Computer Networking Fundamentals Chapter 2

DEC30023 : Computer
Networking Fundamentals
Chapter 2.0 : The Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) Model And Network Protocols
Noted prepared by:

Pn. Wan Fazlini Idayu binti Wan Fakari
1
2.1 Network
communications
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THE OSI MODEL
 The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is

developed by ISO in 1984.
 It provide a reference model for the complex

aspects related to network communication.
 It divides the different functions and services provided

by network hardware and software in 7 layers.
 Helps to isolate problems and allows vendors to

focus on just the layer(s) in which their hardware
or software is implemented and be able to create
products that are compatible, standardized and
interoperable. 3
*Pak Dollah Naik Teksi Supaya Pulang Awal
*Putera dan Nora Telah Setuju Pergi Afrika
7 LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL

*Peraturan Di Negeri Terengganu Sepatutnya Perlu Amanah
AWAL
PULANG
SUPAYA
TEKSI
NAIK
DOLLAH
PAK
*Pak Darwisy Naik Tangga Sekat2 Pahtu Apa
4
*Pak Din Naik Teksi Salam Pergi Astaka
Data travel down the layer in the sending device….
and up the layers in the receiving device.
CABLE
HOST A HOST B
5
The OSI Network Model Standard
The OSI network model layers are arranged here from the lower levels starting with
the physical (hardware) to the higher levels.
• Physical Layer - The actual hardware.
• Data Link Layer - Data transfer method (802x ethernet). Puts data in frames and ensures error free transmission.
Also controls the timing of the network transmission. Adds frame type, address, and error control information.
IEEE divided this layer into the two following sublayers.
– Logical Link control (LLC) - Maintains the Link between two computers by establishing Service Access Points
(SAPs) which are a series of interface points. IEEE 802.2.
– Media Access Control (MAC) - Used to coordinate the sending of data between computers. The 802.3, 4, 5,
and 12 standards apply to this layer. If you hear someone talking about the MAC address of a network card,
they are referring to the hardware address of the card.
• Network Layer - IP network protocol. Routes messages using the best path available.
• Transport Layer - TCP, UDP. Ensures properly sequenced and error free transmission.
• Session Layer - The user's interface to the network. Determines when the session is begun or opened, how long
it is used, and when it is closed. Controls the transmission of data during the session. Supports security and
name lookup enabling computers to locate each other.
• Presentation Layer - ASCII or EBCDEC data syntax. Makes the type of data transparent to the layers around it.
Used to translate date to computer specific format such as byte ordering. It may include compression. It
prepares the data, either for the network or the application depending on the direction it is going.
• Application Layer - Provides services software applications need. Provides the ability for user applications to
interact with the network.
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7
LAYER 7 : APPLICATION LAYER
• Does not contain any of the application, such as a word
processor or Internet Explorer.
• It provides services to facilitate the communication
between software application and lower network
services.
• Protocols:
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): used for uploading
and downloading files from and to FTP server.
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): send
and received e-mail from e-mail server.
3. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): use by web
browser to send/receive information.
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LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER
• The presentation layer is primarily concerned

with the format of the data.
• Data is formatted so that one type of
application (host) can understand data from
another type of application.
• Encoding , decoding, compressing and
decompressing .
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LAYER 6 : PRESENTATION LAYER
• Data and text can be formatted as ASCII files, EBCDIC
files or can even be Encrypted.
• Sound may become a Midi file.
• Video files can be formatted as MPEG video files or
QuickTime files.
• Graphics and visual images can be formatted as PICT,
TIFF, JPEG, or even GIF files.
10
LAYER 5 : SESSION LAYER
Menubuhkan, menyenggarakan dan menamatkan
• Establish, maintain and terminates the
communication between two computer over
a network.
• This layer is primarily concerned with coordinating
applications as they interact on different hosts.
• Protocols: Apple talk, NetBIOS
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LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER
• Manipulate data and prepare it for delivery
(transport) through the network.
• Transport layer protocols break large data unit
received from Session layer into smaller units called
segments. This process is known as segmentation.
• Segmentation helps in data transmission efficiency.
• It also establishes the end-to-end connection, from
your host to another host.
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LAYER 4 : TRANSPORT LAYER continue…..
• Essentially the transport layer opens up the

connection from your system through a network
and then through a wide area cloud to the
receiving system at the other end.
• Protocols:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
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LAYER 3 : NETWORK LAYER
• Determine the path for data from the source to the
destination computer.
• It manage switching and routing of data packets based on
network addresses.
• Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol)
 IPX (Internet Protocol Exchange)
• Network layer protocols provide two important functions:
logical addressing and routing.
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LAYER 2 : DATA LINK LAYER
• This layer is where the network packets are translated into
raw bits (00110101) to be transmitted on the physical layer.
• This is also a layer that uses the most basic addressing
scheme, MAC Addresses.
• Protocols:
CSMA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access)
TOKEN RING
FRAME RELAY
MAC ADDRESS
ETHERNET
WIFI
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LAYER 1 : PHYSICAL LAYER
• Is the physical connection between network
devices.
• Cables, connections, hubs , switch, Router and
Network Interface Cards (NIC) operate at this
layer.
• Protocols:
IEEE 802
ISDN
(Integrated Services
Digital Network)
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What basically happens when data passes from Host A to Host B ?
Host A Host B
Datuk
Din
Demam
Sangat
Panas
Farid
Bantu
1. The Application, Presentation and Session layer take user input and
converts it into data.
2. The Transport layer adds a segment header converting the data into
segments.
3. The Network layer adds a network header and converts the segments into
packets.
4. The Data Link layer adds a frame header and frame trails converting the
packets into frames.
5. The MAC sublayer layer converts the frames into a bits which the Physical
layer can put on the wire.
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This whole process of moving data from host A to host B is
known as DATA ENCAPSULATION
– the data is being wrapped in the appropriate
protocol header so it can be properly received.
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DATA ENCAPSULATION
Let’s say we compose an email that we wish to send from host A to host B.
The application we are using is EUDORA. We write the letter

