INTEGRATIVE METHODS IN TEACHING SOCIAL SCIENCE DISCIPLINE IN BASIC EDUCATION

TRADITIONAL METHOD

Traditional Method

It is a method of teaching that is ”teacher-dominated instruction. In this method,

presentation of materials starts with the parts, then moves on to the whole while in the modern
approach, presentation of materials starts with the whole, then moves to the parts. Traditional method
emphasizes on basic skills. With traditional method of teaching, assessment is seen as a separate
activity and occurs through testing. Traditional method of teaching is when a teacher directs students
to learn through memorization and recitation techniques thereby not developing their critical thinking
problem solving and decision making skills (Sunal et al 1994).

Advantages:

1. Active Learning - The one on one student teacher interaction helps students to actively learn the
lessons delivered by the teacher. This is the most prominent feature of traditional education.
2. Active Participation of Students and teachers
3. Communication
4. Recreational Activities
5. Scheduled

Disadvantages:

1. Spoon Feeding
2. Favoritism
3. Extracurricular Activities distort students
4. Negative Groups
5. Costly

Textbook Technique

Textbook is the most common instructional material used by both the teacher and his
students. On the part of the tecaaher, he usually refers to the subject’s textbook making his daily
lesson plan. On the other hand, students commonly rely on the textbook in preparing themselves for
the class recitation, doing their daily assignments, reviewing for examination. Textbook is usually
associated with teaching-learning process. Elwood Cubberly justified the use of textbook for
instructional processess. He wrote:“Textbook are often very good books and very useful to the pupils.
They are usually well- organized sources of information, and valuable aids in instruction for the pupil
and for the beginning teacher. They offer condensed and illustrated outlines of the different subjects
of the course of the study. The teacher is still the most important figure in effecting learning in the
classroom. The textbook in itself cannot provide students with sufficiently enlightened instruction but
in reality it is usually used as the major basis of learning and not just an instructional aid.
Consequently, the teacher becomes “bookish” and learning of students tend to be mechanical.”

Advantages:

1. It reflects their students‘ needs and interests. Regarding illustration, language, and coverage, both
teachers consider the textbook meet the students‘ interest.
2. It provides little or no time-consuming preparation. Both teachers could just operate what the
textbook provides.
3. For some materials, they need little time to prepare (to understand) the instruction provided.
4. It has been prepared for the target examination.
5. The teachers believe that the provision of a textbook is intended to provide students with learning
activities that will be examined by the end of the course.

Disadvantages:

1. It is above students‘ mastery level. The teachers claim the textbook is too difficult for their
students. The students found them difficult to follow the set of activities and materials presented.
2. There is no teacher‘s guide, no answers and help on methods and additional activities. The
teachers found some difficult instructions to present. Even, they found them difficult to understand
what activities were intended.
3. The approaches are hardly adaptable, the textbook is not well graded; it does not give well-
structured and systematic coverage of the language, and it does not provide wellplanned and
executed activities, contents, and methods.
4. Since the textbook provides materials higher than their students‘ level of mastery, the teachers
consider the approaches need to review.They require more systematic presentation so that their
students could follow it as it is intended.
5. There is insufficient provision made for tests and revision. There is an imbalance between what the
exam requires and what the students need and it does not contain useful hints on examination
technique.

Rote Learning Technique

Rote learning is a learning technique which avoids understanding the inner complexities and
inferences of the subject that is being learned and instead focuses on memorizing the material so that
it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was read or heard. The major practice involved in
rote learning techniques is learning by repetition, based on the idea that one will be able to recall the
meaning of the material the more they repeat it. Rote learning can be used to form permanent
foundations upon which further learning is based, or to temporarily “cram” information for a test that
will quickly fade from memory because it is only accessed once. Because rote memory is imprinted
through repetition rather than through a learning process, it is often compared and contrasted
unfavorably to methods that use association and comprehension such as meaningful or active
learning. When applied well, rote is a useful method of permanently learning building block
information that requires no understanding, but it is less useful for situations requiring comprehension
of complex theories or in areas that require higher level thought.

Process:

Flashcards, rereading text and drilling are the most common methods of committing the information to
memory. Though this methodology works for straightforward and unchanging facts such as names of
cities or the words to a poem, it may be less helpful in areas that require understanding or
associations. Examples of rote learning include memorizing the alphabet, numbers, and multiplication
tables. Some consider rote learning to be a necessary step in learning certain subjects.

Advantages:

1. Ability to quickly recall basic facts

2. Ability to rapidly review fundamental realities
3. Helps develop foundational knowledge
4. Answers are clear and concise!
5. Helps create primary information

Disadvantages:

1. Can be repetitive
2. Easy to lose focus
3. Doesn’t encourage the use of social skills
4. Doesn’t take into consideration a more thoughtful understanding of a subject.
5. No association between new and past learning may bring about an inappropriate impression or
understanding an idea.

Teacher full- directed Technique

It is a strategy where the teacher discusses the skill set or subject by giving lectures, demonstrations,
and direct instruction instead of hands-on or exploratory models such as inquiry- based learning. It is
associated with the well- known practice of spoon feeding . In here, the teacher either dictates or let
the students copy word for word the lesson. Since the students mind is compared to an empty
container, the role of the teacher is to fill it up.
Process:

The procedure usually starts with an introduction, followed by the rationale for the instruction, then by
the instruction itself. The procedure ends with a summary and then followed by an assessment.

Advantages:

1. Successfully express themselves with only the target language, without mixing words with their
native language. The flexibility of the method makes the method more suitable for individual learners.
2. The learner receives more input in the target language than when the language is instructed in
their native language.
3. The learner creates direct associations between words in the foreign language and concepts in
their mind, actions, situations, etc., instead of indirect connections via words in their native language.
4. Classes have few students, so the intensity of the learning process can be increased.
5. The teacher has control of the timing of the lesson

Disadvantages:

1. The structure of direct teaching can be rigid enough to hinder the creativity of the teacher. There is
very little room to improvise because this method follows a step-by-step procedure.
2. If utilized by unprepared teachers, can be disastrous. For direct teaching or instruction to be
effective, the teacher must have a mastery of the subject matter, must prepare well-organized
content, and must have excellent communication skills.
3. This method can't be used to be changed to the specifications of an individual in a large class.
4.It is based on old learning theories: simple tasks before complex ones, only measurbale learning is
worthwhile.
5. More difficult to access the student’s prior knowledge.

Memorization Technique

Memorization is an essential educational strategy which can build a variety of lifelong mental skills.
Memory exercises are like mental gymnastics that train the brain to focus, to retain more information,
and to work with greater speed and agility. Memorization is still acceptable in today’s school provided
it serves certain learning purposes and more importantly if it is done coupled with understanding.
What is discouraging with it is when students are engaged in it without deriving any insight from the
lesson. Students do memorize because teacher tends to emphasize more on facts rather than on the
insights that can be drawn out from these facts. Memorization without these insights makes learning a
meaningless routine, a useless undertaking, and therefore, a big waste on student’s time and efforts.
Teachers who indulge in this undesirable practice are doing their students a big disservice since it
fails to achieve more legitimate outcomes of learning like the development of the higher mental
processess like analysis, synthesis and judgement.

Process:

Memorization is done by linking information and by fitting new ideas into existing mental frameworks.
A variety of techniques have been developed to help us recall information more easily. A few basic
strategies are described below:

A. Simple Repetition - Read the passage out loud from start to finish. Repeat until it is memorized.
Students can work alone, in pairs or in groups repeating after the teacher. Another method is to
record the passage and replay it until it is learned.

B. Forward Buildup - Start at the beginning and recite the first phrase. Repeat until it is memorized,
then add the second phrase. Continue in this manner until you have reached the end. Break a long
selection into smaller parts and learn each part separately; then connect them.

C. Backward Buildup - Start at the end and recite the last few words. Repeat until they are
memorized. Then add the previous phrase and read through to the end. Continue in this manner until
you have reached the beginning and have learned the entire passage.
D. Disappearing Act - Write a passage on the board and have students read it aloud several times.
Then, using an eraser, swipe a diagonal path through the entire passage. This will leave a blank
space on each line. Ask for student volunteers to read the passage again. Let everyone take a turn.
Then make another eraser swipe and ask for another round of volunteers. Continue until the passage
has completely disappeared.

E. An acronym is a word formed by combining the first letters of a series of words, for example,
SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus) or LASER (Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation). Acronyms are useful for remembering a group of words or topics
in a particular order.

F. Logical Patterns - Information can sometimes be organized into a logical pattern to make
memorization easier, for example, from small to large, simple to complex, old to new, or by
chronological order.

G. Visualization - Words can be tied to visual cues to aid recall. One method of visualization is called
“chaining,” where each image is used as a trigger to help you remember the next item on the list.

H. Memory Maps - This is another technique that uses visualization and association. The items to be
recalled are mentally plugged into a familiar pattern such as a car or a human face. With a face, use
the eyes to remind you of the first topic, the ears for the second and the mouth for the third.

I. Mnemonic Devices - Pronounced “neh-MON-ic,” this is a memory trick that helps you remember
something difficult by associating it with a phrase that is easier to remember.

J. Pictures - As another form of visualization, students can draw or cut and paste representative
pictures on top of the written words.

K. Gestures can also be used as a memory aid. For example, when teaching the following quote by
Bahá’u’lláh,* “So powerful is the light of unity that it can illuminate the whole earth,” flex your arm
muscle when saying the word “powerful,” clasp your hands together when saying “unity,” and spread
your fingers wide with palms out for “illuminate.” Students can perform the movements as they recite
the passage.

L. Card Trick- Print each word of the passage to be memorized on a separate large card. Give one
card to each student. If there are more students than words, two students can hold the same card. If
there are fewer students than words, some can hold two cards. Mix the students up and tell them to
arrange themselves in order without speaking. Then have each child read his or her word in order,
holding up the card up as they speak.

M. Link it. Connect the information you are trying to memorize to something that you already know.
Material in isolation is more difficult to remember than material that is connected to other concepts. If
you cannot think of a way to connect the information to something you already know, make up a
crazy connection. For example, say you are trying to memorize the fact that water at sea level boils at
212 degrees Fahrenheit, and 212 happens to be the first three digits of your best friend’s phone
number. Link these two by imagining throwing your phone into a boiling ocean. It’s a crazy link, but it
can help that fact to stick.

N. Sleep on it. Studies show that your brain processes and stores information while you sleep. Try to
review information just before you go to sleep—even if it’s only for a few minutes—and see if it helps
embed the information in your memory.

O. Self-test. Quiz yourself every so often by actively recalling the information you are trying to study.
Make sure to actively quiz yourself—do not simply reread notes or a textbook. Often, students think
they remember material just because it is familiar to them when they reread it. Instead, ask yourself
questions and force yourself to remember it without looking at the answer or material.

