Support Signals
Support signals support or further explain what has already been said. These words
often introduce synonyms for words elsewhere in the sentence.
Additionally As well as In addition Again

Simultaneously For instance Moreover And
Equally important Furthermore One could also say Further
And then Similarly For example Besides
In fact Indeed Likewise Also
Not only …. But also
Example:
As Ajmal is ______ and shrewd, he can be a best option for one of the missing jury
members.
A. impudent
B. imprudent
C. industrious
D. prudent
2. Contrast Signals
Contrast signals negate what has already been said. These words often introduce
antonyms of words elsewhere in the sentence.
Alternatively In contrast On the other hand But

Despite In spite of Still Instead
Whereas Even though Nevertheless While
However One could also say Yet
Example:
6
Although Ali had worked really hard to get the job, he was _______ in the final
interview because of his involvement in politics.
A. selected
B. nominated
C. dejected
D. precluded
3. Cause and Effect

These words indicate that one thing causes another to occur.
and so consequently therefore as a consequence

as a result for this reason thus Hence
Since For If …. Then Resultantly
Because For this reason So
Example:
Since government had ______ the use of LED signs, all the electric bill-boards were
removed from the streetlight polls.
A. allowed
B. debarred
C. conferred
D. certified
4. Apposition / Definition
Words or phrases in apposition are placed next to each other and the second word or
phrase defines, clarifies or gives evidence to the first word or phrase. The second word
or phrase will be set off from the first by comma, semicolon, hyphen or parentheses.
Example:
Many doctors avoid normal delivery at hospital and tend to do ________, an easy and
time saving way of childbirth by surgery.
A. operation
B. treatment
7
C. medication
D. cesarean
1 ,
2 ;
3 :
4 - …………….. -
5 ()
6 That
7 Be forms
2. Pick A Clue Word/Words

Before looking at the choices, think of a word that might fit in the blank. Then think of
some words with close meanings to the word that came to your mind.
Example:
There came to him a thousand ________ recollections of old times that made him shed
tears which he never knew were of happiness or sadness.
A. joyful
B. baffling
C. tangled
D. cheerful
3. Check Polarity
A word may give a positive or negative meaning. Use the symbol of – (minus), or
+(plus) to indicate whether the word in the blank should be positive or negative. Use
the knowledge of transitional devices to find the missing word in the sentence.
Example:
Although Kamran thought he was entertaining the audience at the poetical
competition, his ______ behavior made everyone annoyed of him.
A. rude
B. sophisticated
C. genteel
8
D. tomfoolery
Note: Beware of double negative
Keenly observe the use of “no, never, not, or neither” in the sentence.
Example:
Since Sufia has not damaged the repute of the company, there is hardly any chance of
her _________ by the CEO.
A. appraisal
B. promotion
C. termination
D. salary
4. Process of Elimination
▪ Use any method to eliminate the options you know are wrong.
▪ If you can eliminate at least two answers from a four-option question,
the odds are in your favour even if you guess from the remaining two.
▪ Never eliminate a choice unless you are sure of its meaning.
▪ Use your knowledge of Greek Root Rule (Pre-fixes, suffixes & infixes)
to decode unfamiliar words.
▪ If you cannot eliminate any of the answer choices, skip the question.
▪ If you can only eliminate one answer choice, move on; come back later
and see if you can eliminate one more choice.
▪ If you can eliminate at least two choices, feel free to guess, but the
more choices you eliminate, the better your odds will be.
Example:
Ali was criticized for showing ________ behavior on the wedding ceremony of his
brother.
A. insane
B. conformist
C. traditional
D. joyful
9
Chapter 02
Concord Mistakes
2
Concord Mistakes
What Are Concord Mistakes?
Concord mistakes are agreement mistakes among the elements of a sentence.
(Subject, Verb, Noun, Pronoun, quantifiers etc.)
Types of Concord Mistakes

Following are the types of concord or agreement mistakes:
I. Subject Verb Agreement
II. Noun Pronoun Agreement
III. Noun Quantifier Agreement
Subject Verb Agreement

Subject:
The doer or performer an action in a sentence is called a subject.
The subject can be either a noun or pronoun. So, it is very easy to find out a subject in
a sentence. Following interrogative pronouns can lead us to the subject of the
sentence:
▪ Who
▪ What
Example:
Aliyar helped his tribe to fight against the invaders.
Subject
Eating apples can help you stay active.
Subject
Types of Subjects:
There are three types of subjects:
I. Simple Subject
II. Compound Subject
III. Complete/Complex subject
1. Simple Subject:
A noun (single word) functioning as a singular or plural subject is called a simple
subject.
3
▪ Ali is waiting for us in the market.
▪ The boys are ready for the match.
2. Compound Subject:
Two or more than two nouns/pronouns joined by “and”, “or”, “nor” are called
compound subjects.
▪ Jameel and Kashif are working on this project.
▪ Neither Zoya nor Alina is happy with this project.
3. Complete/Complex Subject:
Complete subject can be of following categories:
I. Noun Phrase as A Subject

▪ Ali as well as his friends is outside waiting for the bus.
II. Noun Clause as A Subject
▪ What we saw was almost impossible to describe in words.
III. Subject Along with A Prepositional Phrase
▪ All the boys in the field are anxious for today’s game.
IV. Subject Along with A Relative Clause
▪ All the book which were recommended by the professor has been bought.
Rule # 1: (Number Rule)

Single subject always agrees with the single verb, and plural subject agrees with plural
verb.
Noun with an “s” or “es” becomes plural. Verb with an “s” or “es” becomes singular.
Singular Noun Singular Verb

A boy Plays cricket.
A girl Eats food.
A chair Is made
A school Educates the young minds.
Plural Noun Plural Verb

Boys Play cricket.
Girls Eat food.
Chairs Are made.
Schools Educate the young minds.
4
Compound Subject Rules
The word “compound” means “made up of two or more parts.” Two or more words can
be compounded or linked by joining them with any of three words:
And, or, and nor
Examples:
▪ Apples and oranges
Rule # 2 (And):
When a subject has two or more parts joined by “and”, treat the subject as plural and
use plural verb.
▪ Ali and Ahmad have made a new design for the office.
Exception:
However, if two joined parts refer to a single person, thing or idea, use a single verb.
▪ Bread and butter is not easy to earn in this era of inflation.
Rule # 3 (Articles and Possessive Adjectives):
When the article “A, An or The” or possessive adjective (my, your, his, her or their) is
used before only one noun, one person/thing is intended and hence the verb must be
singular.
▪ The black and white TV is not watched these days. (Singular verb)
▪ The doctor and house owner has just arrived. (Singular verb)
▪ My uncle and doctor visits me weekly. (Singular verb)
Exception:
When the article “A, An or The” or possessive adjective (my, your, his, her or their) is
used before both the nouns, two different persons/things are intended and hence the
verb must be plural.
▪ The doctor and the house owner have just arrived. (Plural verb)
▪ My uncle and my doctor visit me weekly. (Plural verb)
Rule # 4 (subject 1 – verb agreement):
When two or more subjects are joined by “as well as, besides, with, in addition to,
together with, along with, but, except etc.” the verb is used according to the first
subject.
▪ The principal as well as all the faculty members is invited to the party. (As
“principal” is a singular noun we shall use singular verb).
Rule # 5 (Subject 2 – verb agreement):
5
When subjects are joined by “neither---nor, either-----or” and are of different persons,
the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
▪ Neither books nor bag is there in the room.
▪ Either you or I am going out today.
Rule # 6 (Phrase and Clause between subject and verb):

If there is an explanatory or prepositional phrase and clause following the subject, the
number of the subjects does not change.
▪ The teachers in the staffroom are waiting for the bell to ring.
▪ The books which were gifted by Mr. Prime Minister are still there in my library.
Rule # 7 (One of & only one of)

I. One of + Plural Noun + Single Verb.
▪ One of the boys is waiting outside.
II. One of + Plural Noun + Who + Plural Verb.
▪ Aliya is one of the girls who respect and obey their parents.
III. The only one of + Plural Noun + Who + Singular Verb.
▪ Tahir is the only one of the boys who have registered themselves for the new
course.
Rule # 8 (Gerund, Infinitive, Phrase and Clause as a subject):

When Gerund, infinitive, Phrase and clause function as a subject, use single verb.
▪ Teaching is a noble profession. (Gerund)
▪ To paint the walls is his hobby. (Infinitive)
▪ Strolling on the track along the lake is a refreshing act. (Phrase)
▪ What he says is a white lie. (Clause)
Rule # 9 (Amount, Distance, Quantity, Time or Period As A Subject):

