ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

Authors:
Dr NS Bingwa
Dr L den Drijver
Mrs RE Malan
Mrs Y Burger

Chemistry 1DB1 (1D10)

Fifth edition 2019
5204510
20.51051510

Copyright © University of Johannesburg, South Africa

Printed and published by the University of Johannesburg
 © All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research, criticism or review as permitted under the Copyright Act 98 of 1978, no part of this material
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted or used in any form or be published, redistributed or screened by any means electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior written permission of the University of Johannesburg.

The design and development of

this integrated learning material package
was facilitated by
CenTAL
(Centre for Technology Assisted Learning )
of the University of Johannesburg.

The following team members of

CenTAL
were involved:

Instructional designer Ms E Raubenheimer

Project coordinator Ms F Janse van Vuuren

Other role players:

Graphic designers UJ Graphic Studio

_____________________

Sikhuthaza imfundo!
We energise learning!
Ons gee woema aan leer!
Re fa thuto mafolofolo!
 Quick Help

Where to start:

Check your learning package to ascertain that you have the following:
An online (uLink) copy of this learning guide for Chemistry 1D
A prescribed textbook that you must buy yourself

 For assistance to log onto the student portal go to http://student.uj.ac.za or ask the
assistants in the computer laboratory to help you.
 From the student portal go to uLink to explore the different tools in your web learning
environment for important information:
 Lectures – On-campus lectures
 Contact details of lecturer
 Prescribed material
 Practical and Tutorial schedules
 Assessments
 Class calendar
 Announcements.

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 Action words
Action words that you may be exposed to in this learning guide
Apply Put to practical use or make use of a relevant equation or law.
Calculate Determine the value, using formulae or specific calculation methods.
Group concepts or subjects together based on certain characteristics or
Classify
commonalities.
Point out the similarities and differences between objects, objects or points of
Compare
view. The word contrast can also be used.
Transform a quantity expressed in one unit to a quantity expressed in another
Convert
unit.
Define Give a short and clear description of a term or concept.
Demonstrate Show clearly/prove/make clear by reasoning or evidence/illustrate and
explain, especially with many examples.
Derive
Deduce or infer something from the given information.

Describe Tell in detail how a process works or how a subject appears. You need not
comment on the process or the subject or give your own point of view.
Differentiate Find differences between objects or statements.
Discuss Explain terms or concepts in your own words. Give comments or give your
own point of view.
Distinguish Write down the differences between subjects or concepts.
Draw Create a drawing, diagram or representation of a subject or concept.
Write about the subject in your own words. Clarify or give reasons – it may
Explain
be useful to use examples or illustrations.
You must prove that you understand the content.
Formulate Express in a concise, systematic way.
Identify Establish the identity or recognize a process.
Illustrate Explain by means of detailed descriptions and drawings.
Interpret Explain or clarify the meaning of a concept/value.
List/Name Briefly write down the facts or main points.
Motivate Give reason(s) for your answer.
Name Nominate or specify a site or process.
Organize Arrange data according to certain criteria.
Predict Use the facts available to derive an outcome.
Relate Show the relation/connection of entities, how the concepts can be linked.
Solve Find an answer by using critical thinking and/or calculations.
Summarize Briefly state/list/write down only the most important detail/facts.
Show insight into or know the meaning/nature of a concept or term – to
Understand
comprehend.

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 Table of Contents

SECTION A Administrative P4
details
SECTION B Academic Program P6
Quality
SECTION C Assessment P9
guidelines
SECTION D General P 12
Information

SECTION E Information on P 19
practicals
SECTION F Facilitation of 22
learning

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 Section A: Administrative details

Welcome

Welcome to the exciting world of Chemistry 1D, code CEM1DB1 (1D10).

This course has been designed to explain the Chemistry that is part of our environment, be it of
natural or anthropogenic origin. It is a very user-friendly course and you will get a lot of information
that will enable you to understand the chemistry that is involved in our daily lives. I believe that you
will find the course interesting and stimulating.

Everything of the best in your studies.

Contact information

Lecturer: Dr NS. Bingwa

Office number: C2 Lab 319 (3rd floor Chemical Sciences Department)
Telephone number: (011) 559 -3209
Fax number: (011) 559-2819
e-mail: nbingwa@uj.ac.za

Lectures

In contact (On campus)

Practical and Tutorial schedules

Refer to uLink for the practical and tutorial schedules for the semester.

Tutoring

Refer to uLink for tutoring times. All the tutorials will be conducted on campus.

Policies & procedures

The UJ’s educational policy, General Regulation and Faculty Regulations, is applicable and is

4
available for scrutiny at the faculty office.

Plagiarism

Dishonesty and plagiarism are not tolerated and will be punished.

 Plagiarism is the verbatim (word-for-word) use of another’s work and presenting it as if it

were one’s own.  
 The proper procedures are laid down by the University and the Faculty is responsible for
strategies that address means of preventing, monitoring and handling acts of plagiarism.
 
Copyright issues are handled in accordance with DALRO principles and procedures.

Grievance procedure

You must be able to follow procedures, solve problems and manage conflict. The Faculty’s
grievance procedure should be followed in case of any dissatisfaction or grievance. Therefore,
firstly, if you experience any problems in this module, please contact the lecturer or faculty officer
as soon as possible so that we can find an appropriate solution. If a satisfactory agreement is not
reached, then, secondly, you may consult with the head of the Department, then with the Deputy
Dean or with the Dean of the Faculty.

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 Section B: Info sheet on academic programme
quality
Module name & follow up courses
Environmental Chemistry

Chemistry 1
(First and second semester)

Semester 1 Semester 2
Chemistry 1C Chemistry 1D

CEM1AC1(1C10) CEM1DB1 or CEM1B01

Introduction to (1D10)
General Chemistry Environmental only if ≥ 60% for
for Biological and Chemistry CEM1C10
Earth Sciences 3rd and 4th
1st and 2nd quarter quarter

Students who do not wish to continue with Chemistry or Biochemistry on second year level may
register for CEM1C10 in the first semester and CEM1D10 (Environmental Chemistry) in the
second semester.
The combination CEM1C and CEM1D does not give access to Chemistry
2!

Articulation to Chemistry on second year level

Students achieving at least 60% in CEM1C can register in the second semester for CEM 1B
(CEM01B1(1B01)), Introduction to Physical and Organic Chemistry) instead of CEM1D. Once the
combination of CEM1C (≥ 60%) and CEM1B, as well as Mathematics 1A and 1B were passed, a
student may register for Chemistry on second year level.

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Module NQF level

NQF level 5
Credits 24
Calculated according to notional
hours

*Study field NSB 10, PMCL

*Subfields Physical Sciences, Life and Environmental Sciences

Duration of module
One semester (third and fourth quarter).

Purpose of the module

The purpose of this module is to develop the student's basic understanding of atmospheric
chemistry with special reference to modern energy supply and the implications thereof for the for
the earth's atmosphere. Also to develop the students understanding of scientific principles relating
to the hydrosphere and lithosphere that forms the basis for environmental courses.

Composition of Module (brief outline)

 Energy: Fossil fuels and alternative energy sources

 Atmosphere: Structure and pollution
 Hydrosphere: natural water and pollutants
 Introduction to Organic Chemistry

Module Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module you should be able to do the following:

 Explain the factors involved in energy production, including conversion of energy and the
efficiency of energy conversion.
 Discuss the formation and composition of fossil fuels and apply this knowledge to the
identification of possible environmental implications.
 Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable energy sources and identify the
advantages and disadvantages of each.
 Identify the layers of the atmosphere and explain the composition thereof.
 Explain stratospheric chemistry, including the formation, chemistry and destruction of the
ozone layer.
 Identify types and sources of air pollutants and their impact on the environment, including
phenomena like acid rain, photochemical smog, particulates and organic contaminants.
 Explain the causes and effects of global warming and the greenhouse effect.

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 Demonstrate understanding of the composition of natural waters, including the role of O 2, CO2,
carbonates, nitrates, phosphides, natural buffer systems and solubility.
 Discuss the processes involved in water treatment and purification
 Apply knowledge of the composition and chemistry of water to problem solving regarding toxic
metal pollution in the environment.
 Identify simple organic compounds and classify them by functional groups, predict products of
simple organic reactions.
 Demonstrate the ability to perform laboratory experiments, interpret the results and write a
report.

Module assessment criteria

Competence will be evident if:

 Energy production is accurately described

 Energy conversion is clearly explained
 Calculations are accurately performed
 Formation of fossil fuels is correctly described
 Environmental implications are logically identified
 Renewable and non-renewable sources are correctly differentiated.
 Advantages and disadvantages of energy sources are clearly identified
 The composition of the atmosphere is correctly described
 The composition is correctly explained
 The formation, chemistry end destruction of the ozone layer is correctly explained
 Air pollutants are correctly identified
 Phenomena like acid rain, smog, particulates and organic contaminants are accurately
described and explained
 The cause of global warming is correctly explained
 The effects of global warming is accurately described
 Chemistry of natural waters is correctly described and explained
 Water purification is correctly described
 Toxic metal pollution in the environment is completely described and discussed.
 Simple organic compounds are correctly identified
 Products of simple organic reactions are correctly predicted
 The impact of organic pollutants are completely explained

Teaching and Learning strategy

An integrated teaching and learning approach is followed in this module. This means that learning
is facilitated by more than one support resource, e.g., face-to-face contact, ULink and a learning
guide, prescribed text book, tutorials, practicals - each of which is complementary to the other.

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 Section C: Assessment guidelines
(As per UJ policy and Faculty regulations)

Assessment strategy/ method

There will be 4 short tests, 2 semester tests, and a final examination. All practicals count towards
your semester mark.

How will you be assessed?

All assessments will be written on campus!

Assessments are in the form of short and semester tests.

LABORATORY TESTS

Refer to the Information on practicals - section in this guide.

AEGROTAT (SICK) TESTS

An aegrotat test (not a re-test) is given on a date (see ULink) after the scheduled semester test
and may take the form of an ORAL examination.
Unexcused absence from class and semester tests will result in refusal to admit a candidate to the
final examination (i.e. a result statement of G.T.E.).

The writing of a test or examination is regarded as final. Students who feel ill or who are otherwise
indisposed at the time of the test must immediately contact the lecturer concerned with a view to
possibly being given an aegrotat test.

Just as in the case of practicals, absence from class and semester tests must be supported by a
medical certificate and an official form – download and print a copy of the form in ULink. The
completed forms must be handed to your lecturer within one week of the original test date.

NOTE:
You may not first write a test and then, after the test has been marked, excuse yourself for poor
results on the grounds of illness, etc. that you suffered during the test/examination.

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CALCULATORS
During practicals, tests and examinations, each student must have his/her own pocket
calculator.

Under no circumstances may calculators be lent or borrowed during tests and

examinations.

Nothing may be stored in the memory of the calculator at such times. Any type of calculator may
be used. Please ensure that yours has at least the following functions: logarithms, exponents, ln
powers and square roots. Cell phones are not to be used as calculators.

Feedback mechanisms

Feedback is an essential part of assessment, therefore, feedback will be given after each
assignment to maximise your learning.

Assessment mark allocation

The overall weights are shown below:

Short assessments contribute 35%
Summative Assessments contribute 45%
The practical component contributes 20%

Exam entrance/ Promotion requirements

To qualify for exams, one needs to get a minimum of 40% semester mark. In addition, attendance
requirements apply. One needs to be present in 80% of all lectures, otherwise, you will not be
allowed to sit for exams.

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 Section D: General Information about the
course

Why do you need Chemistry as a subject?

Chemistry is the fundamental natural science. It is concerned with the basic structure and
properties of all matter – be it a huge star or a microscopic virus. Chemistry is the starting point in
this field of study that eventually produces all scientists, engineers and physicians.
Chemistry is also important for all responsible citizens. Our environment is fragile. Many of the
chemicals that make life easier also affect our surroundings. Control of air, water and land
pollution needs as much attention from citizens as from scientists. We all have a big stake in the
future, it is therefore reasonable that chemistry is a prerequisite not only for specific courses, but
also for life.
The qualification adds significant value to you as a student in terms of

 introducing chemistry as a live, relevant science

 encouraging not only learning, but also developing problem-solving skills and critical thinking
 establishing a scientific attitude
 your marketability and employability within teaching-related fields
 appreciating the relevance of chemistry to our everyday life and making you a better informed
citizen
 providing help with the math anxieties that can distract you as a student of chemistry and
 providing the opportunity for further studies in chemistry.

If, at this point, you are wondering if chemistry is important to you, soon you will be wondering how
many educated people can function today without knowing chemistry.

The purpose of this course

The aim of this course is to introduce you to the major principles and applications of Chemistry and
to develop your practical and laboratory skills.
The course will prepare you and give you the necessary foundation to understand the more
complex framework of the other disciplines within the Biological and Earth Sciences.

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How to use the resources

Use the available support resources

To ensure that you have all the support you need to successfully complete this course, we have
made the following resources available to you:

 Lectures
 Textbook
 Learning guide
 Electronic learning environment (uLink)
 Lecturer and Tutors
 Tutorials
 Practicals

We are confident that if you follow our suggestions for studying this course and use all resources to
their full potential, you will do very well.

Be inspired by lectures
Lectures are there to make the content more interesting and understandable. During each lecture
the lecturer will

 introduce chemistry as a live, relevant science in your everyday life

 give an overview of each unit and how it relates to other units
 show you what subunits to emphasise in preparation for tests and the exam
 offer further explanatory examples and explain difficult concepts in more detail
 encourage not only learning, but also critical thinking.

The importance of regular class attendance cannot be overemphasised – there is a direct

correlation between understanding, attendance and success.

You cannot sense your lecturers’ emphasis or benefit from his or her problem-solving hints by
reading someone else’s notes. Rather attend the lectures personally and take your own notes.
You also have the opportunity to ask questions during the lecturers.

The most important content of the course will be covered during lectures. You will however have to
also use other resources to ensure that you are prepared as well as possible for the tests and
exams.

Need help

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Please feel free to ask questions in class, since chances are that many other students are also
unsure about the same topics. If you need more help or prefer a one-on-one approach, you may
make an appointment with your lecturer. Appointments can be made after the lectures or via e-
mail. If your class schedule does not allow you to make an appointment during the given
consultation times, you are most welcome to arrange an appointment in an alternative time slot (or
make use of a tutor's services). Please make an appointment in advance.
Tutors will also be available for additional help. Refer to uLink for times and venues.

Make use of the prescribed textbook

The prescribed textbook is the central resource of Chemistry 1D. It contains the basic content, and
all other resources will support this content.

The textbook provides the boundaries of the course – it tells you what the real-world relevance of
each unit is and contains the knowledge that you are expected to study to prepare for tests,
assignments and the exam.

Your prescribed textbook is:

Environmental Chemistry: A Global Perspective by GW van Loon and SJ Duffy, 4th Edition,
Oxford. (subsequently referred to as vL). Some of the basic principles as well as some of the
Organic Chemistry will be taught from Chemistry, A Molecular Approach by NJ Tiro (third
edition) (subsequently referred to as Tro) that you used in the first semester.

The textbook is available at the bookshops on campus!

Utilise the learning guide

The paper based learning guide is there to guide you through your studies. It not only contains
general course information, but also summarises the basic knowledge units (outcomes) you need
to master in each unit. Initially you will mainly use this guide as a source for the course, but from
topic 3 you will use the textbook. You will also be referred back to the textbook from Chemistry 1C
from time to time.

Learning outcomes
The learning outcomes will enable you to study the units systematically. An outcome is a criterion
to be met before you can say: "I know the work."
Read through the learning outcomes before you start to study the relevant unit in the textbook.

Self-study
Certain sections in this course are self-study. You will be reminded about this on a regular basis
and the work will be included in tests, etc. in a progressive manner.

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Additionally, in some of the chapters, there are sections of work you must study by yourself.
Sections for independent study are for examination purposes!

Teaching and learning strategy

An integrated teaching and learning approach is followed in this module. This means that learning
is facilitated by more than one support resource, e.g., face-to-face contact, uLink and a learning
guide - each of which is complementary to the other.

ULink
The electronic learning environment (uLink) provides many interactive facilities that none of the
other resources offer.

NOTE: Do not confuse the so-called Student website with the student portal or uLink.

Procedure to log on to uLink

1. Log on to the student portal at http://student.uj.ac.za
2. Click on the uLink button.
3. Click on the name of the course, e.g. Chemistry 1D10 under the heading Courses
currently available for you on uLink. (A new window will open and you will
automatically be taken to the homepage of the particular course you have chosen.)
4. If you want to go to another course on uLink, then Click on My Courses in the top right
hand corner, just below the address bar and click on the name of the course you want
to go to.

NOTE: You will only get access to the courses on uLink if you are officially registered for
them on the database AND once your lecturer has indicated that students should be granted
access to the information.

All the general administrative information for this course (lecturers' and tutors' contact details
and consultation hours, electronic assessment, sick tests, etc.) will be made available on uLink.

Tutorials
Tutorials are facilitated by your lecturers as well as teaching assistants/ tutors. During these
sessions, problems previously given to you on uLink will be discussed. You are expected to
attempt the problems before the tutorial class. Attention will be given to aspects of particular

14
difficulty. You will hand in a worked problem during each tutorial session, which will contribute to
your class test mark.

The purpose of a tutorial class is not to supply you with a set of model answers but rather to
develop your ability to solve problems. Obscurities can thus be cleared up before the semester
tests. Revision of the semester tests will also be done in these sessions.

Tutorial tests may be written from time to time!

NOTE:

 Students repeating Chemistry must attend tutorial classes. They must also attend the
practicals.
 Individual tutoring will also be available during the semester.
 Venues, times and dates for tutorial classes, as well as 1:1 tutoring, will be given on uLink.

How to achieve success in this course

Each individual learns in a different way. Read through the following suggested study habits. We
hope it will help you to design a study program that meets your particular needs.

1. Time Management
Studying chemistry is a lot like playing sport – it requires lots of practice. It is not only a question of
putting in the time, but how and when you put in the time. You don’t wait until the night before the
big game to first practice jump shots. The night before a Chemistry test is not the time to break
new ground either.
A master schedule should be prepared, with Chemistry receiving a regularly scheduled study time.

Hints:

 One study period should follow as soon as possible after the lecture. It is suggested that you
spend 3 hours on self-study (revision, making own study notes etc) for every one hour lecture
you receive.
 Select shorter but more frequent study periods.
 Reserve the evening before an exam or a test for review, followed by a decent night’s sleep.
 On the day of the test/exam, allow yourself enough time to get to the venue on time.

2. Attendance

At least 80% class attendance is required in accordance with the UJ policy and SANC regulation.
The importance of regular class attendance cannot be emphasized enough. The learning material
is a great help, but the material that your lecturer covers and in what depth can be discovered in

15
class only. You cannot sense the lecturer’s emphasis, or benefit from his/her problem-solving hints
by reading someone else’s notes. You need to be there.

3. Asking Questions
Few students feel confident enough to ask questions in class. You may think your questions are
dumb, but nevertheless, you still need to get answers to your questions. If the class is too big and
you don’t feel comfortable to ask questions in class, take advantage of the consultation hours
offered by your lecturer, the tutorial sessions or tutor’s help sessions. You owe yourself answers
and understanding.

4. Perseverance
Everyone hopes to start off with a distinction on the first test. A few do that, including many who
are subsequently very successful in the study of chemistry. If you are disappointed with a grade,
analyze your study habits, make adjustments and try again. Don’t expect better results by doing
the same thing.

Hints:
 Remember to use your lecturer as your primary source for advice in the course content.
 Perhaps your problem is not the material but "test anxiety". We have a counselling centre on
campus that can help you to overcome this problem.

5. Study Skills
5.1 Organisation
Organisation in chemistry is quickly rewarded. Many chemistry problems require a step-by-
step problem-solving approach. It is a lot like planning an extended trip. We plan our journey
so that we can take the shortest, the easiest or the most scenic route – we usually don’t just
get in the car and drive. The same with chemistry problems. You don’t just start doing a
calculation – you should take some time to plan the “journey” through the problem from
beginning to end (step-by-step).

