Conduction

Fourier's Law of heat conduction describes the relationship between heat transfer and temperature
gradient in a homogeneous and isotropic material. It states that the heat flux (rate of heat transfer per
unit area) through a material is proportional to the negative gradient of temperature.

Heat Flux (q): Heat flux represents the amount of heat energy transferred per unit time per unit area. It
is denoted by the symbol "q". Heat always flows from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature. Therefore, the heat flux vector points in the direction of heat transfer, from hot to cold.

Temperature Gradient (∇T): The temperature gradient represents the rate of change of temperature
with respect to distance. It is denoted by the symbol "∇T". The temperature gradient vector points in
the direction of the steepest increase in temperature.

The relationship between heat flux and temperature gradient is given by Fourier's Law as follows:

q = -λ ∇T

In this equation, "Lambda" represents the thermal conductivity of the material, which is a constant. The
negative sign in front of "k" is essential to ensure that heat flows from regions of higher temperature to
regions of lower temperature.

According to Fourier's Law, the heat flux vector will point from the hot end to the cold end. If the
negative sign were not included in the equation, the heat flux vector would point in the opposite
direction, indicating that heat flows from the cold end to the hot end, which contradicts our
understanding of heat transfer. By including the negative sign in Fourier's Law, it ensures that heat
always flows in the correct direction, from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower
temperature. It is necessary to "adjust" the direction of the heat flux vector to align with the physical
reality of heat transfer.

Thermal Conductivity λ

 Heterogeneous Materials: Thermal conductivity measurements can also be conducted on

heterogeneous materials, such as those with a fiber structure like wood or dispersions of small
particles in liquids (nanofluids, emulsions), among others. However, in such cases, the measured
value should be referred to as "effective thermal conductivity" since it represents an average
behavior considering the material's heterogeneity.
 Temperature Dependence: The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity in solids can
be complex and is often influenced by structural issues and transitions. In most cases, the
temperature dependence is small for solids, meaning that thermal conductivity doesn't vary
significantly with temperature.
 Pressure Dependence: For liquids and solids, the pressure dependence of thermal conductivity is
typically negligible, as these materials can often be treated as incompressible. In gases,
however, thermal conductivity is associated with the probability of collisions between gas atoms
 or molecules and the amount of energy they can carry. In ideal gases at moderate pressures, the
thermal conductivity generally increases with increasing temperature.
 Lower Molecules (lighter molecules): With increasing temperature, lighter molecules tend to
have higher speeds due to the Boltzmann distribution, which leads to a higher probability of
collisions and, therefore, higher thermal conductivity. Atomic noble gases are an example of this
behavior.
 Molecules with More Atoms: Molecules with a larger number of atoms have a higher capacity to
carry energy that can be transferred through collisions. However, their larger size (diameter)
compared to atomic gases with the same molecular weight (M) has a small influence on thermal
conductivity.
 No Pressure Dependence: The pressure dependence of thermal conductivity in gases is not
significant in the pressure regime being discussed in the text.

To summarize, thermal conductivity in heterogeneous materials is called "effective thermal

conductivity." The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity in solids can be complex, but in
most cases, it is small. Pressure dependence is usually negligible in liquids and solids, while in gases,
thermal conductivity increases with increasing temperature, primarily due to the probability of collisions
and the energy-carrying capacity of the gas molecules. In gases, the ability to conduct energy is indeed
associated with the probability of collisions between gas atoms or molecules and the amount of energy
they can carry.

 Thermal Conductivity Increase with Increasing Temperature (T): According to the kinetic theory
of gases, as the temperature of an ideal gas increases, the average speed of its molecules also
increases. This is explained by the Boltzmann distribution, which states that at a given
temperature, molecules have a range of speeds. With higher temperatures, more molecules
have higher speeds, leading to a higher probability of collisions. Consequently, the thermal
conductivity of the gas increases with increasing temperature.
 Influence of Molecular Mass (M): Molecules with lower molecular mass (lighter molecules) tend
to have higher average speeds. This means that lighter molecules have a higher probability of
collision, leading to a higher thermal conductivity compared to heavier molecules. Atomic noble
gases, which have lower molecular masses, demonstrate this behavior.
 Influence of Molecule Size: Molecules with more atoms have a higher capacity to carry energy
that can be transferred through collisions. However, these molecules also tend to have larger
diameters (d) compared to atomic gases with the same molecular weight (M). The larger
diameter has a small influence on thermal conductivity. For example, comparing argon (Ar) to
carbon dioxide (CO2), Ar has a higher thermal conductivity due to its lighter molecular mass,
even though CO2 has a larger diameter.
 No Pressure Dependence: There is no significant pressure dependence on thermal conductivity.
It implies that thermal conductivity in gases, according to the kinetic theory of gases
approximation, is primarily influenced by temperature, molecular mass, and molecular size,
while pressure has a negligible effect.