end then hit send.
Now, the computer translates the numbers into ASCII and then
into binary (1s and 0s).
If the email is a long one, then it is broken up and mailed in

pieces. This all happens by the time the data reaches the
Transport layer - SEGMENT.
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At the network layer, a network header is added to
the data.
This header contains information required to

complete the transfer, such as source and
destination logical addresses.
In this layer the data is called PACKET.
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The packet from the network layer is then passed
to the data link layer where a frame header and a
frame trailer are added thus creating a data link
frame.
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Finally, the physical layer provides a service to the
data link layer.
This service includes encoding the data link frame
into a pattern of 1s and 0s for transmission on the
medium (usually a wire).
22
Example of how the OSI Layers work using
an e-mail sent from the computer on the left.
E-mail sent from JULIANA: E-mail received from JULIANA:
Meet me at JJ 7:00 for Meet me at JJ 7.00 for
breaking fast. breaking fast.
JULIANA
JULIANA
Identify sender and intended receiver; is Identified sender and intended

there an e-mail application available? APPLICATION
layer 7 receiver; found e-mail application.
Encode data with X coding Decoded data with X decoding
PRESENTATION
key; use ASCII characters. key; used ASCII characters.
layer 6
Initiate and terminate the session Initiated and terminated the
according to X protocol. SESSION
session according to X protocol.
layer 5
Make sure all data is sent Make sure all data has arrived
TRANSPORT
intact. intact.
layer 4
Keep track of how many hops; Keep track of how many hops;
NETWORK
open shortest path First; layer 3 opened the shortest path First;
Go to IP address 255.65.0.123 Went to IP address 255.65.0.123
Is the initial connection set up? Put data The initial connection set up. Decoded
into frames according to X standard. DATA LINK data in frame according to X standard.
layer 2
Send as electrical signal over the network Receive electrical signal over the
cable at X voltage, and X Mbps. PHYSICAL network cable at X voltage, and X Mbps.
layer 1 23
Data Packets
• A small chunk of data transmitted over the Internet.
• A packet is a formatted unit of data carried by a packet mode computer
network.
• A packet consists of two kinds of data: control information and user data.
• The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the
user data, for example: source and destination addresses, error detection
codes like checksums, and sequencing information
JULIANA AINUL
The Internet
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Frame
• A frame is a data packet on the Layer 2 of the
OSI model.
• A frame is "the unit of transmission in a link

layer protocol, and consists of a link-layer header
followed by a packet.
• Examples are Ethernet frames (maximum 1500

byte plus overhead), PPP frames and V.42
modem frames
25
SUMMARY
OSI MODEL
LAYER PROTOCOLS DEVICE
7 APPLICATION LAYER FTP, SMTP, HTTP Gateway
Interaction at the user or
application level:
E-mail, file transfer,
client/server
6 PRESENTATION LAYER JPEG, GIFF, MPEG Gateway
Translation of data:
Encoding, compression,
conversion. ASCII to EBCID, BCD
to binary.
5 SESSION LAYER Apple Talk, NetBIOS Gateway
Starts, stops session. Maintain
order.
4 TRANSPORT LAYER TCP, UDP Gateway, Router
Ensure delivery of entire file or
message
26
SUMMARY
OSI MODEL
LAYER PROTOCOLS DEVICE
3 NETWORK LAYER IP/ IPX Router, Switch
Routes data to different LANs
and WANs based on network
address.
2 DATA LINK LAYER CSMA/CD, Token Switch , Bridge, NIC
Transmits packet from node to Ring, ARP
node based on address
1 PHYSICAL LAYER IEEE 802, ISDN Cable, Repeater,
Electrical signal and cabling. Hub, Amplifier
27
2 Type of addressing covered by OSI
model
• Addressing is a system for assigning unique
identification numbers to devices on a
network.
• Each node has two types of address, which is
i. Internet Protocol (IP) address [logical/network
address]
ii. Media Acess Control (MAC) address [physical
address]
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2 Type of addressing covered by OSI model
Physical address Logical address

The 48 bit MAC address that A 32 bit IP address that is not
manufactures encode in their embedded in the network card
network interface cards
Address is unique, referred to The purpose of routing
as the Ethernet or hardware between networks.
address.
Associated with layer 2 of the Operates at Layer 3 of the OSI
OSI model model
29
Recognize IPv6 addressing
• IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the
long-anticipated problem of IPv4 address exhaustion. IPv6 is intended to
replace IPv4.
• IPv6 addresses have a size of 128 bits.
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2.2 Local Wired Network
31
MAC address of a host using
ipconfig/all command (1)
• MAC, Media Access Control, address is a globally unique
identifier assigned to network devices, and therefore it is
often referred to as hardware or physical address.
• MAC address is a hardware address that uniquely identifies

each node of a network. It’s also called a physical address.
• MAC addresses are 6-byte (48-bits) in length, and are

written in MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS format.
• The first 3-bytes are ID number of the manufacturer, which

is assigned by an Internet standards body. The second 3-
bytes are serial number assigned by the manufacturer.
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ipconfig/all command (2)
• MAC layer represents layer 2 of the TCP/IP (adopted from
OSI Reference Model), where IP represents layer 3.
• MAC address can be thought of as supporting hardware