5.2 Memorisation

Most of us wish that we could grasp a concept and, with little effort, have it permanently stored
in our memory. Unfortunately, it rarely works that way. We could not begin to play soccer
without first knowing the object of the game, as well as some basic rules. In chemistry we also
need to memorise a definition or rule to be able to apply it.

16
 NOTE: It makes no sense to memorise the solution to a given problem. You should rather work
through the problem in order to understand the solution strategy and to determine
whether you have mastered the relevant problem-solving skill.

5.3 Reading Ahead

Read through the assigned material in each section in preparation for the lecture. Even if you
do not grasp the concepts, reading ahead will give you a feeling for some of the material that
we will be discussing in the next lecture or two. If you know something is coming that is
confusing, you will be more alert when the concept is discussed. It is also a time saver –
when you know that certain definitions or tables are already in the learning guide or
textbook, you can save note-taking time.

5.4 Note Taking

Note taking is a lot of work, but it is extremely effective. As soon after a lecture as you can,
review your notes and rewrite them if necessary to fill in any missing detail. If you do this, you
will become aware of concepts that are still hazy to you. You can then ask about these
uncertainties before writing a test/exam. Clear, easy-to-read notes correlate with good
performance.

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 Section E: Information on Practicals

Practical component

Chemistry is not merely studied theoretically but also experimentally. The practical application of
theoretical principles leads to a better insight in the subject. You should always make an effort to
bear in mind the relationship between experimental work and theoretical principles.

Attendance at the scheduled practicals is compulsory. A completed practical course is a

prerequisite for admission to the final examination. If you have completed the practical course
and your mark is below 50% (regardless of your theoretical mark), you will not be allowed to
write the final examination. (This will not apply for continuous assessment model)

Your venue for doing practicals is C2 LAB 115 (First year laboratory).

Students transferring from other universities may apply for exemption on condition that they have
completed and passed a similar practical course. An official statement to this effect from the
university previously attended must accompany such an application.

Practical Groups

Prior to the start of the practical course, you will be allocated to a practical group. The group
allocation is done electronically and is determined by your subject choice. It is unfortunately not
always possible to allocate students to the group they would prefer, owing to limited laboratory
facilities as well as clashes with the practical courses of other subjects. Your practical group will
not necessarily be the same as during the first semester.
Students who find it essential for academic reasons to change to another group must contact the
organiser of practicals. If there are vacancies in another group, re-allocation (with transfer of
complete practical record) will be considered.

Under no circumstances may a student change from one group to another during the semester
without the required permission.

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Absence from practicals

If any student fails to attend a scheduled practical without a valid reason/excuse (absolute
emergency, death, serious illness*), he/she will be awarded a zero mark for the work concerned.

If a student is not present at more than one practical session, a Practical Incomplete will be
awarded to that student, which gives rise to prohibition to write the final examination (NEE),
regardless of the prospective candidate's theoretical mark.

There is an application form in uLink which you can fill in if you are/were not able to attend (valid
reason specified) a specific practical session, in order to be permitted to do the practical on an
alternative scheduled day.

*Where applicable, a medical certificate, accompanied by an official UJ-form (refer to uLink for a
copy), both completed by a practitioner, must be submitted. The completed application form must
be submitted to the laboratory personnel for consideration.

Pre-laboratory lectures and tests

Before the commencement of every practical session, a lecture concerning the practical will be
given at a specific venue. It is compulsory to attend these information sessions. Students who
did not attend a pre-lab lecture (without prior arrangement), will not be allowed to do his/her
experiment. No student will be allowed into the laboratory during these lectures.

The dates, times and venues for the pre-lab lectures will be given on uLink.

You are expected to study the experiment before you attend the pre-lab lecture. A short test
concerning the content of the practical may be given. This mark will be combined with that of your
practical report. Studying the experiment before the lecture will enable you to benefit most from
the information given by the lecturer and also to complete the experiment more efficiently.

When preparing for a practical, you should read through the instructions carefully and imagine
performing the tasks required, e.g. adding one solution to another and stirring it to ensure it is
properly mixed. By imagining what/how tasks will be performed, you will realise:
 how easy/difficult the task is,
 mistakes that can happen and how it can be avoided,
 and how to manage your time.

19
Compulsory safety-wear

The wearing of safety glasses (or prescription glasses) and protective clothing (laboratory coats)
are mandatory for all laboratory work. Without these you will not be permitted to do the practical
and you will receive no marks for the experiment concerned.
Refer to uLink for information concerning the availability of the safety-wear.

Practical reports

After the completion of each practical, you are required to hand in a neat and detailed report. This
must be posted in the box relevant to your practical day and session (M, T, W, etc.). Ensure that
your report is placed in the correct box (pigeonhole), on the outside of the first year laboratory (C2
Lab115) facing the Physics Department.
Information regarding the hand-in day and time will be given on uLink.

20
 Section F: Facilitation of Learning
Environmental Chemistry

Overview of the module (CEM1D10)

LEARNING UNIT SOURCE TOPIC

Learning Guide (pp 24 - 34)
Learning unit 1
Learning unit 2 Learning Guide (pp 35- 47)
Learning unit 3 Learning Guide (pp 48- 53)
Learning unit 4 Chapter 2 vL (pp 21 – 41)
Learning unit 5 Chapter 3 vL (pp 42- 70)
Learning unit 6 Chapter 4 vL (pp 71 - 80)
Chapter 5 vL (pp 100 -123)
Learning unit 7
Learning unit 8 Chapter 8 vL (pp 164 - 181)
Learning unit 9 Chapter 9 vL (pp 198 - 211)
Chapter 10 vL(pp 212- 235)
Learning unit 10
Learning unit 11 Chapter 11 vL (pp 236- 253)
Chapter 20 TRO (pp 1058 -
Learning unit 12
1097)
Learning unit 13 Chapter 12 vL (pp 254 – 172)
Learning unit 14 Chapter 13 vL (pp 273 – 298)
Learning unit 15 Chapter 16 vL (pp 366- 385)
Learning unit 16 Chapter 17 and 18
Kinds of Energy and the Flow of
Energy through Ecosystems
Fossil Fuels
Alternative Energy Sources
The Atmosphere
Stratospheric Chemistry
Tropospheric Chemistry – smog
Tropospheric Chemistry –
precipitation
Global Climate
The Hydrosphere
Distribution of Species in Aqueous
Systems
Gases in Water
Organic Chemistry
Organic Matter in water
Metals in the Hydrosphere
Waste Water Treatment
Soil properties

21
 Learning Unit 1: Types of Energy and the
flow of Energy through Ecosystems
Learning Guide (pp 24- 34)

Learning Unit 1: Subunits

Pages in learning Pages in Textbook

Subunit Topic
guide
1.1 Kinetic Energy 24– 25 TRO 276- 278
1.2 Potential Energy 26 TRO 276- 278
1.3 Energy Conversions 26 TRO 276- 278
1.4 Heats of Reaction 26 -28
1.5 Enthalpy 28 TRO 278 -324
1.6 Thermochemical Equations 29 – 30 TRO 278 -324
Second Law of TRO 278 -324
1.7 30
Thermodynamics
1.8 Energy and the Environment 31 – 32 TRO 278 -324
1.9 Summary 32 TRO 278 -324
Questions and Problems 33-34 TRO 278 -324

TYPES OF ENERGY AND THE FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH

ECOSYSTEMS
Energy is the capacity to do work. It exists in different forms that can be interconverted,
for example electrical energy can be converted to light and heat energy in a light bulb

1.1 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy associated with an object by virtue of its motion. The kinetic
energy is a function of speed and mass and can be determined by the following equation:

Ek = ½mv2

22
For example, a person with a mass of 59.0 kg who travels at a speed of 26.8 m/s will have
the following kinetic energy:

Ek = ½ (59.0 kg) x (26.8 m/s)2

2
m
2
= 2.12 x 104 kg s
2
m
2
The SI unit for energy is therefore [ kg s ] and is called a joule (J)
This means that the person has a kinetic energy of 2.12 x 10 4 J. This can be converted to
kJ by dividing by 1000:
= 21.2 kJ

 The kinetic energy of a person with a mass of 59.0 kg who travels in a vehicle at 26.8
m/s (or 94 km/hr) is 21.2 kJ.

How much is a joule? Not much. A 100 watt light bulb uses 100 joules of energy per
second. An average household uses 3.6 billion joules/month.

A unit that is also often encountered when referring to energy is the calorie.
2
m
2
1 Joule = 1 kg. s
= 0.23901 calorie
and 1 calorie = 4.184 Joules
Since calories are also small units, we often use kcal when talking about energy.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

 Define Kinetic Energy (p 24)

 Use an equation to calculate Kinetic Energy (pp 23)
 Convert between Joules and calories (p24)

23
1.2 Potential Energy

Potential energy is the energy that an object has by virtue of its position in a field of force, for
example, water at the top surface of a dam. This energy can be calculated using
Ep = mgh

where m = mass of water, g = acceleration of gravity and h = height of water.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:
 Define Potential Energy (p 26)
 Use an equation to calculate PE. (p 26)

1.3 Energy Conversions

When water falls over a dam wall, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. This leads to the
First Law of Thermodynamics which states that energy may be converted from one form to
another, but the total quantity of energy remains constant, or, in other words, energy can never be
created or destroyed. The efficiency with which this transfer occurs is of the utmost importance.
Efficiency can be defined as follows:

usable energy
× 100
% efficiency = total energy

If we look at a light bulb, we find that 5% of the electrical energy put into the system is converted to
light energy, the remainder is converted to heat.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

 State the First Law of Thermodynamics (p 25)

 Apply this principle to examples (p 25)

1.4 Heat of Reaction

We obtain energy from many sources, one of them being combustible gases. One of the main
components in earth gas is methane, a very combustible gas. If we want to know how much
energy is obtained by burning a specific amount of methane gas, we must determine the heat of
reaction specific to methane.

We then refer to the gas as the thermodynamic system and also need to know what constitutes
the surroundings of the gas (everything in the vicinity).

24
So what exactly is heat? We can define it as the energy that flows into or out of a system and its
surroundings.
Energy (heat) will flow from a region of higher temperature to a lower temperature, but once the
temperatures become equal, heat flow stops. You know this since we all have left a cold drink on
the table for too long, only to take a lukewarm (room temperature) sip.

Heat is denoted by the symbol q. q is positive if heat is absorbed by the system and negative if
heat is evolved.

Heat absorbed: energy + : q+

Heat evolved: energy - : q-

If we burn methane gas, the system (gas) has an increased temperature and heat flows from the
system to the surroundings. Since heat has flowed out of the system (lost energy), q is negative.

Instead of using a long sentence to describe the process, we say that the above reaction is
exothermic (heat was evolved). An endothermic reaction would be the opposite where heat is
absorbed (q is positive).

Suppose we burn one mole of methane in oxygen and find that 890 kJ of heat is evolved:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Since the reaction is exothermic, the heat of reaction, q = - 890 kJ.

But what is this mole that was referred to? The mole is a convenient way of counting the number
of units that take part in a reaction, very similar to the way in which we use dozens to count eggs or
six-packs to count beers.

By definition a mole is the quantity of a given substance that contains as many molecules or
formula units as the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon-12, which amounts to 6.02 x 1023. We also
call this number Avogadro's number. One mole of a substance such as methane will therefore
contain 6.01x1023 molecules of methane.
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of the substance, or 6.02 x 1023 units of
the substance. For all substances, the molar mass in grams is numerically equal to the formula
weight in atomic mass units. To calculate the molar mass of methane the procedure would be as
follows:
Molecular weight of methane (CH4)
1C: 12
4H: 4
16 amu
Since the molar mass in grams is equal to the formula weight, one mole of methane will weigh 16 g
and therefore have a molar mass of 16g/mol.

A typical calculation involving the concept of mole is the following:

25
What is the mass of 3 moles of methane?
Since we know that one mole of methane has a molar mass of 16 g/ mol, 3 moles of methane will
have to have a mass of
3 mol x 16 g/mol = 18 g
Easy!

Here is another example of the type of problem that you may come across during your study of
environmental chemistry.
Example 1.1
Ammonia burns in the presence of a platinum catalyst to give nitric acid:

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)

If 4 moles of NH3 is burned, it is found that 1170 kJ of heat is evolved. Is the reaction exothermic
or endothermic? What is the value of q?

Answer:
Exothermic, q = -1170 kJ
If the question was: If 1 mole of NH3 is burned, would your answer be different? Why?

Unit Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

 Define exothermic and endothermic reactions

 Designate a reaction as being exo- or endothermic
 Calculate the molar mass of compounds from given formulae
 Calculate the number of moles of a compound in a given mass
 Calculate the mass of a given number of moles of a substance

1.5 Enthalpy (TRO p 293)

The heat absorbed or evolved by a system depends on the conditions under which a reaction
occurs. If it happens in a vessel open to the atmosphere we use qp for the heat of reaction to
indicate that the process occurs at constant pressure.
We are now able to define a property of substances that is related to the heat of reaction qp. We
call this property enthalpy (H). Enthalpy is an extensive property of a substance that can be used
to obtain the heat absorbed or evolved in a chemical reaction.

Extensive property: Depends on amount of substance.

When we look at a chemical reaction, the enthalpy initially is that of the reactants. As the reaction
proceeds, the enthalpy changes and becomes that of the products. The change in enthalpy for a
reaction at a given temperature and pressure (enthalpy of reaction) is obtained by subtracting the

26
enthalpy of the reactants from that of the products. We use H to designate a change in
enthalpy:
H = H final – H initial
= H products – H reactants

What is the relation between H and q?

H = qp.
The enthalpy of reaction equals the heat of reaction at constant pressure. If we want to define
the quantity better we use H0, which refers to a pressure of 1 atmosphere and a temperature of
25oC.

1.6 Thermochemical Equations

You will often find it useful to write the enthalpy of a reaction with the chemical equation, eg.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) ; H = -367.5 kJ

So how will we be using this in our environmental course? Let us look at our old friend methane.
How much heat could we obtain from 10.0 g of methane burning in an excess of oxygen at
constant pressure?

The thermochemical equation is:

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ; H = -890 kJ

We calculated that 1 mol CH4 ~ 16.0 g CH4

and from the reaction we can see that 1 mol CH4 evolves ~ - 890.3 kJ of heat.

If you want to calculate how much heat will be evolved on burning 10 g of methane we first convert
g to moles and then multiply by the amount of heat released per mole:
16.0 g CH4 would have given one mole. However, we do not have 16.0 g, we only have 10 g. We
therefore have

10 g CH4 x = 0.60 mole

Since each mole releases 890 kJ of heat, we now multiply the number of moles with the amount of
energy:
0.60 mol x -890 kJ/mol = -556 kJ.

If you are comfortable with these kinds of calculations you can do it in one step:

1 mol CH 4 −890 .3 kJ
×
10 g CH4 x 16 .0 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4 = -556 kJ

27
Now that we know what H stands for, it is interesting to compare the amount of heat (or energy)
locked up in different substances.

When we eat food, 80% of the energy we get from the food we use for heat. The rest is used for
muscular action, chemical and other body processes. We use a form of combustion (oxidation) to
obtain this energy, for instance from glucose:

C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) ; H0 = -2803 kJ

If you do the calculation you will find that 1 g of glucose yields 15.6 kJ of heat. On the other hand,
1 g of fat yields 38.5 kJ when metabolized.
If we now look at fossil fuels, we can see which fuel delivers the most energy per gram.
Coal: ± 30.6 kJ/g
Gas: ± 50.1 kJ/g
Petroleum : ± 44.4 kJ/g

These values are obviously very useful in deciding which fuel to use for which application.

1.7 Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the universe spontaneously tends to increased
disorder, where disorder is the absence of a regular repeating pattern. The disorder of a chemical
system is known as entropy and is denoted by the symbol S. A random system is characterized by
high entropy.
Free energy is the combined contribution of the enthalpy and entropy values for a chemical
reaction and is symbolized by G. Free energy is what finally predicts whether a reaction is exo-
or endothermic.
G = H - TS where
H represents the change in enthalpy between reactants and products, S represents the change
in entropy and T is the Kelvin temperature of the reaction. A reaction with a positive G will always
be non-spontaneous and a reaction with a negative G will always be spontaneous.

Calorimetry is the measurement of heat energy changes in a chemical reaction. During your first
practical you will be using a coffee cup calorimeter to determine such a change. (See Tro pp 297)

Learning Outcome:
At the end of this unit you must be able to do the following:
 State the meaning of the terms enthalpy, entropy and free energy and know their
implications.
 Describe and successfully carry out experiments that yield thermochemical information and
calculate fuel values based on experimental data.

28
1.8 Energy and the Environment
From the foregoing it should be clear that energy is constantly being transformed and continuously
being lost as heat. The question is, where does all this energy come from? We can all name a
few possibilities, like coal, petroleum, hydroelectric schemes, etc, but if you think about it carefully
we have to agree that our ultimate source of energy is the sun. The sun continuously transmits
electronic radiation that reaches the earth in many forms. This is most clearly envisaged by
looking at an electromagnetic spectrum. Although you know the electromagnetic spectrum, it is
helpful for the rest of the course to just remind yourself of a few characteristics of the spectrum.

(a) The wavelength (λ) is defined as the distance between adjacent wave crests and is
commonly given in nm (10-9 m).
λ

As is clear from the spectrum, wavelength decreases from microwaves (± 10 mm)

through visible light (10-6 m) down to gamma rays (10-12 m).

(b) The frequency () of a wave is the number of wavelengths of that wave that passes a fixed
point in 1 second. The unit of frequency is s-1, also called the hertz (Hz).
Wavelength and frequency are related by the following equation:
C=λ

where c = speed of the wave.

When referring to light waves, the speed will depend on the medium through which they are
passing. In a vacuum, the speed is 3.00 x 108 m/s.
To understand how fast this is, it helps to know that light that leaves the earth, bounces off
the moon and returns to earth takes 2.5s to complete the journey, a total distance of almost
800 000 km.

Planck postulated that the energy of light is proportional to the observed frequency:
E = h
which implies that waves with shorter wavelengths (higher frequency) have higher energy.

Here are some more useful definitions:

29
1.8.1 What is the Environment?
In order to ensure that we all refer to the same thing when we talk about the environment
we need to have a definition.
The environment consists of all the factors, living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) that in any
way affect an organism during its lifetime.

1.8.2 Ecosystems
You will often hear references to ecosystems. In order to simplify our study of the
environment we often divide it into small functional units which we call ecosystems. These
are self-contained and self-sustained units that include all the different organisms living in a
finite geographic region as well as the non-living surroundings. Certain limiting factors are
critical for the survival of living organisms in such a system.
Most importantly, however, is the fact that the ecosystems are sustained by the energy that
flows through them and this flow is dependent on the biotic part of the system.

1.8.3. Producers and consumers

The biotic part of any ecosystem can be divided into producers of energy (green plants and
blue-green algae) and consumers of energy.
Producers absorb light energy from the sun and use it to convert water and carbon dioxide
from the air into glucose. This process is called photosynthesis.
h
H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 + O2

Consumers must consume plants or other creatures to obtain the nutrients and energy they
need.

1.9 Summary

All activities require energy. Without a constant flow of energy from producers to
consumers an ecosystem would not be able to sustain itself. Energy is continuously
supplied by the sun and flows through ecosystems where some of it is converted, but most
of the energy is lost as heat.

SOURCES
1. Chemistry, an environmental perspective; P Buell and J Girard, 1994, Prentice Hall,
Chapter 3.
2. General Chemistry, DD Ebbing, sixth edition, Houghton Mifflin, Thermochemistry (Chapter
6).
3. Environmental Chemistry, a global perspective; GW vanLoon and SJ Duffy, 2011, Oxford,
Chapter 8.
4. General, Organic and Biochemistry; Denniston, Topping and Caret, 2007, McGrawHill,
Chapter 7
5. General, Organic & Biological Chemistry, Janice Gorzynski Smith, 2010, McGrawHill,
Chapter 6

30
Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Define energy, kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy.