Based on the kinetic theory of gases approximation for ideal gases at not too small pressures, thermal
conductivity in gases increases with increasing temperature. Lighter molecules have higher speeds,
leading to a higher probability of collisions and increased thermal conductivity. Molecules with more
atoms can carry more energy, but their larger size has a small influence on thermal conductivity. Finally,
in this pressure regime, there is no significant pressure dependence on thermal conductivity.

Heat Conduction Equation

 ∂T/∂t: Partial derivative of the temperature (T) with respect to time (t). It describes how the
temperature changes over time, indicating the rate of change of temperature at a specific point.
 ∇T: This term represents the divergence of the gradient of temperature (∇T). The gradient (∇T)
is a vector that describes the spatial variation of temperature. The divergence (∇ ⋅) operation
calculates the rate at which the temperature gradient spreads out or converges at a given point.
In the context of heat conduction, it indicates how heat flows through the material.
 λ: This variable represents the thermal conductivity of the material. It is a constant that
describes how well the material conducts heat. A higher value of k indicates better heat
conduction, while a lower value indicates poorer heat conduction.
 ρ: This variable represents the density of the material. It indicates the mass per unit volume of
the material.

The heat conduction equation states that the rate of change of temperature with respect to time (∂T/∂t)
at a given point is proportional to the divergence of the temperature gradient (∇ (∇T)) at that point,
multiplied by the thermal conductivity (k) and divided by the density (ρ).

The equation describes how heat flows through a material. It states that the change in temperature at a
point depends on how the temperature is varying in space (the temperature gradient), the material's
ability to conduct heat (thermal conductivity), and the density of the material.

Thermal Diffusivity:

Thermal diffusivity (α) is a material property that measures the ability of a material to conduct thermal
energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy. It is defined as the ratio of the material's thermal
conductivity (λ) to its volumetric heat capacity (ρc), where ρ is the density and c p is the specific heat
capacity:

α = λ / (ρcp)

The thermal diffusivity has units of square meters per second (m^ 2/s) and represents the rate at which
temperature propagates through a material.

Conceptually, the thermal diffusivity quantifies the rate at which temperature concavity (curvature) is
"smoothed out" within a material. It is related to the time derivative of temperature (dT/dt) and the
curvature of the temperature profile (∇^2T) through the equation you provided.
Higher thermal diffusivity means that temperature changes more rapidly in the presence of a given
spatial temperature curvature. In other words, a material with a higher thermal diffusivity will
experience faster temperature changes at points with higher curvature in the temperature profile.

When comparing solids and fluids, there is no obvious dependency of thermal diffusivity due to the
"mixture of other properties" present in different materials. Within the groups of solids and liquids,
thermal conductivity (λ) tends to dominate the ordering or ranking of materials based on their ability to
conduct heat.

It's important to note that thermal diffusivity is just one factor affecting the rate of heat transfer in a
material. Other factors such as thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity, and density also play a role
in determining the overall heat transfer characteristics of a material.

Heat Conduction Equation

Heat conduction equation for steady-state, one-dimensional problems without a heat source or sink:

The heat flow equations describe the heat transfer through the material or the heat flow rate. The
equations are derived based on Fourier's Law of heat conduction and the given temperature profiles for
different geometries.

Transient Conduction

Applications where heat sources or sinks play a role:

• Setting of concrete

• Exothermic/endothermic chemical reaction (in the reactor)

• Release of nuclear energy in fuel elements (fuel rods, but also spheres)

• Dissipation of electrical energy in resistance heating

To simplify the problem and facilitate the solution, researchers often use dimensionless variables and
parameters. In this case, dimensionless temperature profiles, denoted as Θ(ξ, τ), are used.

