Phy Syllabus

The Perfect Answer
Revision Guide To... PHYSICS By SwH Learning
CAMBRIDGE
IGCSE
0972 / 0625
Core & Extended
Assessment
2nd Edition
HAZEL LINDSEY &

MARTIN BAILEY
N
T IO DS
CA WA
R
I FI 3O
N
C
E 2 0 2
SP S IN
E W XAM
N OR E
For use by Khadiga Mohamed khadigam72@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.
F
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CIE IGCSE
9-1 / A*-U

Contents
1. Motion, forces and energy ...........................................................................................................2
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques ..........................................................................2
1.2 Motion .............................................................................................................................................4
1.3 Mass and weight .............................................................................................................................6
1.4 Density ............................................................................................................................................7
1.5 Forces .............................................................................................................................................8
1.6 Momentum ....................................................................................................................................14
1.7 Energy, work and power................................................................................................................17
1.8 Pressure........................................................................................................................................23
2. Thermal physics ..........................................................................................................................25
2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter.....................................................................................................25
2.2 Thermal properties and temperature.............................................................................................27
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy ............................................................................................................31
3. Waves ...........................................................................................................................................36
3.1 General properties of waves .........................................................................................................36
3.2 Light ..............................................................................................................................................40
3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum.............................................................................................................49
3.4 Sound............................................................................................................................................51
4. Electricity and magnetism..........................................................................................................54
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism.................................................................................................54
4.2 Electrical quantities .......................................................................................................................56
4.3 Electric circuits ..............................................................................................................................65
4.4 Electrical safety .............................................................................................................................73
4.5 Electromagnetic effects.................................................................................................................74
5. Nuclear physics...........................................................................................................................82
5.1 The nuclear model of the atom .....................................................................................................82
5.2 Radioactivity..................................................................................................................................84
6. Space physics .............................................................................................................................91
6.1 Earth and the Solar System ..........................................................................................................91
6.2 Stars and the Universe..................................................................................................................97
Practical skills assessed in Paper 5 & 6 .......................................................................................100
Symbols and units for physical quantities ...................................................................................103
Copyright © 2022 Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission from Science with Hazel Ltd
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Front cover image: sitox from Getty Images 
Copyright © Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey 2022 1

NOTE: Core content is given in this format (Grades 1-5). Extended content is given in italics
(grades 5-9).
1. MOTION, FORCES AND ENERGY
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
How is length measured?

- Using a ruler for lengths from millimetres to a metre
How is volume measured?
- Using a measuring cylinder
- Read at eye-level and from bottom of meniscus to avoid parallax errors
How can an interval of time be measured?
- Clock, stop-clock or stopwatch
- Analogue with a hand moving around a circular scale
- Digital with numbers displayed on a screen
- Digital timers are more accurate than analogue
- No parallax errors when reading time
Why is an average value calculated when carrying out investigations?
- Reduces random errors and uncertainty
- Gives more accurate value than a single experiment
How is the average (mean) value calculated?
- Find the sum of the values by adding them
- Divide by the number of values in the data set
Worked Example 1: Calculating An Average Value For A Small Distance

Two students are investigating reaction times. Student A holds a ruler so that the bottom end of
the ruler is between the finger and thumb of student B. When student A releases the ruler,
student B catches the ruler as quickly as he can. The students repeated the investigation 5
times. Their results are shown in the table below:
Distance dropped (cm)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5
12.3 10.2 11.7 9.8 11.6
Calculate the average distance that the ruler dropped.
Answer:
12.3 + 10.2 + 11.7 + 9.8 + 11.6 = 11.1 cm
5
What is a complete oscillation of a pendulum?

- A full swing of the pendulum
- e.g. from centre, to right hand side, to left hand side and back to centre
What is the period of a pendulum?
- Time taken for one complete oscillation

Worked Example 2: Calculating The Period Of Oscillation Of A Pendulum
A student swings a pendulum and measures the time t for 20 complete oscillations using a
stopwatch. The stopwatch shows a value of 28.12 seconds. Calculate the period of the
pendulum.
Answer:
28.12 = 1.41 seconds
20
What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?

- Scalar - magnitude (size) only
- Vector - magnitude and direction
There are only 7 vector quantities you need to know (assume everything else is scalar!)
- Force
- Weight
- Velocity
- Acceleration
- Momentum
- Electric field strength
- Gravitational field strength
Worked Example 3: Determining The Resultant Of Two Vectors At Right Angles

Two forces act on an object - a 15 N force directly upwards, and an 8 N force at 90° to the right.
Calculate the resultant vector
Answer:
Step 1: Draw the vectors (to scale if possible) at right angles to each other
Step 2: Complete the rectangle and draw a diagonal line from corner to
corner
15 N X
Step 3: Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant vector
(green arrow), either by measuring with a ruler and protractor if drawn
to scale, or by trigonometry θ
Magnitude (length of green arrow)

82 + 152 = 𝑥2 8 N
𝑥2 = 289
𝑥 = 17 N
Direction (angle between North and green arrow)

cos θ = 15
17
cos θ = 0.882
θ = 28.1°

1.2 Motion
Define speed
- Distance travelled per unit time
Define velocity
- Speed in a given direction
- A vector quantity
Remember
What is the equation for average speed? s
- Average speed = total distance travelled s stands for distance
total time taken v x t v stands for speed
- v= s÷t
Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Distance - Time Graphs
5. Upward curving line =
3. Downwards curving line = accelerating
Distance (m) decelerating
6. Straight line
towards x axis =
4. Horizontal line = constant speed back
stationary (at rest) towards starting point
1. Straight line =
moving at constant
speed away from
starting point Time (s)
2. Steeper straight line =
moving at faster constant
speed away from starting
point
How do you find the velocity on a distance-time graph?

- Calculate the gradient
How is the gradient of a straight line calculated?
- Change in y-axis
Change in x-axis
Describe how to investigate the average speed of an object

- Measure distance travelled
- e.g. with a ruler
- Use a suitable, sensible distance
- Measure time taken
- e.g. with a stopwatch
- Start and stop timing at a set point
- Repeat experiment and calculate mean time
- Speed = distance ÷ time
How could the accuracy of this investigation be improved?
- More accurate timing method
- e.g. using light gates

Define acceleration
- Change in velocity per unit time
What is the equation for acceleration?
- Acceleration = change in velocity
time taken
- a = (v - u)
t
- a = acceleration v = final velocity u = initial velocity t = time

Velocity - Time Graphs
3. Travelling at constant
Velocity (m/s) velocity (no acceleration)
2. Constant
4. Decelerating at a
acceleration at faster
constant rate
rate
Area under graph =

1. Constant distance travelled
acceleration
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s)
Describe the motion of the object shown by the velocity - time graph above
- From 0-10s, object accelerates slowly
- From 10-20s, object accelerates faster
- From 20-40s, object travels at constant velocity (Note: it does not stop)
- From 40-50s, object decelerates until it stops
How do you find acceleration on a velocity-time graph?
- Calculate gradient
How do you find the distance travelled in a velocity-time graph?
- Calculate area under the graph
Define deceleration
- Negative acceleration
- i.e. slowing down
Give the value of g, acceleration of free fall on Earth
- 9.8 m/s2
Describe the motion of objects falling in a uniform gravitational field
- Weight of object acts downwards
- Drag/air resistance acts upwards
- Object accelerates downwards
- Eventually weight = drag
- No resultant force, no acceleration, forces are balanced
- Terminal velocity (constant velocity) is reached

Terminal Velocity Of A Skydiver
Velocity (m/s) 3. Terminal velocity
reached. Forces balanced
Weight = air resistance
4. Parachute opened.
Skydiver decelerates
2. As speed increases, air Weight < air resistance
resistance increases.
Acceleration slows
Weight > air resistance 5. New, slower terminal
velocity reached
1. Skydiver accelerates Weight = air resistance
Weight >> air resistance
Time (s)
Credit: Pngtree, adapted by Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Air resistance
Weight
2. As speed increases,
3. Terminal velocity 4. Parachute opened. 5. New, slower terminal
1. Skydiver accelerates air resistance increases.
reached. Forces balanced Skydiver decelerates velocity reached
Weight >> air resistance Acceleration slows
Weight = air resistance Weight < air resistance Weight = air resistance
Weight > air resistance
How would the motion of a falling object differ if there was no air resistance or drag?
- Forces would remain unbalanced
- Object would continue to accelerate downwards at a constant rate
1.3 Mass and weight
Define mass
- The measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest (relative to the observer)
Define weight
W
- A gravitational force acting on an object that has mass
- Unit = Newtons m x g
What is the equation linking weight, mass and gravitational field strength?
- Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
- W=mxg
Describe how weight changes if the gravitational field strength increases
- Weight increases
- g has increased, m is constant
- Therefore W must increase

How are weights and masses measured?
- Using a balance
1.4 Density
Give the equation linking density, mass and volume

- Density = mass
volume m
- 𝝆 = m
V p x V
- Units = kg/m3
Worked Example 4: Density & Volume

The mass of 100 cm3 of a liquid and a conical flask is 152 g. The mass of the empty conical flask
is 106 g. What is the density of the liquid in kg/m3?
Step 1: Calculate the mass of the liquid
152 g - 106 g = 46 g
Step 2: Convert all your units into the required form (kg and m3)
46 g = 0.046 kg
100 cm3 = 0.0001 m3
To convert cm3 into m3,
Step 3: Use the equation 𝝆=m÷V divide by 1,000,000
𝝆 = 0.046 ÷ 0.0001 To convert m3 into cm3,

multiply by 1,000,000
𝝆 = 460 kg/m3
How do you measure the density of a regular solid object?

- Use a balance to measure object’s mass
- Use a ruler to measure object’s volume (length x depth x height)
- Density = mass ÷ volume
How do you measure the density of an irregular solid object?
- Use a balance to measure object’s mass
- Lower object into known volume of liquid
- Measure new volume of liquid (or volume of liquid removed from container)
How do you measure the density of a liquid?
- Measure mass of empty beaker using a balance
- Measure mass of beaker now containing liquid
What determines whether an object will float or sink in water?
- The object’s density
- If density of object < density of water → object floats
- If density of object > density of water → object sinks
What determines whether a liquid will float on top of another liquid (assuming they do not mix)?
- The liquid’s density
- If density of liquid A < density of liquid B → liquid A floats on top of liquid B

Worked Example 5: Floating & Sinking
Material Density (g/cm3)
Water 1.00
Ice 0.92
Ethanol 0.80
1. Using the table above, explain why ice floats on water.

Answer: The density of ice (0.92 g/cm3) is less than the density of water (1.00 g/cm3). Ice will
therefore float on water
2. A student mixes equal volumes of water and ethanol in a sealed container. Predict whether
one liquid will float on another liquid based on the table above. Assume that the liquids do not
mix.
Answer: Ethanol will float on top of water. This is because the density of ethanol (0.80 g/cm3) is
lower than the density of water (1.00 g/cm3)
1.5 Forces
1.5.1 Effects of forces
What effect does a force have on an object?

- Changes object’s speed
- Changes object’s direction
- Changes object’s shape
What is Hooke’s law?
- The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied
- Provided its limit of proportionality (elastic limit) is not exceeded
Define elastic behaviour
- Ability of a material to revert to its original shape after forces causing deformation have been
removed
What happens if the elastic limit/limit of proportionality is exceeded?

- Material no longer reverts to original shape after the forces have been removed
Explain how to investigate whether a spring obeys Hooke’s law
- Measure original length of spring
- Add a known weight and measure force using a Newton meter
- Measure the new length using a ruler and calculate extension
- Repeat for range of weights
- Plot graph of extension against force
- Graph should be a straight line through origin
- Force proportional to extension
- If graph is curved, spring does not obey Hooke’s law

Investigating Hooke’s Law
N N N N
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
6 6 6 6
Original
length
Extension
1 Extension
2 Extension
3
Does not obey Hooke’s Law

Extension (cm)
Remember:
Limit of proportionality
Force (N) =
Weight (N)
Obeys Hooke’s Law
0
Force (N)
How can the accuracy of the above investigation be improved?

- Measure from same part of spring each time
- Make sure spring is stationary before reading
- Repeat readings by taking off weights
- Check value of weights on a balance
- Check ruler is parallel to spring to avoid parallax errors
What is the spring constant?
- Force per unit of extension
- A measure of the stiffness of a spring
- Up to its limit of proportionality

How is the spring constant (k) calculated?
- Spring constant = force
extension F
- k=F
𝑥 k x X
- Force (F) in Newtons (N)
- Spring constant (k) in N/m
- Extension (𝑥) in metres (m)
Worked Example 6: Calculating The Spring Constant
A force of 3 N is applied to a 20 cm spring. The spring stretches to 35 cm. When the force is
removed, the spring returns to its original length. Calculate the spring constant
Step 1: Calculate the extension
35 cm - 20 cm = 15 cm
Step 2: Convert all your units into the required form (N and m)
15 cm = 0.15 m
Step 3: Use the equation k=F÷𝑥
k = 3 ÷ 0.15
k = 10 N/m
What is Newton’s 1st Law?

- If forces acting on an object are balanced, the resultant force is zero
- Object at rest → stays stationary
- Object moving → continues to move in same direction and at same speed
What is Newton’s 2nd Law?
- Acceleration is proportional to resultant force
- Inversely proportional to mass of object
How is the resultant force acting along a line calculated?
- Add up all forces acting in useful direction
- Subtract all forces acting in the opposite direction Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning
Resultant Forces Acting On A Block
30N 70N
30N 30N
30N – 30N = 0N 70N – 30N = 40N
- Resultant forces are balanced - Resultant forces are not balanced
- If object is stationary, it remains stationary - Object accelerates to the right
- If object moving, it continues to move at
constant speed

What is the equation linking force, mass and acceleration?
- Force = mass x acceleration F
- F=mxa m x a
- Force and acceleration must be acting in the same direction
What is friction?
- Force between two solid surfaces that opposes motion
- Kinetic energy converted into thermal energy

Forces Acting Upon A Car
Driving Force
Normal Reaction
Friction
Weight
What is drag?
- Friction that acts on an object moving through a liquid or gas
- In gas, this is also called air resistance
Describe the circular motion of an object orbiting at a constant speed
- Speed is constant
- Direction of travel is changing as object moves along circular path
- Therefore velocity is always changing

Circular Motion
V Speed
Circular path F Perpendicular force

(centripetal force)
r
Radius
Describe the change in motion in a circular path if the perpendicular force increases
- As force increases, speed increases
- If mass and radius are constant
- As force increases, radius decreases
- If mass and speed are constant

Describe the change in force acting on an object moving in a circular path if the object’s mass
increases
- Force must also increase
- If speed and radius are constant
1.5.2 Turning effect of forces
What is Newton’s 3rd Law?