When Amount, Distance, Quantity, Time or Period occur as a unit, use single verb.
▪ The distance between these two walls is twelve feet.
▪ Fifty thousand dollars was a handsome amount to tempt the newly couple.
Rule # 10 (Fraction, Percentage as a Subject):

When there is fraction or percentage of any noun, use verb according to the noun. If
the noun is singular, use single verb. If the noun is plural, use plural verb.
▪ Fifty percent of the book has been read by me.
▪ Half of the boys are ready to go to Murree on College Tour.
6
Rule # 11 (Number of)
I. The number of + Plural Noun + single verb
▪ The number of stars in the universe is probably equal to the number of sand
grains on all the sea-shores of the world.
II. A number of + plural noun + plural verb
▪ A number of girls are ready to play a cricket match.
Rule # 12 (Majority and minority)

I. When “Majority” and “minority” occur as a subject, use single verb.
▪ The majority is with us.
II. When “Majority of + noun” or “minority of + noun” occur as a subject use verb
according to the noun.
▪ The majority of the actors are appearing in the newly made movie.
Rule # 13 (Indefinite Pronouns)

I. Singular Indefinite Pronouns
Singular indefinite pronouns include compounds of –body, thing, and –one”
along with the words “one, another, each, either, neither and much.”
A singular verb is used with these pronouns.
Each Somebody Something Someone
Every Everybody Everything Everyone
Either Any body Anything Anyone
Neither Nobody Nothing No one
One
▪ Each of the boys is going to bring a single dish in the party.
II. Plural Indefinite Pronouns

A plural verb is used with the pronouns “few, many, both, several”.
▪ Many boys are doing part time job to support their parents.
III. Skeptical Indefinite Pronouns (Indefinite Pronouns that can be either

Singular or Plural)
Pronouns like most, none and some take their meaning from the word to which
they refer which is often found in the phrase following the pronoun.
S A N A M
Some All None Any Most
7
▪ Some of the students have done their work.
▪ Most of the book is about life of a teacher.
Noun Pronoun Agreement

Noun and Pronoun agree on the following terms:
I. Number (Singular & Plural)

▪ The boys are going to their houses.
II. Gender (Male and Female)
▪ Ali is going to his house.
III. Case (subjective, Objective, Possessive or Reflexive)
▪ Kashif has painted his house himself.
IV. Person (First, Second & Third)
▪ I told him that he should wait for me there.
Noun Quantifiers Agreement

Types of Quantifiers:
I. Numerable
▪ Many bags have been dispatched.
II. Measurable
▪ Much water has been drunk by the participants.
Words Expressing Quantity

With Singular Nouns and Verbs With Plural Nouns and Verbs
Much Many
(a) little (a) few
A great deal (of) Several
A large amount (of) A large number (of)
Less Fewer
Another Both
8
Chapter 03
Nouns
2
Noun
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a
sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject
complement, object complement, or appositive.
Types of Nouns:
1. Common Noun
2. Proper Noun
3. Material Noun
4. Abstract Noun
5. Collective Noun
1. Common Noun:
Generic name of a person, place or thing is called a common noun.
Example:
▪ A boy
▪ A girl
▪ A hand
▪ A college
▪ A city
▪ A country
▪ An apple
▪ An elephant
2. Proper Noun:
Specific name of a person, place or thing is called a proper noun.
Example:
▪ A boy Ali
▪ A girl Anusha
▪ A college King Edward Medical College
▪ A city Lahore
▪ A country Pakistan
▪ An elephant Susi
Rule 1:
Common nouns are generic names, so their first letter is not capital; whereas, proper
nouns are specific names, so their first letter is always capital.
3
Example:
▪ A boy Aliyan
▪ A girl Ayesha
Rule 2:
All proper nouns do have their generic names along with their specific names.
Example:
▪ A boy Kashif
▪ A college King Edward Medical College
But all common nouns may not have their specific names.
Example:
▪ A hand
▪ A tree
3. Material nouns
Material nouns are names of matter in its raw form.
Water Wood Iron Oxygen

Plastic Gold Aluminum Paper
Sugar Milk Sand Silicon
4. Abstract Noun:
Nouns that show ideas, quality or state are called abstract nouns.
Honesty Bravery Advice

Divorce Ability Confidence
5. Collective Noun:
Names of groups are called collective nouns.
I. Common Groups of People:
Collective Noun Group

Board A group of directors
Band A group of musicians
Choir A group of singers
Class A group of students
4
Crowd A group of people
Audience A group of (spectators, viewers)
Gang A group of thieves/robbers/gangsters
Team A group of players
Troup A group of dancers
Audience A group of (spectators, viewers)
Company
Battalion
Brigade Group of soldiers/military
Corps
Army
Crew Group of working party
II. Common Groups of Animals:

Flock A group of birds/sheep
Pack A group of hounds/wolves
Pride A group of lions
Herd A group of deer/cows/goats/buffaloes
Cattle cows/goats/buffaloes
Murder A group of crows
Hive A group of bees
School A group of fish
Swarm A group of locusts
Team A group of horses
Litter A group of puppies/cubs
Army A group of ants
III. Common Groups of Animals:

Bouquet/bunch A group of flowers
Fleet A group of ships
Forest A group of trees
Galaxy A group of stars
Pack A group of cards/lies
5
Range A group of mountains
Wad A group of notes
Collective Nouns are singular or Plural?

Collective nouns can be either singular or plural depending on context.
1. Singular Collective Nouns:

People often behave in the same manner, doing one thing in unison with the other
members of their group. When these people are part of a collective noun, that noun
becomes singular and requires singular verbs and pronouns.
Example:
▪ The team neither follows its coach nor shows any respect
towards him. Note
▪ The jury has decided in my favor.
2. Plural Collective Nouns: Police and people are

Members of collective nouns can behave in a similar fashion. always plural and
When the members are acting as individuals, the collective agree with plural
noun is plural and requires plural verbs and pronouns. verb and plural
pronoun.
Example: Example:
▪ After the match, the team shower, change their Police have caught
uniform and head toward their homes.
the thieves.
▪ The jury disagree about the innocence of the accused.
Number of Noun/ Singular & Plural
Noun
Regular Irregular
Singular Plural Singular Plural
6
1. Regular Nouns:
Regular plural nouns form their plural by adding an “s” or “es” at their end.
Example:
▪ Boy Boys
▪ Book Books
▪ Girl Girls
2. Irregular Nouns:
Irregular plural nouns are nouns that do not become plural by adding -s or -es, as
regular nouns in the English language do.
Example:
▪ Man Men
▪ Woman Women
▪ Tooth Teeth
Rule 1:
Regular nouns that end with a “Consonant Sound + Y” form their plural by removing
“y” and adding “ies” at their end.
Example:
▪ Baby Babies
▪ Fly Flies
▪ Sky Skies
Rule 2:
Some nouns ending with “f”, or “fe” form their plurals by replacing “f”, “fe” with “ves”.

Wife Wives Thief Thieves
Life Lives Calf Calves
Knife Knives Half Halves
Leaf Leaves Loaf Loaves
Shelf Shelves Wolf Wolves
Exception:
Roof, Giraffe, Belief, Proof, chef etc. are regular nouns and form their plural by adding
an “s” at the end.
7
▪ Roof Roofs
▪ Giraffe Giraffes
▪ Belief Beliefs
▪ Chef Chefs
Plurals of Greek and Latin Words in English

Rule 3:
Nouns ending with “on”, “ium” form their plural by adding “ia” at the end.
Example:
▪ Criterion Criteria
▪ Phenomenon Phenomena
▪ Bacterium Bacteria
▪ Memorandum Memoranda
Exception:
However, “Media” and “Data” can be used as singular and plural both.
Rule 4:
Nouns ending with “is” form their plural by replacing “-is” with “-es”
Example:
Basis Bases Analysis Analyses
Thesis Theses Crisis Crises
Hypothesis Hypotheses Praxis Praxes
Axis Axes Diagnosis Diagnoses
Rule 5:
Nouns ending with “us” form their plural by replacing “us” with “i” at the end.
Example:
Focus Foci Radius Radii
Nucellus Nucelli Cactus cacti
Alumnus Alumni Fungus Fungi
Magus Magi
8
Exception:
However, “Virus” and “Octopus” form their plural in a regular way i.e. “Viruses” and
“Octopuses”.
Plurals of Compound Nouns

Rule 6:
The plural of the compound noun is formed by adding an “s” or “es” at the end of the
real noun; “head word”.

