HEAT TRANSFER

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, Conduction Through a Cylindrical Wall
convection, and radiation.
T1 Q
BASIC HEAT TRANSFER RATE EQUATIONS
Conduction
T2
Fourier’s Law of Conduction
r1
Qo =- kA dT , where
dx k
oQ = rate of heat transfer (W)
r2
k = the thermal conductivity [W/(m•K)]
A = the surface area perpendicular to direction of heat
transfer (m2) Cylinder (Length = L)

2rkL ^T1 - T2h

Convection
Newton’s Law of Cooling Qo =
ln d r2 n
r
Qo = hA _Tw - T3i, where 1

h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid Critical Insulation Radius
[W/(m2•K)] h∞
k
A = the convection surface area (m2) rcr = insulation
h3
Tw = the wall surface temperature (K)
T∞ = the bulk fluid temperature (K)
r insulation
Radiation k insulation
Thermal Resistance (R)
The radiation emitted by a body is given by
Qo = fvAT 4, where Qo = DT
Rtotal
ε = the emissivity of the body Resistances in series are added: Rtotal = RR, where
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2•K4)
A = the body surface area (m2) Plane Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): R = L , where
kA
T = the absolute temperature (K) L = wall thickness
ln d r2 n
r
CONDUCTION 1
Cylindrical Wall Conduction Resistance (K/W): R = ,
Conduction Through a Plane Wall 2rkL
where
L = cylinder length

T1 k Convection Resistance (K/W) : R = 1

hA
Composite Plane Wall
T2
Fluid 1 kA kB Fluid 2
Q T∞1 T1 T∞2
L h1 h2
T2

- kA ^T2 - T1h
Q
Qo = , where
L
A = wall surface area normal to heat flow (m2) T3
L = wall thickness (m) LA LB
T1 = temperature of one surface of the wall (K)
T2 = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K) 1 LA LB 1
h1 A kA A kB A h2 A
Q
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2

84 HEAT TRANSFER
To evaluate Surface or Intermediate Temperatures: Transient Conduction Using the Lumped Capacitance
T - T2 T2 - T3 Method
Qo = 1
RA = RB The lumped capacitance method is valid if
Steady Conduction with Internal Energy Generation Biot number, Bi = hV % 1, where
The equation for one-dimensional steady conduction is kAs
o
d 2T + Qgen = 0, where h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
dx 2 k [W/(m2•K)]
V = the volume of the body (m3)
Qo gen = the heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m3) k = thermal conductivity of the body [W/(m•K)]
As = the surface area of the body (m2)
For a Plane Wall
Fluid
h, T∞
T(x) Body

Ts1 Ts2 As
ρ, V, c P, T
Q gen k

Q"1 Q"2
Constant Fluid Temperature
x If the temperature may be considered uniform within the body
at any time, the heat transfer rate at the body surface is given
−L 0 L by
Qo = hAs ^T - T3h =- tV ^cP h b dT l, where
dt
Qo gen L2
T ^ xh = d1 - x 2 n + c s2 - s1 m b x l + c s1 - s2 m
2 T T T T
2k 2 L 2 T = the body temperature (K)
L
T∞ = the fluid temperature (K)
Qo 1" + Qo 2" = 2Qo gen L, where ρ = the density of the body (kg/m3)
cP = the heat capacity of the body [J/(kg•K)]
Qo " = the rate of heat transfer per area (heat flux) (W/m2) t = time (s)
Qo 1" = k b dT l and Qo 2" = k b dT l The temperature variation of the body with time is
dx - L dx L
T - T3 = _Ti - T3i e-bt, where
For a Long Circular Cylinder
hAs where b = 1x and
Ts b=
x = time constant ^ sh
tVcP