- Every force has an equal and opposite reaction
What is a moment?
- The turning effect of a force
- Units = Newton metres (Nm)
What is the equation to calculate the moment of a force?
- Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
How do you increase the moment of a force?
- Increase distance
- Increase force
What is the relationship between the clockwise and anticlockwise moments on a balanced object?
- Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
- When there is no resultant force or moment, an object is in equilibrium
Worked Example 7: Upwards Forces On A Beam

Calculate the upwards forces at points A and B when a 50N block is i) placed at the centre of a
1m beam, and ii) placed 20cm from point A on the beam. Assume the beam has no mass.
Block Block
A B A B
50N 50N
1m 20cm 80cm
i) The downwards force acts equally on A & B ii) clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
The beam is balanced so total upwards force = Take the moments about A to find the force at B
total downwards force
0.2 x 50 = 1.0 x B
A = B = 50 / 2 Force at B = 10 ÷ 1.0 = 10N
= 25 N Total force = 50N (weight of block)
So force at A = 50 – 10 = 40N
iii) Explain why point A in part ii feels a larger force than point B
- Clockwise and anticlockwise moments equal
- Block closer to A
- So force on A must be larger to get same moment for smaller distance
- Force and distance inversely proportional

Worked Example 8: Moments
A builder uses a uniform beam to lift a block. The builder holds the beam horizontal. The arrows
on the diagram represent three forces on the plank. Calculate i) the clockwise moment of the
block about the pivot, and ii) the force, F, of the builder pushing down on the beam
Block
Anticlockwise Clockwise
moment moment
0.75 m
150 N
F 800 N
Length of beam = 4 m
i) Moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
Clockwise moment = 800 x 0.75
= 600 Nm
ii) Step 1: Calculate the distance from the pivot to the centre of the beam, and from the pivot to
the builder
Pivot to centre = 1.25m
Pivot to builder = 3.25m
Step 2: Use sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments to calculate F
600 = (150 x 1.25) + (3.25 x F)
600 = 187.5 + 3.25F
3.25F = 412.5
F = 127 N
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no resultant moment on an object in

equilibrium
- Suspend a metre rule horizontally from its centre (O) using a strong thread
- Suspend two differing masses (W1 and W2) on either side of the thread
- Adjust the distances of two weights until the ruler is balanced and horizontal
- Calculate the weight of each mass
- Using the equation W = mg
- Calculate the clockwise and anti-clockwise moment
- Using the equation: moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
- Clockwise moment = W2 × L2
- Anti-clockwise moment = W1 × L1
- If the ruler is horizontal (in equilibrium), clockwise moment = anti-clockwise moment
Demonstrating That There Is No Resultant Moment On An Object In Equilibrium

L1 L2
W2
W1

1.5.3 Centre of gravity
Define ‘centre of gravity’

- The point on an object where its weight appears to act through
Describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped
plane lamina (i.e. a flat piece of irregular-shaped card)
- Suspend a plumb line (thread with a weight on the end) from a clamp stand
- Make three holes near edge of lamina
- Suspend lamina through one hole and hang behind plumb line
- Trace plumb line to draw line of equilibrium
- Repeat for other two holes in lamina
- Point of intersection of the three lines is the centre of gravity 

Finding The Centre Of Gravity Of An Irregularly Shaped Plane Lamina
Centre of
gravity
Plumb line
Describe the effect of the position of the centre of gravity on the stability of an object
- Low centre of gravity = stable object
- High centre of gravity = unstable object
- If centre of gravity is above base = stable object
- If centre of gravity is outside of base = unstable object

Effect Of The Position Of The Centre Of Gravity
= centre of gravity
Low centre of gravity High centre of gravity

Centre of gravity above base Centre of gravity outside base
STABLE UNSTABLE
1.6 Momentum
What is the equation for momentum?

- Momentum = mass x velocity
- p=mxv
- Units = kg m/s

Define impulse
- Force x time for which the force acts
- Impulse = FΔt = change in momentum
- Δt → change in time
- Units = N s
What is meant by the conservation of momentum?
- Total momentum stays the same before and after an explosion/collisions
- As long as no external forces act on the objects
- Momentum before = momentum after
Describe what happens to momentum when two objects collide
- They exert equal and opposite forces on each other
- Their total momentum is unchanged
Worked Example 9: Impulse

A student kicks a ball with a force of 30 N, the time the force acts for is 0.3 s. Calculate the
impulse on the ball.
Impulse = Force x time for which the force acts

Impulse = 30 N x 0.3 s
Impulse = 9 N s
Worked Example 10: Conservation Of Momentum

Truck A has a mass 500kg and is moving at 4 m/s to the right. It collides with Truck B. Truck B
has a of mass 1500kg and is moving at 1.5m/s also to the right. What is their common velocity
after the collision if they stick together?
Momentum before = Momentum after
Step 1: Calculate the momentum of both trucks before the collision occurs
Truck A: p = m x v
p = 500 x 4
p = 2000 kg m/s
Truck B: p = 1500 x 1.5
p = 2250 kg m/s
Step 2: Calculate the momentum of both trucks after, using 𝒙 for the unknown velocity
p=mxv
p = (1500 + 500) x 𝒙
p = 2000𝒙
Step 3: Use momentum before = momentum after to calculate 𝒙
2000 + 2250 = 2000𝒙

4250 = 2000𝒙 (÷ 2000)
Answer: 𝒙 = 2.13 m/s

Worked Example 11: Conservation Of Momentum (Recoil Velocity)
A girl is standing still and fires a rifle. The bullet has a mass of 0.045kg and travels at 350m/s. If
the girl has a mass of 60kg, with what velocity does she move backwards?
Momentum before = Momentum after
Step 1: The girl was standing still and the bullet was not moving, so the momentum before was 0
What is the relationship between force, change in momentum and time taken?
momentum of both girl and bullet after, using 𝒙 for the unknown velocity
- Step 2: Calculate
Force = change the
in momentum
Bullet: p = 0.045 x 350
time
- F = (mv - mu) p = 15.75
t Girl p = 60 x 𝒙
Step 3: Use momentum before = momentum after to calculate 𝒙
0 = 60𝒙 + 15.75
60𝒙 = -15.75 (÷ 60)
Answer: 𝒙 = - 0.263 m/s (i.e. girl moves in the opposite direction to bullet)
Explain how seat belts/crumple zones/air bags prevent serious injury

- Force = change in momentum
time
- Same momentum change
- But time of impact increases
- Reduces force felt
- Seat belt stretches increasing area over which force acts
- Pressure on body reduces
Worked Example 12: Momentum & Force

In a crash test, a car runs into a wall and stops. The momentum of the car before the crash is
22500 kg m/s. The car stops in 0.14s. Calculate the average force on the car during the crash.
Force = change in momentum
time
Step 1: Calculate the change in momentum
Momentum before = 22500 kg m/s
Momentum after = 0
Change in momentum = 22500
Step 2: Calculate the average force
Force = change in momentum
time
Force = 22500
0.14
Answer: Force = 160 714 N (160 000 N to 2 s.f)

1.7 Energy, work and power
1.7.1 Energy
Give examples of the different types of energy store
Energy Store Description Example
Chemical Energy stored in chemical bonds Food, fuel, batteries
Kinetic Energy of a moving object Car moving, person running
Water behind dam, sitting on a

Gravitational potential Energy of an object at height
ski lift
Energy stored when an object is

Elastic potential (strain) Springs, elastic bands
stretched or squashed
Energy stored in the nucleus of an

Nuclear Uranium fuel
atom
Total kinetic and potential energy of

Internal (thermal) Hot water, human bodies
the particles in an object
Energy stored when repelling

Thunder clouds, van der Graaf
Electrostatic charges pushed closer together or
generators
attracting charges pulled further apart
How may energy be transferred?

- Mechanically
- i.e. a force moving an object through a distance
- Electrically
- i.e. charges moving due to a potential difference
- By heating
- Due to temperature difference caused electrically or by chemical reaction
- By radiation
- Energy transferred as a wave, e.g. light, sound, infrared
Give the equation linking kinetic energy, mass and velocity
- Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity2
- Ek = ½mv2
Give the equation linking gravitational potential energy, mass, gravitational field strength and height
- Gravitational potential energy = mass x gravitational field strength x height
- ΔEp = mgΔh
What is the relationship between gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy?
- Gravitational potential energy lost = kinetic energy gained

Worked Example 13: Gravitational Potential Energy & Kinetic Energy
A toy car of mass 1kg slides down a slope. If the top of the slope is 2m higher than the foot of the
slope, how fast will the car be moving when it reaches the foot? (Assume that all of its GPE is
transformed to KE.)
Step 1: Calculate change in gravitational potential energy (GPE)
ΔEp = mgΔh
ΔEp = 1 x 9.8 x 2
ΔEp = 19.6
Step 2: Calculate kinetic energy (KE), leaving the unknown v2 in the equation
Ek = ½mv2
Ek = ½ x 1 x v2
Ek = ½v2
Step 3: Use GPE lost = KE gained and solve to find the value of v
GPE lost = KE gained
19.6 = ½v2
39.2 = v2
v = 6.3 m/s
Define conservation of energy

- Energy cannot be created or destroyed - it can only be converted from one form into another
- Energy input = energy output
Describe the energy changes in an object falling to ground
- Kinetic energy increases
- Gravitational potential energy decreases
Describe the energy changes when a falling object hits the ground
- Kinetic energy decreases
- Wasted energy is thermal energy
What do Sankey diagrams show?
- How all the energy in a system is transferred into different stores
Worked Example 14: Efficiency & Sankey Diagrams
A panel of solar cells converts energy from the Sun into electrical energy. It was calculated that
for every 200 J of energy from the Sun, 176 J of energy is wasted by the solar cells.
Draw a Sankey diagram for the energy transferred by the panel of solar cells
Electrical energy Remember:

Energy from Sun = 24 J To draw a Sankey diagram, start
with your total energy in, and
= 200 J show it splitting into the various
forms of energy it is being
transferred to. The width of the
arrows should be proportional to
the amount of energy.
Energy wasted = 176 J

1.7.2 Work
What is the equation linking work done, force and distance?

- Work done = force x distance
- W=Fxd W
- Units = Joules (J)
F x d
What is the relationship between work done and energy transferred?
- Work done = energy transferred
Worked Example 15: Work Done

A force of 20 N is required to lift an object 1.25 m.
Calculate i) the work done on the object and ii) the useful energy transferred to the mass
i) Use the equation Work done = force x distance
Work done = 20 x 1.25
Work done = 25 J
ii) Use the equation Work done = energy transferred
Work done = 25 J
Therefore Energy transferred = 25 J
1.7.3 Energy resources
Summarise the following methods of generating energy
Method of obtaining useful energy
Fossil fuels Burning of oil, coal or gas to produce steam which drives turbines
Burning of biofuels (e.g. ethanol, methane) to produce steam

Biofuels
which drives turbines
Wave power Kinetic energy from waves drive floating electricity generators
Hydroelectric Generators are turned by water running downhill
Tidal power Traps high tide and uses it to turn generators
Wind power Wind turbine powers generator
Water pumped into hot rocks underground produces steam to

Geothermal
turn turbines
Radioactive material used to produce heat which creates steam

Nuclear power
to drive turbines
Solar cells Flat solid cells that convert solar energy directly into electricity
Solar heating panels Use Sun’s energy to heat water directly

Give the energy transfers involved in each type of energy resource
Energy transfers
Fossil fuels Chemical energy → thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
Biofuels Chemical energy → thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
Wave power Kinetic energy → electrical energy
Hydroelectric Gravitational potential energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
Tidal power Kinetic energy → electrical energy
Wind power Kinetic energy → electrical energy
Geothermal Thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
Nuclear power Nuclear energy → thermal energy → kinetic energy → electrical energy
Solar cells Nuclear energy (the Sun) → thermal energy → electrical energy
Solar heating
Nuclear energy (the Sun) → thermal energy
panels
Describe the energy transfers at each stage of electricity generation using geothermal energy
- Thermal energy transferred from hot rock to cold water
- Water molecules gain kinetic energy as they are heated
- Turbine gains kinetic energy from steam
- Generator transfers kinetic energy from turbine into electrical energy
What is the source of most of the Earth’s energy?
- The Sun
- Transferred to Earth by radiation
Which energy resources are not reliant on the Sun?
- Geothermal
- Nuclear
- Tidal
How is energy released from the Sun?
- Nuclear fusion
- Research is being carried out to investigate how nuclear fusion can be used to produce
electrical energy on a large scale
Define renewable resource

- An energy source that is replenished at a faster rate than the rate at which it is being used
Define non-renewable resource
- An energy source that will run out

Give the advantages and disadvantages of each type of energy resource
Advantages Disadvantages
- Reliable - Non-renewable
Fossil fuels - Can produce large amounts of - Produce greenhouse gases and
energy at short notice pollution
- Renewable
- Carbon neutral (do not release - Natural habitats may be cleared to
Biofuels produce biofuel crops
additional carbon dioxide into
atmosphere) - Food crops may be lost
- Few suitable locations

Wave power - Renewable - Destroys habitats
- No atmospheric pollution - Disrupts migration/feeding areas
- Renewable
- Reliable
Hydroelectric - No atmospheric pollution - May need to flood large area
- Can produce large amounts of - Destroys habitats
energy at short notice
- Renewable - Few suitable locations

Tidal power - Reliable - Destroys habitats
- Energy produced at regular - Disrupts shipping
intervals
- Unreliable - wind needs to blow

- Renewable above certain speed
Wind power - No atmospheric pollution - Visual pollution - spoils view
- Land still usable for farming - Destroys habitats/hazard to birds
- Source of energy is free - High installation/maintenance costs
- Requires large site
- Few suitable locations

Geothermal - Renewable - Harmful gases can be released
- Reliable from ground
- Reliable
Nuclear power - No atmospheric pollution - Non-renewable
- Can produce large amounts of - Produces radioactive waste
energy from small amount of fuel
- Unreliable - requires lots of sunlight

- Renewable
- Expensive installation costs
Solar cells - No atmospheric pollution
- Takes up lots of space / farmland
- Can be used in remote places
- Slow to respond to change in
- Low maintenance costs
demand
- Renewable
Solar heating - No atmospheric pollution - Unreliable - requires lots of sunlight
panels - Can be used in remote places - Expensive installation costs

Explain why burning fossil fuels can be harmful to the environment
- Carbon dioxide produced - contributes to global warming
- Sulfur dioxide & nitrogen oxides produced - cause acid rain
Give the advantages of using wind turbines instead of a coal power station to produce electricity
- Reduced running costs
- No atmospheric pollution
- Wind is a renewable resource
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using solar power rather than fossil fuels to
generate electricity
- Advantages:
- No carbon emissions
- No contribution to global warming
- Renewable
- Disadvantages:
- Needs a favourable climate
- Doesn’t work at night
- Needs a lot of space
- Cannot respond to rapid changes in demand
Describe the problems that arise from the disposal of uranium after it is used as a fuel
- Radioactive - high activity rate
- Long half life - requires long term storage
- Radioactivity is dangerous to people and the environment
- Expensive to contain and dispose of
- Needs secure lead shielding and deep burial
- Container must not rust - groundwater could become contaminated
What is meant by the efficiency of an energy transfer?
- The proportion of energy supplied that is transferred in useful ways
- An efficient device will waste very little input energy
How is efficiency calculated?
- Efficiency = useful energy output x 100
total energy input
- Efficiency = useful power output x 100
total power input
Worked Example 16: Efficiency

It was calculated that for every 200 J of energy from the Sun, 176 J of energy is wasted by solar
panels. Calculate the efficiency of the solar panels
Step 1: Calculate the useful electrical energy generated
200 – 176 = 24 J
Step 2: Use the equation Efficiency = useful energy output x 100
total energy input
Efficiency = 24 x 100
200
Efficiency = 12%

1.7.4 Power
Define power
- The work done (or energy transferred) per unit time
Give the equation linking power, work done and time taken
- Power = work done
time taken
- P=W W
t P x t
- Units = Watts (W)
Give the equation linking power, energy and time taken

- Power = energy transferred
time taken
- P = ΔE
t
- Units = Watts (W)
Worked Example 17: Power & Work Done

A large elastic band is stretched 34 cm by a student. The average resistance force is 23 N.
Calculate i) the work done when the elastic band is stretched once and ii) the average power of
the student when the band is stretched 15 times in 1 minute
i) Use the equation Work done = force x distance
Work done = 23 x 0.34 (Remember to convert cm to m)
Work done = 7.82 J
ii) Step 1: Calculate the average time for each stretch of the elastic band (1 minute = 60 s)
60 ÷ 15 = 4 s
Step 2: Use the equation Power = work done ÷ time
Power = 7.82 ÷ 4
Power = 1.96 W (3 s.f.)
1.8 Pressure
Give the equation linking pressure, force and area

- Pressure = force
area F
- p=F
A p x A
- Units = Pascals (Pa) or N/m2
A hammer hits a nail. Explain why the nail exerts more pressure on the wood than on the hammer
- Pressure = force ÷ area
- Forces on wood and hammer are equal
- Smaller area of nail is in contact with wood compared to hammer
- Pressure is therefore greater on wood than on hammer

Worked Example 18: Force & Pressure
A student has a mass of 52 kg. They measured the area of their foot, and calculated it to be
148cm2. Calculate the pressure in N/m2 that the student exerts on the ground when they are
standing on both feet.
Step 1: Calculate the weight of the student
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
Weight = 52 x 9.8
Weight = 509.6 N
Step 2: Convert 148 cm2 into m2
To convert cm2 into m2,
148 cm2 = 0.0148 m2 divide by 10,000
Step 3: Use the equation Pressure = force ÷ area
To convert m2 into cm2,
P = 509.6 ÷ (0.0148 x 2) multiply by 10,000
P = 17216 N/m2
How does pressure at any point in a gas or liquid act?