implementation whereas IP address supports software
implementation.
• MAC addresses are permanently burned into hardware by

hardware manufacturer, but IP addresses are assigned to
the network devices by a network adminstrator. DHCP
relies on MAC address to assign IP addresses to network
devices.
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2.2.1
ipconfig/all command
• Practical Work!!
• Folow step-by-step to get MAC address of a host
• Objective
- Determine the MAC address of a Windows XP
computer on an Ethernet network using the ipconfig /
all command.
- Access to the Run command.
34
• Step 1: Open a Windows command prompt
window
a. From the Windows XP desktop, click Start then
Run.
b. Type cmd in the Run dialogue box then click
OK.A Windows command prompt window
opens.
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• Step 2: Use the ipconfig /all command
a. Enter the ipconfig /all command at the
command prompt.
b. Press Enter. (Typical results are shown in the
following figure, but your computer will display
different information.)
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MAC address of a host using ipconfig/all command
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MAC address of a host using ipconfig/all command
38
Summary - How to Find a MAC Address
• The list below summarizes options to find a
computer's MAC address:
a. Windows: ipconfig /all, or winipcfg
b. Linux and some Unix: ifconfig -a
c. Mac with Open Transport: TCP/IP Control Panel
- Info or User Mode/Advanced
d. Mac with MacTCP: TCP/IP Control Panel -
Ethernet icon
39
2.2.3
Indicate logical address of a computer

• A logical address is the address at which an item (memory cell,
storage element, network host) appears to reside from the
perspective of an executing application program.
• A logical address may be different from the physical address due

to the operation of an address translator or mapping function.
• Such mapping functions may be, in the case of a computer

memory architecture, a memory management unit (MMU)
between the CPU and the memory bus, or an address translation
layer,
• For example, the Data Link Layer, between the hardware and the
internetworking protocols (Internet Protocol) in a computer
networking system.
40
2.2.4
Prepare IP address of a computer

• Internet Protocol Address (or IP Address) is an unique
address that computing devices use to identify itself
and communicate with other devices in the Internet
Protocol network.
• Any device connected to the IP network must have an

unique IP address within its network.
• An IP address is analogous to a street address or

telephone number in that it is used to uniquely
identify a network device to deliver mail message, or
call ("view") a website.
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2.3 Basic concept of internet
connection
42
INTERNET
The Internet is a system of
linked networks that are
worldwide in scope and
facilitate data
communication services
such as remote login, file
transfer, electronic mail,
the World Wide Web and
newsgroups.
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INTRANET
An intranet is a private network ,
available only within that organization.
44
Internet
 The Internet is a network of networks that connects
users in every country in the world that allow the
users at any computer to get information from any
other computer if they have permission. (Internet adalah
rangkaian kepada rangkaian yang menghubungkan pengguna dalam setiap negara di dunia
yang membolehkan pengguna di mana-mana komputer untuk mendapatkan maklumat dari
komputer lain jika mereka memiliki kebenaran)
 Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the

currently existing public telecommunication
networks. (Internet menggunakan sebahagian dari jumlah keseluruhan sumber daya
rangkaian telekomunikasi awam)
45
Internet…Cont…
46
Internet Service Provider
 An ISP is a company that provides the connections
and support to access the Internet. It can also
provide additional services such as Email and web
hosting. (ISP adalah perusahaan yang menyediakan Sambungan dan sokongan untuk
mengakses Internet. ia juga dapat memberikan perkhidmatan tambahan seperti e-mel dan
web hosting)
 ISPs are essential to gaining access to the Internet.

No one gets on the Internet without a host
computer, and no one gets on the Internet without
going through an ISP. (ISP sangat penting untuk mendapatkan akses ke
Internet. akses ke Internet tidak dapat dilakukan tanpa komputer hos, dan juga tanpa melalui
ISP)
47
ISPs
 ISP Interconnection allows traffic originating at a
source connected to one ISP’s network to reach a
destination connected to another ISP’s network,
around the block or around the world. (ISP Interconnection
membolehkan trafik yang berasal pada sumber yang disambungkan ke rangkaian pertama
ISP menjangkau/disambungkan kepada rangkaian ISP lain, di blok berhampiran atau di
seluruh dunia)
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ISPs
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Relationship between ISP & Internet
 Individual computers and local networks connect to
the ISP at a Point of Presence (POP). A POP is the
connection point between the ISP's network and the
particular geographical region that the POP is
servicing. (komputer tunggal dan rangkaian tempatan disambungkan ke ISP di Point
of Presence (POP). POP adalah titik Sambungan antara rangkaian ISP dan wilayah
perkhidmatan POP)
 The Internet is made up of very high-speed data links

that interconnect ISP POPs and ISPs to each other.
These interconnections are part of the very large,
high capacity network known as the Internet
Backbone. (Internet terdiri daripada pautan data yang berkelajuan tinggi yang
berhubung diantara ISP POPs dan ISPs yang lain. perhubungan ini merupakan sebahagian
dari rangkaian yang luas, berkapasiti tinggi yang dikenali sebagai Backbone Internet)
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Relationship between ISP & Internet
51
Option of connections to the ISP
 Example of ISP  ISP in Malaysia
– AOL (America On-Line) – Celcom
– Earthlink – Maxis
– Time Warner Cable – Digi
– Verizon – P1
– Jaring – WiMax
– Streamyx – UMobile
52
Type of connections provided by ISP
53
• Dial-up Internet access is a form of Internet access that uses the facilities of
the public switched telephone network (PSTN) to establish a dialled
connection to an Internet service provider (ISP) via telephone lines.
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a family of technologies that provides digital
data transmission over the wires of a local telephone network
• Cable modem is a type of network bridge and modem that provides bi-
directional data communication via radio frequency channels on a HFC and
RFoG infrastructure
• Leased line
Service available from most telephone companies. Provides high-speed
connection over dedicated digital data lines. The most common example of a
leased line is a T1 (E1). Primarily for a business-class service.
• Satellite
Service available from Internet dish satellite companies. Provides medium
speeds via satellite. Satellite may be the only choice faster than dial-up in
some rural areas.
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55
ISP levels of service
 Home service is normally less expensive than
business services, and generally provides scaled-
down services such as slower connection speed,
reduced web space storage, and fewer email
accounts. (perkhidmatan Home biasanya lebih murah berbanding perkhidmatan
perniagaan, dan umumnya memberikan tahap perkhidmatan yang kurang seperti kelajuan
Sambungan lebih lambat, mengurangkan ruangan simpanan web, dan akaun email yang
sedikit)
 Business class service is more expensive but provides