The total heat transferred (Qtotal) up to time t is

Q gen Qtotal = tVcP _Ti - T i, where
r0 Ti = initial body temperature (K)
Q'

o
1 d b r dT l + Qgen = 0
r dr dr k

T ]r g =
Qo genr02
f1 - r 2 p + Ts
2

4k r0
Qo l = rr02Qo gen, where

Qo l = the heat transfer rate from the cylinder per unit length of
the cylinder (W/m)

HEAT TRANSFER 85
Variable Fluid Temperature CONVECTION
If the ambient fluid temperature varies periodically according Terms
to the equation D = diameter (m)
T3 = T3, mean + 1 _T3, max - T3, min i cos ^~t h h = average convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
2
[W/(m2•K)]
L = length (m)
The temperature of the body, after initial transients have died Nu = average Nusselt number
away, is c n
Pr = Prandtl number = P
k
b ; 1 _T3, max - T3, min iE um = mean velocity of fluid (m/s)
T= 2 cos =~t - tan- 1 c ~ mG + T3, mean u∞ = free stream velocity of fluid (m/s)
~2 + b2 b
µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg/(s•m)]
Fins ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
For a straight fin with uniform cross section
(assuming negligible heat transfer from tip), External Flow
In all cases, evaluate fluid properties at average temperature
Qo = hPkAc _Tb - T3i tanh _ mLci, where between that of the body and that of the flowing fluid.
h = the convection heat transfer coefficient of the fluid
[W/(m2•K)] Flat Plate of Length L in Parallel Flow
P = perimeter of exposed fin cross section (m) tu3 L
k = fin thermal conductivity [W/(m•K)] ReL = n
Ac = fin cross-sectional area (m2)
Tb = temperature at base of fin (K) NuL = hL = 0.6640 Re1L 2 Pr1 3
_ReL < 105i
k
T∞ = fluid temperature (K)
hP NuL = hL = 0.0366 Re0L.8 Pr1 3
_ReL > 105i
m= k
kAc
A Cylinder of Diameter D in Cross Flow
Lc = L + c , corrected length of fin (m)
P tu3 D
ReD = n
Rectangular Fin
NuD = hD = C Re nD Pr1 3, where
k
T∞ , h
P = 2w + 2t ReD C n
Ac = w t 1–4 0.989 0.330
t 4 – 40 0.911 0.385
L w 40 – 4,000 0.683 0.466
Tb
4,000 – 40,000 0.193 0.618
40,000 – 250,000 0.0266 0.805

Flow Over a Sphere of Diameter, D

Pin Fin
NuD = hD = 2.0 + 0.60 Re1D 2 Pr1 3,
k
T∞ , h P= π D ^1 < ReD< 70, 000; 0.6 < Pr < 400h
πD 2 Internal Flow
Ac =
D 4 tumD
ReD = n
L
Tb Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes
For laminar flow (ReD < 2300), fully developed conditions
NuD = 4.36 (uniform heat flux)
NuD = 3.66 (constant surface temperature)

86 HEAT TRANSFER
For laminar flow (ReD < 2300), combined entry length with Outside Horizontal Tubes
constant surface temperature 0.25

NuD = hD = 0.729 > H

0.14
tl2 gh fg D3
1 3 , where
NuD = 1.86 f
ReDPr
d n nlkl _Tsat - Tsi
L p
nb k
ns , where
D
D = tube outside diameter (m)
L = length of tube (m) Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature
D = tube diameter (m) between the saturated temperature, Tsat, and the surface
µb = dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg/(s•m)] at temperature, Ts.
bulk temperature of fluid, Tb
Natural (Free) Convection
µs = dynamic viscosity of fluid [kg/(s•m)] at Vertical Flat Plate in Large Body of Stationary Fluid
inside surface temperature of the tube, Ts Equation also can apply to vertical cylinder of sufficiently large
diameter in large body of stationary fluid.
Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
For turbulent flow (ReD > 104, Pr > 0.7) for either uniform hr = C b k l RaLn, where
L
surface temperature or uniform heat flux condition, Sieder-
Tate equation offers good approximation: L = the length of the plate (cylinder) in the vertical
0.14 direction
NuD = 0.027 Re0D.8 Pr1 3 d nb n gb _Ts - T3i L3
n