P. Write it out. Writing appears to help us more deeply encode information that we’re trying to learn
because there is a direct connection between our hand and our brain. Try writing your notes by hand
during a lecture or rewriting and reorganizing notes or information by hand after a lecture. While you
are writing out a concept you want to remember, try to say the information out loud and visualize the
concept as well.
Q. Create meaningful groups. A good strategy for memorizing is to create meaningful groups that
simplify the material. For example, let’s say you wanted to remember the names of four plants—
garlic, rose, hawthorn, and mustard. The first letters abbreviate to GRHM, so you can connect that
with the image of a GRAHAM cracker. Now all you need to do is remember to picture a graham
cracker, and the names of the plants will be easier to recall.

R. Practice interleaving. Interleaving is the idea of mixing or alternating skills or concepts that you
want to memorize. For example, spend some time memorizing vocabulary words for your science
class and then immediately switch to studying historical dates and names for your history class.

Advantages:

1. Memorising facts can build the foundations for higher thinking and problem solving. Memorisation,
produces a more efficient memory, taking it beyond its limitations of capacity and duration. There
exists a considerable body of evidence to suggest that a memory rife with facts learns better than one
without.
2. Through memorization, it is possible to build an organized system of knowledge in our brains or
long-term memory.
3. Memorizing is how fundamental information is permanently deposited in the long-term memory,
and children especially find it enjoyable and relatively easy.
4. Memorized information is always with you, even when you lack the time or access to sources
where you could look it up.
5. If you learn strategies for memorization, as opposed to the rote memory approach of looking
information over repeatedly, you accelerate the ease, speed, and reliability of learning new things.

Disadvantages:

1. Everything the student’s memorize, they will forget - The main reason for memorization is usually
to pass an exam to show that you’ve understoond the course. For some reason, exams are
structured around our ability to remember facts and exercises and not understanding what we do.
Considering that the primary goal is to learn,exams are truly useless if they depend in memorization.

2. If the students cannot understand, they will fail miserably - In our educational system, most
teachers give us tests and exams where we only need to memorize facts in order to get top grades.
And the majority of tests are like that. But suddenly comes one of these exams where professors give
exams so difficult that the entire class just fails. We tend to hate the teacher when this happens.
Normally, what has just happened is that we memorize facts and exercises to the point where we
hope that we’ll get something similar for the final exam. The exams are not more difficult than those
exercises we previously got, it is just that we never understood what we were really doing.

3. The students become less happy and more stressed - Memorization makes student stressed
because you don’t understand. And we always fear what we don’t understand. Memorization creates
borders and walls in your mind; you don’t explore and expand your thoughts, but allow yourself to
build barriers for your imagination because you only memorize the stuff that you get for exams!

4. Memorisation is short-term - Mindless parroting of textbook material leads to short term

memorisation making it a waste of a child’s energy and effort.

5. Real-life application ignored - Real-life application is essential so children can easily relate and
understand information better. If ignored, a child may find it difficult to transfer theoretical knowledge
to life.

The 2 x 4 x 8 Teaching Technique

The traditional teachers tend to see the whole world by looking through the needle’s eye. What he
gets is a microscopic glimpse of reality which may closely correspond to the proverbial expression “ a
drop on the bucket”. This parochial outlook may be the basis why he is only capable of bringing about
learning that is limited, superficial and empty. To him learning is confined within three given
dimensions: 2 x 4 x 8 – 2 stands for the two covers of the book; 4 for the four walls of the classroom;
and 8 for the 8 hours of student’s stay in school. He then views learning that goes beyond the book,
the classroom and the school time as something impossible and something that will never be
achievable.

SELF-PACED METHOD

One fundamental principle in teaching is the principle of individual differences. This principle is
simply expounded as "no two individual students are exactly alike." It certainly implies that a teacher
should not compare a student's abilities and potentials with those of another one.

Meaning of Self-Paced Method

Self-paced learning is, as the name suggests, learning that moves at a pace set by the learner.
The learner isn’t required to be online at the same time as the instructor or the other learners. In fact,
in some cases, an instructor may not even be necessary, as all of the lessons are designed to be
completed without a facilitator on-hand. With self-paced learning, participants can take the time they
need and set their own schedule instead of working within a structure that was set for them by an
instructor.
The self-paced method allows students to design their own learning experience, not only at
their own pace, but according to their own interests and learning preferences. The role of the
instructor is to provide guidance, feedback on proficiency and tailor the learning environment to
students' needs.

Advantages

1. No time pressure. Some individuals might have a photographic memory and only need to
skim through the material once, whereas others might need to review it a few times to truly
understand the content. With self-paced learning the time pressure that exists during live
classrooms is lifted. Students that require more time no longer need to scramble through
content and frantically scribble notes. The benefit of determining one's own pace also benefits
the quick learners who might become bored if they have to wait until they can move on with the
rest of the group.
2. No need for a schedule. Self-paced learning makes it possible for participants to see the big
picture from the start and then structure their work in their own time. Even if a deadline is set
for a course, students can decide for themselves when they will schedule their exam. It’s even
possible for them to pause their test and continue the next day. Self-paced learning will help
them see the trees again.
3. Improves memory. Since participants have no time pressure, their memory performance will
improve. What’s better than that? The point of a quiz is not only to complete it as accurately as
possible (although for some students it may seem so), but to also absorb the information that
is given. One could even argue that the latter is more important. Let’s hope students will see
that as well!
4. Suitable for different learning styles. Participants have different learning styles. While one
individual is just understanding the first sentence, another person could be almost finished with
the task. People who prefer to complete the material quickly will not have to wait for others.
Conversely, there are some people who might prefer to review the material multiple times to
 improve their performance. With self-paced learning you make it possible for your participants
to adapt to their different learning styles. This will not only make you, as a teacher or employer
happy, but also your participants, which kills two birds with one stone.

Disadvantages

1. Students who lack motivation may fall behind as can those with bad study habits.
2. Students who are used to traditional classroom environments may have a hard time not being
a routine or having an instructor looking over their shoulder.
3. The feeling of isolation for some students may have by not having any interaction with
instructors and classmates.
4. Students may have problems with their computer or Internet connection, he/she may not be
able to complete their studies.

Programmed Instructions

Programmed instruction is an instruction in which the self-pacing method has a rightful place.
What is programmed instruction? Morris Bigge (1982) defined it as a system of teaching and learning
within which pre-established subject matter is broken down into small, discrete steps and carefully
organized into a logical sequence in which it can be learned readily by the students. Barry Harley
(1973) likewise pointed out that it is an auto-instructional approach to teaching which is changing the
role of the classroom teacher.
Programmed learning, educational technique characterized by self-paced, self-administered
instruction presented in logical sequence and with much repetition of concepts. Programmed learning
received its major impetus from the work done in the mid-1950s by the American behavioral
psychologist B.F. Skinner and is based on the theory that learning in many areas is best
accomplished by small, incremental steps with immediate reinforcement, or reward, for the learner.
This technique can be applied through texts, so-called teaching machines, and computer-assisted-
instruction

Advantages

1. The main emphasis is on individual differences and students’ involvement.

2. There is not fixed time interval for learning. Students may learn at their own pace.
3. Learning by doing maxim of teaching is followed to involve learners in the learning process.
4. Students are exposed only to correct responses, therefore, possibility to commit errors in
reduced.
5. Immediate confirmation of the results provides reinforcement to the learners and encourages
the learners to proceed further. Feedback is provided to wrong answers, so that learner is
able to develop mastery over the content.

Disadvantages

1. It is very difficult to develop an instructional programme

2. Only cognitive objectives can be achieved
 3. Due to tight schedule of time table, students cannot be left to learn at their own pace. It would
be very difficult to learn the content the subject matter in a limited period of time.
4. There is no chance for students’ creativity, their responses are highly structured.
5. It cannot be applied at primary level of education or at higher education

Module

Modules as instructional materials have concretized pretty well the principle of individual
differences, allowing each student to proceed at his own pace. More intellectually superior students
are expected to finish more modules; less bright ones only capable of taking up fewer modules, the
use modules have been widely accepted as a desirable practice, its actual utilization in classroom
instruction is to be desired.

Meaning of Module
Dr. Constantino M. Torralba, the leading proponent of learning modules in the country,
adopted two definitions of it; the first given by Darrel Murray the second by the Workshop in the
Application of Educational Technology sponsored by DECS — UNESCO held in City. The first
definition goes like this: ‘’A module is self-contained and independent unit of instruction with primary
focus on a few well-defined objectives. The substance of module consists of materials and
instructions needed to accomplish these objectives. The second definition is stated as; "A module is a
set of learning opportunities systematically organized around a well-defined topic, which contains the
elements of instruction — specific objectives, teaching-learning activities and evaluation using
criterion-referenced measures." Likewise, Good (1973) described its use as modernizing the process
by using a set of modules suited to each student is given a chance to advance at his own best rate
passing unnecessary instruction and satisfying his particular needs and he will be thus in individual
cases be able to earn his degree in a considerably a shorter time.
Module is a unit of work in a course of instruction that is virtually self-contained and a method
of teaching that is based on the building up skills and knowledge in discrete units. It is an instructional
material which possesses the qualities that will make the individual an independent learner, self-
pacing and progressing at his own rate, finally giving him the feeling of self-satisfaction, the very
essence of modular instruction.

Modular instruction is an alternative instructional design that uses developed instructional

materials which are based on the needs of the students. Students are encouraged to work on various
activities that are interesting and challenging to maintain focus and attention, thereby encouraging
independent study.

Advantages

1. It establishes a system of assessment other than marks or grade.

2. Learners study the modules in their own working environment.
3. Learners can study without disturbing the normal activities and responsibilities.
4. Modules can be administered to individual use, small group or large group.
 5. It enables the learner to have control over his/her learning.

Disadvantages

1. There is a danger of fragmentation of learning and lack of coherence in learning programmes

due to both the methods of curriculum delivery and the assessment practices.
2. Poorly developed overview of subjects and an inability to connect discrete areas of knowledge.
3. Adopting a modular approach can disrupt the provision of a coherent and developmental
course.
4. Assessment becomes dominant throughout the course, rather than towards the end of it.
5. Deadlines on units can limit a teacher's ability to teach important topics in the way that he or
she would choose.

Kits/ Self-learning Kits

A learning module is otherwise known as a self-learning kit (SLK). It consists of systematic

sequenced materials for learning. (F. Hidago, 1994) The teaching-learning module in a vast variety of
subjects was proven effective as an instructional tool. This is an innovation in the education of new
generation of learners who are described as self-directed learners. The significance of learning
modules is based on the groundwork that college students may learn through different methods.
Classroom discussion may turn to be effective but may omit essential part of learning and
understanding. Planning on how students may learn still suggests that there is no single methodology
in their learning process. Significant learning should be self-initiated and teachers should be there to
guide and to supervise progress. We should let students discover what they would like to discover in
the subject being introduced and give more responsibility to them.