- Equally in all directions
Describe how atmospheric pressure changes with altitude
- Pressure at a point in a gas or liquids acts in all directions
- Atmospheric pressure increases as altitude decreases
- Because there is more air above you
- Atmospheric pressure is 101,000 Pa (1 atmosphere) at sea level
Describe how pressure changes with depth
- Pressure at a point in a gas or liquids acts in all directions
- Pressure increases as depth increases
- Because there is more liquid above you
Give the equation linking pressure difference, height, density and gravitational field strength
- Pressure difference = density x gravitational field strength x height
- Δp = 𝝆gΔh
Worked Example 19: Calculating Pressure Difference

The depth of a liquid in a glass is 22 cm. The density of the liquid is 1080 kg/m3. Calculate the
pressure difference at the bottom of the glass due to the liquid. Give your answer to 2 sig. fig.
Step 1: Convert the units 22 cm = 0.22 m
Step 1: Use the equation Δp = 𝝆gΔh
p = 1080 x 9.8 x 0.22
p = 2328 Pa
p = 2300 Pa (to 2 s.f.)
A bubble forms at the bottom of the glass. Calculate the pressure of the gas in the bubble when
the bubble is at the bottom of the glass. [Atmospheric pressure = 101000 Pa]
p = 2300 + 101000
p = 103300 Pa

2. THERMAL PHYSICS
2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter
2.1.1 States of matter
Outline the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases

- Solids have a fixed volume and shape
- Liquids have a fixed volume but no definite shape
- Take the shape of the container in which they are held
- Gases have no fixed volume or shape
Give the proper name for the following conversions:
- Solid → liquid = melting
- Liquid → gas = boiling / evaporating
- Gas → liquid = condensing
- Liquid → solid = freezing
2.1.2 Particle model
Describe the particle structure of solids, liquids and gases

- Solids:
- Particles arranged regularly and packed closely together
- Vibrate about fixed positions
- Strong forces between particles (little space between them)
- Liquids:
- Particles are mostly touching with some gaps
- Particles move over each other slowly
- Medium forces between particles
- Gases:
- Particles move at random (Brownian motion) and quickly
- Particles are far apart
- Weak forces between particles
Credit: Tom Morley for SwH Learning

Solids, Liquids & Gases
Explain the relationship between temperature of an object and its internal energy
- Temperature measures how hot something is, measured in Celsius or Kelvin
- Higher temperatures means more internal (thermal) energy
- Thermal energy makes the molecules of a substance vibrate/move more
- Average kinetic energy increases → each molecule is carrying more energy

What is absolute zero?
- Temperature at which gas particles have no thermal or kinetic energy
- Pressure of gas is therefore zero
- 273 °C
How is pressure created by gas in a container?
- Random, rapid movement of gas particles
- Gas particles collide with walls of container
- Exerts small force
- Pressure = Force ÷ Area
What is the evidence for the kinetic particle model of matter?
- Brownian motion
- Particles in both liquids and gases (fluids) move randomly
Explain what causes Brownian motion
- Random collisions between microscopic particles in fluids
- Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving molecules or atoms
2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature
Why does the pressure of a gas increase with increased temperature?

- Increase in temperature increases average speed of gas particles
- Collisions between walls and particles more frequent
- Collisions between walls and particles are harder, exerting more force
- P = F ÷ A → increased force means increased pressure for same area
Why does the pressure of a gas increase with decreased volume?
- Same number of particles in smaller volume
- Greater frequency of collisions between particles and walls
- Particles exert larger force on wall over same time
- Average force exerted on walls increases
State the gas law linking volume and pressure (Boyle’s Law)
- For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume
- pV = constant
- Therefore p1V1 = p2V2
Worked Example 20: Pressure & Volume

The air inside a sealed container is at atmospheric pressure. The volume of the container
increases from 105 cm3 to 130 cm3 . Calculate the pressure inside the container after the volume
has been increased. Assume the temperature is constant. [Atmospheric pressure = 101kPa]
Use the equation P1V1 = P2V2

101 x 105 = P2 x 130
P2 = (101 x 105) ÷ 130
P2 = 82 kPa

What is the Kelvin scale?
- Temperature scale starting at absolute zero
- Kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional to the average kinetic energy of its molecules
- Unit: Kelvin (K)
- 0 K = 273 °C
- 0 °C = 273 K

Relationship Between Kinetic Energy & Temperature In Kelvin
Average Kinetic Energy (J)

Straight line through origin =
proportional relationship
0
Temperature (K)
How is °C converted to Kelvin?

- Add 273
- e.g. 20°C = 293 K
How is Kelvin converted to °C?
- Subtract 273
- e.g. 50 K = 223°C
2.2 Thermal properties and temperature
2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
Why do solids, liquids and gases expand when heated?

- At higher temperatures particles have more energy → move more
- In solids this means particles vibrate more, in liquids and gases they move more
- Increased vibration/movement results in expansion to accommodate it
Give examples of how expansion affects us
- Thermometers: the liquid inside expands and contracts to show temperature
- Concrete is reinforced with steel as both materials expand the same amount
- Power cables are left slack to allow for contraction on cold days
- Bridges have small gaps to allow for expansion of road surface on hot days
Explain why solids expand less than liquids or gases when heated
- Solids have tight arrangement with strong attraction between molecules
- This limits expansion
- Liquids and gases have weaker attractions
- Same energy increase therefore leads to greater expansion
- Gases expand more than liquids, liquids expand more than solids

2.2.2 Specific heat capacity
Define specific heat capacity

- Energy required to change the temperature of an object by 1°C per kilogram of mass (J/Kg°C)
Give the equation for calculating specific heat capacity
- Specific heat capacity = change in thermal energy ÷ (mass x change in temperature)
- c = ΔE
mΔT
Worked Example 21: Change In Thermal Energy

A substance has a mass of 1.2 kg. Calculate the energy required to raise the temperature of the
substance from 10°C to 37°C [specific heat capacity of substance = 840 J/kg°C]
Step 1: Calculate the temperature change

37 10 = 27°C
Step 2: Rearrange and use the equation

c = ΔE
mΔT
ΔE = m ΔT
ΔE = 1.2 × 840 × 27
ΔE = 27216 J
Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid

- Measure the mass of the solid
- Place an immersion heater into hole in the solid
- Place a thermometer into a second hole in the solid
- Insulate the solid (e.g. by wrapping with cotton wool)
- Record the starting temperature of the block
- Turn on the heater for ten minutes
- Record the voltage and current flowing through the heater
- Record the highest temperature reached and calculate temperature rise
- Temperature will continue to increase even after heater is turned off
- Use the equation E=IVT (see section 4.2.5) to calculate energy change
- Use the equation c = ΔE to find the specific heat capacity
mΔT
Describe an experiment to measure the specific heat capacity of a liquid

- Place a known mass of liquid in a beaker
- Add a thermometer and insert a heating coil
- Record initial temperature of liquid
- Turn on heater and start timing
- Time how long it takes for temperature to increase by 20°C
- Record the time, final temperature, current and voltage
- Use the equation E=IVT (see section 4.2.5) to calculate energy change
- Use the equation c = ΔE to find the specific heat capacity
mΔT

Worked Example 22: Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
A student carries out the experiment above to determine the specific heat capacity of an
aluminium block of mass 1 kg. The block was heated for 10 minutes. The results were recorded
in the table below. Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium.
Ammeter reading (A) Voltmeter reading (V) Initial temperature (°C) Final temperature (°C)
3.65 10.80 15 38
Step 1: Convert 10 minutes into seconds
10 x 60 = 600 s
Step 2: Calculate the temperature change
38 15 = 23°C
Step 3: Calculate the energy required using the equation E=IVT
E = 3.65 x 10.80 x 600

E = 23652 J
Step 4: Calculate the specific heat capacity of aluminium using the equation c = ΔE
mΔT
c = ΔE
mΔT
c = 23652
1 x 23
c = 1028 J/Kg°C
2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation
What happens to the temperature of a substance as it changes state?

- Remains constant
Describe the process of melting in terms of energy input
- Energy supplied to a solid → average kinetic energy increases → temperature increases
- When the melting point is reached, solid melts to form a liquid
- Temperature does not change during phase change
- Energy is being used to break bonds, not increase kinetic energy
Describe the process of boiling in terms of energy input
- Energy supplied to a liquid → average kinetic energy increases → temperature increases
- When the boiling point is reached, liquid boils to form a gas
- Temperature does not change during phase change
- Energy is being used to break bonds, not increase kinetic energy

Changes Of State - Water
Temperature
100
(°C) Ice is melting to form
liquid water (o°C)
Water is boiling to
form steam (100°C)
0 Time
Water - remains liquid
when temperatures are
between 0°C and 100°C
Ice - remains solid when
temperatures are below 0°C
Describe the changes to the arrangement and motion of particles when a substance melts
- Bonds between particles are weakened or broken
- Particles go from regularly to irregularly packed
- Particles go from vibrating about a fixed position to sliding past each other
Describe the changes to the arrangement and motion of particles when a substance boils
- Particles move much further apart
- Particles move with higher speed (have higher kinetic energy)
- Particles move randomly
Describe what happens when water vapour condenses to form liquid water
- Particles lose kinetic energy
- Particles move closer together
- Particles move slower and less randomly
Describe what happens when liquid water solidifies to form ice
- Particles lose kinetic energy
- Particles move closer together
- Particles move slower and less randomly
How does evaporation occur?
- Particles in liquid have differing amounts of energy
- Particles with the greatest amount of kinetic energy break away from surface of liquid
- Average kinetic energy of remaining particles is lowered
- Temperature of remaining liquid falls
What is the difference between boiling and evaporation?
Boiling Evaporation
Rapid Slower
Vapour bubbles in liquid have high kinetic Fewer molecules have enough energy to
energy escape
Occurs throughout liquid - bubbles rise to top

Takes place at surface of liquid
and burst
Only occurs at boiling point Occurs at any temperature

Which factors affect the rate of evaporation?
- Temperature
- Higher temperature = greater rate of evaporation
- More energy supplied to molecules in liquid
- More molecules gain enough energy to escape liquid
- Surface area
- Greater surface area = greater rate of evaporation
- More molecules in liquid exposed to surrounding atmosphere
- Air movement
- Increased air flow = greater rate of evaporation
- Evaporated particles moved away
- Humidity decreases
- More molecules can dissipate into the air
Explain the cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid
- Molecules with most energy escape from surface of liquid
- Average kinetic energy of remaining molecules falls
- Energy transferred from object to liquid
- Object cools as well
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy
2.3.1 Conduction
How may thermal energy transfer take place?

- By conduction, convection and radiation
Describe an experiment to demonstrate the properties of thermal conductors and insulators
- Use a wooden bar and metal bar of equal lengths and diameters
- Fix a drawing pin to each bar with wax an equal length from one end
- Suspend each bar an equal distance above a container of boiling water
- Time how long it takes for the wax to melt and pins to fall
Why will the pin fixed to the metal bar fall first?
- Metals are much better conductors than wood
- Heat transfers rapidly through metal, melting the wax
- Wood is a poor conductor (good insulator) Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning
Investigating The Conductivities Of Different Materials
Wood Clamp Metal
Wax
Pin
Boiling water

Describe the process of thermal conduction in solids
- Atoms in a solid are fixed in position (lattices)
- Heat makes the atoms vibrate more
- Atoms collide with each other and pass their kinetic energy along
- Eventually the thermal energy will be spread through the solid
- Metals are good conductors of heat
- Plastics and wood are poor conductors of heat (good insulators)
Explain why metals are better conductors than non-metals
- Metals have free electrons
- When free electrons absorb heat energy, they gain kinetic energy and move through metal
- Free electrons collide with positive metal ions (cations) with more frequency and force
- Some kinetic energy is transferred to the metal ions
- Metal ions vibrate faster and with greater amplitude
- This process is faster than conduction in non-metals where there are no free electrons
Why are most gases and liquids poor conductors of heat?
- Particles in gases and liquids are widely spaced
- Do not collide with each other often
What are semiconductors?
- Materials that have a conductivity between conductors and insulators
- e.g. silicon
2.3.3 Convection
Describe the process of convection

- Heat causes particles to gain kinetic energy
- Particles vibrate and spread out
- Fluid becomes less dense
- Particles rise
- Particles cool and sink setting up a convection current
- Process repeats
- Important method of thermal energy transfer in fluids (liquids and gases)
Describe how a radiator heats up a cold room
- By convection
- Radiator heats surrounding air
- Heat causes particles to gain kinetic energy
- Particles vibrate and spread out
- Air becomes less dense
- Warm air rises
- Particles cool and sink setting up a convection current
- Process repeats
Describe an experiment to illustrate convection in fluids
- Place crystal of potassium permanganate in beaker of water
- Heat gently with Bunsen flame
- Heat initially transferred through glass wall of beaker by conduction
- Water near Bunsen flame is heated
- Water particles gain kinetic energy
- Water expands, becomes less dense and rises
- Shown by purple colour spreading through beaker
- Replaced by cooler, denser water from elsewhere in beaker
- This water is then heated and the process repeats as a convection current is set up

Convection Current In Air
2. Air cools as it
moves away from 3. Cold air
heat source contracts, becomes
1. Hot air expands, more dense and
becomes less dense sinks
and rises
4. A convection current is
established
2.3.3 Radiation
What is thermal radiation?

- Infrared radiation (an electromagnetic wave)
- Emitted by all objects
How does heat transfer occur in a vacuum?
- By radiation only
- No particles present so conduction and convection cannot occur
Describe the difference in the radiation absorbed and emitted by dark and light objects
- Dark, matt surfaces are the best absorbers and emitters of radiation
- White, shiny surfaces are the worst absorbers and emitters of radiation
- The hotter the object, the more radiation that occurs
Describe the difference in the radiation reflected by dark and light objects
- White, shiny surfaces are the best reflectors of radiation
- Dark, matt surfaces are the worst reflectors of radiation
Effects on radiation of colour and texture
Matt black White Shiny silver
Emitting Best Poor Worst
Absorbing Best Poor Worst
Reflecting Worst Good Best
How are objects kept at a constant temperature?

- Transfer of energy transfer away = rate of energy received
What happens if an object receives energy at a slower rate than it is being transferred away?
- The object decreases in temperature

What happens if an object receives energy at a faster rate than it is being transferred away?
- The object increases in temperature
How does radiation affect the Earth’s temperature?
- The Sun emits radiation that enters Earth’s atmosphere
- The Earth’s surface reflects some of this energy back into space
- Most energy is absorbed by Earth and re-emitted back at a longer wavelength (thermal energy)
- Some of this thermal energy is emitted into space
- Greenhouse gases also absorb thermal energy and re-emit it in all directions
- Thermal energy becomes trapped within the Earth’s atmosphere
- Earth’s average temperature increases (global warming)
How can good and bad emitters of infrared radiation be determined experimentally?
- Place boiling water in a metal cube with different colours/textures each side
- Measure thermal radiation emitted from each side using thermometers
- Compare which surface emits most
- Largest increase in temperature = best emitter
How can good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation be determined experimentally?
- Place a radiant heater at equal distances from metal plates of different colour/ texture
- Measure temperature of plates to compare which absorbs most infrared radiation
What factors affect radiation emitted?
- Surface temperature
- Increased surface temperature = increased rate of emission
- Surface area
- Increased surface area = increased rate of emission
2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer
Describe how energy is transferred from a stove to food cooking in a frying pan
- Conduction from stove to pan
- Conduction through pan
- Conduction from pan to food
- Conduction through food
How does a vacuum flask prevent heat loss?
- Shiny walls - reflect infrared radiation
- Plastic lid is a good insulator - prevents heat loss by conduction
- Vacuum between walls - prevents heat loss by conduction and convection
How may the rate of energy transfer be reduced at home?
- Loft insulation - fibreglass is a good insulator
- Cavity wall insulation - foam is a good insulator and prevents convection currents being set up
- Aluminium foil behind radiators - reflects infrared radiation back into room
- Double glazed windows - vacuum between glass reduces conduction and convection
Describe how energy is transferred from a wood fire to a pan of water
- Chemical energy → thermal energy as wood is burnt
- Radiation of thermal energy from fire to pan
- Conduction through pan
- Conduction from pan to water
- Convection in the water

Worked Example 23: Thermal Energy Transfers
An arctic fox lives in very cold conditions. Its fur is made from white, hollow, long hairs that
contain air.
i) Explain how an arctic fox’s fur reduces the amount of thermal energy lost
Remember: When answering questions on thermal energy, make sure you consider each of
conduction, convection and radiation in your answer
Answer:
- Air in hollow hair is an insulator (poor conductor)
- Air is trapped near the body by fur
- Air cannot circulate
- Convection currents cannot form between hairs
- White fur is a poor emitter of thermal radiation
Underneath its white fur, an arctic fox has black skin
ii) How do these colours affect the overall amount of thermal energy lost by the arctic fox’s
body?
Remember: When answering questions on thermal radiation, make sure you consider how the
surface absorbs, emits and reflects thermal radiation
- Black skin is good emitter of thermal energy
- White fur is good reflector of thermal energy
- Black skin is good absorber of thermal energy
- The reflected thermal energy from the fur is absorbed by the black skin

3. WAVES
3.1 General properties of waves
What properties do all waves have in common?

- They can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
- Transfer energy without transferring matter
Define amplitude
- Maximum distance between the peak or trough of a wave and its equilibrium point
Define wavelength (λ)
- The distance from one point on a wave to the same point on the next wave
Define frequency
- Number of waves per second
- Unit = Hertz (Hz)
- Frequency = 1 ÷ time period
Define the period of a wave
- Time taken to complete one wave cycle
Define wavefront
- A horizontal line drawn linking all the peaks in a set of waves

Wavefront
Wavefront Direction of travel
Give the equation for wave speed

- Wave speed = frequency x wavelength
- v = fλ
Worked Example 24: Using The Wave Equation

A wave has wavelength of 10 m and a speed of 340 m/s. What is the frequency of the wave?
Use the equation: wave speed = frequency x wavelength

340 = f x 10
f = 340 ÷ 10
f = 34 Hz

Changing The Frequency Of Waves
Lower Frequency
Amplitude
Higher Frequency
Amplitude
What is a transverse wave?