faster connection speeds and additional web space
and email accounts. A business class service may
include twenty, fifty or more email addresses.
(perkhidmatan kelas perniagaan adalah lebih mahal tetapi memberi kelajuan sambungan
yang lebih cepat dan tambahan ruangan web dan akaun email. Sebuah perkhidmatan kelas
perniagaan boleh meliputi dua puluh, lima puluh atau lebih alamat email)
56
FE Dis 2014:types of the service provided by ISP
ISP levels of service
57
The Internet of Things (IoT)
What is IoT?
• The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of

physical objects—devices, vehicles, buildings and other
items embedded with electronics, software, sensors,
and network connectivity—that enables these objects to
collect and exchange data. 58
What is IoT?
IoT allows objects to be sensed and controlled
remotely across existing network infrastructure,
creating opportunities for more direct integration
between the physical world and computer-based
systems, and resulting in improved efficiency,
accuracy and economic benefit.
59
Information Security
Office of Budget and Finance
Education – Partnership – Solutions
Where is IoT?
It’s everywhere!
60
Education – Partnership – Solutions
Smart Appliances
Wearable
Tech
Healthcare 61
Sensors in even the holy cow!
In the world of IoT, even the cows will be connected and

monitored. Sensors are implanted in the ears of cattle. This
allows farmers to monitor cows’ health and track their
movements, ensuring a healthier, more plentiful supply of
milk and meat for people to consume. On average, each cow
generates about 200 MB of information per year. 62
63
64
IoT- Internet-of-thing
The relationship between IoT and Internet
• difference between the traditional Internet

and the IoT is the identity of the content
creation.
65
• For example, the content in the traditional Internet is consumed by

request; that is, one has to ask a query, issue a search or send a
request for a web service in order to consume the content. On the
contrary, in the IoT, the content is typically consumed through
pushing the technology as a notification or triggering an
action when a situation of interest is detected. In many cases, the
consumption means combining data from different sources. This is
true for the traditional Internet as well as the IoT.
• In the traditional Internet, the connection is done through physical

links between web pages. In the IoT, the combination of data is
required for situation detection. This is manifested in the
combining of data in the form of context-based event patterns in
which some of the data determines the context and other
determines the pattern itself.
66
• There is also a difference in the value to the consumer. In

the traditional Internet, the value resides in answering a
question that is posed by the consumer, in many cases
when searching for information or activating services. In
the IoT, the value is timely action or notification based on
detected situations.
• This brings us to comparing the state of the art in both

areas. The traditional Internet is a mature technology; it
has standards in various areas and search engines that one
can communicate with using natural languages. The net
result is that the consumption of the traditional Internet
can be done by everybody without the need of any
technical skills.
https://www.rtinsights.com/differences-between-the-iot-and-traditional-internet/ 67
https://www.quora.com/What-is-difference-between-traditional-internet-and-internet-of-things
2.4 Understand Network
Services
68
Network Service
• Network services are the foundation of a
networked computing environment.
• Generally network services are installed on one
or more servers to provide shared resources to
client computers.
• Network services are configured on corporate
LAN’s to ensure security and user friendly
operation.
• They help the LAN run smoothly and efficiently.
69
Domain Name Service (DNS)
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical
naming system for computers, services, or any
resource connected to the Internet or a private
network.
• It associates various information with domain names

assigned to each of the participants.
• Most importantly, it translates domain names

meaningful to humans into the numerical (binary)
identifiers associated with networking equipment for
the purpose of locating and addressing these devices
worldwide.
70
Domain Name Service (DNS) continued.....
• An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is
that it serves as the "phone book" for the Internet by
translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP
addresses.
• For example, www.example.com translates to 192.0.32.10.
• The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain

names to groups of Internet users in a meaningful way,
independent of each user's physical location.
• Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and

Internet contact information can remain consistent and
constant even if the current Internet routing arrangements
change or the participant uses a mobile device.
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Domain Name Service (DNS) continued.....
• Internet domain names are easier to remember than
IP addresses such as 208.77.188.166 (IPv4) or
2001:db8::1f70:6e8 (IPv6).
• People take advantage of this when they recite

meaningful URLs and e-mail addresses without
having to know how the machine will actually locate
them.
• The Domain Name System distributes the

responsibility of assigning domain names and
mapping those names to IP addresses by designating
authoritative name servers for each domain.
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2.5.2
Ping command, a browser and nslookup

• ping command
– Ping is a computer network administration utility used
to test whether a particular host is reachable across
an Internet Protocol (IP) network and to measure the
round-trip time for packets sent from the local host to
a destination computer, including the local host's own
interfaces.
– Ping operates by sending Internet Control Message