Toppins conceptualized that active classroom learning in college is most effective if the teacher
carefully plans what the learner should learn and how he or she may best learn it. In other words,
competency-based programs in education derived their rationale from concepts of the nature of what
is to be learned and from a model of a system most likely to enhance the acquisition of learning.
(Henson, 1995) Learning modules are becoming popular education tools in schools today. The
teaching-learning module is an effective instructional material, which is student-centered and is
geared towards the development of the skill of “learning to learn.”(Henson, 1995) As an instructional
tool and as a self-instructional material, the learning module is an innovation in curriculum and
instruction, which is extensively used by pragmatic institutions, and even trainers in valid training
programs. (M. Wiske) The learning process used most often is practicing, closely followed by reading.
Modules are learning tasks that are so organized, sequenced and clearly stated, in such a way that it
provides sufficient direction and guidance to students without the teacher present all the time. This
type of instruction is called modularized instruction. Educators can teach students to teach
themselves because students are self-directed learners and students can also plan their next learning
adventures.

Advantages
 Self-learning can be useful for those who do not have time to enroll in formal courses and
degrees as well those who cannot travel to a specific location to educate themselves. There are many
advantages of self-learning as discussed below;

1. Students can choose your own pace, materials, methods, everything is up to them.
2. Students are less stressed on falling in front of other person.
3. Neither location is constrained nor time-bound, and all that is needed Is access to computer
and a reliable internet connection to engage learning.
4. Students can take it from the comfort of anywhere as well as the luxury of any time mean that
it is quite valuable for those who are location or time constrained.
5. Students can take this for free.

Disadvantages

Working in teams’ increases collaboration and allows brainstorming. As a result, more ideas
are developed and productivity improves. Two or more people are always better than for solving
problems, finishing up difficult tasks and increasing creativity. Teamwork encourages communication
between team members. although it has so many advantages, it has many disadvantages as
discussed below;

1. No face-to-face interaction.
2. No self-discipline.
3. Lack of inputs from teachers.
4. Lack of transformational power.
5. Lack of flexibility.

Correspondent Course

A correspondence course is a class that is carried out through distance learning, whether that is
online or with print materials that are mailed or faxed. Some correspondence courses may be only for
career or personal development, while others might offer college credit that can go towards a degree.
If you're interested in earning college credit for your work, it is important to ensure that you attend an
accredited correspondence school. Many people choose correspondence courses when they are not
able to be geographically close to an educational institution. Some also choose them because they
want the flexibility that these courses can offer.

Advantages

1. No need to attend classes: The main specific feature of correspondence courses is you can
do these courses from anywhere and at any time. You do not have to attend daily college.
2. Schedule: The students of correspondence courses can attend online line classes as per
their schedule.
3. Recognized universities: There are a lot of recognized universities which provide
correspondence courses. There many open universities and dual mode universities which
provide correspondence courses.
 4. Low fees: Most of the students fail to take admission in regular courses due to very high fees
of the course. In comparison to regular courses, the fees of correspondence courses are low.
So students easily afford correspondence courses.
5. Self-motivated: Student of regular courses depend on teachers and classes to complete
syllabus but in correspondence courses the students have to complete the syllabus at home.
So we can say that correspondence course is self motivated.

Disadvantages

1. No contact with faculties

2. No atmosphere of learning
3. Low acceptance in job market
4. Limited courses
5. Dependency on technology

Mastery Learning Technique

Mastery learning refers to the idea that teaching should organize learning through ordered
steps. In order to move to the next step, students have to master the prerequisite step. Mastery
learning engages the learner in multiple instructional methods, learning levels and multiple cognitive
thinking types. It is similar to programmed instruction in concretizing the principle of individual
differences. however, it is different from this pattern since it involves grouping of students having the
same achievement and subsequently giving them the same kind of instruction in programmed
instruction, students learn and progress at their own individual and unique rate; in mastery of
learning, it allows students to be divided in groups, each group is composed of students who have
reached almost the same learning level. Hence, they can engage in the same learning experience.

Advantages

1. Mastery leaning facilitates student learning and often leads to higher achievement than more
traditional classes
2. Mastery learning students often retain the things they have learned for longer periods of time
3. Enforces better study habits rather than procrastinating and cramming for tests
4. Mastery learning can break the cycle of failure

Disadvantages

1. Students who learn quickly receive less instruction than their classmates.
2. Teachers must assist and keep track of multiple students who are at different levels of
learning.
3. Extra time may be required in order to provide slower paced learners time to learn content.
4. Potentially takes too much of the responsibility for learning away from students creating
students who may not learn how to learn independently.

INTEGRATED TEACHING METHOD

Integrated Method - basically refers to the method of teaching wherein various styles are
incorporated to each other in a way that should boost the learning experience that is to be imparted.
Allows students to make natural connections between content areas without being limited by artificial
boundaries.
Teachers have the responsibility to deliver information to their students. There are many ways in
which this can be done. Choosing the best suitable manner such as using integrated teaching
methods to deliver the information to the students is crucial. According to Moore (2012) integrated
teaching method involves “strategies that influence students directly, indirectly or by a combination of
these. Thus the teacher may deliver instruction by telling, showing and providing access to the
information to be learned.”
Advantages:
 Children are grouped together to their learning needs or cooperative learning.
 Effective integrated programs provide opportunities for experience based learning.
 Students are able to use their prior experiences to construct learning.
 Students can think critically and to define with their own patterns of thought and meaning from
the content presented.
Disadvantages:
 Some students may lose interest in the lesson.
 Not all students may understand what is being taught.
 The strategies used may not be accepted by all students.
Lecture Discussion – is a type of model where the teacher lectures about a subject or topic to the
class and then the students will discuss amongst the class what their feelings are about the topic. The
teaching method that is design to help students understanding the organized body of knowledge, the
topics that relate the facts, concepts, principles, and procedures, and make the relationship between
them explicit and clear.
Process:
 It uses what students already know by building on their existing background (Schema Theory).
 It presents information in a systematic way (Meaningful Verbal Learning, cf. work by Ausubel)
 It uses teacher questioning to involve students actively in the learning process (Active Learner
Involvement).
Advantages:

 Increases students’ interests and engagement – lectures mixed with discussions can help
maintain students’ focus. As they discuss their answers, they get different perspectives on the
topic. Good questions and answers can get students to think deeply and make connections.
 Provides Instructor with Feedback – as student answer questions, instructors can gauge
whether the students understand the materials. If a student answers the question incorrectly,
instructors can then help students correct their answer.
 Promotes Preparation – if the instructor regularly engages students in a classroom
discussion, then students are more likely to come in prepared in class such as asking
questions about assigned readings.
 Develops Students’ Speaking Skills – in many professional settings, speaking in a group is
essential. Instructors prepare students to speak confidently in front of their peers. Public
speaking is a skill that improves with more practice. So when an instructor promotes classroom
discussions, they are preparing their students for real-world settings.
 Controls The Classroom Environment – if a student is not paying attention in class, the
instructor can call upon them so he/she can focus in class better. As a result, students are
more attentive to what’s happening during the lecture and discussion time.

Disadvantages:

 Lectures fail to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of student learning.
 In lectures students are often passive because there is no mechanism to ensure that they are
intellectually engaged with the material.
 Students' attention wanes quickly after fifteen to twenty-five minutes.
  Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive.
 Lectures presume that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of
understanding.

Demonstration Lecture - A method demonstration is a teaching method used to communicate an

idea with the aid of visuals such as flip charts, posters, power point, etc. A demonstration is the
process of teaching someone how to make or do something in a step-by-step process. As you show
how, you “tell” what you are doing.
Process:
1. Planning and preparation – proper planning is required for good demonstration.
2. Introducing the lesson – the teacher should motivate students and prepare them mentally for the
demonstration.
3. Presentation of subject matter
 In demonstration presentation of subject matter is very important.
 The principle of reflecting thinking should be kept in mind.
 The teacher should teach the student in such a way that their previous
knowledge can be attached to their new knowledge.
4. Demonstration – The performance in the demonstration table should be ideal for the students.
- The demonstration should be neat and clean.
5. Teaching Aids – The teacher can use various teaching aids like models, blackboard, graphs
during demonstration.
6. Evaluation – In this last step, evaluation of the whole demonstration should be done, so that it can
be made more effective.
Advantages:
 It helps a student in having a deeper understanding of the topic.
 It helps students remain active in teaching – learning process.
 It leads to permanent learning.
 It accounts for the principles of reflective thinking.
 It helps to create interest for topics among students.
 It helps in arousing the spirit of discovery among students.
 It imparts maximum learning to students.
Disadvantages:
 Students cannot benefit with direct and personal experiences as teacher to carry out the
demonstration.
 It can be costly as it requires costly materials.
 It can be a time-consuming method.
 It is not based on learning by doing.
 This method does not provide training for the scientific method.
It is the most suitable method for teaching the secondary classes. If a teacher feels that the
demonstration is taking much time than he would have to take the help of students. Similarly, a small
group of students can be invited to the demonstration table. Students can also demonstrate the
experiment. This might help in removing objection regarding non-availability of learning by doing
approach.
Film Showing Discussion – is a film or movie whose primary purpose is to educate. Educational
films have been used in classrooms as an alternative to other teaching methods. Films or motion
pictures were thought to be meaning for recreation and amusement only. Today, they are increasingly
used as a device of teaching. They are an indispensable means of education and instruction. They
bring an element of realism into the classroom, which cannot be obtained by any other medium of
instruction.
When a film show is going to be arranges, the teacher should see that it is really needed in
connection with the studies which are going on. The teacher must discuss the background of the
learning situations presented in the film show previous presentation. It should serve the purpose of
recapitulation.
It uses films, tapes, slides, and televisions and after that, the discussion will follow.
Advantages:
 Movies can extend the learning beyond the textbook.
 Movies can be used as a pre-teaching or interest –building exercise. Adding a movie can build
interest in a topic that is being learned while providing a small break from normal classroom
activities.
 Movies can be used to address additional learning styles. Presenting information in numerous
ways can be the key to helping students understand topics.
 Movies can provide teachable moments. Sometimes, a movie can include moments that go
beyond what you are teaching in a lesson and allow you to highlight other important topics. For
example, the movie “Gandhi” provides information that can help students to discuss world
religions, imperialism, non-violent protest, personal freedoms, rights and responsibilities,
gender relations, India as a country, and so much more.
 Movies can be scheduled on days when students could be unfocused. In day-to-day teaching,
there will be days when students will be focused more on their homecoming dance and the big
game that night, or on the holiday that starts the next day, rather than on the topic of the day.
While there is no excuse to show a non-educational movie, this could be a good time to watch
something that complements the topic you are teaching.
Disadvantages:
 Movies can sometimes be very long.
 The educational part of the film may only be a small portion of the overall movie.
 The movie may not be completely historically accurate. Movies often play with historical facts
to make a better story.
 Films do not teach themselves. Showing a movie such as “Glory” without putting it in the
historical context of African-Americans and their role in the Civil War on providing feedback
throughout the movie is little better than using the television as a babysitter for your children.
Reporting Discussion - the purpose of the discussion is to interpret and describe the significance of
your findings in light of what was already known about the research problem being investigated, and
to explain any new understanding or fresh insights about the problem after you've taken the findings
into consideration. The discussion will always connect to the introduction by way of the research
questions or hypotheses you posed and the literature you reviewed, but it does not simply repeat or
rearrange the introduction; the discussion should always explain how your study has moved the
reader's understanding of the research problem forward from where you left them at the end of the
introduction.
Variety of forums for open-ended, collaborative exchange of ideas among a teacher and students or
among students for the purpose of furthering students thinking, learning, problem solving,
understanding, or literary appreciation. The means by which people share experiences, ideas and
attitudes. Discussion method enable to engage in an orderly verbal interchange and to express
thoughts on a particular subject.
 Discussion involves two-way communication between participants.
 In the classroom situation a teacher and students all participate in discussion.
 During discussion, the teacher spends some time listening while the students spend
sometimes talking.
 The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning experience for the students than the
lecture.
Advantages:
 Thinking and communicating powers
 Leadership quality
 Expression ability
 Problem solving ability
 Creativity
  Motivation and confidence
In short higher level cognitive and effective objectives can be realized through discussion method.
Disadvantages:
 There is a chance that only a few students may dominate the whole discussion.
 It is possible that discussion is initiated on those aspects of the problem with which few
prominent students of the class are concerned.
 Not adaptable to all teaching-learning situations.
 If it is not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of inappropriate
topics adding confusion rather than clarification to the classroom.
Inductive and Deductive Method
Two very distinct and opposing instructional approaches are inductive and deductive. Both
approaches can offer certain advantages, but the biggest difference is the role of the teacher. In a
deductive classroom, the teacher conducts lessons by introducing and explaining concepts to
students, and then expecting students to complete tasks to practice the concepts; this approach is
very teacher-centred. Conversely, inductive instruction is a much more student-centred approach and
makes use of a strategy known as ‘noticing’. Let’s take a closer look at the differences between
inductive and deductive instruction, and find out how noticing can be used in the language classroom
to better facilitate student learning.
Inductive Method – In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction makes use of
student “noticing”. Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples,
the teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for
students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works.
Using the grammar situation from above, the teacher would present the students with a variety of
examples for a given concept without giving any preamble about how the concept is used. As
students see how the concept is used, it is hoped that they will notice how the concept is to be used
and determine the grammar rule. As a conclusion to the activity, the teacher can ask the students to
explain the grammar rule as a final check that they understand the concept.
Advantages:
 Pupils are trained to think and work out problems for themselves.