- A wave where vibrations occur perpendicular to the direction the wave is travelling
- e.g. electromagnetic (EM) waves, water waves, seismic S-waves
- Can be demonstrated by shaking a rope up and down
What is a longitudinal wave?
- A wave where vibrations occur parallel to the direction the wave is travelling
- e.g. sound waves, seismic P-waves
- Can be demonstrated by compressing and expanding a slinky

Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Transverse Wave Direction of travel
Peak Wavelength
Amplitude
Trough Equilibrium point
Compression Longitudinal Wave Rarefaction
Direction of travel
Wavelength

Describe the reflection of a wave
- When a wave hits an object it cannot pass through → this is reflection (see section 3.2.1)
Describe the refraction of a wave
- When a wave enters a different medium, its speed changes
- This causes the wave to change direction → this is refraction (see section 3.2.1)
- If wave speeds up, wavelength increases
- If wave slows down, wavelength decreases
Describe the diffraction of a wave
- When a wave passes through a narrow gap, the wave spreads out → this is diffraction
- Wavelength always remains constant

Diffraction Barrier
Wavefront
Wavelength
How does gap size and wavelength affect diffraction through a gap?
- If wavelength > gap size → lots of spreading/diffraction
- If wavelength < gap size → little spreading/diffraction

Effect Of Wavelength & Gap Size On Diffraction
Wavefront Barrier Wavefront Barrier
Wavelength Wavelength
Wavelength > Gap Size Wavelength < Gap Size

How does wavelength affect diffraction at an edge?
- When a wave passes an edge, diffraction occurs
- Long wavelengths diffract more than short wavelengths

Effect Of Wavelength On Diffraction At An Edge
Wavefront Wavefront
Wavelength Wavelength
Long Wavelength Short Wavelength
What is a ripple tank?

- Device to demonstrate reflection, refraction and diffraction of water waves
Describe the motion of a water molecule on the surface as the wave passes along a ripple tank
- Molecule moves up and down
- Perpendicular to direction of wave 

Reflection & Refraction In A Ripple Tank
Reflection Refraction
Incident wave
Reflected wave Wavelength Wavelength
Wavelength
Deep water Shallow water

- Faster wave speed - Slower wave speed
- Longer wavelength - Shorter wavelength
Frequency remains constant

3.2 Light
3.2.1 Reflection of light
Describe the properties of light waves

- Transverse waves
- Vibrations occur perpendicular to the direction the wave is travelling
- Transfer energy
- Can be reflected, refracted, diffracted
What is a normal line?
- A line drawn perpendicular to the mirror
What is the angle of incidence?
- Angle between the normal and the light ray hitting mirror (incident ray)
What is the angle of reflection?
- Angle between the normal and the light ray reflecting off the mirror
What are the properties of a reflected image?
- Same size as object
- Same distance from mirror as object
- Virtual

Formation Of An Optical Image By A Plane Mirror
Mirror
Incident Virtual
Object rays rays Image
Normal line
Person
Reflected
rays
What is the law of reflection?

- Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Reflection Of Light
Normal
Incident Reflected
ray ray Remember:
Angle of incidence =
Angle of reflection
i r
i=r

3.2.2 Refraction of light
What is refraction?
- A change in direction of waves when they travel across a boundary from one medium to another
- Caused by a change in the wave’s speed
Describe how a light ray changes direction when it enters and leaves a glass block
- Moves towards the normal as it enters the block
- Moves away from the normal as it leaves the block

Refraction Of Light - Wavefronts
Light ray
Wave front (draw at 90° to

direction of travel)
Wavelength
decreases
Air
Waves
slow down
Glass
The wavefronts move
closer together as light
passes into a denser
medium
The wavefronts move

Air further apart as light
passes into a less
dense medium
Waves
speed up
Wavelength
increases

Refraction Of Light
Ray moves
i towards normal
Air 90°
Glass r
Air
Ray moves away
from normal Note: If the ray strikes the boundary at 90°,
it continues without changing direction
What happens when light passes from air to glass (i.e from less dense to more dense medium)?
- Light ray slows down
- Angle of refraction less than angle of incidence
What is the refractive index?
- The extent to which light is refracted when it enters a medium
- More dense medium = greater refractive index = greater refraction of light
Give the equation linking refractive index (n), angle of incidence and angle of refraction
- n = sin i
sin r
Worked Example 25: The Refractive Index

A ray of light passes from air into a glass block. The angle of incidence is 38°. The angle of
reflection is 24°. Calculate the refractive index of the glass.
n = sin i
sin r
n = sin 38° ÷ sin 24°
n = 0.616 ÷ 0.407
n = 1.5
Describe an experiment to determine the refractive index of a glass block

- Use light box to produce beam of light
- Use a ruler, pencil and paper to trace path of light
- Use protractor to measure angle of incidence and angle of refraction
- Repeat for different angles of incidence
- Repeat the same angles of incidence at least three times
- Use n = sin i ÷ sin r to calculate average value of n
- Plot a graph of sin i against sin r
- Calculate n from gradient
Define critical angle
- Angle of incidence beyond which rays of light are totally internally reflected
Define total internal reflection (TIR)
- When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
- All light is reflected, none is refracted

Total Internal Reflection
When angle of incidence (i) is less than critical angle (c)
i < c
i r Glass
Air
When i is less than c, most of the light is refracted. Only a small amount is reflected back into the
glass block
When angle of incidence (i) is equal to critical angle (c)

i = c
c c Glass
Air
When i is equal to c, the refracted ray runs along the boundary. Some light is reflected back into the
glass block. This is the minimum angle of incidence where total internal reflection occurs
When angle of incidence (i) is greater than critical angle (c)

i > c
Glass
i r
Air
When i is greater than c, all the light is reflected back into the glass block due to total internal
reflection
State the conditions required for total internal reflection to happen

- Medium must be from more dense to less dense
- Angle of incidence > critical angle
Explain the relationship between refractive index and critical angle
- Larger refractive index means smaller critical angle
- Total internal reflection occurs when angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle
- Total internal reflection more likely to occur when refractive index is larger

Give the equation linking the critical angle with the refractive index
- Sin c = 1
n
Worked Example 26: The Critical Angle

i) The critical angle of a diamond is 43°. Calculate its refractive index
sin c = 1 ÷ n
sin 43 = 1 ÷ n
0.682 = 1 ÷ n
n = 1 ÷ 0.682
n = 1.47
ii) The refractive index of a material is 2.0. Calculate its critical angle
To calculate c, you need
sin c = 1 ÷ n to use the inverse sin on
sin c = 1 ÷ 2 your calculator. Press
‘shift’ ‘sin’ to use the sin-1
sin c = 0.5 function
c = 30°
How do optical fibres work?

- Total internal reflection
- Core of fibre made out of glass with high refractive index
- Cladding is made out of glass with lower refractive index
- Light entering core is at an angle greater than critical angle so light is totally internally reflected

Total Internal Reflection Of An Optical Fibre
Normal
Give examples of the use of optical fibres

- Endoscope - used in keyhole surgery to see inside body
- Communication - more information sent per second compared to old copper wiring
3.2.3 Thin lenses
What is a converging lens?

- Convex lens
- Thicker in middle than at edges
What is a diverging lens?
- Concave lens
- Thinner in middle than at edges

How does a thin converging lens work?
- Converging lens is a convex lens
- Rays parallel to principal axis are refracted towards principal axis as they pass through lens
How does a thin diverging lens work?
- Diverging lens is a concave lens
- Rays parallel to principal axis are refracted away from principal axis as they pass through lens

Converging & Diverging Lenses
Principal focus
Converging lens When drawing ray diagrams,

you can use the following
Principal axis symbols for converging and
diverging lenses:
Converging Diverging
Diverging lens (Convex) (Concave)
Define principal axis

- A line which passes through the centre of a lens
Define principal focus (focal point)
- Point where parallel light rays passing through a lens intersect the principal axis
Define focal length
- Distance from the centre of a lens to the principal focus
Explain what is meant by a real image
- Image formed when rays of light converge
- Image can be projected onto a screen
- Image always inverted
- e.g. from a projector onto a wall
Explain what is meant by a virtual image
- Image formed when rays of light are extrapolated backwards to meet behind the lens
- In reality rays do not meet
- Image cannot be projected onto a screen
- Image always upright
- e.g. reflection in a mirror

Drawing Converging Lens Ray Diagrams (Real Images)
Drawing a ray diagram:
Step 1: Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the centre of the lens and continue
through to the other side
Step 2: Draw a second line from the top of the object to the lens, parallel to the principal axis
Step 3: Continue this second line from the lens, through the principal focus and beyond (you will likely
be given the location of the principal focus in the question)
Step 4: The image is found where the two lines cross
Converging (convex)
lens
Object = 2F:
Principal focus
- Real Principal axis
- Same size as object Object
- Inverted
2F F F Image
e.g. photocopier
Focal length
F < Object < 2F:

- Real
- Enlarged
- Inverted 2F F F
e.g. projector
Object > 2F:

- Real
- Diminished (smaller)
- Inverted 2F F F
e.g. camera, eye

Drawing Diverging Lens Ray Diagrams
  through to the other side
Step 3: Place your ruler so it lies on the principal focus and the end of the second line just drawn
Step 4: Draw a dotted line between the principal focus and end of the second line, and continue on
the other side of the lens as a solid line
Step 5: The image is formed where the first line and the dotted line cross
Diverging
(concave) lens
With a diverging lens,
the image is: Object
- Virtual
- Diminished F Image
- Upright
Focal length

Drawing Converging Lens Ray Diagrams (Virtual Images) - Extended ONLY
through to the other side
Step 2: Continue this line backwards using a dotted line
Step 4: Continue this second line from the lens, through the principal focus and beyond (you will likely
be given the location of the principal focus in the question)
Step 5: Continue this line backwards too, again using a dotted line
Step 6: The image is formed where the dotted lines cross
Converging
Object < F: (convex) lens
- Virtual
- Enlarged
- Upright
e.g. magnifying glass Image F Object F

Explain how a magnifying glass works
- Converging (convex) lens
- Object placed between lens and focal point
- Image is virtual, enlarged and upright

Correcting Long & Short Sightedness - Extended ONLY
Long-Sighted Short-Sighted
Retina Retina
Lens Lens
- Eyeball too short OR - Eyeball too long OR
- Lens too thin (light rays not refracted enough) - Lens too thick (Light rays refracted too much)
- Principal focus behind retina - Principal focus in front of retina
- Cannot see far away objects clearly - Cannot see close objects clearly
Principal focus Principal focus

brought forwards pushed back
towards retina towards retina
using a using a
converging lens diverging lens
Converging lens Diverging lens
3.2.4 Dispersion of light

The Visible Light Spectrum
Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet

Longest wavelength Shortest wavelength
Lowest frequency Highest frequency
How does a prism disperse light?

- Prism sides not parallel
- Light refracted as it passes from air to glass
- Prism refracts each colour by a different amount
- Light splits into spectrum of colours
- Red light (longest wavelength) slowed down least → refracted least
- Violet light (shortest wavelength) slowed down most → refracted most
Dispersion Of Light Through A Prism
Spectrum
Visible light
What is the name for light of a single frequency?

- Monochromatic

3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
Credit: Wikimedia Commons

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio and TV Satellite TV, Electric grills, Vision, Security Medical Sterilising
Use: transmissions, mobile phones, remote controls, photography, marking, imaging, medical
Astronomy, RFID microwave thermal imaging, illumination sterilising security equipment,
ovens optical fibres water scanners cancer detection
& treatment
What do all EM waves have in common?

- All transverse waves
- All transfer energy
- All travel at the same speed (speed of light) in a vacuum
- Can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
What is the speed of an EM wave in a vacuum?
- 3.0 x 108 m/s
- (= 3.0 x 105 km/s)
How are x-rays and gamma rays similar?
- Both short wavelength EM waves
- Carry lots of energy per second
How do x-rays and gamma rays differ?
- X-rays are made when electrons moving at high speeds are stopped
- Gamma rays are released from unstable nuclei
- Gamma is more penetrative
- Gamma has shorter wavelength
Describe the differences between radio waves and gamma rays
Radio waves Gamma waves
Wavelength Longest Shortest
Frequency Lowest Highest
Energy Lowest Highest
Which EM wave can cause internal heating of body tissue?

- Microwaves

Which EM wave causes skin burns?
- Infrared radiation
Which EM wave can cause skin cancer and blindness?
- UV
How can exposure to UV rays be reduced?
- Wear sunglasses
- Cover skin with clothes / sun cream
- Stay in the shade
What are the dangers of X-rays and gamma rays?
- Ionising radiation
- Mutation of DNA leading to cancer
How can exposure to gamma rays be reduced?
- Wear protective lead clothing
Which EM waves are typically used by satellite phones?
- Microwaves
What is a low orbit artificial satellite?
- Satellite that orbits the Earth at lower altitudes
- Typically between 200 and 2000 km above the Earth
- Used by some satellite phones
What is a geostationary satellite?
- Satellite that takes 24 hours to orbit the Earth above the equator
- Always appears in the same part of sky when viewed from ground
- Typically much higher than low orbit artificial satellites
- Used by some satellite phones and satellite TV
Why do mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves?
- Microwaves can penetrate walls
- Only require a short aerial for transmission and reception
Why do bluetooth devices use radio waves?
- Radio waves can pass through walls
- This does weaken the signal however
Why do optical fibres (e.g. for cable TV or high-speed internet) use visible light or infrared?
- Glass is transparent to visible light and some infrared
- Visible light and short wavelength infrared can carry high rates of data
What is an analogue signal?
- Signal that continuously changes frequency and amplitude
- Can take one of many different values
What is a digital signal?
- Signal that can only take two values
- 1 or 0 (‘on’ or ‘off’)
How are sound waves transmitted by radio?
- Using either analogue or digital signals

What is signal regeneration?
- When a digital signal is restored to its original characteristics
What are the benefits of digital signalling compared to analogue signalling?
- Digital signals can be transmitted over a larger range
- Signal can be regenerated → less ‘noise’ (interference) as signal travels
- Increased rate of transmission of data compared to analogue
3.4 Sound
Describe the properties of sound waves

- Longitudinal waves
- Transfer energy
- Can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
Describe how a sound wave moves through the air
- Vibration of air molecules
- Longitudinal wave
- Regions of compression and rarefaction
- Directions of vibration and propagation are parallel
What is the wavelength of a sound wave?
- Distance between compressions
What is the frequency of a sound wave?
- Number of compressions passing a point per second
How does a compression differ from a rarefaction?
- Compression is a region of higher pressure
- Air particles are closer together
- Rarefaction is a region of lower pressure
- Air particles are further apart
What is the the range of human hearing?
- 20 Hz - 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)
What is the speed of sound in air?
- 330 - 350 m/s
Can a sound wave travel through a vacuum?
- No - sound requires a medium to be transmitted
- No particles in a vacuum
How does the speed of sound change in different substances?
- Faster in solids than liquids
- Faster in liquids than gases
What happens to the frequency of a sound wave passing from air to water?
- Remains constant
What happens to the wavelength of a sound wave passing from air to water?
- Moving from less dense to more dense medium
- Wavelength increases