Protocol (ICMP) echo request packets to the target
host and waits for an ICMP response.
73
• ping command
– sample of ping command:
74
• browser
– A network browser is a tool used to browse a
computer network.
– An example of this is My Network Places (or

Network Neighborhood in earlier versions of
Microsoft Windows).
– An actual program called Network Browser is

offered in Mac OS 9.
75
• nslookup
– nslookup is a computer program used in Windows
and Unix to query Domain Name System (DNS)
servers to find DNS details, including IP addresses
of a particular computer, MX records for a domain
and the NS servers of a domain.
– The name nslookup means "name server lookup".
– The most common version of the program is

included as part of the BIND package.
76
• nslookup continued.......
– More modern alternatives to nslookup are the "host"
and "dig" programs which also ship with BIND, all of
which look up nameserver information in
/etc/resolv.conf. nslookup can warn you that you're
looking at cached information (which host does not
do), so it remains useful for this reason.
– nslookup has the subcommands:

server NAME (where NAME is the name or IP address of a
DNS server to query).
set type=NAME (where NAME is the type of record to look
at). For example, set type mx will give the mail records.
77
continued.......
• nslookup
– Sample of nslookup:
78
DNS in LAN
• Corporate LANs use network services such as
DNS to give names to IP and MAC addresses
and DHCP to ensure that everyone on the
network has a valid IP address.
• For example, names like “nm.lan” is better

than numbers like “210.121.67.18”,
79
The relationship between domain
names (DNS) and IP addresses
• DNS translates Internet domain and host names to IP
addresses.
• DNS automatically converts the names we type in our
web browser address bar to the IP addresses of web
servers hosting those sites.
• Hierarchical method of associating domain names with
IP addresses
– Refers to Application layer service that accomplishes
association and organized system of computers and
databases making association possible
– Relies on many computers around world
• Domain names must be registered with an Internet
naming authority that works on behalf of ICANN
80
Email Protocol in client and server
• SMTP
• POP3
• IMAP4
81
• SMTP
– Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet
standard for electronic mail (e-mail) transmission
across Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
– SMTP was first defined in RFC 821 and last updated
by RFC 5321 which includes the extended SMTP
(ESMTP) additions, and is the protocol in widespread
use today.
– SMTP is specified for outgoing mail transport and
uses TCP port 25.
82
continued.....

• SMTP
– While electronic mail servers and other mail transfer
agents use SMTP to send and receive mail messages,
user-level client mail applications typically only use
SMTP for sending messages to a mail server for
relaying.
– For receiving messages, client applications usually
use either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or a
proprietary system (such as Microsoft Exchange or
Lotus Notes/Domino) to access their mail box
accounts on a mail server 83
• POP3
– The Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer
Internet standard protocol used by local e-mail clients
to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP
connection.
– POP and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
are the two most prevalent Internet standard
protocols for e-mail retrieval.
– Virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers
support both.
84
continued.....

• POP3
– The POP protocol has been developed through
several versions, with version 3 (POP3) being the
current standard.
– POP3 is used for most mail clients such as gmail and
yahoo.
85
• IMAP4
– The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is one
of the two most prevalent Internet standard
protocols for e-mail retrieval, the other being the
Post Office Protocol (POP).
– Virtually all modern e-mail clients and mail servers
support both protocols as a means of transferring e-
mail messages from a server
86
2.5 Apply email client server
87
Practical Activities
• Configure an email client to access an email
server
88
2.6 Apply Addressing Schemes
for TCP/IP suite
89
TCP/IP addressing
 a unique number used by machines (computers) to

refer to each other when sending information via the
Internet. (merupakan nombor unik yang digunakan oleh mesin (komputer) untuk
merujuk antara satu sama lain apabila menghantar maklumat melalui internet)
 It consists of 4-byte addresses (w, x, y, z) to be

assigned to each node in the network. (Ia terdiri dari alamat 4-
byte(w,x,y,z) yang perlu diumpukkan kepada setiap nod dalam rangkaian)
 Exp: 207.142.131.236
90
TCP/IP addressing
 Addressing schemes for TCP/IP suite is:

 TCP/IP classes
 Binary
 Dotted decimal notation
 Subnet mask
91
2.4.1
Addressing Scheme For TCP/IP suite
 The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications

protocols used for the Internet and other similar
networks.
 It is commonly also known as TCP/IP, named from two of
the most important protocols in it: the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP),
which were the first two networking protocols defined in
this standard.
 Modern IP networking represents a synthesis of several
developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and
1970s, namely the Internet and local area networks,
which emerged during the 1980s, together with the
advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s.
92
Addressing Scheme For TCP/IP suite (2)
 The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, is
constructed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of
problems involving the transmission of data. In particular, the
layers define the operational scope of the protocols within.
 Often a component of a layer provides a well-defined service

to the upper layer protocols and may be using services from
the lower layers.
 Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with
more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to
translate data into forms that can eventually be physically
transmitted.
 The TCP/IP model consists of four layers (RFC 1122). From

lowest to highest, these are the Link Layer, the Internet Layer,
the Transport Layer, and the Application Layer. 93
Dotted Decimals
• The traditional IP Addresses (IPv4) uses a 32-bit number to
represent an IP address, and it defines both network and host
address.
• Due to IPv4 addresses running out, a new version of the IP protocol

(IPv6) has been invented to offer virtually limitless number of
unique addresses.
• An IP address is written in "dotted decimal" notation, which is 4

sets of numbers separated by period each set representing 8-bit
number ranging from (1-255).
• An example of IPv4 address is 216.3.128.12, which is the IP address

assigned to topwebhosts.org.
94
Dotted Decimals (2)
• An IPv4 address is divided into two parts: network and host address.
• The network address determines how many of the 32 bits are used for the
network address, and remaining bits for the host address. The host address
can further divided into subnetwork and host number.
• Class A, B, C and CIDR networks
• Traditionally IP network is classified as A, B or C network. The computers

identified the class by the first 3 bits (A=000, B=100, C=110), while humans
identify the class by first octet(8-bit) number.
• With scarcity of IP addresses, the class-based system has been replaced by