 Retention of facts is enhanced.

 It develops logical thinking and creativity.

 It encourages investigation.

 It trains pupils to tackle real problems.

Disadvantages:

 It is time consuming

 Pupils with low I.Q may not see the connection between the example given and the rule or
principle formed.

 Unless the teacher is skilled in questioning the objective may not be achieved.

Deductive Method – a deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach. This

means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has the students
practice using the concept. For example, when teaching a new grammar concept, the teacher will
introduce the concept, explain the rules related to its use, and finally the students will practice using
the concept in a variety of different ways.
According to Bob Adamson, “The deductive method is often criticized because: a) it teaches grammar
in an isolated way; b) little attention is paid to meaning; c) practice is often mechanical.” This method
can, however, be a variable option in certain situations; for example, when dealing with highly
motivated students, teaching a particularly difficult concept, or for preparing students to write exams.
Advantages:
 It can be more effective with students of a higher level.
 It can be time-saving.
 A number of direct practice/application examples are immediately given.
 A number of rule aspects (for example, form) can be more simply and clearly explained than
elicited from examples.
Disadvantages:
 Passive learning. Less involvement on part of the learners.
 The learners do not take part in the generation of conclusion or generalization.
 Learner’s involvement will be drill or exercises that come after the explanation of the rule or
principle.
 Lesson appears uninteresting at first. Teacher begin the lesson with the abstract with what the
learners do not know.

DEMONSTRATION METHOD

Demonstration Method
It is a teaching method used to communicate an idea with a visual approach to examining
information, ideas and processes. It allows students to see the teacher actively engaged as a learner
and a model rather than merely telling them what they need to know. In this method of teaching, the
teacher performs the experiment before the class and simultaneously explains what he is doing. The
teacher asks relevant questions to maintain the interests and attention of his students.

Advantages
1. Seeing before doing: Benefit from seeing before having to do
2. It helps in involving various senses to make learning permanent
3. The psychomotor objective is easily achieved through demonstration method
4. The teacher invites cooperation of students in teaching learning process
5. Safety: allows teacher to control potentially dangerous materials or machinery instead of
students
6. It captures the interest of the students and motivates them for their active participation
7. No time wasted because students see the process live and catchy and with that, they easily
understand how to apply theoretical knowledge practically

Disadvantages
1. Not hands-on: Not a direct hands-on experience for student unless being lead step by step
2. There is scarcity of audiovisual aids and equipment and some teachers are not creative to
produce handmade models for demonstration
3. Pacing issue: Not all students will be able to follow single paced demonstration
4. The method is limited to particular teaching situation only
Teacher Directed Technique
It is an instructional approach in which the teacher structures lessons in a straightforward,
sequential manner. The teacher is clearly the one in control of the content or skill to be learned and
the pace and rhythm of the lesson. It allows the teacher to introduce new skills or concepts in
relatively short period of time. This technique is academically focused, with the teacher clearly stating
the goals for the lesson to the students. It also provides in depth monitoring the student’s capability to
the understanding of the lesson and later on the teacher would provide feedback to students on their
performance.

Advantages
1. This technique is effective because it is more focused on the behavioristic learning principles
such as obtaining students’ attention, reinforcing correct responses, providing correct feedback
and practicing correct responses
2. It tends to increase the academic learning time during which the students are attending to the
task and performing at a high success rate.
3. Students tend to follow and learn basic skills more rapidly when they receive a greater portion
of their instruction directly from the teacher
4. It focuses on the subject

Disadvantages
1. Limited content
2. Full dependency of students on teachers
3. Doesn’t allow students to express themselves, ask questions and direct their own learning
4. Students only get to learn what they are instructed to learn, not what they want to know or are
interested in.

Student Directed Technique

It is technique in which the students have the greater control, ownership and accountability
over his own education. They are the one who make choices to make their own choices while they
learn in order to make education much more meaningful, relevant and effective. The students
facilitate, a delegator and a personal model.

Advantages
1. The students advance in their education when they demonstrate they have learned the
knowledge and skills they are expected to learn.
2. Students are given the opportunities to make choices about their own learning and contribute
the design of learning experiences.
3. The students engaged on the activity.
4. They are the one to facilitate and are the one who are responsible for classroom management.
5. Promotes the natural development of self-confidence and initiative in dealing with facing other
people or in talking in the public

Disadvantages
1. The class would be noisy and lack of classroom management
 2. Student doesn’t always deliver instruction to the class, some students may miss the important
facts
3. If the student who had been chosen as a demonstrator are not yet prepare during the
demonstration, the discussion would lead to nothing
4. The student demonstrator has lack of confidence, he may not able to deliver her lesson well.
5. If the student demonstrator doesn’t know how to interact with the class, the discussion would
be mess out and the objective of the lesson will not be attained

Teacher – Student Technique

Teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. The teacher
performs the demonstration with the students helping in handing the materials over to the teacher as
he needs them during the demonstration. Student is the assistant of the teacher and has the authority
similar to the teacher.

Advantages
1. The students have the authority to manage and facilitate the class.
2. The distribution of parts to be discussed are equally divided to the teacher and student
assistant
3. The classroom management are well managed and organized which lead to smooth
demonstration
4. The student assistance has given the opportunity to lead the class and make some
demonstration as a teacher

Disadvantages
1. There is a potential for exhaustion, as they can be in constant interaction in an unnatural way
with the teacher.
2. When lack of coordination of teacher and student assistant, the demonstration will be a failure.
3. If the teacher chooses his student assistant without knowledge and understanding the topic to
be demonstrate, the objective of the lesson will not be attained
4. The collaboration of teacher- student will not be successful if both are not prepared in the day
of demonstration

Resource Speaker Technique

An invited resource speaker could be the demonstrating teacher himself. The class may likely
to welcome this change and besides their teacher may not be in a position to demonstrate such
particular lesson or procedure. The resource speaker may be found more effective as he can provide
the class with the necessary know-what and know-how in line with his own expertise and special
training.

Advantages
 1. The students are willingly and interestingly listen and participate on the demonstration of the
resource speaker
2. The resource speaker exposes the students to real-world life experiences from the position of
someone who has been there
3. Students get to see the insight and perspective of the resource speaker in the particular field
4. The students get to make between what learn in their textbooks and what they learn from the
resource speaker
5. Resource speakers offer something that a teacher can’t offer for the students and it can make
an impact to the student