What happens to the wave speed of a sound wave passing from air to water?
- Increases
- v = fλ
- f is constant, λ increases, therefore v must increase
Describe an experiment to measure the speed of sound in air
- Stand 50m from a brick wall
- Clap two blocks together
- Repeat each time echo is heard for 20 claps
- Measure time taken to hear all 20 echos using a stopwatch
- Calculate total distance travelled: 50 x 2 x 20 (distance to wall and back for 20 repeats)
- Use speed = distance travelled ÷ time taken to calculate speed of sound
- Repeat experiment and calculate the mean
Explain the meaning of the pitch of a sound
- Whether sound is high or low
- Pitch is the frequency of the wave

Sound Waves (As Viewed On An Oscilloscope)
Lower Frequency = Lower Pitch
Higher Frequency = Higher Pitch
Greater Amplitude = Louder
Smaller Amplitude = Quieter

How are pitch and frequency related?
- The higher the frequency of a sound wave, the higher the pitch of the sound
- The lower the frequency of a sound wave, the lower the pitch of the sound
How are loudness and amplitude related?
- The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound
- The smaller the amplitude, the quieter the sound
What is an echo?
- Reflection of sound waves
What is ultrasound?
- A frequency higher than 20 kHz
- Beyond range of human hearing
Why can ultrasound not be heard by humans?
- Frequency is too high
What are the uses of ultrasound?
- Non-destructive testing of materials
- Medical scanning of soft tissues
- Sonar
Describe how ultrasound can be used to scan materials for defects
- A transducer is used to send and receive pulses of ultrasound
- Time for echo of pulse to return from both ends of defect recorded
- Speed of sound in the material is known value
- Use distance = speed × time to calculate position and size of defect
- A similar process is also used for soft tissue scanning
- e.g. ultrasound images of a fetus
Worked Example 27: Using Ultrasound

Ultrasound is used to detect the depth of the ocean. Ultrasound pulses are emitted from a
transducer on a boat. Some of the pulses are reflected by the bottom of the ocean and detected
back at the boat.
The shortest time between the sound waves being emitted and detected is 0.52 s. The speed of
sound in water is 1.5 km/s. Calculate the distance between the boat and ocean floor.
Step 1: Convert 1.5 km/s into m/s

1.5 x 1000 = 1500 m/s
Step 2: Use the equation speed = distance ÷ time
1500 = distance ÷ 0.52
d = 1500 x 0.52
d = 780 m
Step 3: Remember that this is the distance travelled by the sound wave from the boat to the
ocean floor and back again. We therefore need to divide the total distance by 2 to find the depth
of the ocean.
780 ÷ 2 = 390 m

4. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
Describe the attraction and repulsion between the poles of a magnet

- Opposite poles attract
- i.e. south pole is attracted to north pole
- Similar poles repel
How may an object’s magnetism be induced (created)?
- Place a magnetic object (e.g. one made from iron) into a magnetic field
- Object becomes a magnet (magnetism has been induced)
- Magnetism is temporary as object loses its magnetism when it’s removed from magnetic field
What are permanent magnets made from?
- Magnetically hard materials
- e.g. steel
- Keep magnetism once they have been magnetised
How is a magnetically hard material magnetised?
- Placed in a magnetic field
What is a magnetically soft material?
- Loses magnetism easily
- Forms temporary magnets
- e.g. soft iron
What is the difference between steel and iron’s magnetism?
- Steel → hard magnetic material → retains magnetism
- Iron → soft magnetic material → loses magnetism
What is the difference between a magnetic and non-magnetic material?
- Magnetic → material attracted by a magnet
- Non-magnetic → material not attracted by a magnet

How To Draw Magnetic Field Lines Weak magnetic
field = field lines
widely spaced
Strong magnetic
field = field lines
close together
N S
Field lines do not
overlap
Arrows point from

North to South

Define magnetic field line
- Region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force
What causes an object to experience a magnetic force?
- Interactions between magnetic fields
Where is the magnetic field around a bar magnet strongest?
- Strongest at the poles
- Magnetic field lines closest together
Where is the magnetic field around a bar magnet weakest?
- Weaker as distance from the magnet increases
- Magnetic field lines get further apart
What does the direction of a magnetic field at a point show?
- Direction of the force on the North pole of a magnet at that point
How can magnetic field lines be visualised?
- Using plotting compasses
- Place plotting compass at end of magnet
- Mark position of North end of compass
- North end will point to South pole of magnet
- Place compass in new position, mark and repeat
- Link marks together to find the field line pattern
- Using iron filings
- Place magnet underneath sheet of paper
- Sprinkle iron fillings over paper
- Tap paper gently
- Iron filings will move to form field lines
What are the properties of a uniform magnetic field?
- Field lines are parallel
- Field lines are evenly spaced
Explain how to produce a uniform magnetic field
- Use two permanent magnets
- Place magnets close together
- Arrange with North facing South
Drawing A Uniform Magnetic Field

Field lines parallel and evenly spaced
S N
At least three field lines drawn Arrows point from North to South

Overlapping Magnetic Fields
S N N N
N S N S
S N N S
Describe the uses of permanent magnets

- Permanent magnets cannot be turned on and off
- Used for fridge doors, electric generators
Describe the uses of electromagnets
- Electromagnets only magnetic when a current is present (see section 4.5)
- Can be turned on and off
- Electric bells, remote door locks, motors
4.2 Electrical quantities
4.2.1 Electric charge
What are the two types of charge?

- Positive and negative
What happens when two like charges are brought near each other?
- They repel each other
What happens when two opposite charges are brought near each other?
- They attract each other
Describe a simple experiment to show the production of electrostatic charges by friction
- Rub a balloon on a dry surface (e.g. your t-shirt, a carpet)
- Hold balloon next to running tap
- Water will bend towards balloon

Describe a simple experiment to show the detection of electrostatic charges
- Use a gold leaf electroscope
- When uncharged, gold leaf hangs straight down
- Charge a polythene rod by rubbing with a cloth
- Hold near gold leaf
- Leaf will be repelled, moving away from the rod
Provide some examples of electrical conductors
- Metals
- Graphite
Provide some examples of electrical insulators
- Plastic
- Wool
- Wood
How may a substance become charged by friction?
- Frictions causes transfer of electrons (only)
How is a positive electrostatic charge produced?
- Through loss of negatively charged electrons
How is a negative electrostatic charge produced?
- Through gain of negatively changed electrons
Describe how to produce a negatively charged plastic rod
- Rub rod with another insulator
- e.g. a cloth
- Electrons transferred from cloth to plastic rod
Describe an experiment to distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators
- Set up electric circuit including a cell, ammeter and light bulb
- Connect a wire from the cell to material being tested
- Connect another wire from the material to the bulb and complete the circuit
- If bulb lights up/ammeter shows a reading → material is a conductor
- If bulb does not light up/ammeter shows no reading → material is an insulator
Use a simple electron model to explain the difference between a conductor and an insulator
- Conductors have free (delocalised) electrons
- Electrons free to move → allows current to flow
- Outermost electrons can be transferred by friction
- e.g. metals are good conductors as they have many free electrons
- Insulators have no free electrons
- Charge cannot flow through an insulator easily
- e.g. rubber, glass are good insulators
What is the unit of charge?
- Coulombs (C)
What as an electric field?
- Region in which an electric charge experiences a force
What is meant by the direction of an electric field?
- Direction of the force on a positive charge

Which direction do electric field lines point?
- Towards negative charges (and away from positive charges)
What is a charged conducting sphere?
- Sphere with evenly distributed like charges on surface
- Charges repel as they are the same
- Surface is conducting so charges can move and repel equally

Simple Electric Field Patterns
Around A Point Charge
Around A Charged Conducting Sphere
Between Two Oppositely Charged Parallel Conducting Plates

4.2.2 Electric current
Define electric current

- Rate of flow of charge around a circuit
- Charge passing a point per unit time
- Unit = amp (A)
Which equation links current, charge and time?
- Current = charge Q
time
- I = Q ÷ t I x t
Why can current flow through metals?

- Metals have delocalised electrons Remember:
- Can move freely throughout metal
Current is represented
Why can current not flow through plastics? by the letter I (for
- No delocalised electrons intensity of current), not
the letter C
- Charge cannot be carried
What is an ammeter?
- Measures current
- Connected in series
- Can be analogue or digital
Which way do electrons flow in a circuit?
- From negative terminal to positive terminal
What is conventional current and how does it relate to flow of electrons?
- Conventional current is depicted as flowing from positive to negative
- Used for historical reasons
- Electrons actually flow the opposite way
Define alternating current
- A current which changes direction continuously
- e.g. mains electricity
Define direct current
- A current which flows in one direction only
- e.g. from a battery or cell
Alternating & Direct Current

Current (A)
+ Direct current
Time (s)
–
Alternating current

Worked Example 28: Calculating Charge
A pendulum oscillates between two charged plates connected to a battery and ammeter. For
each complete oscillation of the pendulum moving between the plates, a charge of 6.2 × 10–10 C
is transferred from one plate to the other. The frequency of oscillation is 5.0 Hz.
Calculate the current shown on the ammeter.
Step 1: Calculate the time by using frequency = 1 ÷ t
t=1÷5
t = 0.2 s
Step 2: Use the equation I = Q ÷ t
I = 6.2 × 10–10 ÷ 0.2
I = 3.1 x 10–9 A
4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference
Define electromotive force (e.m.f.)

- Electrical work done by a source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit
- i.e. the energy (in joules) provided by a battery/cell to push a 1.0 C charge around a circuit
- Unit = Volts (V)
Give the equation that links e.m.f., work done and charge
- e.m.f. = work done W
charge
- E = W ÷ Q Q x E
Worked Example 29: Electromotive Force

A battery supplies 24 J of energy to drive 16 C of charge around the circuit. Define the e.m.f. of
this battery.
Answer: e.m.f. = W ÷ Q
e.m.f. = 24 ÷ 16
e.m.f. = 1.5 V
Define potential difference (p.d.)

- Work done by a unit charge passing through a component
- e.g. the work done by 1.0 C of charge passing through a lamp to make it glow
- Unit = Volts (V)
Give the equation that links p.d., work done and charge
- p.d. = work done W
charge Q x V
- V=W÷Q
Which device is used to measure potential difference?
- Voltmeter
How are voltmeters connected in a circuit?
- In parallel
- Around component being measured

Worked Example 30: Potential Difference
How much energy is transferred when a charge of 3 C moves through a potential difference of
6.5 V?
Answer: V=W÷Q
W=QxV
W = 3 x 6.5
W = 19.5 J
4.2.4 Resistance
Give the equation linking voltage, current and resistance

- Resistance = potential difference V
current
- R=V÷I I x R
- Unit = ohm (Ω)
Worked Example 31: Calculating Resistance Using An Ammeter & Voltmeter
A student investigates how the resistance of a thermistor varies with temperature. They use a
voltmeter and ammeter to find the resistance at each temperature. One set of readings is shown
in the table below
Temperature (°C) Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading (mA)
70 12.5 2.10
Show that the resistance of the thermistor at 70°C is about 6000 Ω

Step 1: Convert 2.10 mA into A 2.10 mA = 2.10 x 10–3 A
Step 2: Substitute into equation V=I×R
12.5 = (2.10 × 10–3) × R
R = 12.5 ÷ (2.10 × 10–3)
R = 5952 Ω
Describe how to investigate how the resistance of a wire changes with voltage across the wire
- Connect ammeter in series with wire and take reading
- Connect voltmeter in parallel with wire and take reading
- Substitute readings into R = V ÷ I
- Include variable resistor in circuit
- Repeat and take average
- Repeat for different voltages
- Plot graph of V against I
- Gradient = resistance
- Control variables = length of wire, type of metal, temperature of wire
Explain why the temperature of the wire should be kept constant in the above investigation
- Resistance increases with temperature
- Wire could get hot and melt
- Control temperature by taking readings quickly and switching off between readings

How does the length of a wire affect its resistance?
- Increasing length increases resistance
- Doubling length → doubles resistance
- Resistance is directly proportional to length
How does the cross-sectional area of a wire affect its resistance?
- Decreasing cross-sectional area increases resistance
- Halving cross-sectional area → doubles resistance
- Resistance is inversely proportional to cross-sectional diameter
What is Ohm’s law?
- The current through a wire or resistor at constant temperature is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the wire or resistor
Why does resistance increase in a filament when the temperature increases?

- Positive ions vibrate faster
- Inhibits flow of electrons
What do current/voltage graphs show?
- Gradient = 1 ÷ resistance
- Steeper gradient → smaller the resistance
Current/Voltage Graphs
Wire Or Resistor
Current (A)
- Straight line of constant gradient
- Resistance does not change
- Obeys Ohm’s law
Voltage (V) Remember:
A directly proportional relationship will be a

straight line through the origin
Current (A) Filament Bulb
- Curved line
- At higher current & voltage, resistance increases
Voltage (V) - At higher temperature (meaning higher resistance),
current decreases
Current (A)
Diode
- High resistance when current flows in one direction
Voltage (V) - Low resistance when current flows in other direction

4.2.5 Electrical energy and electrical power
What do electric circuits transfer?

- Electrical energy from a source
- e.g. electrical cell or mains supply
- To the components of the circuit
- e.g. heater, bulb
- Then into the surroundings
- e.g. as heat energy, light energy
Define electrical power
- The transfer of electrical energy per second
What are the units of power?
- Watts (W)
- Or Joules per second (J/s)
What is the equation linking power, current and voltage?

- Power = current x voltage P
- P=IxV I x V
Worked Example 32: Using The P = I x V Equation

Suggest the correct fuse that should be used for a 230V, 1.5 kW electric kettle. Support your
answer with a calculation
Step 1: Calculate the current passing through the fuse

I=P÷V
I = 1500 ÷ 230 (remember to convert kW to W by x1000)
I = 6.52A
Step 2: Choose a fuse value just above the size of the current passing through it
Fuse value = 7A
What is the equation linking energy, power and time?

- Energy = power x time
- E=Pxt E
P x t
What are the units of energy?
- Joules
Give the equation that links energy, current, voltage and time
- Energy transferred = current x voltage x time
- E=IxVxt
- As E = P x t, and P = I x V, we can substitute I x V into the equation for energy transferred

Worked Example 33: Using The E = I x V x t Equation
A mobile phone charge states on the label that is has a d.c. output of 5.5 V, 600 mA. Calculate
the energy transferred to the output circuit when the mobile phone is charged for 2.25 hours
Step 1: Convert hours into seconds

2.25 x 60 x 60 = 8100 s To convert days into
hours, multiply by 24
Step 2: Convert mA into A
600 mA = 0.6 A To convert hours into
minutes, multiply by 60
Step 3: Use the equation E = I x V x t
E= IxVxt To convert minutes into
E = 0.6 x 5.5 x 8100 seconds, multiply by 60
E = 26730 J
Define kilowatt-hour (kW h)

- Electrical energy converted by a 1 kW appliance used for 1 hour
- Units used = power x time
Worked Example 34: Calculating The Cost Of Using Electrical Appliances

A television set requires 300 W. It is switched on for 45 minutes. If each unit (kWh) costs 28p,
how much does it cost to run the TV?
Step 1: Convert W into kW

300 W = 0.3 kW
Step 2: Convert minutes into hours
45 mins = 0.75 hours
Step 3: Calculate the kW h used
kW h = 0.3 x 0.75
kW h = 0.225
Step 4: Calculate the cost of the units used
Cost = 0.225 x 28
Cost = 6.3 p

4.3 Electric circuits
4.3.1 Circuit diagram and circuit components
Circuit Symbols - Learn These Off By Heart
Switch (open) Lamp
Switch (closed)
+ - M Motor
Cell
+ -
Battery
V Voltmeter
+ -
D.C. power supply
A.C. power supply Ammeter

A
Resistor
G Generator
Variable resistor
Fuse Relay coil
Thermistor
Earth
Light dependent
resistor (LDR) Transformer
Heater
Magnetising coil
Potential divider

What is the difference between a standard resistor and variable resistor?
- Standard resistors have a fixed resistance
- Variable resistors can have their resistance changed
What is a thermistor?
- A temperature dependent resistor
- Resistance decreases when temperature increases
- Therefore current increases when temperature increases
Explain what happens to the potential difference of a neighbouring component in series when a
thermistor is cooled
- Resistance of thermistor increases
- Current through circuit decreases
- Potential difference decreases
What can thermistors be used for?
- Thermostats
- Keep engines at optimum temperatures
What is an LDR?
- Light dependent resistor
- Its resistance decreases when light intensity increases
What can LDRs be used for?
- Automatically switching on lights when it gets dark
Circuit Symbols (Extended ONLY) - Learn These Off By Heart
Light emitting diode

Diode
(LED)
What is a diode?
- A device which allows current to flow in one direction only
4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits
Describe a series circuit

- All components connected in a single loop
- Only one path for current to follow
Describe a parallel circuit
- Circuit has branches
- Multiple paths for current to follow
Give an example of when a series circuit should be used
- Decorative lights (e.g. fairy lights)
- Each bulb requires low voltage and can all be controlled by one switch

Give the advantages and disadvantages of connecting light bulbs in series
Advantages Disadvantages
If one bulb breaks, the circuit breaks. All bulbs

One switch can turn all bulbs off/on
stop working
Potential difference shared between all bulbs.