Board Marker Board Markers Table chair Table chairs
Germ Killer Germ Killers Key chain Key chains
Class fellow Class fellows Motor bike Motor bikes
Car park Car parks Bottle opener Bottle openers
Exception:
However, following nouns do not follow the previous rule.

Mother-in-law Mothers-in-law Commander in Commanders-
chief in-chief
Sister-in-law Sisters-in-law Man in charge Men-in-charge
Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law Director general Directors
general
Father-in-law Fathers-in-law Attorney at law Attorneys at law
Nominal Adjectives
Rule 7:
An adjective functioning as a noun is called a nominal adjective. We do not add an “s”
with the nominal adjectives to make them plural. In fact, no adjective has plural form in
English Language.
Article “the” indicates their plurality when they are working as nominal adjectives.

Poor The poor Injured The injured
Rich The rich Retired The retired
Honest The honest Brave The brave
9
English The English French The French
(Person of (People of (Person of (Person of
England) England) France) France)
Nouns That Are Always Singular

Rule 8:
The following nouns neither take “a/an” nor have plural forms and agree with singular
verbs.
Baggage, Democracy, Progress, Equipment, Music, Garbage,

Apparatus, Bread, Traffic, Furniture, Luggage, Machinery, Scenery
Information, Hair
Exception:
I. Hair (when on head) is a singular noun and agrees with a singular verb.
▪ Her hair is long.
▪ Anusha’s hair is beautiful.
II. Hairs (in the form of threads that could be counted or root hairs) are plural and
agree with plural verb.
▪ The inspector examined the comb. There were five, six long shining hairs there.
Nouns that are always Plural

Rule 9:
The following nouns do not have singular form and always agree with plural verb.
Surroundings, Qualifications, Belongings, Ablutions Guts, Goods,

Odds, Riches Crossings, Savings Thanks, Congratulations,
Outskirts damages, Wages
Exception:
The following nouns are plural but when “a pair” or “the pair” is used before them, they
agree with singular verb.
10
▪ Trousers, Jeans, Knickers, Pants, Shorts, Tights
▪ Tweezers, Headphones, Scissors, Binoculars. Glasses,
Clippers
Nouns That Stand as both Singular and Plural

Rule 10:
Following nouns stand as both singular and plural. We do not use an “s” or “es” to
make their plurals.
Sheep, Offspring, Deer, Aircraft, Fish, Species, Trout, Goldfish
Nationalities
Rule 11:
Nationalities ending with “ese”, “ish”, “iss”, “ch” do not require an “s” to form plural.
They remain unchanged to form plurals.
Singular Plural
Chinese Chinese
French French
Irish Irish
English English
Scottish Scottish
Chinese Chinese
Other nationalities require an “s” to form plurals.
Singular Plural
Indian Indians
Pakistani Pakistanis
African Africans
American Americans
Russian Russians
Greek Greeks
11
Plurals of Material Nouns
Rule 11:
Material nouns are names of matter in its raw form. Material nouns neither make plural
nor use “a, an” before them.
Water, Wood, Plastic, Gold, Sugar, Milk, Iron, Oxygen

Aluminum, Paper, Sand, Silicon
Exception:
If following material nouns use an “s” with them their meaning is changed.
Water Aqua/liquid Waters Water body

Wood Timber/plank Woods Forest
Paper Material manufactured Papers Exams/flyers
from pulp of wood
Iron A common metal Irons Tools to press clothes
12
Chapter 04
Pronouns
2
Pronouns
Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid its (noun’s) repetition.
Example:
▪ Ali is a good student. He respects his elders.
Antecedent:
An antecedent is a word for which a pronoun stands.
Examples:
▪ The students have done their work.
Antecedent Pronoun
▪ If Ayesha wants to pass her exams, she needs to work hard.
Antecedent Pronoun Pronoun
Noun-Pronoun Agreement
The pronoun must agree with its antecedent in:
1. Number
2. Gender
3. Case
4. Person
1. Number:
▪ Singular & Plural
2. Gender:
▪ Male & Female
3. Case:
▪ Subjective
▪ Objective
▪ Possessive Adjective
▪ Possessive Pronoun
▪ Reflexive
3
4. Person:
▪ First
▪ Second
▪ Third
Types of Pronouns:
1. Personal
2. Emphatic
3. Indefinite
4. Reciprocal
5. Interrogative
6. Relative
7. Demonstrative
8. Distributive
1. Personal Pronoun
A personal pronoun is a short word we use as a simple substitute for the proper name
of a person. Each of the English personal pronouns shows us the grammatical person,
gender, number, and case of the noun it replaces.
Persons Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive Reflexive

Adjective Pronoun
1st I Me My Mine Myself

We Us Our Ours Ourselves
2nd You You Your Yours Yourself

Yourselves
3rd He Him His His Himself

She Her Her Hers Herself
They Them Their Theirs Themselves
Impersonal it it its its itself
Cases of Personal Pronouns

Rule 1: Use of Subjective Case
Use subjective case after “Be” form of verb i.e. (be, is, am, are, was, were etc.)
4
Example:
▪ It was he who helped me in my difficult time.
Rule 2: Comparison/ Use of “than”, “as”

Comparing one subject with the other subject, we use subjective case of pronoun
after “than” or “as”. If “than” or “as” compares one object with another object, we use
objective case after “than”.
Examples:
▪ Ali runs faster than I.
▪ You gave more money to Ali than me.
Rule 3: Use of objective Case:

I. Use objective case of pronoun after the verb “LET”
Example:
▪ Let me go to college today.
II. Use objective case of pronoun after prepositions.

Example:
▪ He is sitting between you and me.
Rule 4: Possessive Adjective vs Possessive Pronoun

Possessive Possessive
Adjective Pronoun
My Mine
Our Ours
Your Yours
His His
Her Hers
Their Theirs
Its Its
I. Possessive Adjective:
Possessive adjectives are used in place of a possessive noun. They must follow a noun.
5
Examples:
▪ It is Jamil’s bag. It is his bag.
▪ I borrowed Aliya’s books. I borrowed her books.
II. Possessive Pronoun:

Possessive pronouns are used to show the possession of a subject and they do not
follow a noun.
Examples:
▪ It is Jamil’s bag. The bag is his.
▪ That is my book. That book is mine.
▪ That is mine.
Rule 5: Use of Possessive Adjective

If a pronoun follows a noun or gerund, use possessive case.
Examples:
▪ I like Ali’s driving. = I like his driving.
▪ My teacher does not mind my sleeping in the class.
2. Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive pronouns are words ending in -self or -selves that are used when the subject
and the object of a sentence are the same (e.g., I believe in myself).
They can act as either objects or indirect objects.
Rule 6: Use of Reflexive Pronoun

Use reflexive pronouns after these transitive verbs when these verbs have no object.
Enjoy, amuse, satisfy, teach, prepare, cut, hurt, resign, avail, avenge, busy, pride,
devout, content, absent, etc.
Examples:
▪ We enjoyed ourselves at the farewell party.
Exception:
i. Reflexive pronoun is not used with the following verbs:
Break, Make, Lengthen, Stop, Steal, Form, Feed, Qualify, Bathe,

Gather, Hide, Burst, Roll, Rest, Turn, Move, Keep
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ii. Reflexive pronoun is not used as a subject or object in a sentence.
Example:
▪ Ali and myself are working on the new project. (Incorrect)
▪ Ali and I are working on the new project. (Correct)
1.
3. Emphatic Pronouns
Emphatic pronouns are reflexive pronouns that are used to emphasize the subject or
antecedent in a sentence.
Example:
▪ Alina made her dinner herself.
▪ I myself told you about the news about NRO.
Use of More Than One Person

Rule 7:
I. If the action in a sentence is positive, we observe the following sequence for
multiple persons in the sentence.
2nd 3rd 1st (231)
Example:
▪ You, he and I planted the trees.
II. If the action in a sentence is negative, we observe the following sequence for
multiple persons in the sentence.
1st 3rd 2nd (132)
Example:
▪ I, he and you stole the car.
4. Indefinite Pronoun
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun which does not have a specific familiar referent.
Indefinite pronouns are in contrast to definite pronouns. Indefinite pronouns can
represent either count nouns or noncount nouns.
Types of Indefinite Pronouns