s RaL = Rayleigh Number = Pr
v2
Non-Circular Ducts Ts = surface temperature (K)
In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic)
T∞ = fluid temperature (K)
diameter (DH) defined as
β = coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K)
DH = 4 # cross -sectional area 2
wetted perimeter (For an ideal gas: b = with T in absolute temperature)
Ts + T3
Circular Annulus (Do > Di) υ = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
In place of the diameter, D, use the equivalent (hydraulic)
diameter (DH) defined as Range of RaL C n
DH = Do - Di 104 – 109 0.59 1/4
109 – 1013 0.10 1/3
Liquid Metals (0.003 < Pr < 0.05)
NuD = 6.3 + 0.0167 Re0D.85 Pr0.93 (uniform heat flux) Long Horizontal Cylinder in Large Body of Stationary Fluid

h = C b k l Ra nD, where
NuD = 7.0 + 0.025 Re0D.8 Pr0.8 (constant wall temperature) D

Condensation of a Pure Vapor gb _Ts - T3i D3

On a Vertical Surface RaD = Pr
v2
0.25

NuL = hL = 0.943 > H

tl2 gh fg L3 RaD C n
, where
k nlkl _Tsat - Tsi 10 – 102
–3
1.02 0.148
ρl = density of liquid phase of fluid (kg/m3) 102 – 104 0.850 0.188
g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2) 104 – 107 0.480 0.250
hfg = latent heat of vaporization [J/kg] 107 – 1012 0.125 0.333
L = length of surface [m]
Heat Exchangers
µl = dynamic viscosity of liquid phase of fluid [kg/(s•m)] The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is
kl = thermal conductivity of liquid phase of fluid [W/(m•K)]
Qo = UAFDTlm, where
Tsat = saturation temperature of fluid [K]
Ts = temperature of vertical surface [K] A = any convenient reference area (m2)
F = heat exchanger configuration correction factor
Note: Evaluate all liquid properties at the average temperature (F = 1 if temperature change of one fluid is negligible)
between the saturated temperature, Tsat, and the surface U = overall heat transfer coefficient based on area A and
temperature, Ts. the log mean temperature difference [W/(m2•K)]
∆Tlm = log mean temperature difference (K)

HEAT TRANSFER 87
Heat Exchangers (cont.) Effectiveness-NTU Relations
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Concentric Tube and C
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Cr = min = heat capacity ratio
Cmax
ln d o n
D
R R fo For parallel flow concentric tube heat exchanger
1 1 Di 1 , where
1 - exp 8- NTU ^1 + Cr hB
fi
UA = hiAi + Ai + 2rkL + Ao + hoAo
f=
Ai = inside area of tubes (m ) 2 1 + Cr
Ao = outside area of tubes (m2) NTU =- ln 81 - f ^1 + Cr hB
Di = inside diameter of tubes (m) 1 + Cr
Do = outside diameter of tubes (m) For counterflow concentric tube heat exchanger
hi = convection heat transfer coefficient for inside of tubes
[W/(m2•K)] 1 - exp 8- NTU ^1 - Cr hB
^Cr< 1h
1 - Crexp 8- NTU ^1 - Cr hB
ho = convection heat transfer coefficient for outside of tubes f=
[W/(m2•K)]
k = thermal conductivity of tube material [W/(m•K)] f = NTU
1 + NTU
^Cr = 1h
Rfi = fouling factor for inside of tube [(m2•K)/W]
NTU = 1 ln c f - 1 m ^Cr< 1h
Rfo = fouling factor for outside of tube [(m2•K)/W] Cr - 1 fCr - 1

Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) NTU = f

1-f
^Cr = 1h
For counterflow in tubular heat exchangers
RADIATION
_THo - TCi i - _THi - TCoi Types of Bodies
DTlm =
ln d n Any Body
THo - TCi