Uses fewer wires
More bulbs = less bright
Explain why lights in a house are connected in parallel

- Lights can be switched on and off separately
- Brightness of each light does not change if another is switched on
- All receive mains potential difference (230V)
- If bulb breaks/is removed, other lights keep working

Series & Parallel Circuits
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit
+ +
REMEMBER: The arrows on a circuit diagram actually point in the OPPOSITE direction to the flow of electrons.
This is called the ‘conventional current’, and is due to electrons being discovered after electricity!
Why are lamps and LEDs frequently incorporated into circuits?

- Indicate presence of a current in the circuit
- Lamp/LED on = current flowing
What are the current and potential difference rules in a series circuit?
- Current is the same everywhere
- If additional component added, current reduces through all components
- Total potential difference is the sum of all the individual components’ potential difference
- If potential difference doubled, current also doubles (if resistance is constant)
What are the current and potential difference rules in a parallel circuit?
- Potential difference is the same everywhere
- Total current is the sum of the current flowing through the individual components

Worked Example 35: Circuit Diagrams (1)
The diagram shows a heater coil and a resistor connected to a 12 V battery and an ammeter.
The ammeter reading is 1.2 A.
12 V
+
1.2 A A
4.0 Ω
Heater coil
Water
i) Calculate the potential difference across the resistor

Use the equation potential difference = current x resistance
V=IxR
V = 1.2 x 4.0
V = 4.8 V
ii) Show that the potential difference across the heater coil is about 7 V
Remember: In a series circuit, total p.d. is the sum of all the individual components’ p.d.
Total p.d. = 12 V (e.m.f of the battery)
p.d. of heater = 12 - 4.8
= 7.2 V
iii) Calculate the energy transferred to the heater coil in 5.0 minutes
Step 1: Work out which values you know…
Time = 5.0 minutes = 300 s
p.d. = 7.2 V
Current = 1.2 A (current is the same everywhere in a series circuit)
Energy = unknown
Step 2: Choose a suitable equation containing the known values
Energy = current x p.d. x time
Step 3: Solve the equation
Energy = 1.2 x 7.2 x 300
Energy = 2592 J (2600 J to 2 s.f.)

Worked Example 36: Circuit Diagrams (2)
The diagram shows an electric circuit with two resistors, P and Q. Some of the values of the
current are also shown.
0.80A A2
0.30A
P
A1
i) On the diagram draw a voltmeter to measure the potential difference of resistor Q

Remember: Voltmeters are always attached in parallel to the component
The voltmeter is drawn in red
ii) Deduce the readings on the ammeters

Remember: Current is conserved at a junction: current in = current out
0.80A enter the junction, and 0.30A go through resistor P
Reading at A1 = 0.80 - 0.30
= 0.50 A
Reading at A2 = same as current entering junction

= 0.80A
iii) Resistor P has a resistance of 8Ω. Calculate the potential difference across resistor P
Use the equation V = I x R
V = 0.30 x 8
V = 2.4 V
iv) Explain how the p.d. across resistor P compares with the e.m.f. across the battery
Remember: In a parallel circuit, p.d. is the same everywhere
e.m.f. across battery is the same as p.d. across P because battery and P are connected in
parallel

Why is current conserved at a junction?
- In parallel circuit, current is shared between each component
- Total number of electrons flowing into the junction must equal total number of electrons leaving
- Current entering junction therefore equals current leaving junction
How is the total resistance in a series circuit found?
- Sum of the individual resistors
What is the rule for calculating resistance for two resistors connected in parallel?
- Combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself
How is the resistance of two resistors connected in parallel calculated?
- 1 = 1 + 1
R R1 R2
Worked Example 37: Calculating Resistance In Parallel

Resistors of 2 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in parallel across a battery supplying 6 V. Another
resistor of 5 Ω is connected in series with the battery. The circuit is shown below.
+ 6V
2Ω 5Ω
4Ω
Calculate the total resistance in the circuit

Step 1: Calculate the total resistance of the resistors in parallel
1 = 1 + 1
Remember:
R R1 R2
1 = 1 + 1 The total resistance for
R 2 4 resistors in parallel should be
1 = 3 less than the resistor with the
lowest resistance, so always
R 4
check your answer to make
R = 4 (= 1.3) sure it’s sensible
3
Step 2: Calculate the overall resistance by adding the resistance of the resistor in series
R = 1.3 + 5
R = 6.3 Ω

Describe how a variable potential divider works
- Uses a variable resistor to divide up the potential difference within a circuit
- Parts of the circuit only receive the p.d. they require
- The amount delivered can be varied by varying the resistor
- Changes output p.d.

The Action Of A Variable Potential Divider Circuit
R
When the sliding terminal (T) is at
T
point R, the reading on the
V voltmeter is 0 V.
12 V
This is because there is no
resistance in the blue part of the
circuit, and as V = IR, V must
S therefore be 0.
R
When the sliding terminal (T) moves
towards point S, the reading on the
V
T voltmeter increases.
12 V
This is because there is the
resistance in the blue part of the
circuit increases, and as V = IR,
S V must therefore also increases.
When the sliding terminal (T) is at

R
point S, the reading on the
voltmeter is 12 V.
V
This is because there is no
12 V
resistance in the red part of the
circuit (and therefore no voltage),
T and the total p.d. of the circuit
S
must equal the e.m.f of the battery.

Give the equation for two resistors used as a potential divider
- R1 = V1
R2 V2
Worked Example 38: Two Resistors Used As A Potential Divider

A student sets up a circuit with two resistors acting as a potential divider
+ 6V
A 40 Ω 20 Ω
Vout
i) Calculate the combined resistance of the two resistors

R = R1 + R2
R = 40 + 20
R = 60 Ω
ii) Calculate the current at point A in the diagram
I=V
R
I=6
60
I = 0.1 A
iii) Calculate the p.d. across the 20 Ω resistor
V=IxR
V = 0.1 x 20
V=2V
iv) Calculate the value of Vout of the potential divider
R1 = V1
R 2 V2
40 = V1
20 2 .
V1 = 2 x 2
V1 = 4 V

4.4 Electrical safety
State the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating cables, damp conditions and overloading
plug sockets in the home
- Damaged insulation: metal wires exposed → potential electrocution risk
- Overheating cables: caused by too much current → potential electrical fire risk
- Damp conditions: water can conduct electricity → potential electrocution risk
- Overloading plug sockets: heat produced can cause electrical fire
What are the various wires in a mains circuit?
- Green and yellow - earth
- Brown - live
- Blue - neutral
Why must a switch be connected to the live wire for a circuit to be switched off safely?
- When switch is off, no current flows through appliance
- If switch is in neutral wire → current always flowing through appliance even when switch is off
What is a fuse?
- A wire which melts if the current is too high
- Connected to live wire
- Circuit breaks and turns off if there is a fault
- Must be replaced after fuse has melted
- Fuse without earth wire protects the circuit and cabling for a double-insulated appliance
How should the value of a fuse be chosen?
- Fuse value should only be a little bigger than the current flowing through
What is a circuit breaker (trip switch)?
- A device which stops the current flowing in a circuit when the current is too high
- Circuit cannot overheat if there is a fault
- Can be reset
State the advantages of using a circuit breaker instead of a fuse
- Advantages of circuit breakers:
- Resettable (fuses must be replaced)
- Work instantly (fuses do not)
- Don’t require earth wire
- More sensitive
Why do metal objects connected to mains electricity require earth wires?
- Metal cases conducts electricity
- Earth wires prevent user getting electric shock
Describe how an earth wire acts as a safety feature
- Earth connects to metal casing
- Provides low resistance path for current to earth if casing becomes live
- Large current in earth wire melts fuse
- Circuit breaks and turns off
What is double insulation and why is it used?
- Both the wires inside a device and the outer case of the device are insulated
- e.g. covered in plastic
- No chance of electrocution
- Necessary when earth wire not present

4.5 Electromagnetic effects
4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction
Describe how an electromotive force may be induced

- If a wire is moved across a magnetic field at right angles
- An e.m.f. is induced
- If the wire is attached to a complete circuit, a current is induced
- This is electromagnetic induction
Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction
- Connect a solenoid (coil of wire) to an ammeter
- Pass a magnet through the solenoid
- As magnet moves, magnetic field lines move → pass through wires of solenoid
- This produces an induced e.m.f.
- Induced e.m.f. drives a current in the circuit, which shows on the ammeter
How may the size of the induced e.m.f. be increased?
- Wrapping the wire into a coil (or increasing number of turns in coil)
- Using a stronger magnet
- Moving the wire more quickly
In which direction will the induced e.m.f. act when a wire is moved through a magnetic field?
- In the opposite direction to the change causing it
How can the relative directions of force, field and induced current be determined?
- Using Fleming’s right hand rule
- Use this when working out direction of current induced by a generator

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Thumb = Motion (Force)
First Finger = Magnetic Field
Second Finger = Induced

Current
4.5.2 The a.c. generator
Describe a simple form of a.c. generator

- A coil of wire
- Rotating in a magnetic field

Explain how a generator produces an e.m.f.
- Rotate coil of wire in magnetic field
- Coil cuts through magnetic field
- E.m.f. (and current) is induced

A Simple A.C. Generator Using Fleming’s
Right Hand Rule
Coil rotated in Force (rotation of
wire)
S
magnetic field
N Field (N→S)
Slip ring
Current
Current induced in
rotating coil
Brushes
Current flows in
external circuit
Explain why the generator produces an alternating current

- One side of coil moves up through magnetic field → e.m.f. is induced in one direction
- Rotation continues and same side of coil moves down → induced e.m.f. reverses direction
- Alternating current therefore produced by reversing direction of e.m.f.
Describe the role of slip rings in a simple a.c. motor
- Maintain constant contact with same sides of rotating coil
Describe the role of brushes in a simple a.c. motor
- Keep continuous contact between external circuit and slip rings
A.C. Generator Output Graph

Coil at 90° to Coil at 0°
magnetic field. Parallel to
e.m.f. (V) Maximum e.m.f. magnetic field so
induced no e.m.f. induced
Time (s)
Coil at 90° to
Coil at 0° magnetic field.
Parallel to Maximum e.m.f.
magnetic field so induced in opposite
no e.m.f. induced direction

4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current
What happens when an electric current is passed through a conductor (e.g. a wire)?
- A magnetic field is produced
How is a simple electromagnet constructed?
- Pass a current through a wire
- Coil wire around an iron core
- When current flows through coil of wire it becomes magnetic
What is a solenoid?
- Long coil of wire
How can the direction of the magnetic field around a wire be determined?
- Use right hand grip rule

Right Hand Grip Rule For A Straight Wire
Current
Thumb = direction of current through wire
Fingers = direction of magnetic field

Right hand
Iron filings spread on
cardboard will align in
the shape of the
magnetic field
Magnetic field

Magnetic Field Patterns For A Flat Circular Coil And A Solenoid
Current Current out Current in

Flat Circular Coil Solenoid
When drawing, always include: Right hand grip rule for poles:
- At least one straight line though the middle - Imagine your right hand is wrapped around solenoid
- At least one loop at each end of the coil - Fingers point in direction of current
- Magnetic field direction arrows - Thumb points towards North

Describe how a loudspeaker converts an alternating current into a sound wave
- Current passed through coil in loudspeaker
- Produces magnetic field
- Interaction between induced magnetic field and permanent magnetic field
- Causes a force to be exerted on speaker
- Alternating current changes direction
- Force on speaker changes direction
- Causes speaker cone to vibrate
How can the force on the loudspeaker be increased?
- Increase the current
- Increase the number of turns of wire
- Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
What is a relay switch?
- Device which uses a low current circuit to switch a high current circuit on or off
Describe how the magnetic effect of a current is used in relays
- When switch in the low current circuit is closed → electromagnet turned on
- Electromagnet attracts an iron arm
- Iron arm rotates and pushes the contacts in another circuit together, turning that circuit on
- When low current switch is opened → electromagnet stops attracting iron arm
- High current circuit is broken
How can the magnetic field around a current carrying wire be made stronger?
- Increasing current
- Wrapping the wire into a coil (solenoid)
- Add an iron core
How can the magnetic field around a solenoid be made stronger?
- Increasing the number of turns in the solenoid
- Increasing the current
What happens to the magnetic field around a wire if the direction of current is reversed?
- Direction of magnetic field reverses
4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor
Describe an experiment to show that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic

field
- Run a metal wire between the poles of a magnet
- Connect wire to battery and a switch to complete circuit
- When switch is off, wire remains straight
- When switch is on, wire bends
- If magnet is turned around, wire bends in opposite direction
- In current is reversed, wire bends in opposite direction
Explain why a force is experienced by a wire when a current flows through it
- A current flows through the wire creating a magnetic field around the wire
- This temporary magnetic field interacts with the permanent magnetic field of the bar magnets
- A force is created at right-angles to the current and field lines
Describe the movement of a charged particle in a magnetic field
- The particle will move
- As long as its motion is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines

Explain why a charged particle feels a force when it moves in a permanent magnetic field
- Movement of charged particle = a current
- Current produces magnetic fields
- Magnetic field from current interacts with permanent magnetic field
- Creates a force
- Force is perpendicular to the direction of motion and the permanent magnetic field
- Force only occurs if motion is not parallel to magnetic field
How can the direction of the force on the wire be predicted when a wire carries a current
perpendicular to a magnetic field?
- Use Fleming’s left hand rule

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Thumb = Motion (Force)
First Finger = Magnetic Field
Second Finger = Current
4.5.5 The d.c. motor

A D.C. Generator Force Using Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule
Coil rotates Force
N
clockwise
Split-ring
commutator Field (N→S)
S
Current
Force
Metal brush
contact

Describe how a motor works
- A current flows through the coil
- Creates a magnetic field around the wire
- Temporary magnetic field interacts with a permanent magnetic field
- Produces a force on the wires
- Forces on opposite sides of the coil are in opposite directions
- A commutator reverses the direction of current every half turn
- Allows motor to keep spinning
Describe the role of the split-ring commutator
- Reverses direction of current every half-turn
- Current flows in opposite direction through the wire once it rotates 180°
- Means motor coil continues to rotate in one direction only
Describe the role of the brushes
- Keep continuous contact between external circuit and split-ring commutators
How may the motor be made to spin faster?
- Increase the current
- Increase the number of turns of wire
- Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
4.5.6 The transformer
Describe the structure of a transformer

- Laminated core made from iron
- 2 coils found on opposite sides
- Step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than primary
- Step-down transformers have fewer turns on the secondary coil than the primary
What is the role of transformer?
- To change the size of the alternating voltage
- There are a different number of turns on the input and output sides

Step-Up & Step-Down Transformers
Step-up transformer Iron core Step-down transformer
V
V
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

coil coil coil coil
- No. of secondary coils > No. of primary coils - No. of primary coils > No. of secondary coils
- Output voltage > Input voltage - Input voltage > Output voltage

Explain the operation of a step-down transformer
- Step-down means secondary voltage is less than primary voltage
- Current in primary coil produces magnetic field
- Current is alternating (frequency = 50 Hz)
- Causes a changing magnetic field in the core
- Core strengthens the magnetic field
- Secondary coil experiences a changing magnetic field
- Induces a voltage in the secondary coil
- Secondary coil voltage smaller than primary coil voltage
What is the difference between step-up and step-down transformers?
- Step-up used to increase power station voltages to grid voltage
- Step-down used to decrease the grid voltage to a voltage that can be used safely in our homes
(230V)
Give the relationship between the input and output voltages and the turns ratio for a transformer
- Input (primary) voltage = Primary turns
Output (secondary) voltage Secondary turns
- Vp = Np
Vs N s
Worked Example 39: Voltage & Turns Relationship

A step-down transformer has 160 turns on the primary coil and 45 turns on the secondary coil.
The input voltage is 12 V. Calculate the output voltage.
Use the equation V p ÷ Vs = N p ÷ N s
12 ÷ Vs = 160 ÷ 45
Vs = 12 ÷ (160 ÷ 45)
Vs = 3.4 V
Explain why step-up and step-down transformers are used in the large-scale transmission
of electricity
- Step-up transformer increases voltage
- Step-up transformer also decreases current
- Power remains constant, so according to P = IV, if voltage increases, current must decrease
- Transmission current is reduced
- Energy losses are reduced
- Because high current causes heating in transmission cables
- Step-down transformer used to reduce voltage to safe level
What are the advantages of high-voltage transmission?
- Current is reduced
- Less energy lost to surroundings as heat
- Lighter, cheaper cables can be used
Explain why power losses in cables are smaller when the voltage is greater
- According to P = IV, if voltage increases, current must decrease for the same power
- As V = IR, this can be substituted into P = IV to give P = I2R
- P = I2R can be used to calculate power lost as heat energy
- Resistance in wire is constant, so reducing current dramatically reduces power loss in cables

Give the relationship between input power and output power
- Input power = Output power
- VpIp = VsIs
What assumption is made in the above relationship?
- 100% efficiency
Worked Example 40: Input & Output Power

A step-up transformer has an input voltage of 230 V and an output voltage of 270 kV. The
transformer has an input current of 90 A. Calculate the output current from the transformer.
[Assume the transformer is 100% efficient]
Step 1: Convert kV to V 270 kV = 270000 V
Step 2: Use the equation VpIp = VsIs
230 x 90 = 270000 x Is
Is = (230 x 90) ÷ 270000
Is = 0.077 A

5. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
5.1 The nuclear model of the atom
5.1.1 The atom
Describe the structure of an atom

- Positively charged nucleus
- Negatively charged electrons orbit around nucleus
How are positive ions formed?
- By an atom losing electrons
How are negative ions formed?
- By an atom gaining electrons
What is an alpha (⍺) particle?
- Helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons)
- Positively charged ion
Explain the results of firing alpha particles at a sheet of thin metal
- Alpha particle is a helium nucleus
- 2 protons and 2 neutrons → gives overall positive charge
- Most pass straight through metal → an atom is largely empty space
- Some were deflected a little → nucleus is very small
- Very few were deflected a lot → nucleus is positively charged (like charges repel) and contains
most of atom’s mass
5.1.2 The nucleus
Where in an atom are protons and neutrons found?