Dimensionless Variables:

 ξ: Dimensionless spatial coordinate. It represents the position within the plate and is often
normalized with a characteristic length of the problem.
  τ: Dimensionless time. It represents the elapsed time and is typically normalized with a
characteristic time scale.
 Bi: The Biot number is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the ratio of heat transfer
resistance at the surface of a solid to the internal thermal resistance. In the context of heating or
cooling a plate, the Biot number determines the relative importance of conduction within the
plate compared to the convective heat transfer at its surfaces.

Different values of Bi correspond to different heat transfer regimes.

To find the analytical solution for the transient heat conduction problem, researchers determine the
dimensionless temperature profile Θ(ξ, τ) as a function of the dimensionless spatial coordinate ξ and
dimensionless time τ, considering different values of Bi. The solution yields a mathematical expression
that describes how the temperature within the plate evolves over time and space.

By using dimensionless variables and parameters, the solution becomes more general and applicable to
a wider range of scenarios. Researchers can investigate the effects of different Biot numbers on the
temperature distribution within the plate during the heating or cooling process. This approach allows for
a deeper understanding of the behavior of transient heat conduction and facilitates comparisons
between different cases.

It's important to note that for more complex geometries, boundary conditions, or material properties,
analytical solutions may not be feasible, and numerical methods such as finite difference, finite element,
or computational fluid dynamics techniques are often employed to solve transient heat conduction
problems.

While analytical solutions for transient heat conduction problems are only possible for simple cases,
accurate information on time-dependent temperature profiles often requires the use of numerical
approaches such as finite element analysis. These numerical methods can handle complex geometries,
non-uniform material properties, and varying boundary conditions, providing more detailed and
accurate results.

However, in certain practical scenarios and engineering processes, it is often sufficient to focus on the
temporal development of the mean body temperature. In such cases, simplified calculation approaches
can be used for one-dimensional geometries such as plates, cylinders, and spheres, assuming constant
properties. These simplified approaches take into account heat transfer within the body and to the
surrounding fluid, including limiting cases for short and long times.

By considering the heat transfer processes and applying limiting case approximations, approximation
expressions can be derived for the exponent in the temporal development of the mean body
temperature. These expressions provide a balance between accuracy and computational simplicity. The
accuracy of these simplified approaches is typically assessed by comparing the results to analytical
solutions for simple bodies.

 In the range of Biot numbers (Bi) between 0.05 and 500, these simplified approaches yield
results with an error of less than 10% compared to analytical solutions for simple bodies.
  For Bi values less than or equal to 0.05, the error is less than 2%, and for Bi values greater than
or equal to 500, the error is less than 3.5%.

Fins

Fins are utilized to enhance the heat transfer between a solid body and the surrounding fluid by
increasing the interfacial area. They are commonly employed in various applications, such as technical
cooling, to improve the heat flow from or to the base body. To design efficient fins, several general
considerations should be taken into account:

 High Thermal Conductivity: Fins should be made from materials with high thermal conductivity
to effectively transfer heat away from the base body. This allows for efficient conduction of heat
through the fin structure.
 Geometry for Convective Heat Transfer: The design and arrangement of the fins should promote
good convective heat transfer between the fin surfaces and the surrounding fluid. The geometry
of the fins plays a crucial role in determining the heat transfer performance.
 Optimization of Fin Length: The length of the fins needs to be optimized, considering factors
such as increased surface area for improved heat transfer versus the cost of material and the
desired temperature difference. Longer fins generally provide a larger surface area for heat
transfer, but there is a trade-off between increased efficiency and cost.

To determine the efficiency of fins based on the operator's requirements, it is necessary to have
knowledge of the longitudinal temperature profiles along the fin length. This information is obtained by
analyzing the energy balance for a "thin slice" of the fin.

Radial Temperature Homogeneity: It is assumed that within a given slice of the fin, the temperature is
uniform in the radial direction. This assumption is justified when the thermal conductivity of the
material is large, ensuring efficient heat conduction along the fin.