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) to more efficiently allocate IP
addresses.
95
TCP/IP Classes
Class type Address range

class A 1 to 126
class B 128 to 191
class C 192 to 223
class D 224 to 239.
class E 240 to 255.
96
 Class A first bit must start with 0.
 Class B 2 initial bit must start with 10.
 Class C 3 initial bit must start with 110.
 Class D 4 initial bit must start with 1110.
 Class E 4 initial bit must start with 1111.
97
Class A
 The first bit must be 0 refers to the eight bits in ‘w’.
So, the bits starting from 00000000 to 01111111. (Bit
yang pertama mesti 0 merujuk kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 00000000
sehingga 01111111)
 IP class A from 0 to 127 BUT the value 0 is the

network number and can not be used and the value
127 is local loop back (used to perform tests on
themselves, such as using the ping command on its
own IP address), also can not be used. So IP class A
from 1 to 126. (IP kelas A bermula dari 0 hingga 127 TETAPI nilai 0 merupakan
network number dan tidak boleh digunakan dan 127 merupakan local loop back (digunakan
untuk melakukan ujian terhadap diri sendiri seperti menggunakan arahan ping pada alamat
IP sendiri), juga tidak boleh digunakan. Oleh itu IP kelas A bermula dari 1 sehingga 126)
 Exp:1.10.134.8, 13.233.222.32
98
Class B
 2 initial bits is 10 (from right), referring to the eight

bits in w. So, the bits starting from 10000000 to
10111111. (2 bit permulaan mestilah 10 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8 bit
pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 10000000 sehingga 10111111)
 class B IP address range starting from 128 to 191. (julat

alamat IP kelas B bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 155.76.76.8
99
Class C
 3 initial bits is 110 (from right), referring to the eight

bits in w. So, the bits starting from 11000000 to
11011111. (23bit permulaan mestilah 110 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada 8
bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 10000000 sehingga 11011111)
 class C IP address range starting from 192 to 223. (julat

alamat IP kelas C bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 200.56.17.8
100
Class D
 4 initial bits is 1110 (from right), referring to the

eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from 11100000
to 11101111. (4 bit permulaan mestilah 1110 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk
kepada 8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 11100000 sehingga 11101111)
 class D IP address range starting from 224 to 239. (julat

alamat IP kelas D bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 230.76.76.8
101
Class E
 4 initial bits is 1111 (from right), referring to the

eight bits in w. So, the bits starting from 11110000
to 11111111. (4 bit permulaan mestilah 10 (dari sebelah kanan), merujuk kepada
8 bit pada w. Maka nilai bit bermula dari 11110000 sehingga 11111111)
 class E IP address range starting from 240 to 255. (julat

alamat IP kelas E bermula dari 128 sehingga 191)
 Exp: 243.76.76.8
102
TCP/IP Classes…Cont…
103
TCP/IP addressing…Cont…
 Each IP address is divided into two parts, the

Network ID and Host ID. (Setiap alamat IP terbahagi kepada 2 bahagian,
iaitu Network ID dan Host ID)
 There are two ways to read the IP address, which is

binary and decimal. (Ada 2 cara membaca alamat IP, iaitu cara binari dan
decimal)
 Binary numbers are represented by numbers 0 and
1. (Nombor binari diwakili dengan nombor 0 dan 1)
 Decimal numbers are represented by 0 to 9. (Nombor
Decimal diwakili dengan nombor 0 sehingga 9)
104
1. Decimal To Binary Conversion
 Divide the decimal number by 2 and take the

balance. (Bahagikan nombor decimal tersebut dengan 2 dan ambil bakinya)
 This process is repeated until the results of zero. (Proses
ini diulang sehingga memberikan hasil kosong)
 Binary number is obtained by taking the balance

from the bottom up. (Nombor binary diperolehi dengan mengambil baki
tersebut dari bawah ke atas)
105
Binary
• A binary code is any system of representing text or
computer processor instructions by the use of the binary
number system's two-binary digits "0" and "1".
• This is accomplished by assigning a number to each

particular symbol or instruction.
• A binary string of eight digits (bits), for example, can

represent any of 256 possible values and can therefore
correspond to a variety of different symbols, letters or
instructions.
• In the 8-bit ASCII code, a lowercase "a" is represented by

the bit string 01100001.
106
1. Decimal To Binary Conversion…Cont…
 Example:
5310 => 53 / 2 = 26 balance 1
26 / 2 = 13 balance 0
13 / 2 = 6 balance 1
6 / 2 = 3 balance 0
3 / 2 = 1 balance 1
1 / 2 = 0 balance 1
= 1101012 (6 bit)
= 001101012 (8 bit)
107
2. Binary To Decimal Conversion
 Multiply each bit in binary number with weights (2).