THi - TCo For any body, α + ρ + τ = 1 , where

For parallel flow in tubular heat exchangers α = absorptivity (ratio of energy absorbed to incident energy)
_THo - TCoi - _THi - TCi i ρ = reflectivity (ratio of energy reflected to incident energy)
DTlm = , where
ln d Ho n
T - TCo τ = transmissivity (ratio of energy transmitted to incident
THi - TCi energy)
∆Tlm = log mean temperature difference (K) Opaque Body
THi = inlet temperature of the hot fluid (K) For an opaque body: α + ρ = 1
THo = outlet temperature of the hot fluid (K)
TCi = inlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) Gray Body
TCo = outlet temperature of the cold fluid (K) A gray body is one for which

Heat Exchanger Effectiveness, ε α = ε, (0 < α < 1; 0 < ε < 1), where

Qo actual heat transfer rate
f= o = ε = the emissivity of the body
Qmax maximum possible heat transfer rate

CH _THi - THoi C _T - TCi i For a gray body: ε + ρ = 1

or f = C Co
Cmin _THi - TCi i Cmin _THi - TCi i
f=
Real bodies are frequently approximated as gray bodies.
where
C = mc
o P = heat capacity rate (W/K) Black body
Cmin = smaller of CC or CH A black body is defined as one which absorbs all energy
incident upon it. It also emits radiation at the maximum rate
Number of Transfer Units (NTU) for a body of a particular size at a particular temperature. For
such a body
NTU = UA
Cmin
α=ε=1

88 HEAT TRANSFER
Shape Factor (View Factor, Configuration Factor) One-Dimensional Geometry with Thin Low-Emissivity Shield
Relations Inserted between Two Parallel Plates
Reciprocity Relations
Q12 Radiation Shield
AiFij = AjFji, where
Ai = surface area (m2) of surface i
Fij = shape factor (view factor, configuration factor); fraction
of the radiation leaving surface i that is intercepted by ε3, 1
surface j; 0 ≤ Fij ≤ 1 ε3, 2

Summation Rule for N Surfaces

A1 , T1,
N A2 , T2 ,
! Fij = 1 ε1 ε2
j=1

Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Bodies A3 , T3

Body Small Compared to its Surroundings
Qo 12 = fvA `T14 - T24j, where v `T14 - T24j
Qo 12 =
1 - f1 1 1 - f3, 1 1 - f3, 2 1 1 - f2
Qo 12 = the net heat transfer rate from the body (W) f1A1 + A1F13 + f3, 1A3 + f3, 2A3 + A3F32 + f2A2
ε = the emissivity of the body
σ = the Stefan-Boltzmann constant Reradiating Surface
[σ = 5.67 × 10-8 W/(m2•K4)] Reradiating Surfaces are considered to be insulated or
A = the body surface area (m2) adiabatic _Qo R = 0i .
T1 = the absolute temperature [K] of the body surface
T2 = the absolute temperature [K] of the surroundings
A1 , T1 , ε1 Q12 AR , TR , εR
Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Black
Bodies
The net energy exchange by radiation between two black
bodies that see each other is given by
Qo 12 = A1F12 v `T14 - T24j
A2 , T2 , ε2

Net Energy Exchange by Radiation between Two Diffuse- v `T14 - T24j

Gray Surfaces that Form an Enclosure Qo 12 =
1 - f1 1 1 - f2
f1A1 + -1 + f A
A1F12 + =c 1 m + c 1 mG
2 2
Generalized Cases A1F1R A2F2R
A1 , T1 , ε1

A2 , T2 , ε2

Q12 Q12

A1 , T1 , ε1
A2 , T2 , ε2

v `T14 - T24j
Qo 12 =
1 - f1 1 1 - f2
f1A1 + A1F12 + f2A2

HEAT TRANSFER 89