2. Describe the interconversions of potential and kinetic energy in a moving pendulum. A
moving pendulum eventually comes to rest. Has the energy been lost? If not, what has
happened to it?
3. Suppose heat flows into a vessel containing a gas. As the heat flows into the gas, what
happens to the gas molecules? What happens to the internal energy of the gas?
4. Define an exothermic and an endothermic reaction and give an example of both.
5. Under what condition is the enthalpy change equal to the heat of reaction?
6. If an equation for a reaction is doubled and then reversed, how is the value of H changed?
7. What is the kinetic energy of a car of mass 2.052 x 103 kg that is moving at a speed of 72
kph? Give your answer in joules and calories.
8. Nitric acid, a source of many nitrogen compounds, is produced from nitrogen dioxide. An
old process for making nitrogen dioxide employed nitrogen and oxygen.

N2(g) + 2O2(g)  2NO2(g)

The reaction absorbs 66.4 kJ per 2 mol of NO2 produced. Is the reaction endothermic or
exothermic? What is the value of q?
9. Phosphoric acid can be prepared by the reaction of phosphorus oxide with water:
1 3
P 4 O10 ( s) + H 2 O( l) → H 3 PO 4( aq ) ; ΔH =−107 . 6 kJ
4 2
What is H for the reaction involving 1 mole of P4O10?
10. Niagara falls has a height of 51 m. What is the potential energy in joules of 0.4536 kg water
at the top of the falls, if we take the water at the bottom to have a potential energy of zero?
What would the speed of this water be at the bottom of the falls, if we neglect friction during
descent of the water?
11. When calcium carbonate, the main constituent of seashells, is heated, it decomposes to
calcium oxide:
CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g); H = 178.3 kJ
How much heat is required to decompose 12.0g of calcium carbonate?

12. Do the following questions in TRO on page 315 - 320:

33, 35, 47, 57, 59, 61

31
 Learning Unit 2: Energy Sources: Fossil
Fuels (Learning Guide p 33 – 47)

Learning Unit 2: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic Learning
Guide
2.1 Oxidation of Fossil Fuels 33 – 38
2.2 Coal 39 – 40
2.3 Petroleum 40 – 44
2.4 Natural Gas 44
Questions and Problems 45

From the previous module we learnt that energy is wasted during conversion (Second Law of
thermodynamics). This means that all life forms and all societies require a constant input of
energy. The industrialized nations obtain most of their energy from fossil fuels: coal, petroleum
and natural gas. As we all know, the development of the steam engine in the late 1700's led to the
Industrial Revolution, when machines started to replace human and animal labour. Coal was the
fuel of choice at that stage.

In 1859 petroleum was discovered for the first time in the US. The development of petroleum as a
major source of energy paralleled the development of the internal combustion engine and the
growth of the automobile industry. . (Source: Chemistry Fundamentals: An Environmental
Perspective by P Buell and J Girard, Fig 12.2, p 360, 2nd edition, 2003, Jones and Bartlett.)

32
Currently, energy is used for:
(i) transportation
(ii) industrial processes
(iii) heating & cooling of buildings
(iv) generating electricity.

Usage of energy sources in the US.

(Source: Chemistry Fundamentals: An Environmental Perspective by P Buell and J Girard, Fig
12.5, p 362, 2nd edition, 2003, Jones and Bartlett)

The energy sources of the world can be divided into renewable and non-renewable sources. We
will first be looking at non-renewable sources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas.

2.1 Energy from fossil fuels: Oxidation / Combustion

Fossil fuels are composed primarily of hydrocarbons. A hydrocarbon is a molecule that contains
only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can be further subdivided into alkanes, cycloalkanes,

alkenes and alkynes. We will for the time being concentrate on the alkanes, which are saturated
hydrocarbons. This means that the bonds in the molecule are carbon-hydrogen and carbon-
carbon single bonds. The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2, where n = the number of
carbon atoms in the molecule. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, CH 4, an important ingredient
of earth gas which is a well-known fuel. The alkanes are named based on the number of carbon
atoms in a chain, although the first 4 alkanes have trivial names. Since we will be referring to
different alkanes throughout the course, you must learn the names of the first ten alkanes as soon
as possible.

33
Table 2.1: Names of alkanes

Name Formula
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10
Pentane C5H12
Hexane C6H14
Heptane C7H16
Octane C8H18
Nonane C9H20
Decane C10H22

As already mentioned, the alkanes are commonly used as fuels since they undergo combustion
reactions. That means that when they are burned in an adequate supply of air, they are
oxidized, and carbon and water are formed. For example:

CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat.

As is clear from the above equation, heat is one of the products of the reaction, hence the
usefulness of these compounds as a source of energy.

If sufficient oxygen is available to effect complete oxidation, carbon dioxide is formed as one of
the products, but in the case that insufficient oxygen is available , incomplete combustion
results and carbon monoxide is formed.
2CH4 + 3O2→ 2CO + 4H2O

Carbon monoxide is a poison that binds irreversibly to red blood cells.

You will notice that the first equation above is not balanced, while the second one is. You must be
able to balance equations and always ensure that you use balanced equations in all calculations.
For those who have forgotten how to, here is a reminder:

34
Balancing a chemical equation.

If we want to use the information contained in a chemical equation to calculate how much energy
can be obtained from a compound, the equation has to be balanced in order to get accurate
answers.
How do we go about doing this?
Let's look at our example of methane gas burning in oxygen. When this reaction occurs, bonds are
broken in the reactants to form new products:
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat
We now check to see whether the number of atoms on the left and right hand side of the equation
balance:
Left Right
1C 1C
4H 2H
2O 3O

Clearly, they are not balanced. Since we do not have enough oxygen on the reactant side to give
the products, we need to add oxygen. We do this by adding the coefficient 2 in front of the oxygen
molecule:

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat

Left Right
1C 1C
4O 3O
4H 2H

We now have enough O atoms on the reactant side, but still need to need to balance the number
of O and H atoms in the products. Since we do not want to increase the number of carbon atoms,
we leave the CO2 as is, but add the coefficient 2 to the water molecule.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat

Left Right
1C 1C
4O 4O
4H 4H

35
Our equation is finally balanced. Check to make sure that you have mastered this skill by trying
these on your own:

1. N + O2 → NO
2. H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 + O2
3. SO2 + O2 → SO3

Now that we know you can balance equations, let’s look at our fossil fuels again.
When a fuel is burned in oxygen, chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, releasing
energy in the form of heat. Where does this heat came from?

The energy that is released upon making the new bonds is greater than the energy required

to break the bonds in the reactants.

Let’s do a little calculation to make this clearer. We know (from experimental data) what the
approximate bond energies for certain types of chemical bonds are.

Table 2.2: Bond energies

Type of bond Bond Energy

(kcal / mole)
C–H 99
C–C 83
O – O in O2 118
C–O 85
H–H 104
C=O 192
O–H 111

The values above represent the amount of energy required to

break 1 mole of a particular kind of bond. The same amount of
energy is released if a bond is formed
.

Remember the burning of methane:

36
 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + heat (1 mole)
Let's calculate how much heat is required to break the bonds and how much heat is released on
bond forming:

Bond Bond energy Number of Bond Energy /

bonds broken mole
(kcal) of formed
C–H 99 4 4 x 99 = 396
O-O 118 2 2 x 118 = 236
Energy required to 632
break bonds

C=O 192 2 2 x 192 = 384

O-H 111 4 4 x 111 = 444
Energy released in 828
forming bonds

 More energy was released in making the new bonds than were consumed in breaking the
hydrocarbon and oxygen bonds. From the above we can see that

828 – 632 = 196 kcal of energy is released when 1 mole of methane is burned.

This explains the value of fossil fuels as energy sources. When they are burned, a relatively large
quantity of energy is released. The energy output of various common fuels is as follows:

Table 2.3: Fuel Values

Fuel Fuel value (kcal/g)

Pine 4.3
Bituminous coal 7.4
Anthracite 7.6
Crude oil 10.8
Petrol 11.5
Natural gas 11.7
Hydrogen 33.9

37
We now know that different fuels have different fuel values. In the next section we will take a
closer look at the various fossil fuels.

Do Question 1.

2.2 Coal

2.2.1 Formation and types: (vL, p193-196)

Three hundred million years ago, plants grew in great abundance in Tropical freshwater
swamps and bogs, which covered many regions of the earth. When the plants died, some
of the material sank underwater before it could be oxidized by atmospheric oxygen in the
usual way. In the absence of oxygen, little decomposition occurred. The material became
buried under sediments and, in time, was compressed and converted to a brown organic
material known as peat. In some locations, the peat became more deeply buried and
increasing pressured changed it to a harder, drier material called lignite. Lignite is a
brownish-black coal with generally high moisture and ash content and low heating value.
Deeper burial and the resulting increase in temperature and pressure transformed the
lignite into various grades of bituminous coal. In areas where mountains formed, very
high temperature and pressure converted bituminous coal to anthracite. With each of the
conversions chemical reactions occur. Volatile compounds are released, water content is
decreased and carbon content is increased. The quality of coal as a fuel increases with its
carbon content. Anthracite, which is 90% carbon, is the most desirable form of coal.

Do Questions 2 and 5.

2.2.2 Burning of coal:

Coal is a complex mixture of organic compounds. It is also one of the world’s major
sources of energy. It is composed primarily of hydrocarbons, but also contains small
amounts of oxygen-, nitrogen-, and sulfur-containing compounds. On burning, not only do
we obtain the energy in the form of heat that we want, but we also obtain all kinds of by-
products that are detrimental to the environment. We will discuss these in greater detail
later in the course.

38
2.2.3 Conversion of coal:
2.2.3.1 Coal gasification (vL, p 195)
 Step 1: Heated, crushed coal is treated with superheated steam:
C + H2O  CO + H2
coal gas
 Step 2: The CO reacts with H2 to produce methane and water:
CO + 3H2   CH4 + H2O
Or reacts with water:
CO + H2O  CO2 + H2
Unreacted CO and H2 are recycled
The processes are used sequentially in order to obtain maximum yield of methane. The
mixture of gases that are obtained is called synthesis gas or syngas.

2.2.3.2 Coal liquefaction

One of the most important methods of converting coal to liquid fuel is the SASOL
process, which was developed in South Africa and is currently used to produce more
than 10 million liters per day of synthetic liquid petroleum. The coal is heated to
temperatures between 600 and 8000C to partially volatilize it. The mixture then moves
through a heated region containing air and steam. The product mixture is made up of
methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The gas reacts under
pressure in the presence of an iron catalyst, producing a liquid product similar to crude
oil, which may be refined in the same manner.

Fe/ZnO
CH4 + CO + CO2 + H2 → alkanes, oxygenates

Do Question 6.

2.3 Petroleum (vL p196)

2.3.1 Formation
Petroleum originated from microscopic marine organisms that lived in shallow coastal
waters. When they died their remains collected in bottom sediments where the supply of
oxygen was inadequate to oxidize all the material. If these sediments were subjected to
high temperature and pressure, the organic matter was converted to liquid hydrocarbons
and gaseous hydrocarbons. These fuels are therefore generally found together in porous,
impermeable rock called reservoir rock which is usually capped by a layer of impermeable
rock (cap rock). Gas collects at the top, followed by petroleum and water and oil. It is

39
forced out of the rock by pressurizing the oil field with steam or carbon dioxide. The
average oil field ceases to be productive after 1/3 of the oil has been recovered.

Refining
Crude petroleum is a complex mixture of thousands of organic compounds. To be useful, it
must be refined (separated into fractions) by fractional distillation, a process that separates
the hydrocarbons according to their boiling points. The fractions that are collected vary in
the length of their alkane chains.

(Source: Chemistry Fundamentals: An Environmental Perspective by P Buell and J Girard,

Fig 12.7, p 366, 2nd edition, 2003, Jones and Bartlett)

Table 2.3 Typical Petroleum Fractions

Fraction Boiling Point Composition Use

(oC)
Gas 0 – 20 CH4 – C4H10 Fuel, synthesis
Petroleum ether 20 – 70 C5H12, C6H14 Solvent
PeTrol 70 – 180 C6H14 - C10H22 Fuel
Kerosene 180 – 230 C11H24, C12H26 Jet fuel
Light gas oil 230 – 305 C13H28 – C17H36 Diesel fuel
Heavy gas oil 305 – 405 C18H38 – C25H52 Generating stations fuel
Lubricants 405 – 515 Higher Greases etc.

40
 Solid residue Pitch, asphalt

In order to increase the yield of petrol, the higher–boiling fractions are converted to petrol
by a process known as cracking. The long-chain alkanes are heated in the absence of air
and then break into shorter-chain hydrocarbons.

Do Question 3.

2.3.2 Octane rating

The petrol (or so-called straight-run gasoline) that is obtained by the distillation of petroleum
consists primarily of straight-chain hydrocarbons and isn't an optimal automotive fuel. A
high content of straight-chain hydrocarbons causes a fuel to begin burning before it is
ignited by the spark plug. This premature ignition produces a knocking sound, leads to loss
of engine power and eventual damage to the engine. The tendency of petrol to cause
knocking is rated according to a scale known as the octane rating. It was determined that
hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula as the ones found naturally in petroleum,
but with different structures, are better fuels than the straight-chain equivalents.

Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms are
called structural or constitutional isomers. The carbon chains of these isomers may be
straight or branched. Compare the following structural isomers of C6H14.
Hexane has a straight chain or carbon backbone:
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 Hexane
All the other isomers have one or more carbon atoms branching off the main carbon chain:

These forms of the molecule have a much smaller surface area, causing less strong van
der Waals forces attracting the molecules to one another.

The straight-chain hydrocarbon n-heptane which is found in petroleum is a very poor fuel
which causes serious knocking and is assigned an octane rating of 0. The isomeric

41
 branched hydrocarbon 2,2,4-tri-methylpentane (isooctane) of n-octane is a superior fuel
that burns without knocking and is assigned an octane rating of 100.

The petrol that is distilled from petroleum has an octane rating of approx. 50, much too low for
our engines that require about 87–90. It is possible to improve these ratings in 3 ways:
1. Cracking: increase the percentage of short-chain hydrocarbons
2. Catalytic reforming: increase number of branched-chain alkanes
3. Addition of octane enhances: tetraethyl lead, (C2H5)4Pb, was used initially. It is cheap
and effective. The toxicity of lead and the health hazards associated with releasing it
into the atmosphere led to the phasing out of this additive. TEL has been replaced by
compounds such as methyl-t-butyl ether (MTBE), methanol and ethanol, all of which
have very high octane numbers.

Another factor that contributed to the phasing out of TEL was the introduction of catalytic
converters in the exhaust system of vehicles to control atmospheric pollutants. The catalysts
used in these converters are destroyed by lead and one can therefore only use unleaded fuel if
you have one in your vehicle.

Catalytic converters
Most catalytic converters consist of a very fine ceramic honeycomb structure coated with
platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and rhodium (Rh), which act as catalysts. Hot exhaust gases
from the engine pass through the converter as they enter the muffler. As the gases enter,
rhodium catalyzes the reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen gas.
Rh
2NO → N2 + O2
Air is injected into the exhaust stream, providing more oxygen. In the presence of Pd and Pt,
carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, while hydrocarbons are oxidized to water and
carbon dioxide:
[O]
CO → CO2
Pd, Pt

42
 Pt,Pd
2C8H18 + 25O2 → 16CO2 + 18H2O

Catalytic converters remove 96% of CO and hydrocarbons and 76% of nitrogen oxides from
exhausts. The emission of CO2 remains a problem.

Do Question 4.

2.4 Natural Gas

Components listed in van Loon Table 8.10, p 197.

It is the most desirable of the fossil fuels, since it produces more heat and less CO 2 than
coal or petrol on a mass basis. It also has fewer impurities.

Do Question 7

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this section you should be able to:
 Name the 10 simplest alkanes
 Write a simple oxidation reaction for a given alkane
 Balance a simple oxidation reaction
 Use a balanced equation to calculate the amount of energy released on burning of a given
alkane using a table of bond energies
 Explain how coal fields and oil fields are formed
 Explain the fractionation of oil
 Describe the conversion of coal to both gas and liquid forms
 Describe a catalytic converter and explain it’s function
 Name a simple branched chain alkane
 Explain the cause and solutions for the phenomenon of “knocking”

43
Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. How much energy is released when one mole of ethane (C2H6) is burned?

Type of bond Energy in kcal/mole

C-H 99
C-C 83
C-O 85
O-O 118
C=O 192
O-H 111

Answer: 344kcal/mole
2. Explain how coal fields are formed.
3. Explain how petroleum is refined. Use a diagram to clarify your explanation.
4. What do you understand under octane rating and how can it be improved?
5. Briefly discuss the four major types of coal.
6. Why is coal converted to liquid and gaseous fuels? Explain both processes.

7. How is the energy that is produced by burning coal converted to electricity?

---oOo---

44
 Learning Unit 3: Alternative Energy
Sources

Learning Unit 3: Subunits

Subunit Topic Pages

TRO 1018- 1022;
3.1 Nuclear Energy
1025 -1029
3.2 Solar Energy LG 49
3.3 Biomass vL p 189 -193
3.4 Wind Power LG 50
3.5 Geothermal Energy LG 51
3.6 Hydropower LG 51
3.7 Tidal power LG 52
3.8 Other Sources LG 52

3.1 Nuclear Energy (pp 302 – 307, 314 – 316 TRO)

The well-known equation , E=mc2, proposed by Albert Einstein, predicts that a small
amount of nuclear mass corresponds to a huge amount of energy that can be released
when the nucleus breaks apart. When the heat energy that is released is controlled it can
be used to generate power. Nuclear fission reactors became a reality in the early 1940's
and in the 1950's it was predicted that by the year 2000 nuclear power plants would supply
20% of the world's energy. However, in response to fears about safety as well as the easy
access to alternatives like petroleum and coal, the current figure is about 14%. In the US,
nuclear fission reactors supply 20% of the energy while the figures for France and Japan
are 79 and 67 percent respectively. Currently 92% of South Africa's electricity is coal fired,
with one large nuclear station near Cape Town providing an additional 6% and a further
1.5% produced by hydroelectric power schemes. There are no more economic hydro sites
in South Africa that could deliver significant amounts of power. Most of South Africa's
electricity is generated by plants far inland, on the eastern side of the country. The large
distances from inland coalfields and coastal centers of consumption pose a problem. Since
South Africa is rich in uranium and produces a significant amount of the metal as a by-
product of the gold mining industry, the planners at Escom are investigating the possibility

45
 of small nuclear-powered generating plants that can be placed near points of demand. The
reactors that are currently under investigation are High Temperature Gas Reactors (HTGR)
that use fuel in the shape of small balls. The balls are packed in a reactor vessel and
provide a natural path through which a cooling gas can pass. This type of reactor is known
as a "Pebble Bed Modulator Reactor" (PBMR) since up to 10 modules can be connected to
supply the required energy.

3.1.1 Nuclear Fission Reactors

When Uranium-235 is bombarded with neutrons, it splits into a variety of lighter atoms. At
the same time, additional neutrons are formed and a tremendous amount of heat energy is
released.

142
54 Xe + 90 1
38 Sr + 4 0 n
235 1 142 91 1
92 U +0n 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
144
55 Cs + 90 1
37 Rb + 2 0 n

Each neutron initiates a new fission, causing a chain reaction that can lead to an
explosion. In a nuclear power plant the chain reaction is controlled so that energy is
produced at a steady, safe rate.
The heat that is produced is used to convert water to steam which drive turbines and
generate electricity. The reaction is controlled by cadmium or boron rods that absorb
neutrons and can be used to moderate or stop the reaction. Normally, water circulating
around the fuel and control rods acts as a moderator to slow the neutrons to speeds that
are optimal for splitting U-235 atoms. In the proposed pebble bed reactors this function will
be fulfilled by helium gas.

(Source: Chemistry Fundamentals, Buell and Girard, Fig 13.6, p 391)

A number of problems are associated with nuclear power.

