Lecture 7

Analog to digital conversion

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Elements of Digital Communication
Elements of Digital Communication
◼ The source: can be an analog signal. Example: A
Sound signal.

◼ Input Transducer: This is a transducer which takes

a physical input and converts it to an electrical
signal (Example: microphone).

◼ Source Encoder The source encoder compresses

the data into minimum number of bits. This process
helps in effective utilization of the bandwidth. It
removes the redundant bits. Unnecessary excess
bits
◼ Channel Encoder: During the transmission of the
signal, due to the noise in the channel, the signal
may get altered and hence to avoid this, the channel
encoder adds some redundant bits to the
transmitted data.

◼ Digital Modulator: The signal to be transmitted is

modulated here by a carrier. The signal is also
converted to analog from the digital sequence, in
order to make it travel through the channel or
medium.
◼ Channel: The channel or a medium, allows the
analog signal to transmit from the transmitter end
to the receiver end.

◼ Digital Demodulator: This is the first step at the

receiver end. The received signal is demodulated as
well as converted again from analog to digital.

◼ Channel Decoder: The channel decoder, after

detecting the sequence, does some error
corrections.
◼ Source Decoder: The source decoder recreates the
source output.

◼ Output Transducer: This is the last block which

converts the signal into the original physical form,
which was at the input of the transmitter. It
converts the electrical signal into physical output
(Example: loud speaker).

◼ Output Signal: Example − The sound signal

received.
Analog to Digital Conversion
◼ The techniques described in Lecture 6 convert
digital data to digital signals.

◼ Sometimes, however, we have an analog signal

such as one created by a microphone or camera.

◼ In this section we describe two techniques, pulse

code modulation and delta modulation. After the
digital data are created (digitization), we can use
one of the techniques to convert the digital data to a
analog signal.
Analog to Digital Conversion
◼ The most common technique to change an analog
signal to digital data (digitization) is called pulse
code modulation (PCM).
◼ A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its
analog information into a binary sequence,
i.e., 1s and 0s. The output of a PCM will resemble
a binary sequence
 Figure 4.21 Components of PCM encoder

4.9
Elements of PCM
◼ Sampler: The analog signal is sampled every Ts s,
where Ts is the sample interval or period. The
inverse of the sampling interval is called the
sampling rate or sampling frequency.

There are different sampling methods:

◼ ideal,

◼ natural,

The sampling process is sometimes referred to as

pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
 Three different sampling methods for PCM

How the sample rate is

determined?

4.11
Elements of PCM
◼ Quantization:
◼ It gives a finite discrete value to the samples. The
device that performs quantization is the quantizer.
◼ It takes the sampled input and generates the
quantized output.
◼ The quality of the quantizer output depends on the
number of quantization levels.
◼ Furthermore, the space between two adjacent
quantization levels is called step size. In the below
diagram, the dash lines represent the quantization
levels.
Elements of PCM
Elements of PCM
◼ Quantization Error:
◼ Quantization is an approximation process.
◼ The input values to the quantizer are the real
values; the output values are the approximated
values.

◼ The equation to find the step size (d) is given

below.
◼ The Vmax is the maximum value of the signal and
Vmin is the minimum value of the signal. The L is
the number of levels that divide the signal.
 Figure 4.26 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

4.15
Delta Modulation (DM)
◼ PCM is a very complex technique. Other
techniques have been developed to reduce the
complexity of PCM.
◼ The simplest is delta modulation. PCM finds the
value of the signal
 Digital to Analog Converter

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 Figure 5.1 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.18
 Figure 5.2 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

5.19
 Note

Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.

In the analog transmission of digital data,

the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.

5.20
 Example 5.1

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000 signal

elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.

Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find the value
of N from

5.21
 Example 5.2

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How
many data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal elements
do we need?

Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown. We find first the value of
r and then the value of L.

5.22
 Figure 5.3 Binary amplitude shift keying

5.23
 Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK

5.24
 Example 5.3

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200

to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?

Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our
carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for
bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).

5.25
 Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying

5.26
 Example 5.5

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200

to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if
we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?

Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using
FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50
kHz; this means

5.27
 Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying

5.28
 Analog to Analog Converter

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 Figure 5.15 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.30
 Figure 5.16 Amplitude modulation

5.31
 Figure 5.18 Frequency modulation

5.32
 Figure 5.20 Phase modulation

5.33