1. Singular
2. Plural
3. Skeptical/ Either Singular or Plural
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1. Singular:
Singular indefinite pronouns include compounds of –body, –thing, and –one”
along with the words “one, another, each, either, neither and much.”
A singular verb is used with these pronouns.
Each Somebody Something Someone
Every Everybody Everything Everyone
Either Any body Anything Anyone
Neither Nobody Nothing No one
One
Example:
▪ Everyone is responsible for his deeds.
2. Plural:
A plural verb is used with the pronouns “few, many, both, several”.
Example:
Many of our young people go to larger cities to find work for themselves.
3. Skeptical/Either Singular or Plural:

Indefinite Pronouns that can be either Singular or Plural
S A N A M
Some Any None All Most
Pronouns like most, none and some take their meaning from the word to which they
refer which is often found in the phrase following the pronoun.
Example:
▪ All of the milk has been drunk by the cat.
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5. Distributive Pronoun
A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that describes members of a group separately and
not collectively. It refers to a person or thing. So, this pronoun is always singular, and
we use it with a singular noun and verb. We use this pronoun to describe all the
members of the particular group.
I. Following distributive pronouns are used when referring a group of two nouns.
Each, Either, Neither
Example:
▪ Neither of the two brothers will get his father’s property.
II. Following distributive pronouns are used when referring a group of more than
two nouns.
Every, Anyone, None
Example:
▪ None of the committee members agreed to increase the building maintenance.
6. Reciprocal Pronoun
A reciprocal pronoun is used to express a mutual action or relationship.
There are two reciprocal pronouns:
I. Each other (For two)
II. One another (For more than two)
Examples:
▪ These two brothers always help each other.
▪ All the five faculty members do respect one another.
7. Relative Pronoun
A relative pronoun shows relation of two nouns.
▪ The boy is a topper of MDCAT. He is in red shirt.
▪ The boy who is in red shirt is a topper of MDCAT.
Following are the relative pronouns:

That, Which, Who, Whose, Whom
“Who” is used for people.
“Which” is used for things.
“That” is used for people and things.
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Who vs Whom
Rule 8:
I. Pronoun “Who” is used when the verb is active voice.
Examples:
▪ There are many boys whom we know are hardworking. (Incorrect)
▪ There are many boys who we know are hardworking. (Correct)
Note: Pronoun “who” can be replaced with any subjective case (I, we, you, he, she,
they”
Example:
▪ Who is calling you? He is calling you.
II. Pronoun “Whom” is used when the verb is passive voice.
Examples:
▪ Who are you calling? (Incorrect)
▪ Whom are you calling? (Correct)
Note: Pronoun “whom” can be replaced with any objective case (me, us, him, her,
them”
Example:
▪ Whom I met? I met him.
Use of “That” instead of “Who & Which”

Rule 9:
i. After adjectives in the superlative degree.
Example:
This is the best book that you can read.
ii. After the words “all, like, same, nothing and only”.
Example:
All that glitters is not gold.
iii. After interrogative pronouns.
Example:
▪ Who is the man that was annoying you?
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iv. After two antecedents; one denoting a person and other an animal or
thing.
Example:
▪ Alina and her cat that stayed here for a week have left now.
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Chapter 05
Adjectives
2
Modifiers
Modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies- that is, gives information about-
another word in the same sentence.
Examples:
▪ Pakistan has overcome its energy crisis.
▪ The student who topped the exam prepared from Nearpeer.
Types of Modifiers
1. Adverb
2. Adjective
Adjectives
Adjective is a word that describes a noun or pronoun.
Examples:
▪ I am eating a spicy burger. (Describing a noun)
▪ He is handsome. (Describing a pronoun)
Types of Adjectives: (Placement wise)
1. Attributive
2. Predicative
3. Postpositive
1. Attributive:
Adjective that comes before a noun is called an attributive adjective.
Examples:
▪ He has ordered a new car.
▪ Ayesha likes to wear flamboyant dress.
▪ He filled a plastic bottle.
2. Predicative:
Adjectives that come after the noun is called a predicative adjective.
Examples:
▪ The match was boring.
▪ The boy was tall.
▪ The book was informative.
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3. Postpositive:
Sometimes an adjective does occur immediately after a noun especially in certain
sectionalized expressions.
Examples:
▪ The Governor General
▪ Attorney General
▪ Postmaster General
▪ Poet Laureate
▪ Time past
There will be time enough to prepare for the exams.
Coordinate Vs Cumulative Adjectives

Coordinate Adjectives:
Coordinate adjectives describe a noun in a same way. They describe the features of
same kind. They are often called equal adjectives.
Most coordinate adjectives are adjectives of opinion or evaluation.
Examples:
▪ The handsome, intelligent boy won the contest.
Cumulative Adjectives:
Cumulative adjectives build upon each other and follow a certain order. They are
equally important and give different type of information.
Examples:
▪ Bilal has bought a new black leather jacket.
Order of Cumulative Adjectives

Determiners A
O Opinion Beautiful
S Size Big
S Shape Rectangular
C Condition Dirty
A Age Old
C Color Red
P Pattern Stripped
O Origin Persian
M Material Leather
P Purpose Travel
Noun Bag
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Types of Adjectives: (Degree wise):
1. Gradable Adjectives
▪ Regular
▪ Irregular
2. Non-Gradable/Absolute Adjectives
1- Gradable Adjectives:
Adjectives that have comparative and superlative degrees are called gradable
adjectives. These adjectives form their degrees in two ways.
i. Regular Adjectives
ii. Irregular Adjectives
i. Regular Adjectives:
Regular Adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees either by adding “-
er” and “-est” at the end or “more” and “most” before them.
Examples:
Regular Adjectives
Positive Comparative Superlative
Small Smaller Smallest
Fast Faster Fastest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Handsome More handsome Most handsome
Rules of Formation of Regular Adjectives:

Rule 1:
Degrees of mono or disyllabic adjectives are formed by adding an “-er” at the end for
comparative and “-est” for superlative degrees.
Examples:
Slow Slower Slowest
Fast Faster Fastest
Great Greater Greatest
Rule 2:
Degrees of tri or more syllabic adjectives are formed by adding “more” and “most”
before it for comparative and superlative degrees.
Examples:
Dangerous More dangerous Most dangerous
Fantastic More fantastic Most fantastic
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Rule 3:
Adjectives derived from other parts of speech by adding suffixes (less, full, ous,) also
add more and most before it to form their degrees.
Examples:
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Careless More Careless Most Careless
Courteous More Courteous Most Courteous
Rule 4:
Participles (Present & Past) also require “more” and “most” before them to form their
degrees.
Examples:
Interested More Interested Most Interested
Interesting More Interesting Most Interesting
ii. Irregular Adjectives:

Irregular adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees in an irregular way
i.e., they do not follow the rule mentioned in regular adjectives.
Examples:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Good Better The Best
Well (Healthy) Better Best
Bad Worse The Worst
Ill Worse Worst
Far (Distance) Farther Farthest
Far (extent) Further Furthest
Late Later Latest
Late Latter Last
Little (amount) Less Least
Less Lesser Least
Many (countable) More Most
Much (uncountable) More Most
Old Older Oldest
Old (family) Elder Eldest
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Using the Degrees of Adjectives:
Comparative Degree:
Rule 1:
Use comparative degree and “than” to compare the same quality of two alike nouns.
Noun + Verb + Comparative Adjective + Than + Noun
Examples:
▪ Ali is faster than Ahmad.
▪ He looks more handsome than I.
Rule 2 (Faulty Comparisons):

Comparison occurs between same nouns i.e., person is compared with person, place
with place and thing with thing. If it is not so, it will be a faulty comparison in a
sentence.
Examples:
▪ My car is faster than Ahmad. (Wrong)
▪ My car is faster than Ahmad’s. (Correct) or
▪ My car is faster than that of Ahmad. (Correct)
Rule 3: Use of Article (the) with Comparative Degree:

i. Of the two + noun:
Use article (the) with comparative degree if the sentence contains a phrase “of the two
+ noun” phrase.
Example:
▪ She is the taller of the two sisters.
ii. Parallel comparatives:

Use article “the” with parallel comparative degrees.
Example:
▪ The higher you go the cooler it is.
Rule 4: Latin Adjectives (Use of “to” with comparative degrees)