- Nucleus
Where are electrons found?
- In shells around nucleus
Give the relative mass and charge of an electron, a proton and a neutron
Mass Charge
Electron 1/2000 -1
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Define atomic (proton) number (Z)

- Number of protons in an atom
- Also equal to the number of electrons
- Proton number gives relative charge of a nucleus
Define mass (or nucleon) number (A)
- Number of protons + number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
- Nucleon number gives relative mass of a nucleus

How is the number of neutrons in an atom calculated?
- Mass number - atomic number
Using The Nuclide Notation
Mass number (A) 23 Protons = 11
Na Electrons = 11
Neutrons = 23 - 11 = 12
Atomic number (Z) 11
What is an isotope?
- An atom of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons
- Elements may have more than one isotope
What is nuclear fission?
- Splitting of atomic nuclei
Where is nuclear fission carried out?
- In a nuclear generator
How may a chain reaction be set up in a nuclear reactor?
- Fast moving neutron collides with uranium nuclei
- Nuclei split forming 2 radioactive daughter nuclei and 2-3 neutrons
- Neutrons hit other uranium nuclei
- Chain reaction set up
Describe what is meant by a chain reaction
- Fission releases neutrons
- Neutrons can be captured by other uranium nuclei
- These nuclei then undergo fission
What are the products of each reaction during nuclear fission?
- 2 radioactive daughter cells
- Small number of neutrons
Worked Example 41: Nuclear Fission
The equation shows a possible nuclear fission reaction.
235 1 92 141 1
92 U + 0n 36 Kr
+ 56 Ba + x 0 n
Calculate 𝑥, the number of neutrons released by this fission reaction.
Step 1: Calculate the total atomic number and mass number on both sides of the equation
Atomic number: Left hand side = 92
Right hand side = 36 + 56 = 92 BALANCED
Mass number: Left hand side = 235 + 1 = 236
Right hand side = 92 + 141 + 𝑥 = 233 + 𝑥 NOT BALANCED
Step 2: Calculate how many neutrons are required to balance the mass numbers
236 = 233 + 𝑥
𝑥=3

State the type of energy released in a fission reaction
- Kinetic energy
How does nuclear fission lead to the production of electricity?
- Thermal energy released used to heat water to create steam
- Steam turns a turbine
- Turbine turns a generator
What is nuclear fusion?
- Collision of atomic nuclei at high speed
- Creates larger nuclei, resulting in the loss of mass from small nuclei
- i.e. mass before > mass after
- Releases energy
Nuclear Fusion Gamma radiation - see

In the Sun, the following nuclear fusion reaction occurs: section 5.2.2
He + 𝜸
2 1 3
1H
+ 1H 2
The combined mass of four hydrogen nuclei is 6.693 × 10-27 kg
The mass of one helium nucleus is 6.645 × 10-27 kg
The missing amount of mass (0.048 × 10-27 kg) has been converted to energy, which radiates
away from the Sun as gamma radiation
What is the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion?
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
Splitting of heavy atomic nuclei into smaller

Fusion of light nuclei to form a larger nucleus
atomic nuclei
Occurs in nuclear reactors Occurs in stars
Why does nuclear fusion not occur at low temperatures?

- Nuclear fusion involves 2 nuclei joining
- Nuclei are positively charged → electrostatic repulsion between like charges
- Needs extremely high temperature to overcome the repulsion
- These temperatures are only currently found in stars
5.2 Radioactivity
5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity
What is background radiation?

- Radiation which is always present
- Received by detectors all the time
What device is used to measure the amount of ionising radiation (radioactivity)?
- Geiger-Muller detector
- Connected to a counter

Give some sources of background radiation
- Radon gas in air
- Granite rocks in ground and buildings
- Some food and drink (e.g. coffee, bananas)
- Cosmic rays from the Sun
Describe the procedure to measure background radiation in order to correct a count measurement
- Remove the radioactive source
- Measure background count
- Repeat the measurement and calculate average
- Scale background count to same time as count measurement
- Subtract background count from the non-corrected measurement
What is the unit for measuring radioactivity?
- Becquerel (Bq)
- Note: Some questions may refer to counts per second instead
Worked Example 42: Background Radiation
In a laboratory, a detector of ionising radiation records an average background count rate of 8
counts per second.
A radioactive source is now placed close to the detector. The count rate on the detector rises to
200 counts per second.
What is the corrected count rate of the radioactive source?
Answer: 200 8 = 192 counts per second
5.2.2 The three types of nuclear emission
Describe the emission of radiation from a nucleus

- Spontaneous
- Random in direction
What is an alpha (⍺) particle?
- Helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons)
What is a beta (β-) particle?
- Fast moving electron
What is a gamma (𝛾) ray?
- Electromagnetic wave
How are alpha, beta, and gamma radiation stopped?
- Alpha - few centimetres of air, paper
- Beta - 10cm air, aluminium foil
- Gamma - several inches thick lead, metres of concrete
List alpha, beta and gamma radiation in order, starting with the most penetrating
- Gamma > beta > alpha
Define ionising
- Ability to remove an electron from an atom
List alpha, beta and gamma radiation in order, starting with the most ionising
- Alpha > beta > gamma

Why is it relatively safe to be in the same room as an alpha-emitting substance?
- Alpha radiation cannot penetrate skin
Explain why alpha has a stronger ionising effect than gamma
- Alpha is charged, gamma is not
- Greater charge increases likelihood of ionisation
- Alpha is large and has mass, gamma has no size or mass
- Alpha has greater kinetic energy so makes more frequent, successful collisions
- Gamma makes few collisions so not very ionising
Describe the deflection of alpha particles in electric and magnetic fields
- Electric field: attracted to negatively charged plate
- Because alpha particles are positively charged
- Magnetic field: deflected in curved path as alpha particles are charged
- Direction worked out using Fleming’s left hand rule
Describe the deflection of beta particles in electric and magnetic fields
- Electric field: attracted to positively charged plate
- Because beta particles are negatively charged
- Magnetic field: deflected in curved path as beta particles are charged
- Direction worked out using Fleming’s left hand rule
- Deflected in opposite direction to alpha particles
- Beta particles have very small mass so deflected more than alpha particles
Describe the deflection of gamma rays in electric and magnetic fields
- Electric field: no deflection
- Because gamma rays are not charged
- Magnetic field: no deflection
- Because gamma rays are not charged

Deflection Of Radiation In Electric And Magnetic Fields
Alpha
Gamma Electric Field
Beta
+ + + + + + +
Alpha
Magnetic Field
Gamma (direction of the
magnetic field is
into the page)
Beta

5.2.3 Radioactive decay
Define radioactive decay

- Change in unstable nucleus
- Results in emission of ⍺-particles or β-particles and/or 𝛾-radiation
- Emission of ⍺-particles or β-particles changes nucleus to that of another element
- Spontaneous and random process
What happens when a nucleus emits an alpha particle?
- Alpha is a helium nucleus
- 2 protons and 2 neutrons are emitted
- Mass number decreases by 4, atomic number (proton number) decreases by 2
230 226 4
92 U 90 Th
+ 2 He
What happens when a nucleus emits a beta particle?
- A neutron turns into a proton and electron
- Proton stays in the nucleus
- Fast moving electron (β- particle) emitted
- Mass number unchanged, atomic number (proton number) increases by 1
14 14 0
6 C 7 N+ -1 e-
What happens when a radioactive element emits a gamma ray?
- High energy electromagnetic wave released from atom
- No change to mass number of proton number
What causes isotopes of an element to be radioactive?
- Excess of neutrons in the nucleus
- And/or the nucleus being too heavy
What happens to the stability of a nucleus after radioactive decay has occurred?
- Stability increases
- Because number of excess neutrons decreased
5.2.4 Half-life
Define half life

- Time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay
Describe the nature of radioactive decay

- Random process
- Different for different radioactive isotopes
Why is tossing a coin a good model for radioactive decay?
- Random
- Unable to predict whether you will land on a head or tail - with radioactive decay you don’t know
when the nuclei will breakdown (decay)
What are the limitations of tossing a coin as a model for radioactive decay?
- You can only toss the coin at most 1000 times really
- In radioactive material there are millions of nuclei that have the potential to decay

Plotting Half-Life Graphs
Graph showing the activity of a substance with a half-life of 10 years
100%
Activity (%)
50%
25%
12.5%
0% Time (years)
0 10 20 30 40
After 10 years, half the After 20 years, half the

original nuclei in the remaining nuclei in the
radioactive isotope have radioactive isotope have
decayed decayed
Worked Example 43: Half-Life

Iodine-129 is an isotope found in radioactive waste from nuclear power stations. Iodine-129 has
a half-life of 15 million years.
A sample of iodine-129 has an activity of 72 kBq. What is the activity of the sample after 60
million years?
Step 1: Calculate how many half-lives have passed

1 half-life = 15 million years
Calculate how many times 15m goes into 60m to work out how many half-lives have passed
60m ÷ 15m = 4 half-lives
Step 2: Set up a number line to calculate the activity after 4 half lives
72 kBq 36 kBq 18 kBq 9 kBq 4.5 kBq
1 half-life 2 half-lives 3 half-lives 4 half-lives

Answer: 4.5 kBq

Worked Example 44: Half-Life Graphs & Background Radiation (Extended ONLY)
A radiation detector is connected to a computer. The readings recorded are displayed on the
computer screen. The detector is switched on. Ten minutes later, at time t = 10 minutes, a small
sample of radioactive material is placed near to the detector. Readings are recorded for a further
40 minutes
Count rate 80 This includes both
(Counts/minute)
background radiation and
70 radiation from material
60
50
40
30
Sample not added 20
until t=10, so this
must be background 10
radiation
Time (minutes)
0 10 20 30 40 50
i) Determine the background count-rate
12 counts/minute
ii) Determine the count-rate due to the radioactive sample at t = 10 minutes
72 12 = 60 counts/minute
iii) Determine the count-rate due to the radioactive sample at t = 18 minutes
27 12 = 15 counts/minute
iv) Estimate the half-life of the radioactive sample
60 → 30 → 15 = 2 half-lives
2 half-lives = 8 minutes
So 1 half-life = 4 minutes
Describe how alpha radiation is used in smoke alarms

- Alpha radiation ionises the air creating small current
- Current picked up by a detector
- In a fire, alpha particles are stopped by smoke
- Current stops, alarm sounds
Explain why gamma radiation is used to irradiate food and sterilise medical equipment
- Gamma is most penetrating type of radiation
- Food can be irradiated to kill bacteria
- Can be done once food is already in packaging
- Can irradiate all sides of medical instruments without removing from packaging
How can radiation be used to measure and control thicknesses of materials?
- Radiation emitter and detector placed either side of material
- As material moves along, particles that penetrate it are detected
- If material gets thicker → more particles absorbed → detection count drops
- If material gets thinner → fewer particles absorbed → detection count increases
- Machine can make adjustments to keep thickness of material constant

What type of radiation is used to measure and control thicknesses of materials?
- Mostly commonly beta particles
- More penetrating and less ionising than alpha particles
- If material is very thin, alpha particles may be used
- Material may not thick enough to absorb beta particles
- If material is very thick, gamma radiation may be used
- Gamma rays are most penetrating
Describe the properties of radioactive medical tracers
- Short half-life
- Long enough to complete the procedure
- But falls to safe level quickly
- Usually emits gamma rays
- Gamma rays can penetrate out of the body and be detected
Why can gamma rays be used to treat cancer?
- High energy electromagnetic wave
- Can penetrate body and kill living cells
5.2.5 Safety precautions
What are the dangers of exposure to ionising nuclear radiation?

- Cell death
- Mutations
- Cancer
Discuss precautions that must be taken when disposing of radioactive waste with a long half-life
- Must use strong, lead-lined containers
- Containers can’t rust → could lead to contamination
- Minimise amount of time spent handling sources
- Radioactive waste can potentially be diluted in sea water
- But must not leak into water table
- Bury underground to minimise risk of contamination
- Must be a secure place
- Not at risk from natural disasters
How can you reduce your risk of radiation?
- Limit exposure time
- Shielding e.g. lead, thick layer of concrete
- Using tongs to handle radiation
How should radioactive sources be stored?
- In shielded (e.g. lead-lined) containers
- Lead absorbs most radiation
How should radioactive materials be moved?
- Using tongs
- Wearing protective gloves
- Increases distance between living tissues and radioactive source

6. SPACE PHYSICS
6.1 Earth and the Solar System
What is the Earth?

- A planet
What is a day?
- Time taken for Earth to rotate once on its axis
- Takes approximately 24 hours for one rotation
Explain what causes day and night
- Earth rotates on its tilted axis
- Part of Earth facing the Sun → day
- Part of Earth facing away from the Sun → night
- As Earth rotates, Sun appears to rise and set
- Rises in East, sets in West
- Appears highest in sky at midday

Day & Night
Night
Sun
Day
Tilted axis
What is a year?
- Time taken for the Earth to complete one orbit of the Sun
What is the relationship between orbital speed, orbital radius and time period?
- Orbital speed = 2 x 𝜋 x orbital radius
time period
- v=2x𝜋xr
T
Worked Example 45: Orbital Speed

A planet completes an orbit of a star in 70 days. The radius of its orbit is 1.5 × 1011 m. Calculate
the orbital speed of the planet in m/s
Step 1: Convert 70 days into seconds

70 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 6.0 x 106
Step 2: Use the equation v = 2 𝜋 r / t
v = 2 x 𝜋 x (1.5 × 1011) ÷ (6.0 x 106)

v = 156000 m/s

Explain the periodic nature of the seasons
- Axis of Earth is tilted
- As Earth orbits the Sun, either the northern or southern hemisphere will be tilted towards Sun
- When northern hemisphere is tilted towards Sun → summer in northern hemisphere
- Warmer, with longer daylight hours
- When northern hemisphere is tilted away from Sun → winter in northern hemisphere
- Colder, with shorter daylight hours

The Periodic Nature Of The Seasons (Northern Hemisphere)
Spring
Northern Northern
hemisphere tilted hemisphere tilted
towards Sun away from Sun
Winter
Summer
Sun
Autumn
What is a month?
- Time taken for the Moon to orbit the Earth once
- Approximately 30 days
What causes the phases of the Moon?
- Reflection of Sun’s light off the moon
- Dependent on position of moon in its orbit around Earth
- Half of moon always illuminated by Sun
- But only part of illuminated side can sometimes be seen

When does a New Moon occur?
- When the Moon is between the Earth and Sun
- Sun’s light is reflected from the Moon back towards Sun
- Moon cannot be seen from Earth

Phases Of The Moon
First
Quarter
Waxing Waxing
Gibbous Crescent
Sun
Full Moon New Moon
Waning Waning
Gibbous crescent
Third
Quarter
6.1.2 The Solar System
What does our Solar System consist of?