Constant Heat Transfer Coefficient: The heat transfer coefficient (α) between the fin surface and the
ambient fluid is considered to be constant. This assumption assumes that the heat transfer conditions
remain relatively constant along the fin.

In summary, the efficient design of fins involves considerations such as high thermal conductivity,
suitable fin geometry for convective heat transfer, and optimization of fin length. Knowledge of the
longitudinal temperature profiles along the fin length is necessary, which is obtained by analyzing the
energy balance under assumptions of radial temperature homogeneity and constant heat transfer
coefficient.

Fins – Efficiency

In the context of fin efficiency, there are two commonly used parameters: the fin efficiency (ηf) and the
length efficiency (ηl). These parameters provide different perspectives on the effectiveness of heat
transfer in fins.

 The fin efficiency (ηf) relates the actual heat flow through the fin to the maximum possible heat
flow, assuming a constant temperature (θ0) along the entire fin length. It quantifies the
imperfections of the fin material. When ηf = 1, it implies that the thermal conductivity (λ) of the
fin material approaches infinity, indicating a perfectly conducting fin. For real fin materials, as
 the fin length (l) approaches zero, ηf tends to 1. This means that very short fins are not useful
because they cannot effectively utilize the temperature difference between the fin and the
ambient.
 The length efficiency (ηl) is a different measure that relates the actual heat flow through the fin
to the maximum heat flow that could be achieved with an infinitely long fin. It takes into
account the temperature distribution along the fin length, which is not assumed to be constant.

The length efficiency is defined using the hyperbolic tangent function (tanh) of the product of the fin
parameter (m) and the fin length (l). As the fin length becomes infinitely long, tanh(ml) approaches 1,
and ηl approaches 1 as well.

Comparing the behavior of ηf and ηl, it is observed that a range of 0.7 < mfl < 2 is considered a good
"trade-off area" for the design of single fins. This range indicates that an appropriate balance between
fin length and other parameters is required to achieve optimal heat transfer.

From these conclusions, it is suggested to use fin materials with high thermal conductivity (λ) to allow
for longer fins within the favorable mfl range. Additionally, a high heat transfer coefficient (α) is
beneficial, which can be achieved by considering forced fluid flow (such as using fans or pumps).
However, it's important to note that forced fluid flow requires additional work and energy input.

Overall, the selection of fin materials, fin length, and other design considerations should be optimized
based on the desired heat transfer requirements and the constraints of the system.

In the context of fin efficiency, the efficiency of a finned body is considered from a heat transfer
perspective. It is considered good when the total heat flow through the finned body is significantly larger
than the heat flow through the unfinned body.

The heat flow through the unfinned body is given by Q̇ unfinned = α0A0Δθ0, where α0 is the heat
transfer coefficient, A0 is the base area of the unfinned body, and Δθ0 is the temperature difference
between the body and the ambient.

For a finned body, the total heat flow is made up of the heat flows through the individual fins (zQ̇ 0) and
the heat flow through the remaining base-body area (α0A0 - zAf,crossΔθ0), where z is the number of
fins and Af,cross represents the cross-sectional area of an individual fin.

Combining the expressions for the heat flows in the finned and unfinned bodies, we have:

However, it is important to note that the efficiency of finned bodies is not as simple as comparing the
heat flows in this way. Several factors influence the overall efficiency:

Heat transfer coefficient (α): The value of α depends on the complex flow conditions between the fins. It
can vary from the case of a plane base body to designs with few fins per area or high fin density, where
fin geometry plays a role.

Fluid temperature: In cases of slow fluid flow or small distances between fins, the fluid temperature can
heat up, leading to a decrease in the driving overtemperature.
Total efficiency considerations: In terms of "total efficiency," factors such as the financial and energetic
costs associated with producing the fins and their materials, as well as the costs of building, purchasing,
operating, and maintaining fans or pumps, must be taken into account.

Therefore, designing finned bodies involves a complex optimization process that considers various
factors, including experimental measurements, simulations, and economic calculations over the lifespan
of the apparatus. The effects of factors like the cross-sectional area of the fins (Af,cross) and other
boundary conditions, such as the flow of the surrounding fluid, must be carefully evaluated to achieve
optimal heat transfer performance.