Following Words are also used as Comparative Degree, but these are followed by 'to'
and not by 'than’.
Junior Senior Inferior Superior

Anterior Posterior Prior Preferable
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Example:
▪ Arham is five years junior to Abbas.
Superlative Degree:
Rule:
It is an adjective that takes a comparison to the highest degree.
Noun + Verb + The Superlative Adjective + Noun
Examples:
▪ Ali is the fastest boy in the class.
▪ Ahmad looks the most handsome in his family.
Absolute Adjectives/Non-Gradable Adjectives

Absolute adjectives cannot vary in intensity or grade and have a quality that cannot be
compared.
Full/complete Round
Empty Square
fatal Rectangular
Perfect Vertical
Unique Horizontal
Worldwide/ universal Blind
Supreme Left/right
Extreme wrong
More
Most
-er
-est
Cardinal Vs Ordinal Numbers

Cardinals and ordinals are adjectives that describe the numeric aspect of the noun.
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1. Cardinal Numbers:
Cardinal adjectives indicate an absolute quantity.
All the numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, 4….) that indicate quantity are cardinal adjectives or
cardinal numbers.
Examples:
▪ There will be five hundred students on the event.
▪ I bought ten books on the annual book fair.
2. Ordinal Numbers:
Rule 1:
Use article ‘the’ while using ordinal numbers such as the first, the second, the third, the
last, the previous, the following, the penultimate, etc.
Example:
▪ The first boy in the second row has secured the position.
Rule 2:
Do not use article “the” with the ordinal numbers when they refer to steps or
sequence.
Example:
▪ First, I wake up, next I take shower then I take my breakfast.
Rule 3:
Do not use the definite article with ordinal numbers that refer to the names of awards
or honors. (First prize, second prize, third prize, first place, second place, third place,
honorable mention)
Examples:
▪ Ahmad stood first in the class.
▪ Ayesha got third position in the contest.
Rule 4:
Don’t use article ‘the’ before ordinal numbers when they are used as ‘adverbs’ or show
specific periods of time (next summer).
Example:
▪ He will come to meet his mother next winter.
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Rule 5:
When both numbers come together, their sequence will be as followed:
The + ordinal number + cardinal number
Example:
▪ I have read the first five pages of this book.
Some vs Any
Use of Some:
Rule 1: Positive Statement
▪ There is some salt in the box.
▪ There are some oranges in the basket.
▪ Ali has got some milk in his cup.
▪ They have some butter.
Rule 2: Requests or Offers

▪ Do you need some salt?
▪ Would you like some oranges?
▪ Can I give you some milk?
▪ Could I get some butter?
Use of Any:
Rule 1: Negative Statement
▪ There is not any salt in the box.
▪ There are not any oranges in the basket.
▪ Ali has not got any milk in his cup.
▪ They have not any butter.
Rule 2: Questions
▪ Do you have any salt?
▪ Are there any oranges?
▪ Is there any milk?
▪ Do they have any butter?
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Little vs Few
1. Little: For uncountable nouns (expressing quantity)
Rule 1: (Little)
“Little” is used when the quantity is almost none. It gives negative meaning.
Example:
▪ I have little milk in the cup, and I cannot make tea.
Rule 2: (a little)
“A little” is used when the quantity is considerable. It gives positive meaning.
Example:
▪ There is a little milk in the cup, and you can make tea out of it.
Rule 3: (The little)

“The little” is used when referring to the quantity as a whole.
Example:
▪ The little milk in the cup has been drunk by the cat.
2. Few: For countable nouns (Expressing number)

Rule 1: (few)
“Few” is used when the number is almost none. It is negative in meaning.
Example:
▪ Ali always looks isolated as he few friends.
Rule 2: (a few)
“A few” is used when the number is considerable. It is positive in meaning.
Example:
▪ I have a few friends who always stand by me.
Rule 3: (The few)

“The few” is used when referring to the number as a whole.
Example:
▪ The few boys who were willing to participate in the event have come outside.
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Chapter 06
Verbs
2
Verbs
Verb is a word that expresses an action or state of being.
Action Words:
▪ Ali plays hockey in the ground.
▪ My fath er called me today at 12 pm.
▪ Boys are fighting with each other.
▪ Ali has been running for half an hour today.
State of Being:
▪ I am a teacher.
▪ She was a good musician.
▪ She looks pretty.
▪ The grapes taste sweet.
Types of Verb
i. Transitive Verb
ii. Intransitive Verb
Transitive Verb:
Transitive verbs have a direct object with them.
Examples:
▪ Ali played cricket at his home.
▪ I have been repairing the mobile phones for two weeks.
▪ The barber has cut the hair.
Intransitive Verb:
Intransitive verbs do not have a direct object.
Examples:
▪ The car was running fast.
▪ He sleeps till late morning.
3
Some Confusing Verbs
1 Tell The teacher told me that the sun is not static.
Say She said that she had done all her work.
2 Raise Hazrat Halima raised Holy Prophet (PBUH).
Rise The sun rises in the east.
3 Lay His hen does not lay an egg daily.
Lie The baby is lying in the cradle.
4 Set Norma set the button unit on the table.
Sit Jess Sat on the little oak stump near his father.
Regular and Irregular Verbs

i. Regular Verb:
Regular verbs are those verbs whose past (2nd form) and past participle (3rd form) end
with “-ed”.
1st Form 2nd Form 3rd Form

(Present) (Past) (Past Participle)
Operate Operated Operated
Play Played Played
Convert Converted Converted
Drain Drained Drained
Solve Solved Solved
Polish Polished Polished
4
ii. Irregular Verb:
Irregular verbs are those verbs whose past (2nd form) and past participle (3rd form) do
not end with “-ed”.
1st Form 2nd Form 3rd Form

(Present) (Past) (Past Participle)
Fall Fell Fallen
Sink Sank Sunk
Beat Beat Beaten
Drive Drove Driven
Drink Drank Drunk
Forget Forgot Forgotten
Verbal Nouns
Verbal noun is a form of verb that functions as a noun in a sentence.
1. Gerund:
Present participle form (Verb + ing) that functions as a noun is called a gerund.
Examples:
▪ Cooking is my hobby.
▪ Teaching is my profession.
▪ He is fond of swimming.
Verbs followed by Gerund:
Admit, avoid, consider, deny, enjoy, love, hate, like, dislike, finish, keep
Examples:
▪ He avoids playing cards in presence of his father.
▪ He denied having told a lie.
Certain expressions followed by Gerund:
Feel like, get used to, be used to, can’t stand, can’t help, it’s no use, look
forward, be fed up with, be fond of, don’t mind, would mind, give up
5
Examples:
▪ I would not mind going with you at all, but my father wants me to join him.
▪ It’s no use cracking jokes in front of him.
Prepositions Followed by Gerund:
Before, after, instead of, good at, interested in
Examples:
▪ Faiza is good at using microscope.
▪ Instead of getting emotional on your father’s advice, you should think positively
about what he says.
2. Infinitive:
The base form of verb followed by another verb is called an infinitive.
Forms of Infinitive:
The infinitive of a verb has two forms:
i. Full Infinitive
“To + Base form of verb” is called full infinitive.
Verbs followed by Full Infinitive:
Afford, Agree, Appear, Choose, Pretend, Learn, Manage, Happen, Want,

Hope, Aim, Decide, Promise, Expect, Plan, would like
Examples:
▪ I promise to stand by you through thick and thin.
▪ She has decided to resign from the job.
Adverbs and Adjectives followed by full infinitive:
Glad, Pleased, Disappointed, Enough, too
6
Examples:
▪ The water is too cold to drink.
▪ I am glad to inform you that I have passed my MDCAT for K.E.
ii. Bare Infinitive

Infinitive without “to” is called bare infinitive.
Verbs followed by bare infinitive:
let, make, help, hear, had better, would rather, used to, can’t help but
After modal verbs
Examples:
▪ My mother made me take my breakfast early in the morning today.
▪ You must obey your parents.
Verbs with either Gerund or Infinitive:

I. With little or no difference in meaning:
Following verbs can follow both Gerund and Infinitive with little or no difference in
meaning:
intend, start, begin, love, like, hate, prefer, continue
Examples:
▪ Ali loves to walk in the rain.
▪ Ali loves walking in the rain.
II. With difference in meaning:

Following verbs can follow both gerund and infinitive with meaning in difference:
regret, remember, forget, mean, go on
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Regret
Infinitive Gerund
Looks into the future Looks into the past
I remember to write to my father every I remember writing to my father every
weekend. weekend.
Subjunctive Verb
Subjunctive verb is used when talking about an action or event that is not certain to
happen. For example, use the subjunctive when somebody:
▪ Wants to happen
▪ Anticipates will happen
▪ Imagines happening
▪ Use of Base Subjunctive
Use of Base Subjunctive

The base subjunctive is used in “that clause” after two structures.
i. Suggest-Verb (or noun) + That Clause
Recommend, request, suggest, advise, ask, desire, insist, order, prefer,

propose, command, demand, proposal, suggestion, recommendation.
Examples:
▪ The General ordered the army that they attack on the enemy at once.
▪ The suggestion is that he go out with his wife.
ii. Advisable –adjective + That Clause
Desirable, essential, advisable, best, crucial, important, necessary, vital,

unthinkable, urgent, determined, eager, keen, imperative
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Examples:
▪ It is necessary that he wear the dress coat mentioned by the organization.
▪ Atika is determined that she pass the exams this time.
Use of Past Subjunctive

1. Unreal or Imaginary Condition:
Use past subjunctive for unreal conditions. Such sentences usually contain clauses that
start with “as if”, “as though”, “I wish” “would that” etc.
“were” will be used for Be forms in past subjunctive
Examples:
▪ I wish I were the Prime Minister of Pakistan.
▪ He behaved as if he had done his work.
2. High Time + Past Subjunctive:

It's (high) time + past subjunctive expresses that something should be done and that it
is already a bit late.
Example:
▪ It is high time that the minister announced the project.
Causative Verbs
Causative verbs are used to show that someone or something caused something to
happen.
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Let, Make, Get, Have, Help
1. Let:
Permit something to happen
Let + Person/Thing + Base form of verb
Examples:
▪ My mother never lets me leave the house after 8 pm.
▪ Let me work in peace.
2. Make:
Force or require someone to take an action.
Make + Person + First form of verb (Active Voice)
Make + to + First form of Verb (Passive Voice)
Examples:
▪ Ali made his brother complete his homework before playing cricket.
▪ The daughter was made to sit in silence when the guests arrived.
3. Get:
Convince/encourage someone to do something.
Get + Person + to -- First form of verb
Get + Thing + 3rd form of Verb
Examples:
▪ I have got my friend to complete my work.
▪ She got her car washed yesterday.
4. Have:
Give someone else the responsibility to do something.
Have + Person + -- First form of verb
Have + Thing + 3rd form of Verb
Examples:
▪ I will have the mechanic examine my car.
▪ We are having a new house built now.
5. Help:
Assist someone in doing something.
Help + Person + First form of verb
Help + Person + to .. First form of Verb
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Examples:
▪ My mother helped me do my work.
▪ My mother helped me to do my work.
Verb Without Preposition

Following verbs do not follow any preposition
1 Love She loves her father.

2 Hate I don’t hate anybody.
3 Lack He has lack of aesthetic sense.
4 Attack Terrorists attack the peaceful areas to spread terror.
5 Reach The train reached the platform on time.
6 Obey He obeys his parents.
7 Order He ordered an online book.
8 Ask I asked him many questions.
9 Resemble Alina resembles her sister.
10 Enter The boys entered the stadium and enjoyed themselves.
11 Marry Aliya married Bilal last year.
Married to Aliya was married to Bilal last year.
(Passive)
Tenses
Simple Continuous/ Perfect Perfect Continuous
Progressive
Present V1 Is/am/are Has/have Has/have + been Ving

s/es + +
Ving V3
Past V2 Was/were had Had +
+ + been Ving
Ving V3
Future Will/shall Will/shall Will/shall Will/shall
+ + have + have beenVing
V1 be Ving +V3
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Correction of Verb in Sentences (Tenses)
Tense Key Words Examples
Present ▪ Habit/Routine ▪ The principal visits the classes

Indefinite ▪ Universal truths on every Monday.
Key Words: ▪ He always gets late.
Every day, month, week, year; ▪ The hens lay eggs round the
always, sometimes, never, year.
frequently, usually, rarely.
Present ▪ Continue action ▪ The baby is crying for milk

Continuous ▪ Near Future/planning now.
Key Words: ▪ He is leaving for Islamabad
Now, right now, at this moment, next week.
currently, this month, this ▪ It is raining here at this
year…. moment.
Present ▪ Action completed. ▪ Ali has just finished his work.

Perfect Key Words: ▪ Sofia and Alina have already
Just, already, ever, never, once, presented their proposal.
twice, several times, by now, up ▪ Pakistan has won the match
to now, so far, before, since, today.
for, lately, recently
Present ▪ Actions started in past and is ▪ Pakistan has been fighting

Perfect still going on. against terrorism since 2001.
Continuous Key Words: ▪ She has been waiting for me
Since, For, how long, all day, all for a long while.
morning, in years.
Past Indefinite Key Words: ▪ The teacher assigned to write

▪ Yesterday; a letter yesterday.
▪ Ago; ▪ I got first position last year.
▪ Last;
▪ in (past year);
▪ Once upon a time……
Past Key Words: ▪ The bus moved while I was
Continuous ▪ While; boarding it.
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▪ When; ▪ I was studying when my father
▪ At (some time in past) came home.
▪ Ali was sleeping at 5 O’clock
yesterday.
Past Perfect ▪ Action completed in past. ▪ I had done my work before

Key Words: the time finished.
By the time, before, after, ▪ After he had gone to college,
When (in meanings ‘by the time, his mother locked the house.
after’);
By (some time in past)
Past perfect Actions started in past and was ▪ He had been driving for two
continuous still continued then…. hours when his car broke
Key Words: down.
For, since, how long, before, ▪ I had been studying Political
after, when Science since 2019 when I got
first position.
Future Key Words: ▪ China will soon export Corona
Indefinite ▪ Tomorrow vaccine.
▪ Next (any time) ▪ I shall appear in exams next
▪ Coming (any time) year.
▪ Soon ▪ The students will play games
tomorrow in the Sports Gala.
Future Key Words: ▪ Pakistan will be winning the
Continuous At some time in future match at 5 pm next Sunday.
▪ He will be taking his breakfast
at this time next week.
Future Perfect ▪ Action will be completed in ▪ Pakistan will have won the
future. match by the time we reach
Key Words: home.
By (some time in future) ▪ I shall have finished this task
In ( some time in future) by tomorrow.
Future Perfect Key Words: ▪ In 2021, she will have been

Continuous For, since working Nearpeer for three
By the time years.
▪ When she will turn forty, she
will have been playing music
for twenty-one years.
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Linking Verbs
These verbs are often followed by adjectives instead of adverbs. In these sentences
the adjective describes the subject of the sentence and not the verb.
Appear, be, become, feel, get, go, grow, look, prove, remain, seem, smell,
sound, stay, taste, turn
How to identify a linking verb?

If the sense of a sentence does not change by replacing a verb with Be form “is, am,
are, was, were” it is a linking verb.
Examples:
▪ He feels relaxed. = He is relaxed (sense matches, hence feel is a linking verb
here).
▪ He feels pains. ≠ He is pains. (sense does not match, hence feel is not a linking
verb here).
14
Chapter 07
Adverbs
2
Adverbs
Adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Examples:
▪ Afridi plays nicely. (Describing a verb)
▪ Afridi plays a very nice shot. (Describing an adjective)
▪ Afridi plays very nicely. (Describing an adverb)
Types of Adverbs:
1. Adverb of manner
2. Adverb of place
3. Adverb of time
4. Adverb of reason
5. Adverb of degree
6. Adverb of frequency
1. Adverb of Manner
Adverb of manner tells how the action is being done.
Examples:
▪ Ali Zafar sings melodiously.
▪ My teacher teaches me efficiently.
▪ His brother responded quickly.
2. Adverb of Place
Adverb of Place tells where the action is being done.
Examples:
▪ Ali Zafar sings melodiously at concert.
▪ My teacher teaches me efficiently at Nearpeer.
▪ His brother responded quickly in the dining hall.
3. Adverb of Time
Adverb of Time tells when the action is being done.
Examples:
▪ Ali Zafar sang melodiously at concert last night.
▪ My teacher teaches me efficiently at Nearpeer during live sessions.
▪ His brother responded quickly in the dining hall in the morning.
3
4. Adverb of Reason
Adverb of Reason tells why the action is being done.
Examples:
▪ Ayesha’s father scolded her, for Ayesha got failed.
▪ PAF surprised IAF because IAF crossed the line.
▪ Aliya is crying because she could pass the exam.
5. Adverb of Degree
Adverb of degree tells how much the action is done.
Examples:
▪ Ayesha has almost completed the assignment.
▪ Jamil eats a lot when he sits with his friends.
▪ Junaid hardly learns his lesson for his memory is not so good.
6. Adverb of Frequency
Adverb of frequency tells how often the action is done.
Examples:
▪ Aliyan goes to college daily, but he seldom attends the class.
▪ Javeria had been writing to her father frequently since July.
Order of Adverb
M-P-T = Manner + Place + Time
Ali Zafar sang melodiously at concert last night.
Manner Place Time
My teacher teaches me efficiently at Nearpeer during live sessions.