46
  Only 0.71% of mined uranium is U-235. This has to be enriched via a complex
process to 3% U-235 before it can be used in reactors.
 Although the rods are spent after 3 years, they are still radioactive and contribute to
radioactive waste disposal problems. A typical nuclear energy plant produces 20
metric tonnes of radioactive waste each year. Scientists are however working on
methods to separate the radioactive material from the inert material in which it is
produced. This will decrease volumes substantially and the purified radioactive material
could be used for medical diagnostics and other applications.
 Human error and mechanical failure can lead to serious accidents, as was seen at
Three Mile Island and Chernobyl.
 Plants must be decommissioned after 30 years, since continual bombardment of plant
components with neutrons make the metals brittle. The usual procedure is to seal the
plant permanently in reinforced concrete
 Operating costs are high, especially because so much money must be spent on
safety.
Advantages:
 The fuel is very reliable
 The nuclear power plants are highly efficient
 Energy can be generated near where it is used
 Minimal greenhouse gases or acid rain effects

3.1.2 Nuclear fusion

When two very light atomic nuclei are combined, a heavier nucleus is formed. There is a
loss of mass and an enormous amount of energy is released. Fusion of hydrogen atoms to
form helium is the primary source of the energy emitted by the sun.

2 3
1 H + 1 H → 42 He+ 01 n+energy

For each gram of fuel, fusion releases four times as much energy as the fission of uranium-
235 and one million times as much as the combustion of fossil fuels. Technically, however,
2 3
fusion is difficult to achieve. For the fusion of deuterium ( 1 H) and tritium ( 1 H) to form
4
helium ( 2 He), a temperature of 100,000,000oC is required. Concerns regarding containing
high temperatures and pressures have, therefore, limited the development of fusion
reactors.

47
3.2 Solar Energy
The term “solar energy” refers to the radiant energy in the form of heat and light emitted by
the sun as a result of the sun’s radiation. Solar energy is the most attractive form of
energy: free, non-polluting (no harmful emissions), no noise pollution (solar panels
operate very silently) and renewable. Furthermore, solar panels have an expected lifespan
of 30 years.

Passive solar heating is widely used where solar energy enters through windows facing the
sun and convection currents distribute the heat around the building. Active solar heating
systems gather heat in solar collectors and circulate it by means of pumps. This method
can supply 50% to 100% of home heating requirements. The International Energy Agency
has in 2011 announced that solar energy technologies have the potential to provide a third
of the world’s energy by 2060, provided that the world leaders commit to limiting climate
change.

Heat from solar collectors can be used to generate electricity by producing steam that
turns turbines. Solar energy can also be converted directly into electricity by photovoltaic
cells. These cells can convert 30% of incident sunlight to electricity and consist of 2 layers
of silicon, the top layer of which contains trace amounts of arsenic and the bottom layer a
trace of boron. The flow of elecTrons that is created when the cell is exposed to sunlight
can be conducted through an external circuit and do useful work.

The disadvantages of solar energy are that it is quite costly to convert the solar energy into
solar power, it is only available during daytime, and also only when the sun is shining.

3.3 Biomass (vL p 198 -203) and Biofuels

Biomass is organic material produced as the solid product when photosynthesis occurs in
plants. The most popular source of biomass is wood, but sources also include garbage,
waste, landfill gases and alcohol fuels. Biomass is converted to energy by means of three
processes: a) thermal conversion, b) chemical conversion and c) biochemical conversion.
Thermal conversion, as the name suggest, is when the biomass is heated to convert the
biomass into energy. Chemical conversion is when chemical processes are used to
convert the biomass into energy. Biochemical conversion is when enzymes of bacteria and
other micro-organisms are used to break down biomass through processes such as
anaerobic digestion, fermentation and transesterification.

48
 Advantages of biomass:
 It is a renewable source of energy since plants can be grown again and again on
the same piece of land
 Biomass can be found all over the world
 There are many different technologies available for converting the biomass into
useful forms of energy.

Disadvantages of biomass:
 Using the available land for planting plants for energy reduces the available land
to grow food crops which can lead to hunger
 Burning of plants under unconTrolled conditions could result in increased air
pollution and deforestation
 Many of the available technologies to convert biomass to energy is still costly.

Biofuels are liquids that are derived from biomass, for example biodiesel and bioethanol.
Biofuels can be made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, animal fats, non-food crops, and
algae.

Study the relevant part in your textbook, since you must be able to explain why this
arguably renewable resource may not be the answer to the world's energy problems.

3.4 Wind Power

In the last decade, wind energy has been the fastest developing renewable energy source
in the world. Windmills with blades of fiberglass, metal or wood, measuring up to 100 m
from tip to tip, are currently being used to generate electricity. A wind farm is a group of
interconnected wind turbines in the same location which are used to produce electricity.
They can be found onshore or offshore. The largest wind farm on land is located in Texas,
United States. It is called the Roscoe Wind Farm, and has 627 individual wind turbines,
producing up to 781 MW of electricity. In 2008, wind power provided 1.5% of worldwide
electricity usage, and it has increased over the past three years to approximately 2%.

Offshore wind farms have higher construction costs than onshore wind farms, because they
need to be built very strongly to withstand extreme weather conditions. However, they are
exposed to more powerful and more frequent winds, and from an aesthetic point of view,
they have no impact on a landscape’s visual appearance. Since wind is clean, free and

49
 abundant, this is one of the more attractive options for the future. South Africa currently
has one commercial wind farm near Darling in the Western Cape.
Disadvantages of wind power are that the wind is not always available, or not always
powerful enough to generate electricity, installation costs are still very high, and the
windmills do have an impact on the environment (bird and wildlife).

3.5 Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Energy is a renewable source of energy that is generated deep in the earth by
the decay of radioactive elements. The name geothermal comes from the Greek language,
where the word “geo” means earth, and “thermos” means heat. There is enough
geothermal energy inside the Earth’s core to more than satisfy current world energy needs!
It is, unfortunately, only accessible in certain regions of the earth where hot magma heats
rock and groundwater. The water can be used to heat buildings and the steam to turn
turbines. Geothermal power plants are currently operating in 24 countries across the world,
and the country that leads the world in totally installed geothermal energy capacity is the
United States. In 2010 they had 77 geothermal power plants operating, producing more
than 3000MW. Still, only 0.3% of the United States’ electricity is produced from geothermal
power plants. Geothermal energy is not only used for electricity generation, but also for
heating purposes.

The disadvantages of geothermal energy are the inaccessibility of many of these

terrains, the high capital costs due to drilling, the lack of qualified people to install and
operate the plants, as well as salts and hydrogen sulfide which are associated with most
sources. Furthermore, the construction of geothermal power plants can have a negative
environmental impact. It can affect the stability of the land, and even trigger earthquakes.
Advantages include that geothermal power is always available, not only when the sun is
shining, or wind is blowing. Also, geothermal power plants have low maintenance costs
once they are built, and do not require large water resources.

3.6 Hydropower

Hydropower (sometimes called water power) is basically a power that comes from the force
of energy of moving water.
Advantages of hydropower:
 It is 80% efficient,

50
  It is very reliable (except during times of drought), because once a dam is
constructed the electricity can be produced at a constant rate. The lifetime of a dam
is also many decades, so no further capital costs will be required after construction.
 It is non-polluting (no harmful emissions).
 When electricity is not required, the sluice gates can simply be closed and water
saved for when the electricity demand is high
 Dams can also be used for water sports and other leisure activities, and often
becomes popular tourist attractions
 Dams can used for irrigation as well

Dams can, however, create environmental problems like flooding, are extremely
costly to build, and suitable sites are limited. Hydropower dams can disrupt the natural
flow of rivers, which can have negative impact on many river ecosystems.

3.7 Tidal Power

Tidal power is a form of hydropower that generates electricity through the harnessing of the
ebb and flow of the tides. It is a relatively simple concept: when the tide comes in water is
stored in a dam, when the tide goes out the water in the dam is channelled through pipes to
turn the blades of a turbine, generating electricity. The main advantage is that tidal power
is very reliable, because we can predict when the tides will be in and out. Also, the
efficiencies of tidal power stations are very high, and the maintenance costs of existing
plants are low. The disadvantages are that tidal power stations are very expensive to
construct, the frames of the turbines can disrupt the movement of large marine animals
and ships, and fish can be killed when passing through the turbines.

3.8 Other Options

- Electrochemical Fuel Cells

- Fuel Cells: Electrochemical fuel cells in which both reactants are continuously supplied
from outside the cell , for example hydrogen and air.
o 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
Such cells were developed for the space program. A problem that currently needs to
be solved is the rate of reaction of the oxygen at the electrodes, which is too slow.
Other problems include transport and storage of hydrogen.

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

51
  Explain what each alternative energy source is and what the advantages and
disadvantages are.
 Compare these sources for possible use in our country as far as the practical applications
are concerned
 Propose and critically defend a strategy for preferred sources for the energy supply to this
country for the next 20 years.

Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Which countries rely the most on nuclear power?

2. Write a typical nuclear fission reaction. Where does the energy that is released come
from?
3. Explain the function of the following in a nuclear power plant:
a. control rods
b. fuel rods
c. moderator
d. containment building
4. More nuclear power plants should be built in the RSA to reduce our dependence on fossil
fuels and to slow global warming, Do you agree? Explain your point of view.
5. Explain what you understand under nuclear fusion. Why isn't it used more widely for the
production of power?
6. Explain how a solar power plant works.
7. Explain the function of a photovoltaic cell.
8. Do you think that the use of biomass may be the answer to the worlds energy problems?
Explain.
9. Name one more renewable energy source and lists the advantages and disadvantages of
this method for the production of energy.
10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of wind power.
11. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of tidal power.
12. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of hydro power.

52
 Learning Unit 4: The Earth’s Atmosphere
Chapter 2 (pp 21 -41, vL)

Learning Unit 4: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
4.1 Structure and composition 21- 27
4.2 Reactions and Calculations 27 – 39
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

4.1 Structure and Composition (pp 21 – 27 vL)

4.1.1 Regions of the Atmosphere (v L, p. 21 – 24)

 Name the 4 regions of the atmosphere
 Explain the different temperatures and pressures that occur in each region.
 Do atmospheric pressure calculations

4.1.2 Chemical composition of the Atmosphere (v L, p. 24 – 27)

 Describe and explain the chemical composition of the regions of the atmosphere.

 Explain the influence of the interaction and penetration of radiation from the sun.

Do Example 2.2, p 25 Vl

4.2 Reactions and Calculations (pp 27 – 38, vL)

4.2.1 Thermodynamic and kinetic calculations (p. 27 – 33)

 Understand and explain the purpose of thermodynamic and kinetic calculations. No
calculations will be required.

53
  Explain why none of these approaches give the correct answer when studying
atmospheric chemistry.

4.2.2 Photochemical Reactions (v L, p. 34 – 35)

 Explain the role that the absorption of electromagnetic energy plays in the chemistry of
species in the atmosphere.
 Understand and describe the difference between ground state and exited state species.

4.2.3 Free radicals (vL, p. 36 – 39)

 Explain what free a radical is and use reactions to show how it is formed.
 Explain initiation, propagation and termination in radical chemistry, using the formation
of chloromethane as an example
 Give the reaction mechanism for the formation of the hydroxyl radical

Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. List the 3 major components of the earth's atmosphere and give their approximate mixing
ratios.
2. Use a diagram to show the regions of the atmosphere. Include temperature and pressure
variations in your diagram.
3. Why is the thermosphere also sometimes called the ionosphere and why is the temperature
so high in this region?
4. What do you understand a photochemical reaction to be?
5. Calculate the atmospheric pressure at the stratopause. What are the concentrations
(mol/m3) of dioxygen and dinitrogen at this altitude? How do these concentrations compare
with the corresponding values at sea level?
6. What is the total mass of the stratosphere?
7. Which of the following are free radicals? OH, O3, Cl,ClO, CO, NO, N2O.

54
 Learning Unit 5: Stratospheric Chemistry -
Ozone
Chapter 3 (pp 41 – 72, vL)

Learning Unit 5: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook (vL)
5.1 Stratosphere 41 - 48
5.2 Formation and destruction of Ozone 48 – 51
5.3 Catalytic destruction of Ozone 51- 62
5.4 Null and Holding Cycles 63 - 64
5.5 Hole in the Ozone Layer 65 - 68
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

Gas molecules in the atmosphere act as absorbing centers, moderating the transmission of solar
radiation to the Earth. Since the extent to which stratospheric gases interact with radiation can be
significantly altered by anthropogenic processes, environmental scientists should have some
knowledge of the chemistry of the stratosphere.

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

5.1 Stratosphere (pp 41 -48, vL)

 Describe the location and characteristics of the stratosphere as well as ways in which
ozone concentration normally are depicted.

 Explain the classification of ultraviolet radiation into different categories

 Describe and explain the role that ozone plays in screening out harmful rays. (Fig. 3.2)

55
5.2 Formation and Destruction of Ozone (pp 48 -51, vL)

 Describe and explain the synthesis and decomposition of ozone using chemical equations..

 Calculate the amount of energy required for each step.

 Calculate the wavelength of light associated with a specified amount of energy.

5.3 Catalytic Decomposition of Ozone (pp 51 – 62, vL)

 Give a general mechanism for catalytic removal of ozone from the atmosphere.

 Name the species that may be involved in the destruction of ozone and name CFC’s based
on their numbers (See example 3.5).

 Explain how the formation of NOx is involved in the destruction of ozone at different
altitudes.

 Describe the chlorine radical cycle and explain the role of anthropogenically produced
chlorine in the cycle

5.4 Null and Holding Cycles (pp 63 -64, vL)

 Differentiate between null and holding cycles.

 Use examples to illustrate what a null and a holding cycle is.

5.5 Ozone Hole Formation (pp 64 - 68, vL)

 Define what the 'hole' in the ozone layer entails.

 Explain how the 'hole' is formed and repaired by using chemical equations.

 Describe the impact of this phenomenon living beings.

56
Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Which unit is used for the measuring of the ozone layer? How much ozone is represented
by 100 of these units?
2. The energy that is needed to cause the decomposition of O3 to O2* and O* is 387 kJ.mol-1.
Calculate the wavelength of light with this amount of energy. (ans: 309 nm)
3. Explain why the ozone layer has the highest concentration at 23 km. Some people predict
that a decrease in ozone concentration in the stratosphere will lead to a negative feedback
which will cause the production of more ozone. Explain why such a process is possible.
4. What are the possible methods for the removal of the catalysts NO·and Cl·, which are
involved in the destruction of ozone?
5. HCFC-123 is a possible alternative for CFC-11. How do you expect the following
environmental characteristics will compare?
i. Tropospheric lifetime
ii. combustibility
iii. ozone depletion potential
iv. greenhouse gas properties

---oOo---

57
 Learning Unit 6: Smog
Chapter 4 (pp 73 – 102, vL)

Learning Unit 6: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook (vL)
6.1 Classical Smog 74
6.2 Photochemical Smog 74 - 87

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

6.1 Classical Smog (p 73 - 74)

 Define the term 'smog'.

 Explain what classical smog is and under which conditions it is formed.
 Explain what photochemical smog is, as well as under which conditions it is formed

6.2 Photochemical Smog (pp 74 -87)

 Describe a photochemical smog event with the aid of a graph (Fig 4.2).
 Explain what effect such an event will have on the environment.
 Describe the production of hydroxyl radicals and the link between this radical and the
internal combustion engine.
 Use an example to describe the oxidation of organic compounds

---oOo---

58
 Learning Unit 7: Precipitation
Chapter 5 (pp 103 – 130, vL)

Learning Unit 7: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
7.1 Atmospheric Formation of Nitric Acid 103 -108
7.2 Atmospheric Formation of Sulphuric Acid 109 – 119
Control of Anthropogenic Nitrogen and Sulphur
7.3 119 - 128
Emissions

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

7.1 Atmospheric Production of Nitric Acid (pp 103 -108)

 List the sources of nitrogen that are available in the environment as well as their origins.
 Explain the formation of nitric acid by oxidation of nitric oxide (daytime sequence) using
chemical equations
 Explain the production of nitric acid via the nitrate radical (night-time sequence) and how this
product contributes to the phenomenon called "acid rain".

7.2 Atmospheric Production of Sulphuric Acid (pp 109 - 119)

 Give an example of the reaction of the hydroxyl radical with a reduced sulphur compound (eg
H2S) as well as of the oxidation of the product by oxygen in the atmosphere to eventually form
sulphur dioxide.
 Explain how sulphuric acid is formed.

59
7.3 Control of Anthropogenic Emissions (pp 119 - 128)

 Name two sources of nitrogen oxides and gaseous sulphur compounds and suggest four ways
in which these emissions can be reduced.
 Describe the process of fluidized-bed combustion
 Describe the process of flue gas desulphurization
 Describe the SONOX process
 Describe the effects of acid rain

60
 Learning Unit 8: Global Climate
Chapter 8 (pp 172 – 207, vL)
Learning Unit 8: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
8.1 Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere 172 – 174
8.2 Energy Balance 174 - 179
8.3 Greenhouse Effect 180 - 190

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

8.1 Composition of the Earth’s Atmosphere (pp 172 - 174)

 Name the most important gases in the atmosphere.

 Understand and use graph 8.2.

8.2 Energy Balance (pp 174 - 179)

 Explain the concept of absorption and reflection of sunlight as discussed in fig 8.4
 No calculations will be required for this section.

8.3 Greenhouse Effect (pp 180 - 190)

 Name all the potential greenhouse gases

 Describe the effect of each of the greenhouse gases.
 Explain the concept of the window through which radiation may occur and indicate why human
interference has an effect on the temperature of the earth.
 State and discuss the implications of global warming.
 Explain the phenomenon of global warming, be able to discuss the impact on humans and the
environment critically and defend your statements.
---oOo---

61
 Learning Unit 9: The Hydrosphere
Chapter 9 (pp 211 – 226, vL)
Learning Unit 9: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
9.1 Water Distribution 211 - 216
9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties 216 - 222
9.3 Concentration Units 222 -224
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

9.1 Water Distribution (pp 211 - 216)

 Describe the distribution of the earth's water resources

9.2 Physical and Chemical Properties (pp 216 - 222)

 Describe the physical and chemical characteristics of water.

 Explain why ice floats on water and what the importance of this phenomenon is in the
environment.
 Describe the phenomena of hydration and complexation.
 Define the concepts of acids and bases
 Explain why water is amphiprotic.
 Define the concepts of oxidation and reduction and to relate it to the redox chemistry of
water.
 Draw a simple E/ pH diagram (Fig 9.7)

9.3 Concentration Units (pp 222 - 224)

 Know the difference between concentrations units normally used for aqueous solutions and
be able to interconvert between ppm and molar concentrations. (see example 9.2)

Questions and Problems

62
After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Ice floats on water. Explain why this is possible.

2. What is the implication of the different densities of water at different temperatures for lakes
and rivers in parts of the world with temperate climate?
3. Why is water such a good solvent?
4. Explain what the complexation of free ions by water entails.
5. Explain what the autoprotolysis of water entails, using a chemical equation.
6. Water has redox qualities. Explain what this means and what the implications are for
reactions that occur in aqueous solutions.
---oOo---

63
 Learning Unit 10 : Distribution of Species in
Aquatic Systems
Chapter 10 (pp 227 - 250, vL)
Learning Unit 10: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
10.1 Single Variable Diagrams 227 – 235
10.2 Two-variable Diagrams 235 – 246
10.3 Measurements of pE 247 -248
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

10.1 Water Distribution (pp 227 -235)

 Explain how equations for the compilation of single-variable diagrams can be derived by
referring to phosphate species
 Write all the phosphate species that occur in water
 You will not be required to derive any equation for α
 Use these type of diagrams to obtain information regarding the species that occur under
specific conditions in water. (fig 10.1 and 10.2)

10.2 Two-Variable Diagrams (pp 235 - 246)

 Define the concepts of pH and pE and know how to calculate both. (p 236 – 238) – you will
be told in class which methods will be required
 Understand how a Pourbaix diagram is compiled, how the boundaries are chosen and how
to use these diagrams to obtain information on systems occurring in the environment – you
will not be required to construct one yourself.
 Draw the template (fig 10.4) that is to be used with pE / pH plots

10.3 Measurement of pE (pp 247- 248)

64
  Describe the equipment that is used for pE measurements
 Use given values of E obtained versus the saturated calomel electrode to calculate pE
(Example 10.1)

Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Write the 4 species of phosphorus that occur in water.