Disadvantages
1. One of the drawbacks of this technique it might be that it takes time out of the class to include
practices in it, and some other important topics might be set aside
2. The students have the tendency to get bored when the resource speaker is not in humor
3. If the resource speaker does not show up, the teacher need to improvise and look for another
option
4. This technique would not work if there isn’t a shared interest in learning/teaching from both
parties
ACTIVITY METHOD
Activity method is a technique adopted by a teacher to emphasize his or her method
of teaching through activity in which the students participate rigorously and bring about efficient
learning experiences. It is a child-centered approach. It is a method in which the child is
actively involved in participating mentally and physically. Learning by doing is the main focus in
this method. Learning by doing is imperative in successful learning since it is well proved that
more the senses are stimulated, more a person learns and longer he/she retains.
Pine G (1989) mentions that in an activity based teaching, learners willingly with enthusiasm
internalize and implement concepts relevant to their needs.
So our understanding on the activity method by now should mean any learning that is
carried out with a purpose in a social environment, involving physical and mental action,
stimulating for creative action or expression.
Advantages:
The information processing theory in psychology views learners as active investigators of their
environment. This theory is grounded in the premise that people innately strive to make sense
of the world around them.
In the process of learning, they experience, memorize and understand. Students need to be
provided with data and materials necessary to focus their thinking and interaction in the lesson
for the process of analyzing the information. Teachers need to be actively involved in directing
and guiding the students’ analysis of the information.
It requires active problem solving by students in finding patterns in the information
through their own investigation and analysis. With continued practice in these processes,
students learn not the content of the lesson but also develop many other skills.
 It enhances creative aspect of experience.
 It gives reality for learning.
 Uses all available resources.
 Provides varied experiences to the students to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,
experience, skills and values.
 Builds the student’s self-confidence and develops understanding through work in his/her
group.
 Gets experiences, develop interest, enriches vocabulary and provides stimulus for reading.
 Develops happy relationship between students and students, teachers and students.
 An activity is said to be the language of the child. A child who lacks in verbal expression can
make up through use of ideas in the activity.
 Subjects of all kind can be taught through activity.
 Social relation provides opportunity to mix with others.
Disadvantages:
 The activity based instruction method requires long-term planning with minute details of the
whole process because before engaging the learners, the teacher has to make sure that all
students have sufficient knowledge and skills regarding the task they are going to perform. So
this method cannot be used on a regular and daily basis as it involves a lengthy procedure.
 The objectives of the method can only be fulfilled if the planning of the lesson is flawless. If
there is slightest flaw in the planning, this method would do more harm than good.
 Learners have varied levels of merit and understanding. So less meritorious students might
not prepare for a task as other which might lead to failure of objectives of the whole process.
 Many renowned educationists also are of the opinion that the activity based method is more
suitable for branches of experimental sciences and less useful for subjects of social science
Organizing activities:
The process of organizing activities must be based on curricular aims bringing together the
needs, ideas, interests and characteristics of the children with the knowledge, skill, experience,
and personality of the teacher within a given environment. The extent to which the teacher
works with students individually or in groups affect the relation the teacher has with each child.
Steps required for Effective Organization of Activities.
 Planning.
 Involving children in the learning process.
 Each child is made an active learner.
 For each activity ensure you follow the principles of:
1. What?
2. How? Work directions step by step, including:
3. With whom? Where? How long?
4. What after?
 Ensure you give clear instructions before each activity. It must focus on the above.
Project Technique
The project method is an educational enterprise in which children solve a practical
problem over a period of several days or weeks. It may involve building a rocket, designing a
playground, or publishing a class newspaper. The projects may be suggested by the teacher,
but they are planned and executed as far as possible by the students themselves, individually
or in groups. Project work focuses on applying, not imparting, specific knowledge or skills, and
on improving student involvement and motivation in order to foster independent thinking, self-
confidence, and social responsibility.
This teaching strategy focus on
1. To socialize a child
2. To achieve cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives
Advantages
1. It helps in developing social norms and social values among the learners.
2. It provides invaluable opportunities for correlation of various elements of the subject matter
and for transfer of training or learning.
3. It helps in growing knowledge very effectively as a results of their close cooperation on
social participation in the spirit of democracy.
Disadvantages
1. The project cannot be planned for all subjects and whole subject matter cannot be taught by
this strategy.
2. It is not economical from the point of view of time and cost.
3. It is very difficult for a teacher to plan or to execute the projects to the learners and
supervise them.
Procedure
There are two basic approaches for implementing the project method. According to the
historically older approach, the students take two steps: initially, they are taught in a systematic
course of study certain skills and facts, then they apply these skills and knowledge, creatively
and self-directed to suitable projects.
According to the second approach, the instruction by the teacher does not precede the project
but is integrated in it. In other words the students first choose the project, then they discuss
what they need to know for solving the problem and learn the required techniques and
concepts. Finally they execute the chosen project by themselves. In both approaches, time for
reflection should be provided during all phases of project learning, giving students the
opportunity to evaluate their progress. Many teachers–especially vocational and industrial arts
educators–use a series of small-scale projects to help students develop continuously
increasing competence in practical problem solving.
Field trip Technique
A field trip is a visit to a place outside the regular classroom which is designed to achieve
certain objectives, which cannot be achieved as well by using other means. For example, if the
lesson is on “making cheese”, and if there is no hand on experience it is very difficult to
achieve the objectives. In such a lesson this strategy is required. Field trips give opportunity for
a student a to get out of the classroom and experience something new. The located place for
field trip can be zoos, collages, museums, theater and schools.
Advantages
 Facilitate the learning of abstract concepts. Taking students on a field trip makes learning
more effective as they will be able to gain vast ideas on the topic.
 Motivate students through increased interest and curiosity. Field trips can add variety to the
regular classroom instructional program and they tend to be special and enjoyable learning
experiences. As a result, students will develop positive attitudes in students toward related
classroom activities.
 Increases student-student and student-teacher social interaction. Field trips provide an
opportunity to involve students, parents, and the teachers in the instructional program.
Students can select the place to be visited, developing questions to ask, writing reports or
thank you letters after the trip, or evaluating the experiences. Since parents must give their
permission, a letter sent home with the permission form explaining purpose of the trip is a good
way to arouse their curiosity and encourage them to ask the student or teacher about the trip.
The parent guides their child in order to make sure that they do not come to any harm. This
role allows the parent and teacher to establish a much closer relationship. The interaction
between students within themselves will also be increased when they work in groups.
Moreover, the interaction between the students and teacher will enhance as the students will
have to discuss to the teachers when they have doubts.
 Develops social awareness. Field trips make students aware of learning activities in
everyday life. For instance, visits to supermarkets or shopping malls are typical field
experiences, which teachers may fail to notice. A well-organized trip to a "normal" place is an
excellent method of teaching students to observe, ask questions, and learn in the large
classroom.
 It enhances the curriculum. Field trips are rich in educational possibilities as students learn
from actual hands-on experiences, rather than by simply reading or hearing about something.
Involvement in a real world experience makes learning more meaningful and memorable
comparing to regular classroom instructional programs.
 Give students experiential learning experiences. Involvement in a real world experience
makes learning more meaningful and memorable. As a result, the students will have more
concept of the topic as they have learnt through their hand-on experiences.
 Concrete skills such as note taking. Students have to develop questions to be asked, write
reports or thank you letters after the trip, or evaluate their experiences. By doing such
activities, students will develop various skills such as note taking skills, speaking skills, writing
skills will enhance.
 Involvement in a real world experience makes learning more meaningful and memorable.
 Field trips can add variety to the regular instructional program; they tend to be special and
enjoyable learning experiences, ones which develop positive attitudes in students toward
related classroom activities. Field trips are rich in educational possibilities because students
learn from actual firsthand experiences, rather than by simply reading or hearing about
something
 Field trips help the students appreciate the relevance and importance of what they learn in
the classroom. For e.g. determining blood type is a skill, which can be learned in a school
laboratory setting, but students may not learn the importance of this skill until they observe
what goes on in a real hospital where life and death of real patients may depend on this skill.
Disadvantages
 Time considerations. Difficultly in preparation (getting approval from various head of
administration) and fitting the trip as per the school timetable which takes more time.
 Lack of support from school administrations for field trips. It means school can’t afford the
materials and sometime can’t provide financial also where student have to search their own
ways.
 Poor student behavior and attitudes. Means loss over students like sometime some students
they don’t listen to the teacher showing their ego attitudes and doing the things on their own
ways which cause trip to be unsuccessful where it affects the other students and the relation
between teacher and students because of the bad attitude.
 Shortage of resources and choice of venue. Means sometimes school can’t provide the
materials and teacher also can’t have the correct materials for the trip which causes shortage
of resources. And some time student can’t have the choice to pick their own place and they
have to agree with the teacher choice which shows student doesn’t have the choice to select
the venue.
 Medical risk. For example, like while travelling via vehicle some children get motion
sickness.
Procedure
1. Trip Selection.
 Identify objectives and plan of evaluation for the field trip.
 Select site to be visited and arrange date and time.
 Conduct pre-visit to familiarize yourself with the major features of the field and obtain
address, directions, contact person and mobile numbers.
2. Logistics Planning
 Apply for administrative approval and file requisition for transportation.
 Make arrangement for meals and develop schedule for the day.
 Arrange special equipment like cameras and collect money for admission fees if the site
demands.
 Inform parents about the trips.
 Create a list of student names and home phone number for emergency.
3. Field Trip Preparation/Pre-trip discussion
 Discuss the purpose of the field trip.
 Show photographs or posters of the site.
 Set a standard conduct and discuss money usage, lunch plans, dress code and other
necessary things.
 Discuss how to ask good questions and make a list of open-ended observation questions to
gather information.
 Overview the field trip schedule.
4. The Field Trip
 Let students to sketch if it is necessary.
 Ask prepared questions and note the answers.
 Do things that you have planned.
5. Post-field Trip
 Let student to share their observations and reactions to field trip experiences.
 Create classroom bulletin board displaying materials collected while on field trip.
 Let class to compose thank-you letter to those who helped during the field trip. Include
special information learned.
6. Evaluating Field trip
 What was the unique educational value in this trip?
 Did students meet the objectives?
 Was there adequate time?
 Was there adequate staff and adult supervision?
 What might be done differently to be better?
 What points to be emphasized next time?
 What problems should be addressed in the future?
Dramatization Technique
The dramatization teaching method refers to a collection of teaching tools that include
traditional drama techniques, such as improvisation, storytelling, role playing and games. A lot
of emphasis is placed on engaging students through interactive activities. Dramatic teaching is
integrated into many different types of curriculum.
There are many ways to use dramatization teaching methods in the classroom.
Teachers can use it to help students gain deeper insights into lessons, build on concepts and
themes or as a means to test student knowledge. These creative techniques often bring a bit
of chaos into the learning process, and teachers guide their students through this creative
chaos while staying within the framework of the curriculum.
Teachers may choose to use dramatic teaching methods, such as teacher in role, storytelling
or still images. In the teacher in role method, the teacher assumes a character role to guide
discussion on a topic. The teacher may use costuming or props to give the role more depth,
and the teacher answers questions from students while in character. With the storytelling
method, the teacher brings the subject matter to life through the use of stories. The stories
incorporate key information from the course and turn it into a compelling story that is told in the
teacher's own words. With the still images method, the teacher instructs students to form a
circle, and each student takes a turn at recreating a still image with their bodies that represents
a specific topic idea.
Advantages:
 It increases students’ motivation, participation, confidence and fluency in the spoken English
as well as communication through the body language.
 It extends the emotional range of expressions.
 It develops creativity and spontaneity.
 It provides opportunities for group and self-expression.
 It promotes confidence, trust, cooperation and group cohesion.
 It provides opportunities for group and self-expression.
 It develops the students’ performance skills.
 It fosters verbal and non-verbal communication.
 It feeds the speakers’ need to exchange ideas and make decisions.
 It maximizes students’ use of English.
 It ensures students’ involvement and decision-making.
 It stimulates authentic conversations that aim at developing conversational competence
among foreign language learners.
 It serves as a fluency activity.
 It creates sensitivity and a sense of awareness.
 It prepares students for real life and unpredictability.
Disadvantages:
 Activities are artificial. The situations are sometimes and irrelevant to the learner’s need.
 Activities are difficult to monitor both physically and verbally.
 There is a fear among teachers that drama use may cause sort of uncontrolled fun among
learners.
 It causes embarrassment and awkwardness, in some situations, especially among adult
learners.
 It encourages incorrect forms of language as long as the teacher is not encouraged to
correct mistakes immediately so as not to discourage students.
 Activities may not be suitable to all the class. The activities that succeeded with a group of
students may fail with another.
Procedure:
 There are many ways to use dramatization teaching methods in the classroom. Teachers
can use it to help students gain deeper insights into lessons, build on concepts and themes or
as a means to test student knowledge. These creative techniques often bring a bit of chaos
into the learning process, and teachers guide their students through this creative chaos while
staying within the framework of the curriculum.
 Teachers may choose to use dramatic teaching methods, such as teacher in role,
storytelling or still images. In the teacher in role method, the teacher assumes a character role
to guide discussion on a topic. The teacher may use costuming or props to give the role more
depth, and the teacher answers questions from students while in character. With the
storytelling method, the teacher brings the subject matter to life through the use of stories. The
stories incorporate key information from the course and turn it into a compelling story that is
told in the teacher's own words. With the still images method, the teacher instructs students to
form a circle, and each student takes a turn at recreating a still image with their bodies that
represents a specific topic idea.
Simulation Technique
Simulation is a controlled representation of reality. Simulation means role- playing or
rehearsal in which the process of teaching is carried out artificially. Simulated teaching is a
teacher training technique. It is used to bring about modification in the behavior of the teacher.
It introduces pupil teacher to teach in non-stressful conditions.
Simulated teaching is used prior to the classroom teaching practice with the objective of
developing a specific skill of communication. It can be used for pre-service teachers to make
them effective.
In simulated teaching, one pupil-teacher acts as a teacher and other teacher trainers act as
students. The teacher in this situation teaches considering the student as school students.
Advantages:
 It is for experiencing problem situation.
 This technique helps us in acquiring some classroom manners.
 The use of this technique enables us to study and analyze the teaching problems.
 Self-confidence in teaching developers through simulated teaching.
 This technique helps in explaining the behavior problems in the classroom and contributes
to its solutions.
 This technique makes a person more aware of the role.
 It bridges the gap between theory and practice of teaching.
 It provides them with the reinforcement to develop various teaching skills.