Manner Place Time
His brother responded quickly in the dining hall in the morning.

Manner Place Time
Formation of Adverb
1. Noun + ly = Adjective
Friend + ly = friendly
Love + ly = lovely
Coward + ly = cowardly
4
Miser + ly = miserly
2. Adjective + ly = Adverb
nice + ly = nicely
quick + ly = quickly
swift + ly = swiftly
loud + ly = loudly
Note: Most words that end with “ly” are adverbs but not all. Some adjectives also end
with “ly”.
Friendly Lovely Silly Ugly

Likely Unlikely Lonely Early
Cowardly Sickly Deadly Lively
Adverb vs Adjective
Following words are used as both adverbs and adjectives.
Fast Hard
Late Early
Daily
Common Errors
1. “Too much” vs “Much too”:
Too much + Noun
▪ The death of his only son has given him too much pain.
Much too + Adjective
▪ Haris is much too handsome.
2. “Too” vs “very”:
Too (Negative):
▪ The water is too hot to drink. (Water cannot be drunk as it is extra hot)
Very (Positive)
▪ The book is very interesting.
5
3. “Good” vs “Well”:
Good (Adjective)
▪ Ali has a good sense of humor.
Well (Adverb)
▪ After he got a lecture on morality, he is behaving well now.
Note: “Well” is also used as an adjective when refereeing to “health”.
▪ I am well now. (I am healthy now).
4. “Still” vs “Yet”:
Still (Affirmative):
▪ Ahmar still works at Nearpeer.
Yet (Negative):
▪ The best has yet to come.
▪ Shahid Afridi has not shown his best performance yet.
5. Late vs Lately:
Late: (adjective)
▪ Ali had a late lunch today.
Late: (Adverb)
▪ Ali came late today.
Lately: (Adverb) = meaning recently
▪ Tahir developed his good habits lately.
6. Hard vs Hardly:
Hard: (Difficult or solid)
Hard (Adjective):
▪ The table is not hard.
Hard (Adverb):
▪ Ali works hard.
Hardly: (Adverb) Scarcely, almost not
▪ There is hardly any boy who can stay here for the project.
7. Much vs very:
Much:
i. Before comparative degrees
▪ Lahore is much larger than Sialkot.
ii. Before Past Participle adjectives
6
▪ The movie is very interesting.
Very:
i. (Before Positive Degree)
▪ Lahore is a very large city.
ii. (Before Present Participle adjectives)
▪ The movie is very interesting.
iii. Before Past Participle Adjectives
Verbs referring to mental state, feelings and reactions use “very” for past participle
adjectives.
▪ Ali is very confused today.
Enough:
Enough can qualify an adjective or an adverb or it can go with a noun.
i. With an Adjective or Adverb

“Enough” comes after adjectives or adverbs.
Examples:
▪ The water is hot enough to drink. (With an adjective)
▪ He does not drive fast enough. (With an adverb)
ii. With a Noun

“Enough” comes before noun.
Example:
▪ The box contains enough sugar.
iii. Exception - With a Noun

“Enough” can come after a noun as post positive adjective.
Example:
▪ There will be time enough to tell you when we will meet.
1. Dangling Modifiers
Dangling modifiers are modifiers are that are NOT related to the word or words it
modifies.
Examples:
▪ Going to the movie, the clouds drenched Ali.
▪ When twelve years old, my father got me admitted to a boarding school.
7
Correction:
Method #1:
a) Leave the modifier as it is.
b) Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term modified.
▪ Going to the movie, Ali was drenched by the clouds.

▪ When twelve years old, I got admitted to a boarding school by my father.
Method #2:
a) Change the modifier phrase to a subordinate clause creating a subject and a
verb.
b) Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.
▪ When Ali was going to the movie, the clouds drenched him.
▪ When I was twelve years old, my father got me admitted to a boarding school.
2. Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase or clause that is improperly separated from the
word it modifies/ describes.
Examples:
• On his way home, Ali found a gold man’s watch.
Types of Misplaced Adjectives:

i. Misplaced Adjectives
ii. Misplaced Adverb
iii. Misplaced Phrases
iv. Misplaced Clause
i. Misplaced Adjectives:
Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and
almost always distort the intended meaning.
Example:
• The broken boy’s arm will be treated at the General Hospital.
8
ii. Misplaced Adverb:
Placement of adverb can change the meaning of the sentence.
Example:
• We ate the dinner that we had bought slowly.
iii. Misplaced Phrase:

Misplaced phrases, modifying wrong nouns, can cause a sentence to give meaning
that is awkward and not intended.
Example:
• The waiter served the rice to the guests in the plates.
iv. Misplaced Clause:

Misplaced Clause, modifying wrong nouns, can cause a sentence to give meaning that
is awkward and not intended.
Examples:
• The waiter served the rice to the guests that were cooked in cauldron.
3. Squinting Modifiers
A misplaced modifier that may describe two situations is called a squinting modifier.
Example:
• I told my brother when the rain was over, I would go to market.
Meanings:
i. I told my brother when the rain was over.
ii. I would go to the market when the rain was over.
• The prime minister said on Monday he would decrease the wheat prices.
Meanings:
i. The prime minister said on Monday.
ii. On Monday he would decrease the wheat prices.
9
Chapter 08
Aricles
2
Articles
Article is a word that describes a noun. It makes a noun general/common or particular.
Types of Articles:
1. Indefinite Articles
2. Definite Article
1. Indefinite Articles (a, an):

They are used with a common and singular noun.
A:
Before consonant sounds
▪ A book, a girl, a boy, a university
An:
Before vowel sounds
▪ An apple, an MA, an MBBS, an inkpot
Use of Indefinite Articles:
Rule 1: Before common noun and name of profession.
Examples:
▪ He is a teacher.
▪ I saw an elephant yesterday.
Rule 2: Before the name of a person unknown to us.

Example:
▪ I met an Aliya in the party.
Rule 3: Before a common noun used as a first time.

Example:
▪ I saw an elephant. The elephant was not that big.
Rule 4: Omission of Indefinite Article:

i. Do not use A/An with uncountable nouns.
Example:
▪ He needs a wood to burn for bonfire. (Error)
▪ He needs wood to burn for bonfire. (Correct)
3
ii. Do not use A/An after the words “sort of-”, “type of-” “kind of-” .
Example:
▪ What kind of a book would you like to read? (Error)
▪ What kind of book would you like to read? (Correct)
2. Definite Article (the):

Definite Article indicates the shared knowledge of “Speaker and Listener” or “writer
and reader”.
Following are the rules to use definite article “the”:
1. Directions The east, the west, the south
2. Names of Allah The knowing, The seeing
3. Holy books & famous books The Quran, The Bang-e-Dira
4. Newspapers, magazines The Times, The Daily Jang
5. Water bodies Rivers, lakes, oceans, seas
6. Mountain Ranges The Himalayas
7. Heavenly bodies related to humans The universe, the cosmos, the milky
way, the sun, the moon
8. Deserts The Sahara, The Gobbi
9 Family Names The Maliks, The sheikhs
10 Nations The Muslims, The Sikhs
11 Abbreviated Countries & Countries The USA, The UAE, The Islamic Republic
with Kingdoms, states, republic, and of Pakistan, The people republic of
united China
12 Plural Islands and countries with The West Indies, The Netherlands
plural names
13 Phases of the day The morning, the noon, the evening
14 Titles The Quaid e Azam
15 Part of the bodies The arms, the nose
16 Superlative Degrees of Adjectives The best student, The tallest, the
funniest
17 Parallel comparative degrees The higher you go, the cooler it is.
18 Ordinal Numbers The First, The second
19 Before nominal adjectives The poor, the rich
20 Before a singular common noun to The dog is a faithful animal.
represent the whole class
21 Before the word Whole & Same The whole class ,The same student
22 Historical and famous The Baadshahi Mosque
23 The + Noun+ Relative Clause The man who helped me
The pen which I bought
The match that Pakistan lost
4
Rules and Exceptions for Definite Article
Rule 1: No article with abstract nouns
▪ Honesty is the best policy.
Exception: Definite article with abstract nouns when talking in particular
▪ The honesty that Ali showed can motivate many others.
Rule 2: No article with diseases

▪ Cancer is a deadly disease.
Exception: Definite article with phenomenon/ causes of diseases
▪ The Aids Virus is very dangerous.
Rule 3: No article with Proper Nouns

▪ I met Asif Ali Zardari last year.
Exception: Definite article with Proper Nouns when they are entitled to another person
▪ He is the Bill Gates of our class.
Rule 4: No article with Titles + Names

▪ President Arif Alvi is planning to Visit Lahore.
Exception: Definite article with Titles
▪ The Quaid-e-Azam led the nation from the front.
Rule 5: No Articles with names of planets.