2. What kind of information can you get from a species distribution diagram?
3. Use the diagram on p 230 (fig 10.1) in your text book to answer the following:
(i) The phosphorus levels in a lake is 12 g L-1 and the pH 6. Determine which species
will be present and what their concentrations will be.
(Ans: H2PO4-, 11g L-1; HPO42-, 1g L-1)
(ii) Pore water from a forest has a pH of 10 and a phosphorous content of 4.4 g L-1.
Determine which species are present and calculate the concentration.
(Ans: HPO42-, 4.4 g L-1)
4. A potential measurement in a rice paddy gives a value of –278mV against the saturated
calomel elecTrode. What is the pE value for this soil? Is it reducing or oxidising?
(Ans: pE = -0.61, reducing)
5. Iron toxicity is sometimes observed for rice plants that grow in paddies. Use the diagram on
p 246 in your test book to explain why it can happen. (Hint: Fe2+ is toxic to plants and stable
in soil that is slightly acid with reducing conditions.)
6. Use fig. 10.5 in your text book to answer the following:
(i) Which sulphur species will occur in pure rain water?
(ii) Which sulphur species would you expect in swamps?

---oOo---

65
 Learning Unit 11: Gases in Water
Chapter 11 (pp 251 - 270, vL)

Learning Unit 11: Subunits

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
11.1 Simple gases 251 - 255
11.2 Gases that react with water 256 – 262
11.3 Alkalinity 262 - 268
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

11.1 Simple Gases (pp 251 - 255)

 Calculate the concentration of various gasses in different bodies of water by using Henry's
Law. All equations that you need for these calculations will be supplied on an information
sheet.
 Do example 11.1 and other similar calculations. Reverse calculations are not required.

11.2 Gases that react with water (pp 256 - 262)

 Understand the carbonate system and write reaction equations for all the species that occur
in water.
 Explain which factors influence the solubility of these species in water.
 Use given equations to calculate concentrations of either the carbonate or the bicarbonate
ion.
 Describe and explain the Lake Nyos disaster

11.3 Alkalinity (pp 262 -268)

 Define alkalinity and write an equation to quantify the definition.

 Explain the difference between alkalinity and pH.

66
  Calculate alkalinity of samples with known pH using given equations and compare these to
the pH values.
 Explain what it means if a lake is well-buffered, transitional or acidic and what the
implications for the environment are.

Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

1. Define a simple gas.

2. What information is always needed when you have to determine the solubility of gas in
water?
3. Calculate the equilibrium constant of oxygen in water at 25oC.
(Ans: 8.5 mg L-1)
4. Write the equilibria that occur when CO2 dissolves in water.
5. Why is the pH of pure rainwater 5.7? (p 242)
6. Define alkalinity.
7. Give the typical values of alkalinity.
8. Do example 11.4.
9. Explain what is meant by the terms well buffered, transitional and acidic with reference to a
lake.
10. Do problem 1 p 268 in your book.
11. Do problem 13 in your book.
12. Do problem 18 in your book.

---oOo---

67
 Learning Unit 12: Organic Chemistry
Chapter 20 (pp 1058 - 1094, TRO)
Learning Unit 12: Subunits

Pages in textbook
Subunit Topic
(TRO)
12.1 Alkenes and Alkynes 1058 -1059
12.2 Nomenclature 1059 - 1062
12.3 Cis-Trans Isomers 1062 - 1063
12.4 Reactions of alkenes 1063 - 1065
12.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1066 - 1068
12.6 Functional Groups 1069 -1079
Questions and Problems 1081 - 1097

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

12.1 Alkenes and Alkynes

 Draw the structures of simple alkenes and alkynes

12.2 Nomenclature

 Name simple alkenes using the IUPAC system

12.3 Cis - Trans Isomers

 Write the names and draw the structures of simple geometric isomers of alkenes

68
12.4 Reactions of Alkenes

 Write a reaction equation for a simple hydrogenation of an alkene

 Write a reaction equation for a simple halogenation of an alkene
 Write a reaction equation for a simple hydration of an alkene
 Write a reaction equation for a simple hydrohalogenation of an alkene

12.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons

 Define and describe an aromatic hydrocarbon

12.6 Functional Groups

 Recognize an alcohol based on its functional group
 Recognize an ether based on its functional group
 Recognize a alkyl halide based on its functional group
 Recognize a thiol based on its functional group

12.7 Structure and Properties of Alcohols

 Classify alcohols as being primary, secondary or tertiary
 Discuss the chemical and physical properties of alcohols.

12.8 Nomenclature of Alcohols

 Write the names of common alcohols
 Draw the structures of common alcohols

12.9 Reactions of Alcohols (

 Write equations representing the preparation of alcohols by the hydration of an alkene

 Write equations showing the dehydration of an alcohol
 Write equations showing the oxidation of alcohols

12.10 Structure and Properties of Ethers

 Write names and draw structures for common ethers

 Discuss the physical properties of ethers

 Discuss the use of ethers as anesthetics

12.11 Alkyl Halides

69
  Write names and draw structures for simple alkyl halides

12.12 Aldehydes and ketones

 Describe the structure and bonding in aldehydes and ketones

 Draw the structures of simple aldehydes and ketones
 From the structures, write names for common aldehydes and ketones
 Discuss the physical properties of aldehydes and ketones
 Write equations for the preparation of aldehydes and ketones by oxidation of alcohols
 Write equations for the oxidation of aldehydes
 Write equations for addition reactions of carbonyl compounds

12.13 Carboxylic acids, Esters and Amides

 Write structures and explain the bonding of common carboxylic acids

 Write structures and explain the bonding of common esters
 Write structures and explain the bonding of common amides
 Determine the name of common Carboxylic acids
 Determine the name of common esters
 Determine the name of common amides
 Discuss the physical properties of carboxylic acids, esters and amides
 Write equations representing the reaction of a carboxylic acid with a base
 Discuss carboxylate anions
 Explain how does soap clean away dirt
 Write equations representing ester formation
 Write equations representing amide formation
 Write equations representing ester hydrolysis
 Write equations representing amide hydrolysis

12.14 Amines
1Describe the structure and bonding in amines
 Draw and name simple amines
 Discuss the physical properties of amines
 Write equations showing the reaction of amines with acids.

70
 Learning Unit 13: Organic Matter In Water
Chapter 12 (pp 271– 290, vL)
Learning Unit 13: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
13.1 Origins of organic matter in water 271 – 274
13.2 Environmental issues related to organic matter 274 – 275
13.3 Humic Material 275 - 287
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

13.1 Origins of organic matter in water (pp 271 - 274)

 Explain how organic matter (OM) is transferred to the hydrosphere

 Describe how OM is produced in water bodies
 List a number of possible anthropogenic sources that contribute to OM in water

13.2 Environmental issues (pp 274 - 275)

 Explain why OM in water is important by referring to:

 Toxicity
 Reaction with other aquatic species
 Consumption of oxygen

13.3 Humic material (pp 275 - 287)

 Define humic material

 Be able to recognise specific functional groups in a generic humate molecule (fig 12.3 , p
281, vL)
 Name three forms of humic material (p283)
 Explain why HM can accept protons (p283)
 Describe reactions between HM and small organic molecules (p285)

71
 Learning Unit 14: Metals in the Hydrosphere
Chapter 13 (pp 291 – 316, vL)
Learning Unit 14: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
14.1 Classification of metals 291 - 297
14.2 Complexes with humic material 297 - 304
14.3 Three metals – behaviour in the hydrosphere 308 - 313
14.4 Complexes of ligands of anthropogenic origin 304 - 307

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following::

14.1 Classification of metals (pp 291 - 297)

 Explain why metals are important in the environment
 Describe an aqueous complex of a metal
 Explain the traditional classification of metals
 Explain the environmental classification of metals

14.2 Complexes with humic material (pp 297 - 304)

 Explain why humic material may form complexes with metals
 Name three factors that will influence the extent of complexation

14.3 Three metals – behaviour in the hydrosphere (pp 308 - 313)

 Use calcium, copper and mercury as examples of each class of metal to describe the
behaviour of different metals in the environment
 You do not need to write the environmental cycle for these metals
 Discuss the occurrence of mercury in the Amazon basin

14.4 Complexes of ligands of anthropogenic origin (pp 304 - 307)

 Give examples of complexing agents that are of anthropogenic origin
 Explain why the use of NTA in detergents may pose an environmental threat – no
calculation required
---oOo---

72
 Learning Unit 15: Water Pollution
Chapter 16 (pp 385 - 407, vL)
Learning Unit 15: Subunits
Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
15.1 Water quality guidelines 385 - 396
15.2 Waste water treatment 396 – 405
15.3 Final products 406

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

15.1 Water quality guidelines (pp 385 - 396)

 Define water pollution (p 385)
 Distinguish between water quality guidelines for drinking water and water used for irrigation

15.2 Waste water treatment (pp 396 - 405)

 Explain the process by which sewage is treated by referring to the primary, secondary and
tertiary treatment processes.
 Describe the role of coagulants in the treatment process.
 Explain how nitrogen is removed.
 Explain advanced microbial processes for phosphorous and nitrogen removal

15.3 Final products (pp 406)

 Describe the final products of the treatment process

---oOo---

73
 Learning Unit 16: Soil
Chapter 17 -18 (pp 389 - 432, vL)

Pages in
Subunit Topic
textbook
16.1 Soil formation 391 – 400
16.2 Soil properties 402 - 408
16.3 Soil profiles 412- 417
Questions and Problems

Unit learning outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to do the following:

16.1 Soil Formation (pp 391 - 400)

 Describe the formation of soil by referring to both physical and chemical weathering

16.2 Soil properties (pp 402 – 408)

 List and describe the physical properties of soil, e.g. particle size, texture, density, structure
and permeability.
 List and describe the chemical properties of soil, e.g. the elements that occur
 Use the soil texture triangle (p404) to answer questions about the properties of given soils.

16.3 Soil Profiles (pp 412 - 417)

 Describe what is meant by a soil profile and answer simple questions on given profiles

Questions and Problems

After studying this unit, do the following questions to see if you have mastered the concepts:

Page 430, Problem 1, 2, 3, and 4

---oOo---

74
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY LAB GUIDE & SAFETY
MANUAL 2018

COMPILED BY: DR L DEN DRIJVER, MR M MALATJI, DR C ARDERNE AND

DR O ZINYEMBA

75
INTRODUCTORY NOTES - CONTENTS
Page

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………. p3
Practical Groups …………………………………………………………………….. p3
Compulsory Safety Wear …………………………………………………………… p3
Laboratory Arrangement …………………………………………………………… p4&6
Sketch-Plan of Laboratory …………………………………………………………. p5
Pre-lab Lectures …………………………………………………………………….. p6
Laboratory Tests ……………………………………………………………………. p6
Absence from Practicals …………………………………………………………… p7
Handing in of Reports ……………………………………………………………… p7
General Laboratory Regulations …………………………………………………. pp 8-9
Common Apparatus ……………………………………………………………….. pp 9-11
Safety in the Laboratory
1. General ……………………………………………………………… pp 12-13
2. Rules ………………………………………………………………… pp 13-14
Techniques required
1. Setting up apparatus for heating …………………………………. p 14
2. Lighting a Bunsen burner …………………………………………. pp 14-15
3. Handling a hot object ……………………………………………… p 15
4. Heating a test tube ………………………………………………… pp 15-16
5. Heating a solution …………………………………………………. p 16
6. Diluting an acid …………………………………………………….. p 17
7. Folding a filter paper ………………………………………………. p 17
8. Smelling a vapour …………………………………………………. p 18
9. Shaking the contents of a test tube ……………………………… p 18
Mass Measurements and Balances …………………………………………….. p 19
Example form for attendance of alternative practical session …………..….. p 20
Example UJ Form – Application for Deferred Aegrotat / Practical…………… p 21

76
 INTRODUCTORY NOTES

INTRODUCTION

The subject chemistry is not merely studied theoretically, but also experimentally. Our knowledge
of it is largely based on experimental work. Practical application of the theoretical principles gives
rise to a better insight in the subject. The practical component of Chemistry must thus not be
regarded as an isolated course, but as supplementary to the theory.

Before experimental results can be used with confidence to draw conclusions or to confirm
theoretical principles, the investigator must have considerable proficiency in practical work. The
purpose of these practicals is to familiarize you with the handling of laboratory apparatus and also
to bring certain important laboratory disciplines home to you.

PRACTICAL GROUPS

Prior to the start of the practical course, you will be allocated to the Monday (afternoon),
Wednesday (afternoon) or Friday (afternoon) group. This subdivision is done on a computer basis
according to your subject choice.

Under no circumstances may you change to another group during the semester without the
express permission of the practical course organizer, Ms B Mogudi (C2LAB115). Ensure that you
take note of the dates on which practicals are scheduled.

COMPULSORY SAFETY WEAR

The wearing of safety glasses and protective clothing is mandatory for all laboratory
work. Without these you will not be permitted to do the practical and you will receive no
marks for the experiment concerned.

LABORATORY ARRANGEMENT

1. The student will work at the laboratory cupboard labelled according to course (e.g.1B10 or
1D10)

2. The student retains his/her work-place and cupboard for the entire semester and will be
held responsible for the apparatus stored therein.

3. Near each end of a workbench there is a larger cupboard, marked with a black coloured
label. Such a cupboard contains two sets of general apparatus* for joint use by the
students working on each side of it, irrespective of the group.

77
 NB: At the end of a practical you must ensure that this general apparatus is packed
away in the large ("joint") cupboard and not in your own individual cupboard.

* "General" apparatus includes:

(i) Cork mats or Asbestos mats (NOT gauze mats)

(ii) Bunsen burners with rubber tubes
(iii) Tripod stands
(iv) Vacuum filtration (or Büchner) flasks and funnels. NB: The flasks and funnels which
fit together have been allocated the same number (that of your work-place). Do not
separate such a flask-funnel-pair.
(v) Desiccator.

4. Quadrants 1 & 2 and 3 & 4 are separated from each other by large steel reagent-shelves.
(See sketch-plan of laboratory, p 5).

Reagents required for each particular practical are set out on the shelves at the ends of
these reagent-shelves. Do not attempt to use other chemicals in the laboratory, unless
explicitly instructed to do so during the pre-lab lecture.
NB: No reagents may be removed from these racks and carried to your work-place
- all the students in the quadrant need to make use of them!

5. A demonstrator is allocated to each quadrant, and he/she is in charge of the students there.
Functions of a demonstrator include:
 advice and assistance during practicals
 correction of reports and LAB-tests
 checking on attendance at practicals

6. You have to sign your demonstrator's attendance register every week to confirm your
practical attendance. No practical reports will be marked without this confirmation of
attendance.

7. Before leaving the laboratory ensure that the table "Completion of Practical" has been filled
in and checked by the demonstrator.

78
SKETCH-PLAN OF FIRST YEAR LABORATORY : C2 LAB 115

TO LECTURE HALLS & MAIN BUILDING

79
PRE-LAB LECTURE

Before the commencement of every practical session, a lecture concerning the practical will be
given at a specific venue. It is essential that you attend these information sessions since you will
be given your practical report sheet and other useful information at these sessions.

No student will be allowed into the laboratory during these lectures or

to perform his/her experiment without attending the pre-lab lecture .

THE DATES AND TIMES OF THE SCHEDULED PRACTICALS ARE GIVEN ON YOUR ULINK

LABORATORY TESTS

You are expected to know the contents of this Practical Guide and to study each experiment well
before the pre-lab lecture. A short LAB-test on the content of the practical will be given. The
resulting mark will be combined with that of your practical report. Studying the experiment before
the lecture enables you to benefit most from the information given by the lecturer and also to
complete the experiment more rapidly and efficiently.

ABSENCE FROM PRACTICALS

If you fail to attend a practical without a valid excuse, you will receive a mark of zero for the
practical concerned. A student who was absent from more than one practical (without a valid
medical reason) will be given a "Practical Incomplete", which results in not being admitted to the
final examinations ("NEE"), irrespective of the prospective candidate's theoretical mark. You also
MUST have a mark of at least 50% for your practicals to be allowed to write the exam.

In the APPENDIX (at the end of the Introductory Notes) there is an example application form which
you can fill in if you are/were not able to attend (reason specified) a specific practical session, in
order to be permitted to do the practical on an alternative scheduled day. Application forms are
available from your practical coordinator (C2LAB115)

Where applicable a medical certificate (official UJ form – example given on p 22) completed by the
practitioner must be attached. The completed application form (obtainable from the Faculty Office)
must be given to the laboratory staff for consideration.

HANDING IN OF REPORTS

You must always ensure that your personal information (initials, surname and student-
number), as well as your group (day), session (morning/afternoon) and demonstrator's
name appears on your answer-sheet and report.

Reports must be handed in using the five post-boxes on the outside of C2 LAB 115. The reports
are handed in according to the practical groups, e.g. Monday, Wednesday etc. and not quadrant

80
specific. Therefore make sure that your demonstrator's name as well as your session time
appears on your report.

If not otherwise instructed, groups must hand in their reports as follows:

Practical Group Due day

Monday Wednesday
Tuesday Thursday
Wednesday Friday
Friday Monday

GENERAL LABORATORY REGULATIONS

1. Any loss or breakage of apparatus must be reported to the technicians (Mr. C Kgatshe) and
also be entered in the "Breakage Book" before a replacement is issued to you.
Replacements will be issued from the store in the Preparation Laboratory. No students
are allowed in the store!

2. After completion of the practical, each student must ensure that all apparatus used is
thoroughly cleaned and replaced in the correct cupboard – nothing may be left on the
workbench.

NB: Apparatus must be replaced in the correct cupboards. The contents of the general
or "communal" cupboard must not be muddled with apparatus in your individual
cupboard.

3. All balances must be kept clean. Never place wet or dirty objects on the balance pans.

NB: Balances are sensitive and very expensive. Please do not touch the controls until
their operation has been completely explained to you!

4. Replace bench reagents on the glass sheet (workbench) after use.

5. Reagents from the steel shelves between quadrants may not be removed to the work-
places.

6. Prevent contamination of reagents by

(a) disposing of any excess you have taken (waste containers). NEVER return it to the
original containers.

81
 HINT: Always dispense small quantities of a chemical at a time – you can return for
more later if required. In this way, wastage of expensive chemicals is
reduced.

(b) using a clean, small beaker for filling pipettes or glass tubes. Do not place these
items directly in the original reagent bottles.

(c) always working with a clean spatula.

(d) replace correct stoppers on bottles immediately after use.

7. Clean all glassware with liquid soap/detergent and TAP water. Rinse well, first with
ordinary tap water and finally with small (5 ml) amounts of de-ionized water. De-ionized
water should NEVER be used for initial washing of glassware; it is too expensive – ONLY
FOR FINAL RINSE!

82
TEST FOR CLEAN AND DIRTY GLASSWARE

Note: How to check whether your glassware is clean: water spreads out smoothly on
CLEAN glass, but stands in droplets on SOILED glass. (See diagram below)

COMMON APPARATUS

83
84
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY

1. General
SAFETY INFORMATION

1.1 Emergency exits: Note positions.

 Eastern side (near Physics) - main entrance.
 Northern side (towards C-LES) - draw bolts, push door open.

1.2 Fire extinguishers: One for each quadrant and one in Preparation Laboratory (C2
LAB 118), mounted on outer (corridor) walls.

A typical carbon dioxide fire extinguisher, or dry-

powder type, is used by breaking the wire or plastic
seal, pushing the knob and squeezing the hand grip
while directing the nozzle at the base of the flame.