(Darabkan setiap bit dalam nombor binary dengan pemberat(2))
 Sum of all the product. (Jumlahkan kesemua hasil darab)

 Decimal number that is required is the sum of the
product. (Nombor decimal yang dikehendaki adalah jumlah hasil darab tersebut)
108
1. Binary To Decimal Conversion…Cont…
 Example:
a) 1110012 (6 bit)
⇒ (1x25) + (1x24) + (1x23) + (0x22) + (0x21) + (1x20)
⇒ 32 + 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1
⇒ 5710
b) 000110102 (8 bit)
⇒ 24 + 2 3 + 2 1
⇒ 16 + 8 + 2
⇒ 2610
109
EXERCISE
 Binary to decimal
– 00011011.00100001.00101010.00001111
– 00000110.00010101.00001110.00001010
– 00001100.00011000.00000001.00111000
Jawapan:
27.33.42.15
6.21.14.10
12.24.1.56
110
EXERCISE
 Decimal to binary
– 56.78.100.121
– 127.3.44.8
– 192.168.67.10
Jawapan:
00111000.01001110.01100100.01111001
01111111.00000011.00101100.00001000
11000000.10101000.01000011.00001010
111
Dotted Decimal Notation
• Dot-decimal notation is a method of writing binary

numbers in octet grouped base-10 (decimal) numbers
separated by dots (full stops).
• IPv4 addresses are almost universally presented in dot-

decimal notation (see illustration).
• For example, the hexadecimal number 0xFF000000 is

expressed in dot-decimal notation as 255.0.0.0.
112
• If leading zeros are added to the decimal numbers,

some utility programs interpret them as octal numbers
rather than decimal numbers.
• For example, 022.101.31.153 would be interpreted as

18.101.31.153 in decimal notation.
113
114
Subnet Mask
 Subnet is a calculation mechanism that used in the
network system for breaking the network into classes
of IP addresses for security purposes and distribution
of working groups. (SUBNET ialah satu mekanisma pengiraan yang digunakan
dalam sistem rangkaian bagi memecahkan rangkaian dalam kelas-kelas IP address bagi
tujuan keselamatan dan pembahagian kumpulan-kumpulan kerja)
 Also used to distinguish the network ID and host ID.

(Juga digunakan untuk membezakan network ID dan host ID)
 IP class A 255.0.0.0
IP class B 255.255.0.0
IP class C 255.255.255.0
115
FE Dis 2014: define
Public & Private IP Address

 Public
– any IP address that is not in any of the private networking
schemes and is routable on the Internet.
 Private
– There are some specific address in each class of IP addresses
that can not be used because each packet with this destination
address will not be continued on the Internet.
– Private addresses can be used by the host using the network
the address translation (NAT), or a proxy server to connected
to a public network; or by the host that not connected to the
Internet.
116
Public & Private IP Address
 Private
– Private internal addresses are not routed on the Internet
and no traffic cannot be sent to them from the Internet,
they only supposed to work within the local network.
– Private addresses include IP addresses from the following
subnets:
• Range from 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 — a 10.0.0.0 network
with a 255.0.0.0 or an /8 (8-bit) mask
• Range from 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 — a 172.16.0.0
network with a 255.240.0.0 (or a 12-bit) mask
• A 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 range, which is a 192.168.0.0
network masked by 255.255.0.0 or /16
• A special range 100.64.0.0 to 100.127.255.255 with a
255.192.0.0 or /10 network mask; this subnet is recommended
according to rfc6598 for use as an address pool for CGN (Carrier-
Grade NAT).
• Reference: https://help.keenetic.com/hc/en-us/articles/213965789-What-is-the-difference-between-a-public-and-private-IP-
address- 117
118
Form of IP Addressing
 Unicast
– It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and
can be used for both sending and receiving. (Biasanya merujuk pada satu
penghantar atau penerima tunggal, dan boleh digunakan untuk kedua-dua menghantar dan menerima)
– Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses,

each for its own distinct purpose. (Beberapa PC individu mempunyai beberapa
alamat Unicast yang berbeza, setiapnya untuk tujuan yang berbeza)
– Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires

the sender to send all the data many times over, once for
each recipient. (Menghantar data yang sama untuk beberapa alamat Unicast menghendaki
penghantar untuk menghantar semua data berkali-kali, sekali untuk setiap penerima)
Figure : Illustration of Unicast 119

Form of IP Addressing…Cont…
 Broadcast
– to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts
broadcast"), which permits the sender to send the data
only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. (untuk
menghantar data ke semua destinasi yang mungkin ("semua-host siaran"), yang membolehkan penghantar untuk
menghantar data hanya sekali, dan semua penerima menerima salinannya)
– In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made

by combining the network prefix with a host suffix
composed entirely of binary 1s.
– For example, the destination address used for a directed
broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24 network is
192.0.2.255.
120
Figure : Illustration of Broadcast
Form of IP Addressing…Cont…
 Multicast
– A multicast address is associated with a group of
interested receivers. (Alamat Multicast adalah berkaitan dengan sekumpulan
penerima)
– The sender sends a single datagram (from the

sender's unicast address) to the multicast address,
and the intermediary routers take care of making
copies and sending them to all receivers that have
registered their interest in data from that sender.
(Penghantar menghantar datagram tunggal (dari alamat penghantar Unicast) ke alamat
Multicast, dan router perantara mengurus dalam membuat salinan dan menghantarnya
kepada semua penerima yang telah berdaftar untuk mendapatkan data dari penghantar itu)
121
Figure : Illustration of Multicast
How IP Addresses are obtained
 Static
– IP address manually assigned to a device. (Alamat IP ditentukan
secara manual kepada peranti)
– manageable for small networks. (diuruskan untuk rangkaian yang kecil)