▪ Mars is also called the red planet.
Exception: Definite article with heavenly bodies that are unique and only one of their
types in the universe like “the sun”, “the moon”, “the earth”, “the Milky way”, “the
cosmos”, and “the universe” etc.
▪ The sun rises in the east.
Rule 6: No use of article with the directions “East, West, North, South”
when they directly come after the verb.
▪ I like West, but my brother wants me to visit North.
Exception: Definite article “The” with directions when they come after a preposition.
▪ The sun sets in the west.
Rule 7: No Article with names of mountains.

▪ Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world.
Exception: Definite article “the” with mountain ranges.
5
▪ K-2 is the second highest peak in the world, and it lies in the Karakorum range
in Pakistan.
Rule 8: No article with the names of countries, cities, provinces, and

continents.
▪ Pakistan is an atomic power.
Exception: Definite Article with the name of Abbreviated Countries & Countries with
Kingdoms, states, republic, and united Plural Islands and countries with plural names.
▪ The United States of America is a veto country in the Security Council of the
UNO.
6
Chapter 09
Conjunctions
2
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words or punctuation marks that join words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences.
Example:
▪ Ali and Ayesha got married last month.
Types of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating
2. Correlative
3. Subordinating
1. Coordinating Conjunctions:
A coordinating conjunction is a word that joins two elements of equal grammatical
rank and syntactic importance. They can join two verbs, two nouns, two adjectives,
two phrases, or two independent clauses. The seven coordinating conjunctions are:
3
If, however, it connects two elements in the same clause, no comma is required.
Coordinating Conjunctions
For Ali cannot join the meeting, for he is unable to afford the
internet.
And I can read and write English.
Nor He does not like pizza, nor does he eat burger. He eats Desi
Foods.
But Aliya made pancakes for the breakfast, but her husband asked
her to make chicken bread for him.
Or Do you want ink pen or ball pen?
Yet He wanted to stay home, yet he could not resist going out.
So He made Ali run fast, so he could not miss his train.
2. Correlative Conjunctions:
Correlative Conjunctions are pairs of words used to connect two parts of a sentence
with equal value. Correlative Conjunctions must ensure proper verb and subject
agreement, as well as a parallel structure.
Combination Error
Both And Both Or
Both he and you must finish this work.
Combination Error
Not only But also Not only but
Not only did he help her, but also dropped her home safely.
Combination Error
Either Or Either Nor/and
Either you or your brother will help me.
Combination Error
Neither Nor Neither Or
Neither you nor your brother will help.
4
Combination Error
Whether Or Whether And
Tell me whether you will come or not.
Combination Error
Not / never Nor Not / never Or
I have never spoken to him nor written to him.
Combination Error
Rather Than Rather But/from
I would rather buy a scooter than a cycle.
Combination Error
Other Than Other But
He has no other object than to get a handsome job.
Combination Error
No sooner than No sooner When
No sooner did he reach than the train started.
Combination Error
Scarcely When Scarcely then
Scarcely a day goes by when they do not see or talk to each other.
Combination Error
Hardly When Hardly then
Hardly a day goes by when I don't think about you.
5
Combination Error
Lest Should Lest Should not
Work hard lest you should fail.
Combination Error
Else Would Else Lest
Leave on time, else, you would miss the train.
Combination Error
Such that Such Which/who
There was such a noise that we could not hear ourselves.
Combination Error
Same That Same Which
This is the same book that I wanted.
Combination Error
Too To Too Very
The water is too cold to drink.
Combination Error
Unless , Unless Not
Unless you provide the goods immediately, I shall not pay.
Combination Error
Until , Until Not
Until he solves this problem, I will stay with him.
6
Combination Error
Because , Because so
Because he came late, he failed to see her.
Combination Error
So As As As
Negative
Mohsin does not run so fast as Ahsan.
Combination Error
As As So As
Positive
She is as beautiful as her mother.
Combination Error
As if Were As if was
Unreal condition
He behaved as if he were mad.
3. Subordinating Conjunction
A subordinating conjunction is a word or phrase that links a dependent clause to an
independent clause. This word or phrase indicates that a clause has informative value
to add to the sentence's main idea, signaling a cause-and-effect relationship or a shift
in time and place between the two clauses.
After Once Until
Although Provided that When
As Rather than Whenever
Because Since Where
Before So that Whereas
Even if Than Wherever
Even though That Whether
7
If Though While
In order to Unless Why
Structure of Sentence when Subordinating Conjunction comes between

two clauses.
Example:
▪ You will pass the exams if you study hard.
Structure of Sentence when Subordinating Conjunction comes in the

beginning of sentence.
Example:
▪ Because Ali is my friend, I shall help him in any way.
4. Conjunctive Adverb
A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that is used to connect one clause to another. They
are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.
For example, in "I told him; thus, he knows."
Accordingly Nonetheless Likewise Finally

However Nevertheless Still Hence
Moreover Furthermore Conversely Then
Also Furthermore Meanwhile Instead
Indeed Subsequently Similarly Besides
Otherwise Consequently Therefore Thus
8
Structure of Sentence when a conjunctive adverb comes between two
clauses.
Example:
▪ Jameel kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.
9
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What do Sentence Completions test?

Direction in Question Paper

2. Vocabulary in Context Based

Example: Your knowledge of

Strategies to Attend Sentence Completion

1. Choose the transitional device

Types of Transitional Devices:

Additionally As well as In addition Again

Alternatively In contrast On the other hand But

3. Cause and Effect

and so consequently therefore as a consequence

2. Pick A Clue Word/Words

Note: Beware of double negative

Types of Concord Mistakes

Subject Verb Agreement

I. Noun Phrase as A Subject

Rule # 1: (Number Rule)

Singular Noun Singular Verb

Plural Noun Plural Verb

Rule # 5 (Subject 2 – verb agreement):

Rule # 6 (Phrase and Clause between subject and verb):

Rule # 7 (One of & only one of)

Rule # 8 (Gerund, Infinitive, Phrase and Clause as a subject):

Rule # 9 (Amount, Distance, Quantity, Time or Period As A Subject):

Rule # 10 (Fraction, Percentage as a Subject):

Rule # 12 (Majority and minority)

Rule # 13 (Indefinite Pronouns)

▪ Each of the boys is going to bring a single dish in the party.

II. Plural Indefinite Pronouns

III. Skeptical Indefinite Pronouns (Indefinite Pronouns that can be either

Noun Pronoun Agreement

I. Number (Singular & Plural)

Noun Quantifiers Agreement

Words Expressing Quantity

Water Wood Iron Oxygen

Honesty Bravery Advice

I. Common Groups of People:

Collective Noun Group

II. Common Groups of Animals:

III. Common Groups of Animals:

Collective Nouns are singular or Plural?

1. Singular Collective Nouns:

2. Plural Collective Nouns: Police and people are

Number of Noun/ Singular & Plural

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Plurals of Greek and Latin Words in English

Plurals of Compound Nouns

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Nouns That Are Always Singular

Baggage, Democracy, Progress, Equipment, Music, Garbage,

Nouns that are always Plural

Surroundings, Qualifications, Belongings, Ablutions Guts, Goods,

Nouns That Stand as both Singular and Plural

Sheep, Offspring, Deer, Aircraft, Fish, Species, Trout, Goldfish

Other nationalities require an “s” to form plurals.