Any EMERGENCY use of an extinguisher must be

reporter to your instructor, so that it can be checked
and resealed, or replaced, for the next use.

1.3 Fire-blanket: Outside the Preparation Laboratory (C2 LAB 118), in case your
clothes catch fire. To smother the flames, the blanket is pulled out and wrapped
around the body. See diagram below.

1.4 Shower: Outside Preparation Laboratory (C2 LAB 118)

NB: ONLY PULL SHOWER CHAIN IN GENUINE EMERGENCY, an entire 200 L

tank empties before the process ceases.

85
 1.5 Eye-wash bottle: Outside Preparation Laboratory (C2 LAB 118)
In the case of accidental contact of a chemical with eyes, rinse immediately with
copious supply of WATER (under a running tap) and/or it can be rinsed with the aid
of the eye-wash bottle.

1.6 First aid box inside Preparation Laboratory (ask technician/lecturer/ demonstrator).

2. Rules

2.1 Before admission for practical work, the attached indemnity form must have been
duly filled in, signed, witnessed and handed to your demonstrator.

2.2 The wearing of safety glasses and protective clothing is mandatory for all laboratory
work. Without these, you will not be permitted to do the practical and you will
receive no marks for the experiment concerned. It is strongly recommended that
you wear long pants/Trousers and closed shoes to prevent spillages/accidents
occurring that may result in serious injury to your lower legs and feet.

2.3 Access to the laboratory is limited to authorized chemistry students for collecting
and handing in assignments and for practicals.

2.4 Regard ALL chemicals as harmful.

2.5 Never touch chemicals unnecessarily with unprotected hands.

2.6 When an item of glassware is broken, carefully sweep up the pieces (dustpan – ask
demonstrator) and give them to the laboratory assistant. DO NOT THROW ANY
BROKEN GLASSWARE INTO THE RUBBISH BINS!

2.7 In the case of accidental contact of a chemical with the eyes or skin, rinse
immediately with a copious quantities of WATER (under a running tap). Eyes can
be rinsed with the aid of eye-wash bottles (outside the Preparation Laboratory C2
LAB 118). Wash the mouth out repeatedly with water. OBTAIN ASSISTANCE
FROM THE DEMONSTRATOR / LECTURER / TECHNICAL ASSISTANT.

2.8 Neutralize acid on the skin with the supplied solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate
(first aid for acid burns).
NB: Never attempt to neutralize a strong acid on the skin by means of a strong
base!

2.9 Brief-cases / bags and articles of clothing (coats, jerseys, etc) may not be left on the
workbenches or steel shelves – accidents are easily caused by their presence, and
they may be damaged by chemicals. In each quadrant, provision has been made
for hanging up jackets, jerseys, etc.

86
 2.10 Work in a fume cupboard (at the back of each quadrant) when substances releasing
poisonous or noxious vapours have to be used.
2.11 Specific waste containers are kept in the fume cupboards. Check the label on the
container before pouring waste into it.
2.12 Wipe up water/spilled chemicals immediately (on work-bench OR floor!). Mercury
spills (e.g. from broken thermometers) must be isolated and reported at once to the
technicians.

TECHNIQUES REQUIRED

1. Setting up apparatus for heating:

1.1 Place the black painted asbestos mat (communal cupboard) on the workbench with
a tripod stand (communal cupboard) in the middle.

1.2 If a crucible is to be heated strongly, place a pipe-clay triangle (personal cupboard)

on top of the tripod stand. Otherwise place a gauze mat (personal cupboard) on top
of the tripod stand.

1.3 Place a Bunsen burner (communal cupboard) in the middle of the tripod stand with
the rubber tube so positioned that it cannot make accidental contact with the hot
legs of the tripod, and also so that the burner can be quickly pulled out without
upsetting the tripod stand.

1.4 Safety:
The set-up must not be too near the edge of the workbench (where it may be
accidentally knocked) and also not too near the bench reagent bottles. The gas tap
must be easily accessible – not directly behind the set-up. Only light the Bunsen
burner (as in (2) below) when the set-up is complete (beaker, flask or crucible in
place).

2. Lighting a Bunsen burner:

2.1 Ensure that the vent/airhole is completely closed.

2.2 Hold a lighted match close to the opening at the top of the burner and turn on
the gas-tap (grey).
NB: The vacuum-tap is brown!

2.3 The vent can now be partially/completely opened. If a whistling sound is audible,
the gas is burning inside the metal tube, which is extremely dangerous. Turn off
the gas-tap immediately and repeat the procedure.

87
 HINT: Always begin heating an object with a small flame, then gradually increase
the flame size. As the vent is opened, more oxygen is allowed in and the
flame becomes hotter.

2.4 Regions of varying temperature in a gas flame are shown in the figure below:

3. Handling a hot object:

Use "rubber fingers' around thumb and forefinger when handling hot objects.
NB: Crucible tongs are not for holding test tubes!

4. Heating a test tube:

There are two types of test tube holders in this laboratory. BE SURE YOU KNOW HOW
TO TIGHTEN / RELEASE YOURS BEFORE USING IT ON A TEST TUBE!

4.1 Wooden "clothes-peg" type: Simply squeeze to open.

4.2 Metal arm type: Hold wooden handle with thumb and three fingers, placing fore
finger between metal arms in order to grip test tube. DO NOT SQUEEZE the metal
strips/arms to grip the test tube, it will be instantly released and will fall out!

Hold test tube at an angle (never vertical) to flame, pointing mouth away from yourself and
other persons. As a result of the formation of vapour bubbles, the entire contents of a test
tube may suddenly be blown out.

88
 Move the test tube continuously over the flame. (See diagram below)

5. Heating a solution:

Avoid "bumping". "Bumping" is a condition of erratic boiling of a solution in which the

abrupt formation of a large vapour bubble may blow or spatter the hot solution right out of
its container.

Reducing the temperature and stirring constantly with the glass rod in contact with the
bottom of the vessel, should help (sometimes "boiling stones" are used). Increased
concentration increases the risk of "bumping".

6. Diluting an acid:

When an acid is diluted, always add the ACID to the WATER, with constant stirring.

NEVER ADD WATER TO THE ACID!

89
7. Folding a filter paper:

(a) Fold the filter paper in half. (b) Fold it again into quarters so
that the
top section is a little smaller
than the bottom.

(c) Open the cone by pulling three sides

of the filter paper away from the fourth side.
Place cone in funnel.

8. Smelling a vapour:

If you have to smell a chemical, proceed as follows:

To smell the vapour from a liquid, waft the vapour gently towards the nose from the mouth
of the bottle or test tube.

90
 Never sniff strongly from directly above the substance!

9. Shaking the contents of a test tube:

Never shake up and down with your thumb over the mouth of a test tube – corrosive or
toxic substances could be absorbed through the skin. Use a 'swirling' action, or tap the test
tube lightly and rapidly on the side so that contents acquire a rotary motion (ask your
demonstrator to show you).

91
 MASS MEASUREMENT AND BALANCES

A scientist must clearly distinguish between the concepts of mass and weight. Mass is a
measurement of the quantity of matter in an object, while weight is a measurement of the
gravitational force exerted on the object. The gravitational force on an object/substance depends
on its position and height above the earth and is consequently a variable quantity. In
contradistinction, the mass of an object/substance is independent of its position: its value is
constant.

A chemical balance, whether analytical or top-loading, is a delicate, expensive instrument which

can be very easily damaged.

The capacity of each of the balances used in the first experiment is 300 g. This means that the
mass of any container plus its contents must not exceed 300 g. It also warns that the balance will
be internally damaged if a force exceeding 2.9 N is exerted on the pan. This easily happens if:

(i) the pan is accidentally knocked or bumped.

(ii) a container is allowed to drop onto the pan (even from a few millimetres above it!)

(iii) the pan is incorrectly cleaned.

The following rules concerning the use of a balance must always be observed:

(i) Do not BRUSH, BUMP, or BLOW ON a balance. Call for assistance if there is a
spillage.

(ii) No liquids / wet objects.

(iii) No hot objects.

(iv) No shocks to the pan (or forces above 2.9 N). Use the lightest possible containers.

(v) Avoid draughts.

(vi) Do not knock or lean against balance tables.

(vii) Ensure hands are clean before using the touch-controls on the front of the balance.
NOTE: TARE - This conTrol sets the balance (or mass meter) together with
whatever is on the pan (e.g. an empty container) to zero. Thus it is easy to

92
measure out a required mass – readings are made to begin form "0.00 g"
even with the empty container on the pan.

---oOo---

93
 EXAMPLE ONLY

APPLICATION FORM

APPLICATION FOR PERMISSION IN EMERGENCY TO ATTEND AN ALTERNATIVE PRACTICAL

SESSION*

Initials and Surname: …………………………………………………………………………………………

Student number: …………………………………………………………………………………….………….

Practical Group: ………………………………………..………………………………………….…………….

Practical Session: ……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Workplace number: ……………………………………………………………………...………….………….

Demonstrator: ………………………………………………………………………………….…….………….
.
Experiment concerned:

 Number: .................…………………………………………………………….……….…………

 Scheduled date: …………………………………………………………………………………...

Reason why attendance at the scheduled practical is/was not possible.

(In case of illness, complete the UJ form (p 22) ensuring that the relevant sections are completed by you and a
medical practitioner and hand it in together with this application form)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
When is the soonest possible scheduled practical session you can attend? ……………………...

_________________________ _____________________
SIGNED DATE

OFFICE USE ONLY

Permission alternative practical session.

__________________________ ______________________
COORDINATOR PRACTICALS DATE

94
EXAMPLE OF OFFICIAL UJ FORM – OBTAIN ORIGINAL FROM FACULTY OFFICE

95
 Experiments for CEM1D10

EXPERIMENT 1: Thermodynamics:
A: Heat of Neutralization for an acid-base reaction
B: Heat of dissolution of a salt
EXPERIMENT 2: Determination of the Hardness of Water
EXPERIMENT 3: Properties and Preparation of Esters and Soaps
EXPERIMENT 4: Alcohols, aldehydes and ketones
______________________________________________________________________________
EXPERIMENT 1: THERMODYNAMICS:
A: Heat of Neutralization for an acid-base reaction
B: Heat of dissolution of a salt

STUDY THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS:

 The Introductory Practical Notes.

 Heats of reaction: enthalpy and enthalpy changes and the laws of thermodynamics in Tro
 The measurement of heats of reaction in Tro.

WARNING:
Wearing eye-protection and safety-clothes is compulsory. You will
not be admitted to the practical without them.

AIMS OF THE EXPERIMENT

1. To determine the quantity of heat released during the neutralization reaction of a strong acid
with a strong base.
2. To determine the quantity of heat and direction of heat flow when a salt is dissolved in water.
3. To predict the sign of the Gibbs free-energy change for the dissolution process.
4. To estimate the minimum value for the entropy change for the dissolution process.

Background

During all chemical and physical changes energy is either absorbed or evolved.

Reactions that release heat are termed exothermic reactions and their H values are negative
(H < 0). In contrast, reactions that absorb energy are called endothermic reactions and their H
values are positive (H > 0).

96
Heat flow can be measured experimentally using a calorimeter. The calorimeter contains water
and/or other material of which the heat capacity is known. Heat capacity (C) is defined as the
quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance or system by 1C (or 1
Kelvin). The walls of the calorimeter consist of an insulating material (e.g. polystyrene) which
restricts heat flow between the calorimeter and the atmosphere to a minimum. Only heat flow
between the system and the calorimeter (surroundings) occurs.

The heat flow for the reaction system is numerically equal to the heat flow to the calorimeter but
has the opposite sign.
qreaction = - qcalorimeter (1)

This basic equation for calorimetry allows us to calculate the amount of heat (absorbed or evolved)
in a reaction provided the heat capacity, Ccal, and the temperature change, T, of the calorimeter is
known.

qreaction = - Ccal x T (2)

where Ccal = heat capacity of the calorimeter

The specific heat (s) is defined as the quantity of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1
gram of a substance by 1C (or 1 Kelvin). Like density, specific heat is an intensive property of an
element/compound. The heat flow in a chemical reaction can also be expressed in terms of
specific heat:

qreaction = - s x m x T (3)
where m = mass in grams
s = specific heat in J/g.C
T = change in temperature in C

When a reaction takes place under constant pressure, heat flow for the reaction system (qreaction) is
equal to the enthalpy change (H), i.e. the difference in the enthalpy between the reactants and
the products.

qreaction = H (Pconstant) (4)

and
H = Hproducts – Hreactants (5)
or
H = Hf – Hi

Enthalpy can be considered as a type of chemical energy.

The following rules apply to reactions with constant pressure:

 exothermic reactions: qp = H < 0, because Hproducts < Hreactants
 endothermic reactions: qp = H > 0, because Hproducts > Hreactants

97
A: Heat of neutralization for acid/base reactions

The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base produces heat and water:
H+ + OH- → H2O + heat

The heat of neutralization (qn) is determined by:

(a) the assumption that the density and the specific heats of the acid/base solutions are the
same as that of water.
(b) measuring the temperature change (T) when the acid and base are mixed, and
(c) considering the total mass of the acid/base solution

The heat of neutralization can be calculated using:

qn = - mtotal x ssolution x Tsolution (6)
where mtotal = total mass of acid/base solution
ssolution = swater = 4.184 J/g.C
Tsolution = temperature change of the acid/base solution

Considering that pressure is constant, the enthalpy of neutralization, Hn, is equal to the qn value,
Hn = qn (7)

Hn is normally expressed in units of J/mole acid (or base) reacted. The mass used is the
combined mass of the acid and base solution.

B: Heat of dissolution of a salt

The lattice enthalpy (Hlatt) and hydration enthalpy (Hhyd) of the ions of a salt determine the
amount of heat absorbed or released when a salt is dissolved in water. The lattice enthalpy of a
compound is the standard enthalpy change accompanying the formation of one mole of substance
from gaseous cations and anions at 25C. Hlatt is an exothermic energy quantity, i.e. it is negative.
The hydration enthalpy is the energy liberated (negative value) when gaseous ions are attracted
and surrounded by water molecules. The enthalpy of solution (Hsol) is the sum of these two
enthalpies (Hlatt and Hhyd)
Example:
Consider the following system and find the Hsol:
Hsol
KBr(s) K+ (aq) + Br – (aq)

- Hlatt Hhyd

K+ (g) + Br – (g)

98
 Hlatt = - 665 kJ/mol
Hhyd = - 657 kJ/mol

Solution:
The negative of the lattice enthalpy is used since the arrow points in the opposite direction (to the
definition)
Hsol (KBr) = Hlatt (KBr) + Hhyd (KBr)
Hsol (KBr) = - (- 665) + (- 657) kJ/mol
= + 8 kJ/mol

In an experiment, it is difficult to measure Hlatt and Hhyd independently. However, Hsol can be
easily obtained by experimentally measuring the heat flow in the dissolution process.

Hsol = qsol = - qcal (8)

The heat flow in the calorimeter (qcal) is obtained by adding the individual heat changes of the salt
and water.
qcal = qwater + qsalt (9)

 qsol = - [ qwater + qsalt ] (10)

and q = s x m x T (general)

qsol = - [ (swater x mwater x Twater) + (ssalt x msalt x Tsalt) ] (11)

and Hsol = qsol (8)

So, Hsol is expressed in terms of kJ per gram of salt, i.e:

ΔH sol
ΔH sol per g salt =
m salt (12)
where m = mass of salt.

Spontaneous and Non-spontaneous physical and chemical reactions

The definition of a spontaneous process is defined as a physical or chemical change that occurs
by itself. Examples of these include a rock rolling DOWN a hill, heat flowing from a hot object TO a
cold object or an iron object rusting in moist air. These processes occur spontaneously without
assistance from an outside force or agency. They continue until equilibrium is reached.

99
If these processes described above were to proceed in the opposite direction (i.e. a rock going UP
a hill etc.) they would be defined as a non-spontaneous process. The rock cannot go up a hill by
itself – it requires that it be pushed by some external force.

We are often led to believe that every exothermic process must be spontaneous, but this is not
always true. Apart from the change in enthalpy (ΔH), the change in entropy (ΔS) of a system needs
to be taken into account as well when predicting the spontaneity of a reaction.

The Gibbs free-energy (ΔG) change serves as a criterion to predict the spontaneity of a reaction
and takes ΔH and ΔS into account

ΔG = ΔH – T ΔS

There are three simple rules for predicting if a physical or chemical process is spontaneous or not
and these are listed below:

 If G is negative (G < 0), the process is spontaneous

 If G is positive (G > 0), the process is non-spontaneous
 If G is zero (G = 0), the process is at equilibrium

In this experiment, you will carry out the following:

 measure the H values for and acid/base reaction as well as for a dissolution of a salt.
 decide if the processes you examined were spontaneous or not (calculate a ΔG value)
 from this decision, you should be able to obtain a minimum value for the entropy change S
(as well as its sign) from the Gibbs free-energy equation.

100
APPARATUS REQUIRED

- 400 mL beaker - 100 mL measuring cylinder

- retort stand - bosshead and clamp
- polystyrene coffee cup calorimeter + lid - 50C thermometer
- special glass stirring rod cork stopper to hold 50C thermometer

Reagents required
- 1.0 M NaOH solution (front bench) - 1.1 M HCl solution (front bench)
- 1.1 M HNO3 solution (front bench)
- 2 salts (See Table 1) (provided next to balances)

Table 1: Specific heats of supplied salts

Salt Formula Specific heat J/g.C
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl 0.506
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 1.28
Potassium nitrate KNO3 0.895
Potassium bromide KBr 0.435
Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 • 5 H2O 1.45
pentahydrate
Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 0.845

YOU WILL WORK IN PAIRS SUCH THAT TWO STUDENTS SHARE A CALORIMETER, BUT
EACH STUDENT USES A DIFFERENT ACID SAMPLE AND SALT SAMPLE. IN SUCH A
MANNER, EACH STUDENT WILL OBTAIN THEIR OWN SET OF DATA.

OBTAIN AND SIGN OUT A STOPWATCH FROM YOUR DEMONSTRATOR.

DO NOT USE THE BENCH REAGENTS FOR THIS EXPERIMENT.

A: HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION FOR ACID/BASE REACTIONS

PROCEDURE
1. Use two polystyrene coffee cups, a polystyrene lid, the special glass stirrer and the
thermometer mounted in a cork stopper(-10C to 50C with 0.2C increments – TAKE
CARE - THIS THERMOMETER IS VERY EXPENSIVE) to set up the calorimeter as shown
in Figure 1 below.

101
 Figure 1

2. Set the whole calorimeter up inside a 400 mL beaker to ensure that the equipment is
stable. The double polystyrene walls offer good insulation for heat transfer to and from the
atmosphere and the calorimeter.
3. Pour 50.0 mL (± 0.2 mL accuracy) of acid solution, 1.1 M HCl OR 1.1 M HNO 3 into a clean,
dry 100 mL measuring cylinder and record this volume of acid, Vs.
4. Place the thermometer (clean and dry) into the measuring cylinder with the acid solution
and after thermal equilibirium is reached, record the temperature accurate to ± 0.1C. Note
this reading as the initial temperature of the acid, TSi on your answer sheet.
5. Now use another clean, dry measuring cylinder to accurately measure a 50.0 mL aliquot (±
0.2 mL) of the standard 1.0 M NaOH solution. Note the volume of base, VB.
6. Pour the measured quantity of base into the clean and dry calorimeter.
7. Remove the thermometer from the acid solution, rinse it thoroughly with water and dry it
very carefully.
8. Push the clean, dried thermometer through the hole in the polystyrene lid so that the bulb of
the thermometer is immersed below the surface of the base solution.
9. Write down the temperature of the base solution, T Bi, and the accurate molar concentration
of the base solution in the calorimeter (found written on the chalk board in the laboratory).
10. Lift up the polystyrene lid and add the acid solution (from the measuring cylinder) quickly
but carefully to the base solution in the calorimeter. Replace the lid and stir the system
carefully with the special glass stirrer. DO NOT STIR WITH THE THERMOMETER!
11. Record the temperature readings (± 0.1C) of the acid base solution as a function of time in
the table in permanent ink in your answer sheet. Read the temperature in time intervals of ±

102
 5 seconds initially and later on in 10 second intervals. Ensure that your demonstrator
signs your table of results!
12. Plot a graph of temperature (C) (on the y-axis) versus time (seconds) (on the x-axis) using
the supplied graph paper. Use the average of TSi and TBi as the initial temperature (Ti) at
time t = 0. See Tips for plotting good graphs at the end of the procedure.
13. From your graph, determine the maximum temperature (Tf) of the acid/base solution by
extrapolation.
14. Calculate the T and the Hn from the data (follow the steps as shown on your answer
sheet)
15. Follow steps 1 to 14 with the other acid (e.g. HNO3 instead of HCl). Every student in a
paired group therefore has a set of data (from HCl or HNO 3) Compare the Hn values for
the two acids.
16. On completion of this section of the practical, discard the acid/base solutions in the waste
containers provided (found in the fume hoods) and rinse the calorimeter thoroughly and dry
properly.