- One star (the Sun)
- Planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
- Minor planets (Pluto and asteroids)
- Moons
- Comets and natural satellites
What is the order of planets (starting from closest to the Sun)? (Use this mnemonic…)
- My (Mercury) Very (Venus) Easy (Earth) Method (Mars) Just (Jupiter) Speeds (Saturn) Up
(Uranus) Naming (Neptune)

Where is the asteroid belt located?
- Between Mars and Jupiter
What is a satellite?
- An object which orbits a planet
- Can be either natural (moon) or artificial (man-made)
What is a comet?
- Ball of ice and dust that orbits the sun
Compare the orbits of comets, planets and moons
- Comets have very elliptical orbits, with a star at one focus
- Planets have slightly elliptical orbits around a star
- Star not precise centre of orbit (unless orbit is approximately circular)
- Moons have circular orbits around a planet

Shapes Of Orbits
Comet
Moon
Planet
Star
Comets have
very elliptical
Planets have orbits
slightly elliptical
orbits Planet
State the differences between an artificial satellite’s orbit and a planet’s orbit
- Satellite orbits a planet, planet orbits a star
- Orbital radius of planet is greater than satellite
Where is a comet’s kinetic energy greatest?
- When it is nearest the star
- Gravitational force strongest
Suggest why planets nearer to a star take less time to orbit the star
- Smaller orbital path for close planets
- Larger speed for close planets
State the similarities between an artificial satellite’s orbit and a moon’s orbit
- Both orbit a planet
- Both have same shape of orbit
Describe the structure of the four planets nearest the Sun
- Rocky and small
Describe the structure of the four planets furthest from the Sun
- Gaseous and large

What is a nebula?
- Interstellar cloud of dust and gases
- Mostly hydrogen and helium
- Small percentage of heavier atoms
- e.g. carbon, magnesium, nitrogen
Outline the accretion model for Solar System formation
- Solar System formed 4.5 billion years ago
- A nebula began to contract, collapsing in on itself under force of its own gravity
- The atoms collided together, generating heat
- Temperature became high enough for nuclear fusion to occur
- This formed the Sun
- Material in nebula not absorbed into the Sun swirled around into flat disk of dust and gas
- This disk is called an accretion disk
- Accretion disk held in orbit by the Sun’s gravity
How does the accretion model explain the formation of the planets?
- Each planet began as microscopic grains of dust in the accretion disk
- Atoms and molecules began to accrete (stick together) into larger particles
- As these objects grew, they were big enough to attract others by gravity
- Eventually planets were formed
Why are the closest planets to the Sun smaller and rocky?
- Stellar winds from the Sun blew off most of the gases from the closest planets
- Left them smaller, with only rocks and metals intact
Why are the furthest planets from the Sun larger and gaseous?
- Far from the Sun so stellar winds could not blow away ice and gases
- Remained gaseous with only small rocky core
- Primarily made of lighter elements (hydrogen and helium) to begin with
- Heavier elements were closer to centre of original accretion disk due to Sun’s gravity
Why does the accretion model depend on gravity?
- Caused nebula to collapse
- Held accretion disc in orbit around Sun
- Allowed planets to form
- Means heavier elements found in planets closer to Sun
Describe the trend in surface temperature of the planets
- The further from the Sun, the cooler the planet
- Further for infrared radiation to travel
- Venus is the only exception (hotter than Mercury)
Describe the trend in orbital radius and orbital duration of the planets
- The further from the Sun, the larger the orbital radius
- Orbital duration increases with orbital radius
What does the strength of a gravitational field depend on?
- Masses of objects
- Greater mass = stronger gravitational field
- Distance between the objects
- Close object = stronger gravitational field
Why do larger planets exert larger gravitational forces?
- Larger masses (not larger size!)

Why does our weight vary on Earth and on the moon?
- Gravitational field strength is weaker on the moon
- Weight = mass x gravitational field strength
- Mass is unchanged
What is the speed of light?
- 3.0 x 108 m/s
Worked Example 46: Distances In Space

The Earth is 1.5 x 108 km from the Sun. How long does it take light to reach the Earth from the
Sun? [speed of light = 3.0×108 m/s]
Step 1: convert km into m 1.5 x 108 km = 1.5 x 1011 m
Step 2: Use the equation speed = distance

time
time = 1.5 x 1011
3.0×108
time = 500 s (= 8.3 minutes)
Where is most of the mass in the Solar System found?

- The Sun
Why do the planets orbit the Sun?
- The Sun has the most mass of all the objects in the Solar System
- Strength of gravitational field increases with mass
- The Sun has strongest gravitational field in the Solar System
Explain why gravitational force keeps objects in orbit
- Gravitational force attracts objects together
- Do not crash into each other as all objects are moving
- Gravitational force keeps objects moving in curved paths called orbits
- Moons orbit planets
- Planets orbit the Sun
- Artificial satellites orbit the Earth
- Comets orbit the Sun
Suggest why planets nearer to the Sun take less time to orbit the Sun
- Smaller orbital path for close planets
- Faster orbital speed for close planets
- Due to stronger gravitational field strength being close to the Sun
Suggest why planets further away from the Sun take more time to orbit the Sun
- Strength of Sun’s gravitational field decreases as distance increases
- Orbital speed decreases
Where is a comet’s kinetic energy greatest?
- When it is nearest the Sun
- Gravitational force strongest

Why does an elliptical orbit travel faster when closer to the Sun?
- Gravitational potential energy (Ep) decreases as planet gets closer to the Sun
- As gravitational potential energy (Ep) decreases, kinetic energy increases
- According to the conservation of momentum
- Kinetic energy of an object is directly proportional to speed2
- Ek = ½mv2
- So as Ek increases, so does the speed
6.2 Stars and the Universe
6.2.1 The Sun as a star
Describe the structure of the Sun

- Medium-sized star
- Mostly hydrogen and helium
Which regions of the EM spectrum is most of the Sun’s energy radiated in?
- Infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions
What is the source of energy for stars?
- Nuclear fusion reactions
- Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium in stable stars
- Energy released
6.2.2 Stars
What is a galaxy?
- Large collection of billions of stars
What is the name of our galaxy?
- The Milky Way
What is the Sun?
- A star in the Milky Way
- Closest star to Earth
- All other stars are much further away from Earth
What is a light-year?
- Distance travelled in space by light in one year
How far is one light-year?
- 9.5 x 1015 m
Outline the life cycle of a small star (e.g. the Sun)
- Nebula → Protostar → Main sequence → Red giant → White dwarf → Black dwarf
Describe the life cycle of a small star
- Nebula - cloud of dust and gas in outer space pulled together by gravitational force
- Protostar - kinetic energy store of atoms increases, increases temperature
- Main sequence - forces are balanced and nuclear fusion of hydrogen occurs
- Huge amounts of thermal and light energy released → star is stable
- Red giant - forms when hydrogen fuel runs out → heavier elements form by fusion
- White dwarf - nuclear reactions stop → gravity causes star to contract
- Black dwarf - star continues to cool and contract

Outline the life cycle of a large star
- Nebula → Protostar → Main sequence → Red supergiant → Supernova → Neutron star →
Black hole (if very large star)
Describe the life cycle of a large star

- Nebula - cloud of dust and gas in outer space pulled together by gravitational force
- Protostar - kinetic energy store of atoms increases, increases temperature
- Main sequence - forces are balanced and nuclear fusion of hydrogen occurs
- Huge amounts of thermal and light energy released → star is stable
- Red supergiant - hydrogen fuel in core runs out → core contracts → layer around core heats up
and nuclear fusion restarts → star expands
- Supernova - nuclear reactions continue, getting hotter and expanding until star explodes
- Nebula from supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets
- Neutron star - left behind after supernova
- Black hole - formed from supernova of very large stars → light can’t escape
6.2.3 The Universe
What is the Universe?

- Large collection of billions of galaxies
- e.g. the Milky Way is one of many billions of galaxies
What is the approximate diameter of the Milky Way?
- 100,000 light-years
What is the Big Bang Theory?
- The Universe is expanding after exploding suddenly in a Big Bang from a very small point
- Space, time and matter were created in the Big Bang
Describe the evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang until the present day
- Universe began as a single, dense point
- Universe has expanded since the Big Bang
- Universe has cooled since the Big Bang
What is the evidence for the Universe expanding/Big Bang Theory?
- Redshift of galaxies
- CMBR (cosmic microwave background radiation)
What is redshift?
- Increase in the observed wavelength of EM radiation emitted from receding stars and galaxies
- Increase in visible light wavelength = move towards red end of spectrum (light appears ‘redder’)
- Light emitted from distant galaxies appears redshifted in comparison with light emitted on
Earth
- Galaxies furthest away are redshifted the most
Explain how comparing the speeds of two galaxies provides evidence for the Big Bang theory
- The further the galaxy is from Earth, the greater the redshift
- The greater the redshift, the faster the galaxy is moving away
- Speed of galaxies increases with increased distance
- Relationship between speed and distance implies expansion
- Suggests that at an earlier point in time, the Universe was a single point
What is CMBR (cosmic microwave background radiation)?
- Microwave radiation of a specific frequency
- Observed at all points in space around us

When was CMBR produced?
- Shortly after Universe was formed
- Radiation has expanded into microwave region of EM spectrum as Universe expanded
Explain how CMBR provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory
- CMBR appears to be the same in all directions, everywhere in the Universe
- Implies all parts of the Universe were in contact a long time ago
- Wavelength of CMBR has increased as the Universe has expanded
- Suggests Universe was significantly hotter long ago
How can the speed (v) at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth be found?
- From the change in wavelength of the galaxy’s starlight due to redshift
How can the distance of a far galaxy (d) be determined?
- Using the brightness of a supernova in that galaxy
What is the Hubble constant (H0)?
- Ratio of the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from Earth to its distance from Earth
What is the equation for the Hubble constant?
- Hubble constant = speed of galaxy
distance of galaxy
- 0
H = v
d
What is the current estimate for H0?

- 2.2 x 10-18 s-1
Worked Example 47: Using The Hubble Constant
A galaxy is 35 light-years away from Earth. Use the equation for Hubble’s constant to determine
the velocity of the galaxy as it moves away from Earth. [Hubble’s constant = 2.2 x 10-18 s-1]
Step 1: Convert light-years to meters

1 light-year = 9.5 x 1015 m
35 light-years = 35 x (9.5 x 1015)
distance = 3.3 x 1017 m
Step 2: Use the equation H0 = v

d
2.2 x 10-18 = v .
3.3 x 1017
v = (2.2 x 10-18) x (3.3 x 1017)
v = 0.73 m/s
How can the age of the Universe be estimated?

- Using Hubble’s Law
- d=1
v H0
- The further away the galaxy, the faster it appears to move
- Provides evidence that all matter in the Universe was present at a single point
- Approximately 13.7 billion years ago 

PRACTICAL SKILLS ASSESSED IN PAPER 5 & 6
When answering experimental design questions, you should always include…

- Independent variable
- The variable that is being changed
- Dependent variable
- The variable that is being measured
- Include how the dependent variable would be measured
- Sensible time frame for taking measurements
- Control variables (minimum 5)
- The variables that are being kept constant
- Methods of ensuring reliability
What is the purpose of a control?
- Allows a comparison to be made
- Shows what would normally happen so comparison can be made when independent variable is
changed
Common ways of improving an investigation:

- Ensure equal sizes/volumes of samples are used
- Repeat the experiment at least 3 times and calculate the mean
- Test a wider range of values for the independent variable
How to make an investigation more reliable:
- Repeat experiment at least three times to increase number of observations
- Identify anomalous results
- Calculate mean
- Plot suitable graph and use to confirm experimental results
How to make an investigation more accurate:
- Carry out more tests within existing range
- Introduce method to ensure no double counting occurs
- Use a narrower range (if appropriate)
Describe how to use a measuring cylinder to obtain an accurate measurement
- Place measuring cylinder on horizontal surface
- Take reading from bottom of meniscus
- Take reading at eye level to avoid parallax
- Wait for all liquid to run down the sides of the measuring cylinder
How to increase the validity of an investigation:
- Make sure that all control variables are the same for each repeat/investigation
- Collect a wide range of measurements/results
When answering ‘describe’ questions:
- Write what the data is showing e.g. trends, changes in rate, increases and decreases etc
- If describing a graph, break the graph down into sections
- Each section should be a describable feature
- e.g. constant rate from A to B, increasing rate from B to C…
- Use data points provided in the question to illustrate description
When answering ‘explain’ questions:
- Say why the results have come about
- Use scientific knowledge to explain any patterns and trends
- Make sure explanation is specific to the question

When answering ‘compare’ questions:
- Each statement should include both pieces of data
- e.g. both A and B remained constant for 2 hours
- e.g. the rate of increase of A was greater than that of B from 2 to 4 hours
When drawing diagrams:
- Include a title
- Use a sharp pencil
- Labels should be outside the diagram
- Use ruled label lines
- Do not cross label lines
- Include a scale bar
- State magnification
- Do not use shading
- Use at least 50% of the available space
When drawing graphs:
- Label the x and y axis
- Include units
- Use sensible scale
- Use at least 50% of the available space
- Plot points accurately using an ‘X’
- Draw line of best fit if required
When drawing a line of best fit:
- Use ruler if line of best fit is straight
- Draw smooth curve if graph is not linear
- Ensure even distribution of points either side
- Ignore anomalies

Calculating The Gradient Of A Curved Graph Using Tangents
80
Velocity (m/s)
The acceleration of an object

can be found by calculating 70
the gradient of a velocity- 60
time graph.
50
To find the acceleration at
10 s, draw a tangent to the 40
60 – 20 = 40
curve at the 10 s point. 30
Calculate the gradient of 20
20 – 0 = 20
the tangent using change in y
change in x 10
Time (s)
Gradient = 60 – 20 0 10 20 30 40 50
20
Gradient = 2
Acceleration at 10 s = 2 m/s2
When should a bar chart be used?

- When using discontinuous (categoric) data

When should a scatter graph be used?
- When using continuous data
How is a linear relationship shown on a graph?
- Straight line
How is a proportional relationship shown on a graph?
- Straight line
- Through the origin
How is a non-linear (e.g. exponential) relationship shown on a graph?
- Curved line
How to deal with anomalous results:
- Discard them
- Repeat experiment

SYMBOLS AND UNITS FOR PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
You should be able to give the symbols for the following physical quantities and, where indicated,
state the units in which they are measured. Table courtesy of CIE IGCSE (9-1) Physics Syllabus
0972 and 0625.

Phy Syllabus

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The Perfect Answer

Revision Guide To... PHYSICS By SwH Learning

HAZEL LINDSEY &

About The Authors

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1. MOTION, FORCES AND ENERGY

1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

How is length measured?

Worked Example 1: Calculating An Average Value For A Small Distance

Distance dropped (cm)

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5

12.3 10.2 11.7 9.8 11.6

Calculate the average distance that the ruler dropped.

What is a complete oscillation of a pendulum?

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What is the difference between scalar and vector quantities?

Worked Example 3: Determining The Resultant Of Two Vectors At Right Angles

Magnitude (length of green arrow)

Direction (angle between North and green arrow)

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Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

How do you find the velocity on a distance-time graph?

Describe how to investigate the average speed of an object

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Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Area under graph =

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Credit: Pngtree, adapted by Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

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Give the equation linking density, mass and volume

Worked Example 4: Density & Volume

𝝆 = 0.046 ÷ 0.0001 To convert m3 into cm3,

How do you measure the density of a regular solid object?

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1. Using the table above, explain why ice floats on water.

1.5.1 Effects of forces

What effect does a force have on an object?

What happens if the elastic limit/limit of proportionality is exceeded?

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Does not obey Hooke’s Law

How can the accuracy of the above investigation be improved?

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What is Newton’s 1st Law?

Resultant Forces Acting On A Block

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Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Circular path F Perpendicular force

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1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

What is Newton’s 3rd Law?

Worked Example 7: Upwards Forces On A Beam

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Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no resultant moment on an object in

Demonstrating That There Is No Resultant Moment On An Object In Equilibrium

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