Disadvantages:
 Its use cannot be made in all subjects of the curriculum.
 This method requires a lot of preparation on the part of the teachers which they might not be
ready to take.
 The observer who is doing the role, may incorrect reading.
 For beginners, it may be difficult to practice a few teaching skills such as questioning,
 No emphasis is given to teaching the content.
Procedure
 Assignment of role: The student teachers are assigned the roles of teachers and observe
resp. It is done rotation basis.
 Deciding skill to be practiced: At this stage, the skill to be practiced is decided and planning
and preparation for it are done. Each trainee selects the topic according to his interest and
intelligence.
 Preparation of work schedule: At this stage, it is decided who will teach first and who will
observe and how everyone would be teaching /observing one by one.
 Determining technique of observation: In this stage, the decision is taken about the type of
observation technique to be adopted. It also includes which type of data is to be collected and
how these data are to be intercepted.
 Organization of first practice session: The first practice session is started and its
observations are recorded for judging the teaching behavior. This followed by feedback and
suggestions for further improvement.
 Alteration of procedure: The whole procedure is changed at this stage. There is a change of
teacher, change of observers, change of teaching skill and change in topic to be taught. Every
student is given the opportunity to play the role of teacher, a student, and a teacher.
Brainstorming
In context to teaching, brainstorming is a strategy or tool of teaching used by the
teacher in which maximum or all the students participate by responding or presenting views on
one topic. This technique encourages new ideas among students which would never have
happened under normal circumstances.
Advantages
 It stimulated and provides varied instructional approach.
 Highly motivating.
 Increase task focus.
 Promotes spontaneity and creativity.
 Efficient and procedure.
 Involves participants in ownership of ideas.
 Encourages creativity.
Disadvantages:
 It promotes fights and arguments.
 It’s not always effective. Brainstorming is dependent on several factors, and it becomes
ineffective if one or two of these factors are not present.
 It’s not always the right choice for everybody. Some people panic at the thought of speaking
in front of a group, but they can come up with excellent ideas when in one-on-one meetings.
The key here is to identify when and where you should do a brainstorming session and
determine if the people around you will benefit from one.
Procedure:
 First, a small group of students is formed. They are asked to sit in a group and are provided
with a particular issue or topic.
 Teacher, as the group leader, then ask group members to think about the problem and give
their ideas. They are advised to find as many solutions to the problem as they can find. They
are instructed not to criticize others ideas but they are free to make attentions to others ideas.
Students are encouraged to put forward suggestions without hesitation even if they seem to
come up with unusual and unorthodox ideas.
 Students ideas are to be listened and accepted patiently, without passing any judgment or
comment of any sort until the session is over.
Debate
It is a process that involves formal discussion on a particular topic. In a debate,
opposing arguments are put forward to argue for opposing viewpoints. Debate occurs in public
meetings, academic institutions, and legislative assemblies. It is a formal type of discussion,
often with a moderator and an audience, in addition to the debate participants.
Advantages:
 Improved critical thinking skills
 Acquire better poise, speech delivery, and public speaking skills
 Increased student retention of information learned
 Improved listening note-taking skills and increased self-confidence
 Enhance teamwork skills and collaboration
 More confidence to stand up for the truth when a discussion is promoting falsehoods or
inaccuracies
 Learning better ways to graciously state one’s point with gentleness
 Help students identify holes in their theories and concoct more balanced arguments
 Help students better structure their thoughts
 Debating is lots of fun!
Disadvantages:
 Debates Can Be Hurtful. According to Professor Daniel Yankelovich, author of "The Magic of
Dialogue: Transforming Conflict Into Cooperation," taking a side and doggedly defending it can
hurt relationships and thwart problem solving. Arguments, even intellectual ones, can generate
hard feelings between opposing camps
 Assigning Sides Sways Opinions. A 2012 study titled "Assigned Positions for In-Class
Debates Influence Student Opinions" by Emily L. Lilly, a professor at Virginia Military Institute,
found that assigning positions to student debaters significantly interfered with students' abilities
to come to their own conclusions based on their research. "Prior to debating, only 41 percent
of students [observed] happened to agree with their assigned position, yet following the
debates, 77 percent of students agreed with their assigned positions," Lilly writes. The study,
which was published in the International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education, raises questions about the value of debates to sway opinion based on the actual
merits of arguments.
 Repetition Shapes Views. A 2007 study published in the Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology found that repetition of an opinion increases its popularity. The study, titled
"Inferring the Popularity of an Opinion From its Familiarity: A Repetitive Voice Can Sound Like
a Chorus," suggests that the side switchers in a school debate may have been drawn to the
position they became most familiar with -- their assigned position -- rather than to the most
reasonable and best supported claim. Spirited debates can engage even normally apathetic
students in important talk about pressing issues.
 Confirmation Bias Can Occur. The National Speech and Debate Association claims that
"students in debate come to thoroughly understand both sides of the resolution, having
researched each extensively, and learn to think critically about every argument that could be
made on each side." However, studies cited by Lilly show that watching debates probably
intensifies a priori opinions and leads students to cherry-pick evidence that supports their pre-
existing positions while ignoring contradictory evidence. These behaviors result in arguments
that suffer from what's known as confirmation bias.
Procedures:
 One team arguing for and another team arguing against the issue. The remaining students
will be the non-debating audience.
 Allow the teams time to work together prior to the debate, so that they can determine
arguments for or against a given topic.
 Each member of the team is given the opportunity to present one argument on behalf of
their team.
 Arguments should be timed, approximately 3-5 minutes per person.
 Allow time for rebuttals and responses, approximately 1 per person.
 Include the class in creating a clear set of rules, timings and guidelines for the debate. Non-
debating students should work together to create guidelines for how the debate will be judged,
evaluated and how feedback will be provided.
 DISCUSSION METHOD
It is a technique used for pulling knowledge and ideas. It can be applied as small groups or
larger group discussion composed of 5 to 7 individuals assigned to discuss a certain topic within
certain time limit. Discussion serves best when the students have a background in the content of the
discussion. It is used when the instructor wants the students to practice analysis and evaluation or to
examine opinions. The discussion is a common method for allowing exploration of attitudes.
Advantages:
1. The students are actively involved in processing information and ideas.
2. Students can share their experiences and participate in making decisions.
3. It provides means of communication and feedback between the lecturer and the learner.
Disadvantages:
1. Discussion can be very time consuming and unfocused unless the instructor makes an effort to
direct the flow.
2. An instructor often has difficulty in getting the students involved.
3. Class size must be restricted.

SMALL-GROUP DISCUSSION
Small-group discussion allows presenters to announce a topic or idea for group discussion
among participants. A small-group discussion follows a democratic guidelines and allows everyone to
contribute many ideas for others to discuss and reflect upon. Discussion allows for an interchange of
ideas within the context of a group under the direction of the presenter.
Process:
The purpose of the small-group discussion is to contribute and circulate information on a
particular topic and analyze and evaluate the information for supported evidence in order to reach an
agreement on general conclusions. To do this, several steps must be taken when conducting small-
group discussions.
Step 1: Introduction
The presenter must prepare before the discussion for it to be successful. The presenter should
try to introduce a topic on which all of the participants have some background knowledge so they
have a basis for discussion. If the participants are introduced to a topic that is familiar to them, each
will have something to contribute that another participant may not have thought of, thus moving the
discussion on its way with many new avenues of thought to explore. The introduction should have
four parts.
1. Instructional Objective. An instructional objective should be given to the participants at the
beginning of the discussion.
2. Purpose. The presenter should explain why the groups will be discussing the chosen topic.
3. Relationship. The presenter must explain how this information fits in what has already been
learned or what will be learned in the future.
4. Advanced Organizer. An advanced organizer is some sort of attention-grabber that attracts
participants’ interest. Many discussion topics fall because participants aren’t drawn into the
discussion at the beginning.
Step 2: Directing the discussion
The presenter is in charge in directing the discussion to get it started. The presenter should
ask the participants if they have questions about the topic at hand. These questions can start the
discussion, or the presenter may want to ask a few questions from a prepared list to stimulate thought
toward the topic. Another way to begin the discussion is to ask the participants to recall and share
personal events that have happened in their lives that relate to the topic.
Step 3: Summarizing the Discussion
 The presenter should summarize to make sure the participants understand what has been
discussed. Foe small-group discussions seeking consensus, it is important to summarize to make
sure all the participants are thinking along the same lines. A final summary is essential at the end of
the discussion. Basically, summarization is helpful for clearing up confusion, covering main points,
ending a discussion, and conveying consensus.
Advantages:
1. All participants in the group can participate.
2. It is a good way to get participants interested in a topic.
3. Participants may more easily understand another participant’s explanation than a presenter’s
explanation.
4. The presenter can identify participants who need assistance.
5. The presenter can identify individual opinions about the topic.
6. It helps the participant see relationships among ideas or concepts related to the topic at hand.
Disadvantages:
1. It is time-consuming.
2. Some participants in the group may do all the talking.
3. It involves less presenter involvement than other methods.
4. The discussion can easily get off track.