B: Heat of dissolution of a salt

Procedure

1. Measure out 40.0 mL of deionized water accurately (± 0.2 mL) using a clean, dry
measuring cylinder and transfer this to a properly prepared calorimeter (see step 16 in
section A)
2. Read the equilibrium temperature (accurately to ± 0.1C) of the water and note this as Ti on
your answer sheet.
3. Weigh approximately 5 g (accurately weighed to ± 0.01g) of the supplied salt into a
weighing bottle using the top pan balance. Record the salt that you use as well as the
accurate mass of the salt, ms.
4. Add the pre-weighed salt to the water in the calorimeter and stir carefully with the special
glass stirrer. DO NOT STIR WITH THE THERMOMETER!
5. Take the thermometer readings with time intervals of ± 5 second internals initially and later
on in 10 second intervals. Record these values in permanent ink in the table provided on
your answer sheet. Ensure that your demonstrator signs this table.
6. Plot a graph of temperature (y-axis) versus time (x-axis) on the supplied graph paper.
Determine graphically by extrapolation the maximum / minimum temperature that is
reached. See Tips for plotting good graphs at the end of the procedure.
7. Calculate T, qsol and Hsol. The specific heats of the salts that have been provided to you
appear in Table 1.

103
8. Repeat steps 1 to 7 with the second supplied salt.

RETURN THE STOPWATCH TO YOUR DEMONSTRATOR AT THIS POINT.

Tips for plotting good graphs:

Neat and complete graphs of temperature versus time must be plotted on the supplied graph paper
and be handed in with your answer sheets. The following points are important when plotting
graphs:
 the graph must have a heading
 show the quantities being examined (and its units/dimensions) on each of the axes,
e.g., Temperature (C) or Time (s)
 show the intervals/divisions of each of the axes.
 choose a suitable scale division for the x- and y-axes so that a distinctive graph is obtained.
 plot the data neatly in pencil and do not make messy large points.
 draw the best curved or straight line through the plotted points.

DO NOT JOIN THE POINTS IN A ZIG-ZAG PATTERN. This is an example of a poorly drawn
graph.
Report – Assignment 1

Complete the information and calculations required as set out in your answer sheet.

Report – Assignment 2

Assignment questions should be answered on the answer sheet at the end of the practical.

The following information must BE COMPLETED at the top of the report page:

• Initials and surname • Student number

• Date on which practical was done • Practical Group
 Practical Session (morning/afternoon) • Demonstrator
This format will be used in all reports.
COMPLETION OF PRACTICAL:

Have you: Done?

correctly disposed of all waste?
washed all apparatus?
packed the other apparatus correctly in your own cupboard?
returned the stopwatch to your demonstrator?
checked that water and reagent aspirator taps are properly closed?
cleaned and dried your working surface?

104
replaced your laboratory stool?
had your work signed by your demonstrator?

--oOo—

105
 CHEMISTRY 1D10 ANSWER SHEET

EXPERIMENT 1: A: HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION FOR ACID/BASE REACTIONS.

Initials and Surname: ……………………………Group: …………………………..

Student Number: …………………………………Session: ………………………..
Demonstrator: ……………………………………Date: …………………………….

Assignment 1A: Acid used: .................................................................................................

Base:
Concentration of NaOH (mol/dm3) CB =

Initial temperature of NaOH (°C) TBi =

Volume of NaOH (mL) VB =

Acid:
Initial temperature of acid (°C) TSi =

Volume of acid (mL) VS =

Acid/Base solution:
Average initial temperature (°C) (Ti = (TBi + TSi) / 2) Ti =

Maximum final temp (°C) from graph (extrapolation) Tf =

Change in temperature (°C) (DT = Tf – Ti) DT =

Mass of final solution (g) if density = 1.00 g/mL

mf =
(mf = mB + mS)
Specific heat of solution (ssol = swater) ssol = 4.184 J/g.°C

Heat of neutralization (J) (qn = - 4.184 x mf x DT) qn =

No. of moles OH- (limiting reagent) (nB = VB x CB) nB =

No. of moles H2O formed (nw = nB*) nw =

Heat per mole H2O released (kJ/mol) (qn’ = qn / nw) qn’ =

Enthalpy (energy) of neutralization (kJ/mol) (DHn = qn’) DHn =

DHn* - value of other acid (partner’s value) DHn* =

[7]

106
 EXPERIMENT 1: B: HEAT OF DISSOLUTION OF A SALT.

Assignment 1B: Salt used: .................................................................................................

Water:
Volume of water (mL) Vw =

Mass of water (g) if density = 1.00 g/mL mw =

Initial temperature of water (°C) Ti =

Salt:
Mass of salt (g) ms =

Formula of salt

Molar mass of salt (g/mol) Ms =

Solution:
Max./min. final temperature (°C) from graph (extrapolation) Tf =

Change in temperature (°C) (DT = Tf – Ti) DT =

Heat flow of the water (J) (qw = swater x mw x DT) qw =

Heat flow of the salt (J) (qs = *ssalt x ms x DT) *see Table 1 qs =

Heat of solution (J) (qsol = - [ qw + qs ]) qsol =

Enthalpy (energy) of solution (J) (DHsol = qsol) DHsol =

DHsol per gram salt (kJ/g) (DH’sol = DHsol / ms) DH’sol =

Enthalpy per mole salt (kJ/mol) (DH”sol = DH’sol x Ms) DH”sol =

[8]

107
 Table 1: Temperature versus time
Section A Section B
Temp (°C) Time (s) Temp (°C) Time (s)

Graphs: [12] marks, 6 marks each

108
Assignment 2 – ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS ON SEPARATE LINED PAPER AND SUBMIT
WITH YOUR TABLE OF RESULTS / ANSWER SHEET FOR ASSIGNMENT 1.

2.1 The DHn values for the two neutralization reactions (with HCl and HNO3) should be the
same. Explain. (2)

2.2 If the maximum temperature reached is used rather than the extrapolated value, will the
DHn value calculated be higher or lower than the accepted value? (2)

2.3 Write a balanced equation for the dissolution of solid sodium hydrogen carbonate. (2)

2.4 Calculate ΔH°reaction for the sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolution reaction and say whether it
is an exo- or endothermic reaction.(ΔHfo(Na+) = -240.1 kJ/mol; ΔHfo(HCO3-) = -692.0 kJ/mol;
ΔHfo(NaHCO3) = -950.8 kJ/mol (4)

2.5 Predict the sign of ΔS° for the sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolution reaction. Explain your
answer. (2)

2.6 Calculate ΔS° for the sodium hydrogen carbonate dissolution process using So (Na+) = 59.1
J/mol.K; So(HCO3-) = 91.2 J/mol.K; So(NaHCO3) = 101.7 J/mol.K (3)

2.7 Calculate the standard Gibbs free-energy change (ΔG°) for the sodium hydrogen carbonate
dissolution reaction at 25°C from the ΔH° and ΔS°. (ΔGo = ΔHo –TΔSo) (3)

2.8 Will temperature have an influence on the spontaneity of this process? Explain. (4)

Total: [49]

109
EXPERIMENT 2: Determination of the Hardness of Water

One of the factors that establish the quality of a water supply is its degree of hardness. Hardness is
defined as calcium and magnesium ion content. Since most analyses do not distinguish between
Ca2+ and Mg2+ and hardness is mostly caused by carbonate mineral deposits, hardness is usually
reported as parts per million (ppm) of calcium carbonate CaCO 3 (by weight). A water supply with a
hardness of 100 ppm contains the equivalent of 100 mg of CaCO3 in 1 kg of water (or 0.1 g in 1 L
of water where 1 L of water = 1000 g of water (density of water is 1 g/mL at 200C)).

Water hardness is usually noticed because of difficulty in lathering soap and the formation of a
scum in the bathtub. Ca2+ and Mg2+ form insoluble salts with soaps causing precipitation of the
soap scum. Another effect of hard water is “boiler scale”. When hard water comes into contact with
dissolved carbonates, a precipitate of insoluble calcium carbonate forms. This “scale” can build up
on the inside of water pipes to such a degree that the pipes become almost completely blocked.

Water hardness can be readily determined by titration with the chelating agent EDTA (ethylene
diaminetetraacetic acid). This reagent is a weak acid that can lose four H (in bold) on complete
neutralization. Its structural formula is:

The four acid oxygen sites and the two nitrogen atoms have unshared electron pairs which can
form bonds to a metal ion forming a complex ion or coordination compound. The complex is
quite stable, and the conditions of its formation can ordinarily be controlled so that it is selective for
a particular metal ion.

110
In a titration to determine the concentration of a metal ions, the added EDTA combines
quantitatively with both cations, Ca2+ and Mg2+ to form the complex. The endpoint occurs when
essentially all of the cations has reacted.

In this experiment a standard 0.01 M solution of EDTA (obtain exact concentration from your
demonstrator) will be used to determine the hardness of two water samples (sample provided to
you by your demonstrator and your own water sample). Since both EDTA and Ca 2+ are colorless, it
is necessary to use a special indicator to detect the end point of the titration. The indicator most
often used is called Eriochrome Black T, which forms a very stable wine-red complex, MgIn –, with
the magnesium ion. A tiny amount of this complex will be present in the solution during the titration.
As EDTA is added, it will complex free Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions, leaving the MgIn– complex alone until
essentially all of the calcium and magnesium have been converted to chelates. At this point EDTA
concentration will increase sufficiently to displace Mg2+ from the indicator complex. The indicator
will then revert to its uncombined form, which is sky blue, establishing the end point of the titration.

The titration is carried out at a pH of 10, in a NH 3/NH4+ buffer, which keeps the EDTA (H 4Y) mainly
in the form HY3–. In this form it complexes the Group 2 ions very well, but does not tend to react as
readily with other cations such as Fe 3+ which might be present as impurities in the water. Taking
H4Y and H3In as the formulas for EDTA and Eriochrome Black T, respectively, the equations for the
reactions which occur during the titration are:

The hardness of the water can now be expressed as parts per million (mg per liter) of equivalent
CaCO3. For example, if the titration required 5 ml EDTA, the calculation would be:

5 ml×0.01 Μ EDTA
×Molar .Mass .of .CaCO 3 ( g /mol)×1000 mg/g
0.05 Lsample

111
PROCEDURE

Determination of (Ca + Mg) and Ca by titrating with EDTA

Assignment 1: Determination of total hardness - Sum of Ca and Mg concentrations of

standard water sample provided.

Pipette 50.00 ml of the water sample that is provided to you into a 250 ml conical flask.

Add about 3ml of the pH 10 buffer solution using a measuring cylinder and one/ two drops of
Eriochrome black T indicator. The color will change to red/violet color.

Titrate with a standard 0.01M EDTA solution (obtain exact concentration from your demonstrator)
until the color changes to pure blue.

Note: It is necessary to titrate slowly as you approach the titration end point since the
colour will take about 5 seconds to develop.

Repeat the titration at least three times to improve precision of your measurements. Record initial
and final burette reading to the nearest 0.01 ml.

Assignment 2: Determination of individual Ca concentration of standard

water sample provided.

Pipette 50.00 ml of the water sample provided into a 250 ml conical flask.

Add 5ml of the 2M NaOH solution using a measuring cylinder and add only one drop of murexide
indicator. Titrate immediately with a standard 0.01M of EDTA solution until the color changes from
pink to purple. Record the initial and final burette reading to the nearest 0.01 ml.

Repeat the titration at least three times.

(The Murexide complexes with the Ca 2+ ions whereas Eriochrome Black T complexes Mg 2+. The
first determination therefore gives the sum of both ions whereas in the second only the Ca2+ is
determined. Also, Mg(OH)2 is precipitated by the NaOH, although the concentration may be too low
to observe a noticeable formation of a precipitate.)

Assignment 3: Determination of total hardness - Sum of Ca and Mg concentrations of your

own water sample.

Pipette 50.00 ml of your water sample into a 250 ml conical flask.

Add about 3ml of the pH 10 buffer solution using a measuring cylinder and add one/ two drops of
Eriochrome black T indicator. The color will change to red/violet color.

Titrate with a standardized 0.01M EDTA solution until the color changes to pure blue. Note: It is
necessary to titrate slowly as you approach the titration end point since the colour will take about 5
seconds to develop. Repeat the titration at least three times to improve precision of your
measurements. Record initial and final burette reading to the nearest 0.01 ml.

REPORT

Write a short report on the experiment, clearly stating the purpose, briefly describing the
procedure used (remember to write in the third person: 50 ml of water was added to a conical
flask, etc) and neatly tabling your results. Then do the questions, (show all calculations) and cite
any references that you may have used. Remember to include your name and that of your
demonstrator.

112
REPORT
YOUR NAME:
NAME OF DEMONSTRATOR
STATE THE PURPOSE OF THE EXPERIMENT:
PROCEDURE:
Describe the procedure you used, writing in the third person, e.g.
“50 ml of water was added to.. “
Table your results as follows (volume of the burette during titrations)
Initial volume Final volume Difference
Run 1
Run 2
Run 3

Answer all the discussion questions and record all your references.
QUESTIONS

1. Recalling that one EDTA molecule binds to one metal ion (i.e. Ca 2+), calculate the number
of moles per liter of metal ions in standard water sample provided, from your results for the
total hardness titration. (Volumes obtained in the assignment 1)
2. Total hardness is expressed in “ppm equivalents” (meaning that we just want to know how
many metal ions are bound, either calcium or magnesium, since they both have the same
effect on water hardness). Calculate the total hardness of standard water sample provided
as mg/liter (ppm) of CaCO3 equivalents, using the molecular weight of CaCO 3 in your
calculation.
3. Use the results of your individual calcium hardness titrations to calculate the calcium
content of standard water sample in mg/liter of CaCO 3 equivalents. (Volumes obtained in
the assignment 2) Convert this to mg/liter of calcium, using the atomic weight of calcium.
4. Combine your answers in 2 and 3 above to find the difference between total hardness and
hardness due to calcium. This will give you the magnesium hardness of your water sample
in mg/liter (ppm) of CaCO3 equivalents. Convert this to mg/liter (ppm) of magnesium using
the atomic weight of magnesium.
5. Repeat the calculations (1 and 2) for your own water sample. (Volumes obtained in the
assignment 3).
6. Why is it important to estimate the hardness of potable water?
7. What is the reason for the addition of the buffer in assignment one?
8. What kind of reaction takes place between the magnesium and the EDTA?
9. How does commercial water softener work? (Hint: a web search with the phrase “water
softening” may help)
10. Compare the hardness of your water sample to the standard that was provided as well as
that of at least one friend. Why are there often differences in water hardness?

REFERENCES:
1. Environmental Laboratory Exercises for Instrumental Analysis and Environmental
Chemistry, Frank M Dunnivant; Wiley, 2004, p257.
2. Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 5th edition, DC Harris, WH Freeman and Company, New
York, 1998.

113
Experiment 3: Properties and Preparation of Esters and Soaps

Purpose: In this experiment you are going to prepare several esters and note their characteristic
aromas. You will also prepare soap and compare its properties in solution to those of a synthetic
detergent

Discussion:
A. Organic Compounds related to this experiment

1. Alcohols

Alcohols can be considered derivatives of hydrocarbons in which a hydrogen atom is

replaced by a hydroxyl group, -OH. The general formula of an alcohol is R-OH, where R
represents the hydrocarbon portion of the molecule. Structural formulas of the first two
members of the alcohol class are shown below with their systematic and common names.
The systematic names are derived from rules set forth by the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)

systematic name: methanol ethanol

common name: methyl alcohol ethyl alcohol
also called: wood alcohol grain alcohol

2. Carboxylic Acids (the organic acids)

Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group -COOH. Carboxylic acids are
weak acids. The general formula for a carboxylic acid is R-COOH, where R represents
either hydrogen or a hydrocarbon group. The first two members of the carboxylic acid
family are

systematic name: methanoic acid ethanoic acid

common name: formic acid acetic acid
Carboxylic acids that have long, straight-chain hydrocarbon groups (with 12 or more
carbon atoms) are commonly classified as fatty acids, and several are of biological
importance. Fatty acids occur in animal or vegetable tissue and nearly always have an
even number of carbon atoms. Those that have only single bonds between carbon
atoms are saturated fatty acids, while those with one or more carbon-carbon double
bond are unsaturated fatty acids. The general formula of a saturated fatty acid is:
CnH2n+1COOH. Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with 17 carbon atoms in the
hydrocarbon group, R, so its general formula is C17H35COOH.

114
The principal saturated fatty acids and their formulas are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Principal Saturated Fatty Acids

Common Name Molecular Formula

lauric acid C11H23COOH

myristic acid C13H27COOH

pahnitic acid C15H31COOH

stearic acid C17H35COOH

arachidic acid C19H39COOH

Carboxylic acids that have an unsaturated straight-chain hydrocarbon group (one or

more carbon-carbon double bonds) are unsaturated fatty acids. Four important
unsaturated fatty acids are listed below in Table 2. The first three may be considered
derivatives of stearic acid since each has 17 carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon group.
But unlike stearic acid, these acids have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds in
the hydrocarbon chain. Oleic acid has one carbon-carbon double bond and its
molecular formula has two fewer hydrogen atoms than that of stearic acid. Linoleic and
linolenic acid have two and three double bonds respectively, and their formulas show
the corresponding loss of two hydrogen atoms for each double bond.

Table 2. Principle Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Number of Double
Common Name Molecular Formula
Bonds
oleic acid 1 C17H33COOH

linoleic acid 2 C17H31COOH

linolenic acid 3 C17H29COOH

arachidonic acid 4 C19H31COOH

Linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids are not synthesized in our bodies and for that
reason are classified as essential fatty acids. They must be supplied in our diet.

All carboxylic acids can be neutralized with bases (KOH, NaOH, etc.) to form salts. The
general neutralization equation is:

115
 The salts have names that end in the characteristic -ate. A few organic salts are shown
below.

CH3COO-, Na+ HCOO-, K+ C17C33COO-, Na+ (C17H35COO-)2, Ca2+

sodium acetate potassium formate sodium oleate calcium stearate

3. Esters
The general formula for an ester is R-COOR’. An ester can be prepared by
reacting an alcohol with a carboxylic acid. The R group in the general formula was
part of the acid. The other group, symbolized R', was part of the alcohol. A general
equation for the preparation of an ester is given below. Sulfuric acid catalyzes the
reaction.

The name of an ester indicates the acid and alcohol that combined to form the
compound. The first word in the name comes from the alkyl group of the alcohol, (R'),
and the second word is the name of the acid with its -ic ending changed to -ate. The
names of esters are similar in form to those of the salts of carboxylic acids. Formulas of
four esters are shown below with their IUPAC names and common names written below
the IUPAC names.

met
hyl formate methyl acetate ethyl acetate.

Many esters are colorless liquids with pleasant, fruity aromas. The aroma and flavor of
many foods are due to the presence of esters.