– requires careful checks to avoid IP conflict. (memerlukan
pemeriksaan yang teliti untuk mengelakkan konflik IP)
 Dynamic
– IP address automatically assigned by server when host
boots. (Alamat IP ditentukan secara automatik oleh server apabila hos dibootkan)
– derived automatically from a range of addresses. (diturunkan
secara automatik dari julat alamat)
122
2.4.4
TCP/IP addressing…Cont…
 Static IP address - configuration IP address does not

change when a dial-up connection to the Internet is
done. (konfigurasi IP address yg tidak bertukar setiap kali sambungan dialup ke internet
dibuat)
 Dynamic IP address - configuration IP address is

exchange when a dialup connection to the Internet is
done. (konfigurasi IP address yg bertukar-tukar setiap kali sambungan dialup ke internet
dibuat)
 Dynamic IP address will be given each time you login
(should have DHCP server). (IP address secara dinamik akan diberi
setiap kali anda login(perlu ada server DHCP))
123
Current IP information of a workstation
 STEP 1: Go to Start > All Programs > Accessories >
Command Prompt. This opens the Command Prompt.
 Alternatively, go to Start > Run, type "cmd," and press

OK.
124
Current IP information of a workstation
 STEP 2: In the Command Prompt window, type
"ipconfig" and press Enter. This will bring up your IP
address, DNS address, and other information about
your internet connection.
 STEP 3: Find your IP address among the information
provided.
125
Construct IP address to workstations and
printer in LAN.
• practical
126
DHCP
 DHCP, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, is a
communications protocol that dynamically assigns
unique IP addresses to network devices.
 As a network device joins or leaves an IP-based

network, DHCP automatically renews or releases an
IP address.
 DHCP runs in a client/server mode, where server sets

up a pool of available IP addresses for a network.
 A DHCP server also provides network gateway,

subnet masks, name server addresses and amount of
time ("lease") that a given IP address will be valid.
127
DHCP (2)
 A DHCP client retrieve those parameters and use
them to join the existing network.
 DHCP allows network administrators centrally

manage and automate the assignment of the IP
addresses without having to worry about assigning
duplicate addresses, making network administration
a lot easier to manage.
128
DHCP (3)
 Depending on implementation, the DHCP server may

have three methods of allocating IP-addresses:
 dynamic allocation: A network administrator assigns a
range of IP addresses to DHCP, and each client computer
on the LAN has its IP software configured to request an IP
address from the DHCP server during network
initialization.
 automatic allocation: The DHCP server permanently
assigns a free IP address to a requesting client from the
range defined by the administrator.
 static allocation: The DHCP server allocates an IP address
based on a table with MAC address/IP address pairs,
which are manually filled in (perhaps by a network
administrator).
129
Reasons to Use DHCP
 Saves time spent assigning IP addresses
 Prevents accidental duplicate IP addresses
 Allows users to move devices (like laptops) without
having to change their TCP/IP configuration
130
DHCP Leasing Process
 Device borrows (leases) IP address
 Devices use IP address temporarily
 Specified time limit
 Lease time
 Determine when client obtains IP address at log
on
 User may force lease termination
 DHCP service configuration

 Specify leased address range
 Configure lease duration
131
DHCP Leasing Process
Figure : Several steps to negotiate client’s first lease 132

Terminating a DHCP Lease
 Lease expiration
 Automatic
 Established in server configuration
 Manually terminated at any time
 Client’s TCP/IP configuration
 Server’s DHCP configuration
 Circumstances requiring lease termination
 DHCP server fails and replaced
 Windows: release of TCP/IP settings
 DHCP services run on several server types
 Installation and configurations vary
133

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DEC30023 : Computer

Chapter 2.0 : The Open Systems Interconnection

Noted prepared by:

 The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model is

 It provide a reference model for the complex

 It divides the different functions and services provided

 Helps to isolate problems and allows vendors to

7 LAYERS OF THE OSI MODEL

• The presentation layer is primarily concerned

• Essentially the transport layer opens up the

The application we are using is EUDORA. We write the letter

If the email is a long one, then it is broken up and mailed in

This header contains information required to

In this layer the data is called PACKET.

Identify sender and intended receiver; is Identified sender and intended

• A frame is "the unit of transmission in a link

• Examples are Ethernet frames (maximum 1500

Physical address Logical address

• MAC address is a hardware address that uniquely identifies

• MAC addresses are 6-byte (48-bits) in length, and are

• The first 3-bytes are ID number of the manufacturer, which

• MAC address can be thought of as supporting hardware

• MAC addresses are permanently burned into hardware by

Indicate logical address of a computer

• A logical address may be different from the physical address due

• Such mapping functions may be, in the case of a computer

Prepare IP address of a computer

• Any device connected to the IP network must have an

• An IP address is analogous to a street address or

 Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the

 ISPs are essential to gaining access to the Internet.

 The Internet is made up of very high-speed data links

 Business class service is more expensive but provides

ISP levels of service

• The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of

In the world of IoT, even the cows will be connected and

The relationship between IoT and Internet

• difference between the traditional Internet

• For example, the content in the traditional Internet is consumed by

• In the traditional Internet, the connection is done through physical

• There is also a difference in the value to the consumer. In

• This brings us to comparing the state of the art in both

• It associates various information with domain names

• Most importantly, it translates domain names

• For example, www.example.com translates to 192.0.32.10.

• The Domain Name System makes it possible to assign domain

• Because of this, World Wide Web (WWW) hyperlinks and

• People take advantage of this when they recite

• The Domain Name System distributes the

Ping command, a browser and nslookup

– Ping operates by sending Internet Control Message

– An example of this is My Network Places (or

– An actual program called Network Browser is

– The name nslookup means "name server lookup".

– The most common version of the program is

– nslookup has the subcommands:

• For example, names like “nm.lan” is better

Email Protocol in client and server

Email Protocol in client and server

 a unique number used by machines (computers) to

 It consists of 4-byte addresses (w, x, y, z) to be

 Addressing schemes for TCP/IP suite is:

Addressing Scheme For TCP/IP suite

 The Internet Protocol Suite is the set of communications