4. Triglycerides
Triglycerides are triesters, containing three ester functional groups per molecule. They are
large molecules that can be considered the product of the reaction of glycerol (an alcohol
containing three hydroxyl groups that is also called glycerine) with three fatty acids. Fats
and oils are triglycerides. Structural formulas of glycerol and a general triglyceride are
below.

116
 One property that distinguishes a fat from oil is its physical state at room temperature.
Fats are solids and oils are liquids at room temperature. Generally, the long fatty acid
hydrocarbon chains are saturated in fats and unsaturated in oils. Both fats and oils can
hydrolyze (react with water) to form glycerol and three fatty acids as products, as shown
below. In the laboratory the reaction must be heated, and a catalyst like sulfuric acid is
required to carry out the reaction. In the body, lipase (an enzyme) catalyzes the reaction
in the small intestines.

glyceryl stereate glycerol stearic acid

B. Soap and Cleansing Action

1. The Preparation of Soap - Saponification

Soap is prepared by the hydrolysis of triglycerides in the presence of a sTrong base like
sodium hydroxide, NaOH, or potassium hydroxide, KOH. Instead of obtaining a fatty acid
as a product of the hydrolysis, the sodium or potassium salt of the fatty acid is obtained. If
a fatty acid did form in the hydrolysis, it would quickly be neutralized by the NaOH or KOH
to form the soap.

The soluble salt of a fatty acid is a soap. The reaction that produces soap is called
saponification, and it is of great industrial importance. Sodium stearate is produced when
glyceryl tristearate, from animal fat, is heated in the presence of aqueous sodium
hydroxide. Sodium stearate is the primary component of Ivory@ soap.

Sodium stearate

117
2. The Cleansing Action of Soaps
A soap molecule is composed of a long nonpolar hydrocarbon chain (which is
hydrophobic, meaning repelled by water) with a highly polar carboxylate salt on one
end (which is hydrophilic, meaning water soluble). It is a molecule with a split
personality, so to speak, both polar and nonpolar, with one end soluble in water and
the other insoluble in water. Sodium stearate, a common soap, is shown below.

Hydrophobic nonpolar hydrocarbon chain hydrophilic polar end

When soap molecules are in water, the hydrophilic ends of the molecules are
accommodated by the polar water molecules, but the nonpolar hydrophobic ends
would be better accommodated in a nonpolar,

Micelles

hydrocarbon-like environment. In the presence of an oil (most dirt is held to clothes by

a thin film of oil), the hydrophobic chains dissolve in the nonpolar oil while the
hydrophilic ends remain dissolved in the polar aqueous phase. Scrubbing breaks up
the oil into tiny droplets, and the soap dissolves in and covers the surface of the
droplet. The polar, negatively charged, carboxylate ends of the soap molecules project
from the surface of the droplet, giving it a coat of negative charge. These small,
electrically coated units are called micelles. Because all the micelles are of similar
charge on their surfaces, they repel one another and do not coalesce to form larger
drops.

The micelles remain suspended in solution and are rinsed away from clothing and
skin. Soap also lowers the surface tension of water, which increases its ability to
remove oily dirt. Soaps have one principal disadvantage. They form insoluble
materials when combined with certain metal ions found in hard water, most notably
calcium and magnesium ion. The insoluble salts they form with the ions of fatty acids
compose what is commonly called soap scum. The formation of insoluble calcium
stearate in hard water is shown below:

2 C17H35COO- ,Na+ + Ca2+ → (C17H35COO-)2, Ca2+ + 2Na+

sodium stearate calcium stearate
(soluble) (insoluble)

118
 The "softening" of hard water is nothing more than the removal of these ions either by
distillation or deionization processes. In recent years, the problems caused by hard
water have been significantly overcome by the use of synthetic detergents in place of
soap. Detergents can clean as well as soap but have a much lower tendency to form
insoluble salts with calcium and magnesium ion.

3. Synthetic Detergents
Detergent is a general term used to denote any cleansing agent. However, the popular
use of the term has come to mean the synthetic detergents that in recent years have
largely replaced soap. Synthetic detergents have the desirable property of not forming
insoluble precipitates with calcium, magnesium or iron ions. As a result, the problem of
soap scum is eliminated. There are more than 1000 synthetic detergents available in
the United States. A typical synthetic detergent, sodium laurylsulfate, is shown below. It
is used in toothpaste and shampoo. Notice that the polar, ionic end of the
molecule, the hydrophilic end, is not a carboxylate ion but a sulfate ion, which has a
much lower attraction for calcium or magnesium ion.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

CAUTION: Strong acids and bases are used in several procedures. If you spill a corrosive
liquid on your skin, wash the area immediately with cold water and inform the instructor.

CAUTION: As always, eye protection must be worn at all times.

ENVIRONMENTAL ALERT: Concentrated acids, bases, and certain organic compounds

should not simply be poured down the drain. Your instructor will tell you how to dispose of
waste properly.

A. Preparation of Some Esters

1. Heat about 400 mL of tap water in a 600-mL beaker to 85°C. While the water is
heating, label four 15-cm test tubes A, B, C, and D, and obtain corks for each. Place
the following reagents in the labeled test tubes:

Test tube A: 20 drops of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH), 20 drops of glacial acetic acid
(CH3COOH) and 10 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid (H 2S04)
Caution. Handle concentrated sulfuric acid with care!

Test tube B: a quantity of salicylic acid (HOC6H4COOH) equal to the size of a match
head, 20 drops of methyl alcohol (CH 30H), and 3 drops of concentrated
sulfuric acid

119
 Test tube C: 20 drops of pentyl alcohol (C5H11OH), 20 drops of glacial acetic acid, and
5 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid

Test tube D: a match-head quantity of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH), 20 drops of ethyl

alcohol, and 10 drops of concentrated sulfuric acid

2. Stir the contents of each test tube with a glass stirring rod and loosely place a cork in
each. When the water bath has reached 85°C, turn off the burner and place each
stoppered test tube in the hot water.

3. After 8 to 10 minutes, remove the stopper from each tube and note the odor produced.
You should be able to detect the aroma of banana, butter rum, fingernail polish
remover, and the minty scent of wintergreen. Record the aroma of each mixture
on the Report Sheet, then complete the equation and name the ester.

4. Set the four test tubes aside to cool, then pour the contents of each one in the
designated waste beaker. Take care to not get any liquid on your skin. Rinse each test
tube thoroughly with cold water.

B. Preparation of Soap
1. In an evaporating dish, mix 2 mL of vegetable oil and 3 mL of ethyl alcohol (which is a
good solvent for both the triglyceride (the vegetable oil) and sodium hydroxide). Add 20
drops of 50% (19 M) sodium hydroxide. (Caution, wear eye protection).

2. Place the dish on wire gauze supported on a tripod and heat the mixture, with stirring,
using a moderate, almost luminous flame (reduce the air flow into the burner to
produce a moderate flame) until it becomes a thick paste. Do not overheat. Allow the
evaporating dish to cool. Note the appearance of the product on the Report Sheet, then
complete the equation and name the products of the saponification reaction.

C. Properties of Soap
1. Place the soap prepared in Part B in a 150-mL beaker with about 50 mL of deionized
water. Heat the mixture, with stirring. for 5 minutes. Allow the solution to cool, then use
the soap solution as needed in steps 2 through 5.

2. Salting Out Soap: Soap can be forced out of solution by dissolving NaCl in the solution.
This technique has been used for years to purify soap. The by-products of the
saponification reaction are more soluble in saltwater and remain in solution as the soap
comes out of solution.

Pour 10 mL of the soap solution into a 50-mL beaker and add sodium chloride (NaCl) a
little at a time, stirring, until no more NaCl dissolves and the bottom of the beaker is
covered with NaCl. Record what you observe on the Report Sheet.

Remove the mass of soap floating on the surface by gathering it to one edge with a
piece of filter paper and lifting it off with the paper. Rinse this piece of soap with tap
water, then attempt to form suds by shaking a small piece with deionized water in a 15-
cm test tube. Record your observations on the Report Sheet.

3. Formation of Fatty Acids: Add up to 4 drops of 6 M HCI, one drop at a time, to 5 mL of

120
 the soap solution (from step 1) in a 15-cm test tube until a precipitate forms. Pour off
the aqueous layer and place the precipitate onto a piece of filter paper. Record your
observations on the Report Sheet.

4. Formation of Soap Scum: To 5 mL of the soap solution (from step 1), add 10 drops of
1M calcium chloride (CaC12) solution. Record your observations on the Report Sheet.

Dispose of the waste from steps 2, 3, and 4 as directed by your instructor.

5. pH of the Soap Solution: Place a drop of the soap solution (from step 1) on a piece of
pH paper. Record the pH on the Report Sheet.

D. Properties of a Synthetic Detergent

Obtain 25 mL of a synthetic detergent solution from the stock in the laboratory. Repeat
steps 2 through 5 from Part C using the detergent. Record your observations on the
Report Sheet.

Source:
A Laboratory for General, Organic and Biochemistry; Fifth Edition; Hendrickson, Byrd and Hunter;
McGrawHill Higher Education; Experiment 19, p 255

121
 EXPERIMENT 3

The Properties and Preparation of Esters and Soaps

NAME ____________________________ STUDENT NO_________________

DATE _______________ DEMI _________________

1. Define the following:

a. ester

b. triglyceride

c. soap

d. fatty acid

2. Write the balanced equation for the saponification of glyceryl tristearate with aqueous
sodium hydroxide. The formula of glyceryl tristearate is given in the Discussion Section.

3. Write the equation describing the formation of an ester from stearic acid and ethyl
alcohol. The formula of stearic acid appears in Table 1. Ethyl alcohol is C2H5OH.

4. Why is the hydrocarbon chain of a soap more soluble in oil than in water?

122
REPORT SHEET EXPERIMENT 3

A. Preparation of Some Esters

Test tube A: Reaction of Ethyl Alcohol with Acetic Acid
1. Describe the aroma. _____________________________

2. Complete the equation for the ester formation and name the ester.

Test tube B: Reaction of Salicylic Acid with Methyl Alcohol

1. Describe the aroma. _____________________________

2. Complete the equation for the ester formation and name the ester.

Test tube C: Reaction of Pentyl Alcohol with Acetic Acid

1. Describe the aroma. _____________________________

2. Complete the equation for the ester formation and name the ester.

123
 Test tube D: Reaction of Benzoic Acid with Ethyl Alcohol
1. Describe the aroma. _____________________________

2. Complete the equation for the ester formation and name the ester.

B. Preparation of Soap
1. Describe the appearance of the soap.

2. Complete the equation for the saponification of glyceryl trioleate, a vegetable oil
and name all products.

C. Properties of Soap
Salting Out Soap
1. What are your observations? Describe the appearance of the material obtained
from the salt-saturated solution.

2. Did the collected material form suds when shaken with distilled water? What are
your conclusions?

124
 3. The "salting out" of process is used commercially to obtain purified soap. What
substances can be separated from soap using this process? Think about the
substances in solution before and after the preparation of soap that may not be
desirable in a commercial product.

Formation of Fatty Acids

1. Describe your observations and the appearance of the resulting material.

2. Complete the equation for the reaction of the soap, sodium oleate, with HCI(aq)
and name the products.

C17H33COO-, Na+ + HCI(aq) →

Formation of Soap Scum

1. Describe the appearance of the product of the reaction:

2, Complete the equation for the reaction of CaCl2 with the soap, sodium oleate.
(Be certain to balance the equation and name the products):

- + →
CaCI2 + C17H33COO , Na

What is the pH of the soap solution ? ________________________

D. Some properties of a Synthetic Detergent

Salting Out Detergent

1. Can a detergent be "salted out" with sodium chloride?

125
2. Describe the appearance of the final solution.

Formation of Fatty Acids

1. Does the addition of HCI(aq) to a detergent cause the formation of an insoluble
material ?

2. Describe the appearance of the final solution.

Formation of Soap Scum

1. Does the synthetic detergent form a precipitate when combined with a solution
of CaCI2?

2. What are the advantages of using a synthetic detergent in place of soap in hard
water?

What is the pH of the detergent solution ? ______________________

126
EXPERIMENT 4: ALCOHOLS, ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

Purpose: In this experiment we will examine some of the properties and characteristic
reactions of three classes of organic compounds: alcohols, aldehydes and ketones.

Alcohols

The formulas of alcohols may be derived from alkane hydrocarbon formulas by replacing a
hydrogen atom with a hydroxyl group (OH). In the resulting alcohols the OH group is bonded
to the carbon atom by a covalent bond and is not an ionizable hydroxide group. Examples
follow:

Alkane Alcohol Name of Alcohol*

CH4 CH30H Methyl alcohol (Methanol)

CH3CH2OH Ethyl alcohol (Ethanol)

CH3CH3

n-Propyl alcohol (1-Propanol)

CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2OH

CH3CHCH3 Isopropy1 alcohol (2-Propanol)

CH3CH2CH3 I
OH
*IUPAC name in parentheses

Thus there is an entire homologous series of alcohols. The functional group of the alcohols is
the hydroxyl group, OH.

Aldehydes and Ketones

The functional groups of the aldehydes and ketones are

Aldehydes and ketones may be obtained by oxidizing alcohols. One major difference
between aldehydes and ketones is that aldehydes are very easily oxidized to acids, but
ketones are not easily further oxidized. Thus aldehydes are good reducing agents.
Chemical reactions for distinguishing aldehydes and ketones are based on this difference.

127
 Alcohol Aldehyde Ketone
H
CH3OH I Methanal (formaldehyde) -
H C=O
H
CH3CH3OH I Ethanal (formaldehyde) -
CH3C = O
CH3CH2C=O
CH3CH3CH3OH I Propanal (propionaldehyde) -
H

CH3CHCH3 - -
I
OH
Acetone (propanone)

PROCEDURE

Wear protective glasses.

Record your observations immediately on the report form as you work through the
procedure.

Reagents used in this experiment are highly flammable and several are poisonous. Work
cautiously away from heat and open flames, and avoid inhalation of vapors, contact with
skin and clothing, and do not ingest.

Dispose of all reagents in the "organic solvent" waste container provided. The symbol is
used throughout this procedure to remind you of this disposal requirement.

128
A. Combustion of Alcohols

Obtain about 1 mL (no more) of methyl alcohol in an evaporating dish and ignite the
alcohol with a match or burning splint. Repeat with equally small volumes of ethyl
alcohol and isopropyl alcohol.

B. Oxidation of Alcohols

1. Oxidation with Potassium Permanganate: Mix 3 mL of metanol with 12 mL

of water and divide the solution into three equal portions, placing them in three test
tubes. To a fourth tube add 5 mL water. Add 1 drop of 10 percent sodium hydroxide
to the first tube and 1 drop of dilute sulfuric acid to the second. Now add 1 drop of
potassium permanganate solution to each of the four tubes. Mix and note how long it
takes for the reaction to occur in each of the first three tubes, using the fourth tube
as a reference tube. Disappearance of the purple permanganate color is evidence of
reaction. (Patience, some reactions take a long time.)

Repeat this oxidation procedure, using isopropanol instead of methanol.

2. Oxidation with Copper(II) Oxide: Put about 2 mL of methanol in a test tube.

Obtain from the reagent shelf about a 20 cm piece of copper wire with a four- or five-
turn spiral at one end. Warm the alcohol slightly to promote alcohol vapours in the
tube. Heat the copper spiral in the hottest part of the burner flame to get a good
copper(II)oxide coating. Do not overheat the copper or it will melt. While the copper
spiral is very hot, lower it part way into the tube (not to the liquid) and note the
results. Heat the wire again and lower it into the tube, finally dropping it into the liquid
alcohol. Remove the wire and gently waft the vapours from the tube to your nose to
detect the odour of formaldehyde resulting from the oxidation of the methyl alcohol.
Return the copper wire to the reagent shelf.

3. Ceric Nitrate Test for Alcohols. The ceric nitrate test is a qualitative test for the hydroxyl
functional group. If an alcohol is added to a yellow solution of ceric nitrate, a red ceric
complex forms. The color change from yellow to red is a positive test for the presence of an
alcohol. The equation for the general reaction that takes place is:

[Ce(NO3)6]2- + ROH → [CeOR(NO3)5]2- + HNO3

(yellow) (red)

In a small test tube, mix 1 mL (20 drops) of ceric nitrate solution with 6 drops of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH) and swirl the mixture. Record your observations.
Repeat the procedure with unknown samples A, B and C. If you are carrying out this
test on an unknown compound that is a water-soluble solid, first dissolve a match-
head-size amount of the solid in 20 drops of deionized water, then add 30 drops of
ceric nitrate solution. On the other hand, if the compound is a water-insoluble liquid,
first dissolve 3 drops of it in 40 drops (2 mL) of dioxane, then add 20 drops of ceric
nitrate solution. Record your observations on the Report Sheet. Discard all solutions as
advised by your instructor.

129
C. Tollens Test for Aldehydes

This test is based on the ability of the aldehyde group to reduce silver ion in solution,
forming either a black deposit of free silver or a silver mirror. The aldehyde group is
oxidized to an acid in the reaction. Tollen’s reagent is made by reacting silver nitrate
solution with 10% NaOH and dilute NH4OH. Rinse all glass equipment with distilled
water before use.

1. Preparation of Tollen’s Reagent: Thoroughly clean three test tubes. To 8 mL of 0.1

M silver nitrate solution in one of these tubes add one drop of 10% NaOH to generate
a brown precipitate of silver oxide. Now add dilute ammonium hydroxide 1 drop at a
time until the brown precipitate of silver oxide that was formed just dissolves (mix
after each drop is added). Now add 7 mL of distilled water, mix, and divide the
solution (Tollens reagent) equally among the three test tubes.

2. To the tubes containing the freshly prepared Tollens reagent, add the following and
mix.
Tube 1: 2 drops 10% formaldehyde
Tube 2: 2 drops acetone
Tube 3: 5 drops 10% glucose

Allow the tubes to stand undisturbed and note the results. The solution containing the
glucose may take 10 to 15 minutes to react. Dispose of the solutions in all three test
tubes in the heavy metals waste container.

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 CEM1D10

ALCOHOLS, ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

REPORT FOR EXPERIMENT 4

NAME __________________________ STUDENT NO ____________________

DATE ____________ DEMI ____________________

A. Combustion of Alcohols

1. Compare the combustion characteristics of methanol, ethanol and isopropanol in terms of

colour and luminosity of their flames.

Methanol:

Ethanol:

Isopropanol:

2. What type of flame would you predict for the combustion of amyl alcohol (C5H11OH)?

3. Write and balance the equation for the complete combustion of ethanol.

B. Oxidation of Alcohols

1. Oxidation with Potassium Permanganate

a) Put your three solutions (acidic, basic or neutral) in order of fastest (1) to slowest (3)
reaction time for the oxidation of methanol by potassium permanganate:

1 2 3
Solution

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 b) Put your three solutions (acidic, basic or neutral) in order of fastest (1) to slowest (3)
reaction time for the oxidation of isopropanol by potassium permanganate:

1 2 3
Solution

c) For which alcohol was the oxidation the slowest?

d) Balance the equation for the oxidation of methanol:

CH3OH + KMnO4  H2C = O + KOH + H2O + MnO2

2. Oxidation with Copper(II) Oxide

a) Write the equation for the oxidation reaction that occurred on the copper spiral when it
was heated.

b) What evidence of oxidation or reduction did you observe when the heated Cu spiral was
lowered into methanol vapours?

c) Write and balance the oxidation-reduction equation between methanol and copper (II)
oxide.

3. Ceric Nitrate Test for Alcohols.

Identify the unknown compounds as an alcohol or not an alcohol:

Unknown Yes No
A
B
C

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C. Tollens Test for Aldehydes

1. How is a positive Tollens test recognized?

2. Which of the substances tested gave a positive Tollens test?

3. Circle the formula(s) of the compounds listed that will give a positive Tollens test:

4. Write the formula for the oxidation product formed from formaldehyde in the Tollens test.

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. There are four butyl alcohols of formula C4H9OH. Write their condensed structural formulas.

2. Write structural formulas for all the aldehyde and ketone isomers having the molecular
formula C5H10O.

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