SOCIALIZED CLASSROOM DISCUSSION

If the small-group discussion technique is student-dominated, the socialized classroom
discussion involves a free exchange of ideas between the class and the teacher. In the latter, the
teacher does not assume an authoritarian image that is easily identified with the traditional instruction.
Instead he acts more as a moderator, guiding and directing the class discussion. He does not put a
period for every idea presented but rather provides perplexing situations and good items for inquiry so
as to stimulate his students’ minds. At the start of the activity, the students should have the feeling
that the teacher is depending on their answers and ideas, and not the other way around. They should
not regard the teacher as the only fountainhead of knowledge but a co-partner in the teaching-
learning process.
Process
 Conduct of Discussion
This implies holding the discussion in a successful manner. The discussion should be
systematic and disciplined. The arrangement of seats should be such as to permit face-to-face
conversation. The teacher should see that everybody cooperates and takes part in the discussion. A
few students should not be allowed to dominate the discussion. The discussion must result in some
sort of an agreement.
 Evaluation of Discussion
After the discussion, the main arguments raised during the discussion must be summed up.
The advantages and the limitations must be thoroughly weighed and evaluated. The outcomes of the
discussion must be properly assessed, and lessons and guidelines must be drawn to make the
discussion more effective and successful in future.
Advantages:
1. They begin to demonstrate the feeling of collective responsibility.
2. Providing motivation and opportunities for the ability of divergent thinking.
3. Developing cooperative thinking and reasoning.
4. Helping the independent pursuit of knowledge and problem solving.
5. There is a development of sociability and social attitude among the students.
Disadvantages:
 1. Group efforts are made to acquire the information related to a topic instead of providing
opportunities for independent efforts on the part of the individuals.
2. This method is mainly known for focusing on recitation on the part of students in a socialized
environment.
3. There is also a possibility while working as a member of the group may remain totally or
partially inactive.
4. There may arise a lot of genuine difficulty in arriving at the appropriate decision.

DIRECT INSTRUCTION OR CLASSROOM TECHNIQUE

Direct instruction or classroom teaching technique resembles most closely the lecture method.
It is a combination of teacher’s exposition and follow-up discussion on the part of the students. In this
technique, the teacher initially provides an information which will be adopted, supported, and affirmed
by the students. Unlike in the traditional method whereby they are expected to be passive and to be
in the receiving line, in this technique they are expected to participate during the activity. In this
connection, they have the following roles to play, namely: (1) to explain further the initial explanation
of the teacher; (2) to provide more and different but pertinent examples; (3) to make another
interpretation; (4) to restate the teacher’s point; (5) to substantiate and to support teacher’s ideas; (6)
to summarize the lesson as presented by him.
Process
1. Introduction / review

First, you set the stage for learning. This is the opening of the lesson, and it’s intended to
engage students, get their attention, and activate their prior knowledge. Build upon a previous lesson,
or get an understanding of their background knowledge of the subject you are about to teach them.
To show your students what exactly they have to learn and what is expected from them, you can give
them lesson objectives.

2. Present the new material

Use clear and guided instructions, so students can begin absorbing the new material. The
lesson content should be carefully organized step-by-step, with the steps building on each other. In
the direct instruction method, you can present new material through a lecture or through a
demonstration.

3. Guided practice

Here, the teacher and students practice the concept together. The student attempts the skill
with the assistance of the teacher and other students. The guided practice is conducted by the
teacher. The purpose of this step is to guide initial practice, correct mistakes, reteach (if necessary)
and provide sufficient practice so that students can work independently. It’s very important to ask
good questions to verify your students' understanding.

4. Feedback and correctives

If students don’t understand the lesson material, the teacher has to correct them and give
feedback. This is also very important in the guided practice, as students have to understand
everything in that phase.

There are 4 types of student responses to questions and actions a teacher should take
depending on the answer.

Student answer Teacher action

Correct, quick, and firm Ask a new question to keep up the pace of the lesson.

Correct, but hesitant Provide encouragement.

Incorrect, but careless Simply correct and move on.

Incorrect and lacking knowledge Provide hints, ask a simpler question, or reteach.

5. Independent practice

After guided practice and receiving the right feedback, students are ready to apply the new
learning material on their own. Independent practice gives the students the repetitions they need to
integrate the new information or skills with previous knowledge or skills. Independent practice also
helps students to become automatic in their use of the skills.

During this phase, students usually go through two stages: unitization and automaticity. During
unitization, the students are putting the skills they’ve learned together and use them in new situations.
As they keep on practicing, students reach the “automatic” stage where they are successful and
rapid, and no longer have to “think through” each step.

6. Evaluation/ review

Check whether your students know everything before moving on to a new concept that builds
upon what they’ve just learned. Collect student data you can review and decide whether or not the
lesson needs to be retaught. There are much evaluation and reviewing methods, so make sure to
pick the right one to find out data that really means something. Make sure your evaluation says
something about your students' learning process. Formative assessments are better suited for this.

Advantages:
1. Delivering large amounts of information in a timely manner.
2. The teacher has control of the timing of the lesson.
3. Students are physically easy to monitor.
4. The teacher has control over what will be learned and who will learn.
5. The curriculum can be covered so the teacher can say that he/she taught the material.
6. Any information for which there is one right answer can be taught efficiently and honestly by
using direct instruction.
Disadvantages:
1. Students do not have a sense of the overall purpose when it comes to simple steps.
2. More difficult to access the students’ prior knowledge.
3. Lower retention rate in problem solving.
4. Direct instruction works best in conjunction with other teaching methods.

PANEL DISCUSSION TECHNIQUE

A panel discussion is a method of teaching in which four to eight persons or students discuss
the assigned topic/problem/issues creatively among themselves in front of an audience. In a panel
discussion, a selected group of students act as a panel and the remaining class members act as the
audience. The panel informally discusses selected questions. A panel leader is chosen and he/she
summarizes the panel discussion and opens discussion to the audience.
Process
 Select a chairperson/moderator, the panellists and the audience.
 The panel discussion consists of 4-8panellist along with the chairperson or moderator seated
facing the audience.
 The moderator must keep the discussion to the subject and ensure that all members of the
panel get an equal opportunity to express their views.
 The members of the panel are introduced and the then the topic is announced and limit of
discussion is stated.
 The panel discussion should provide a natural setting in which the audience will have the
opportunity to ask questions, evaluate replies and make constructive contributions.
 The moderator coordinates the discussion and make sure the discussion is carried on in a
conversational way.
  The moderator clarifies an issue or misconception and then summarizes the main points
presented by the speakers and invites the audience to contribute and ask questions.
 Finally, the moderator sums up the discussion.
Advantages:
1. Different points of views are expressed.
2. The quick exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions help students to sharpen their critical thinking
and better judgment.
3. Students learn to discuss topics in conversational forms in small group or in large group.
Disadvantages:
1. Panel discussion requires more time for planning, organizing and presentation.
2. The discussion may be vague and superficial if the panel members lack mastery.

RECITATION TECHNIQUE
Recitation is a direct, teacher-centered approach in which the teacher asks specific short
answer questions with a specific answer in mind. Incorrect answers are usually corrected by the
teacher or by the class. A teacher may use probing questions in order to help the class come to the
correct answer. The repetition of question and answer helps information retention and it is best used
for the memorization of facts – base level knowledge.
Process
 When using recitation as a strategy, the teacher should have all of the questions planned out
ahead of time.
 The teacher should obtain the attention of the entire class, and address the question to the
entire class before asking a specific student to respond.
 Call on volunteers as well as non-volunteers
 Encourage students to speak to the whole class when responding
 Jeopardy game is a good way to incorporate technology into recitation strategy.
 Have students call on one another by having them pass an object around the room.
 Be sensitive to students' willingness to speak publicly, and never put a student on the spot.
Advantages:
1. Recitation is a place for developing reflective thinking and creative expression, favourable
attitudes and ideals of social living.
2. Recitation s a student-centered.
3. Wholesome attitudes essential to effective social living can be very well developed.
4. There is freedom of expression and training of good speech.
Disadvantages:
1. Students are not motivated to ask questions.
2. Students assume little responsibilities and his only responsibility is to memorize.
3. There is emphasis on the ability to memorize, and the student who memorizes best is the best.
4. There will be poor result when it comes to group discussions.

INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE
The three-step interview strategy is a cooperative learning technique that focuses on
developing students’ active listening skills, and helps to develop their note-taking skills and the ability
to share information with others. Essentially, it’s a fun way to encourage students to ask questions,
share their thinking, and take notes. The strategy is mainly composed of question-and-answer
sessions where one student is the interviewer and another is the interviewee. However, there is a
third student who is actively listening and taking notes during the interview. The strategy is designed
as a fun cooperative learning method to help students become more engaged and interested in their
learning.

Process

 Place students into groups of three.

 Assign each student a role: Interviewer, interviewee, note-taker.
 Rotate roles after each interview.
 Have students take turns sharing the information that they recorded when they were the note-
taker.

Advantages:

1. Encourages students to use their critical thinking skills.

2. Gives students the chance to voice their own opinions.
3. Encourages students to question as well as generate answers.
4. Enhances students’ active listening skills.
5. Promotes communication skills.
6. Fosters student accountability.

Disadvantages:
1. They can be very time-consuming: setting up, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, feedback,
reporting.
2. Different interviewers may understand and transcribe interviews in different ways.

INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE METHOD OF TEACHING

DEDUCTIVE METHOD
Deductive teaching (also called direct instruction) is much less “constructivist” and is based on
the idea that a highly structured presentation of content creates optimal learning for students. The
instructor using a deductive approach typically presents a general concept by first defining it and then
providing instructions that demonstrate the idea.
The teacher began with the presentation of generalization followed by presenting of learning
material in the form of examples related to generalization. Students are given opportunities to practice
with instructor guidance and feedback, applying and finding examples of the concept at hand, until
they achieve concept mastery.
Example: A social studies teacher discussing about the origin of humans and early human society. By
giving generalization that hominids are the earliest humanlike creatures and it is where our human
stories started as it evolves to modern human. Then in the preceding discussion the teacher will
discuss what are the first and other modern humans, its evolution, migration and settlements.
Advantages of Deductive Method
1. Coverage of a wider scope of subject matter.
 Instruction is direct by starting the rule or the principle at the beginning of the class,
cover more subject matter over a period of time.
2. No bother on the part of the teacher to lead learners to the formulation of generalization or
rule.
 Gives generalization at the beginning of the lesson.
3. Deductive learners like to have the general principles identified and prefer to deduce the
consequences and examples from them.
4. This method has a clear and readily apparent structure, and is paced to accommodate
students’ needs.
Disadvantages of Deductive Method
1. It is not supportive of the principle that learning is an active process.
 There is less involvement on the part of the learners.
2. Lesson appears uninteresting at first.
 Lesson begin with the abstract. Learners do not know, so at the outset our lesson will
look irrelevant and uninteresting.
3. Does not allow for divergent student thinking nor emphasize students reasoning and problem
solving.
Note: The deductive approach is teacher- dominated. It begins with abstract rule, generalizations,
principles and ends with specific examples, and concrete details.

INDUCTIVE METHOD
In contrast with the deductive method, inductive instruction make use of student “noticing”.
Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanations with examples, such as the
teacher presents students with many examples showing how the concept is used. The intent is for
student to “notice”, by way of examples and how the concept works.
An instructor using an inductive approach begins exposing students to a concrete instance or
instances of a concept. Then learners are encourage to observe patterns, raise questions, or make
generalization from their observations. The teachers’ role is to create opportunities and the context in
which students can successfully make the appropriate generalizations, and to guide students as
necessary.
Example:
Advantages of Inductive Method
1. The learners are more engaged in teaching-learning process.
 With the instructor facilitating skills, the learners formulate the generalization or rule.
2. Learning becomes more interesting at the outset.
 It begins with the experience of the students or what they know.
3. It helps the development of our learners’ higher-order thinking skills (HOTS).
 To see patterns and analyze the same in order to arrive at generalization requires
analytical thinking.
Disadvantages of Inductive Method
1. It requires more time and so less subject matter will be covered.
2. It demands expert facilitating skills on the part of the teacher.
Note: The inductive method is less teacher- directed than the Deductive method. It begins with
specific details, concrete data, and examples and ends with generalization rule, or principle.
COMPARISON

How can a teacher decide which method is the best choice for a given topic?
Both deductive and inductive sequences are valuable for teaching concepts, generalizations,
processes, and skills. The teacher must decide which to select given the learning outcomes desired
and the composition of the class. When choosing, the teacher should consider a number of factors:
 How personalized should the learning be? Students will usually be more involved in the
learning experience and tend to participate more actively when an inductive approach is used.
If a deductive approach is chosen, it is important to structure the learning experience in order
to draw on students' prior experiences and learning, and to provide for their active involvement.
 Should learning experiences be predictable? The deductive approach is more predictable
because the teacher selects the information and the sequence of presentation.
 What depth of understanding and rate of retention is desired? Students tend to understand and
remember more when learning occurs inductively.
 How much time is available to teach the material? The deductive approach is faster and can
be an efficient way to teach large numbers of facts and concrete concepts.
 Instructional methods tend to be either deductive or inductive, although some methods use
both. Many lessons can include both approaches
LECTURE METHOD
5. Lecture method is the oldest method of teaching. It is based on the philosophy of idealism.
This method refers to the explanation of the topic to the students. The emphasis is on the
presentation of the content. The teacher clarifies the content matter to the students by using
gestures, simple devices, by changing voice, change in position and facial expressions.
Teachers are more active and students are passive but the teacher also asks questions to
keep the students attentive.

Steps of Lecture Method

The pure lecture method (without the usual question-and-answer-session) involves four steps,
namely: (1) preparation for the lecture, (2) introduction to the lecture: (3) giving the body of the
lecture: and (4) conclusion of the lecture.

Preparation for the lecture

This encompasses the salient points like the cognitive framework upon which to develop the topic
selected, the appropriate language and manner of presentation, that is considering the kind and
nature of the students, the selection of helpful audiovisual aids and instructional materials, planning
the motivational technique, anticipating certain difficulties and problems during the lecture, and finding
suitable solutions and alternatives to these barriers to a successful one.
Introduction to the lecture
Several techniques for appropriate start have been suggested like making students anticipate what
they expect to learn, making them aware of the importance of the topic for a given purpose, asking
them about what they already know about the topic, making casual remarks leading to the topic, and
establishing good rapport with the class
Giving the Body of the Lecture
The teacher should have a given cognitive framework upon which he relies to achieve a more logical
lecture presentation. This framework serves also as a guide so he does not go beyond the assigned
topic. In lecturing, there are several cognitive frameworks that could be utilized.
Conclusion of the Lecture
To wrap up the lecture session, the teacher may resort to any of the following techniques:
summarizing major points presented, paraphrasing the key ideas shared, forming certain
generalization, using the newly informed generalizations to interpret new situations, giving
implications, and making future trends and predictions based on the summarized data.

Advantages of Lecture Method

6. Effective lecturers can communicate the intrinsic interest of a subject through their enthusiasm.
7. Lectures can present material not otherwise available to students.
8. Lectures can be specifically organized to meet the needs of particular audiences.
9. Lectures can present large amounts of information.
10. Lectures can be presented to large audiences.
11. Lecturers can model how professionals work through disciplinary questions or problems.
12. Lectures allow the instructor maximum control of the learning experience.
13. Lectures present little risk for students.
14. Lectures appeal to those who learn by listening.

Disadvantages of Lecture Method

 Lectures fail to provide instructors with feedback about the extent of student learning.
 In lectures students are often passive because there is no mechanism to ensure that they are
intellectually engaged with the material.
 Students' attention wanes quickly after fifteen to twenty-five minutes.
 Information tends to be forgotten quickly when students are passive.
 Lectures presume that all students learn at the same pace and are at the same level of
understanding.

Outlining Technique
The outlining technique involves a cognitive framework in which the subject matter is presented from
general to specific (from a broad topic to sub-topics, from the sub-topics to sub-sub topics). This
requires the lecturer to present a ready outline in the beginning- an outline which will guide him in the
actual task of lecturing. In a way, it is similar to the process of analysis which is the breaking up of the
whole into its parts.
In outlining technique, therefore, there is a hierarchy of ideas developed from big to small, from
complex to simple, and from general to specific. Such arrangement easily provided a support
mechanism to present lecture notes in a more organized matter.
Advantages
6. Outlining records content as well as relationships.

6. Easier to master the content

7. Helps organize the lecture

Disadvantages.

5. This method may not show relationships by sequence when needed.

Component technique
The component technique is exactly the reverse of the outlining technique. This time instead of
breaking up the whole into its parts, the lecturer should organize his ideas from small to large. Hence,
the process of synthesis is involved here. As the lecture proceeds, more pertinent data are presented,
resulting to the crystallization of one pervasive idea.
Advantages
6. Lecture can be adjusted during the class

Sequential technique
 The sequential technique seems to provide the most effective, cognitive framework around
which the whole lecture revolves. For one thing, it provides a very logical presentation of ideas
like the chronological arrangement of events in history or the ups and downs of business in
economics, and many other related lessons.
Advantages
6. As mentioned above, students meet or at least see and briefly hear about the work that is
going on in their discipline from specialists. This may be an advantage for those students
contemplating fourth-year projects and post-graduate studies.
7. • The sequentially taught unit may serve as a sampler or ‘smorgasbord’ for a particular field of
learning. In doing so, it may provide a valuable service for the students by helping them to
ascertain whether or not they want to specialize in an area. This approach may also help them
to identify ‘compatible’ researchers with whom they may enjoy collaborating in the future.
8. • A sequentially taught unit also exposes students to more than one interpretation of the
subject matter thus reducing bias in instruction (Beard and Hartley, 1984) and promotes critical
thinking skills.

Disadvantages
9. Each of the benefits stated above assumes that expert researchers also make expert teachers
and can clearly communicate the concepts in their area of expertise.
10. Obviously, this is not necessarily so (McKeachie, 1994) and there are important considerations
such as the collaborative ability and verbal communication skills of the researcher that need to
be considered before that person is called on to share expertise (Braxton and Del Favero,
2000). The mind-set of a researcher is distinctly different than that of a teacher (Braxton and
Del Favero, 2000).
 11. In sequential teaching, the incentives for investment by teachers in good instructional
development are minimal. Therefore, there is a higher probability that the outcome will be poor.
Furthermore, an individual instructor’s overall time commitment to the whole unit and the class
is fairly minor, so they are less likely to feel individually responsible for the unit’s success or for
its failure.
Relevance Technique
Consists of four main steps, namely:
a. Presentation of a central thought or the singular idea
b. Giving all impressions about this idea
c. Separating the correct impressions from the incorrect ones
d. Concentrating the lecture on the explanation of the correct impressions
Advantages
7. Students are more engaged in class
8. Important topics are highlighted
9. Not time consuming
Disadvantages
6. Requires proper feedback so as to not offend any students
Transitional technique
5. Presents an in-depth treatment of a particular topic
6. It aims to expand and provide different but acceptable perspectives about the subject of the
lecture
Advantages
7. Students are more engaged in the class
Disadvantages
8. Time-consuming

The Reporting Method

One very popular method of teaching involves nothing but a simple act of reporting. So popular
is this method that certain teachers overuse it. To them, it seems to be only existing method of
teaching. It is to be stressed time and again that any teaching method loses its effectiveness the
moment the teacher abuses its use. It could be very effective in a particular classroom situation but
not necessarily in another. That is why the unsettled and will never be resolved. Such query should
not be raised in the first place for every teaching method has its own rightful place in the
teacher’s primordial task of guiding and directing the learning activities of his students.

Reporting method aims to provide students with information in a direct, uninterrupted manner.
It resembles a popular television format --- news casting, a program which many viewers never fail to
watch. This is so because it keeps them properly informed about certain events that take place every
now and then. Similarly, the reporting method serves the same purpose since it could offer students
with adequately well-organized bits of information.

The task of reporting is commonly done by students. Initially, the teacher presents the scope
and coverage of the subject he teaches and later he assigns each student particular topic or topics to
research on and gives him certain pointers on how to deliver them orally in front of the class. In this
setup, the students tend to assume the responsibility of learning the topics all alone by themselves.
Thus the reporting method has the following limitations:
(a) Not all students are good in reporting; and
(b) Not all classroom activities could be effectively done using this method.
 It is worth mentioning at this point that the teacher should not entirely leave the responsibility of
reporting and giving the accompanying explanation to his students. What is then the role of the
teacher in students’ reporting? At the end of the report, the teacher may come in. He may add salient
points not taken up and he may clarify certain points. The teacher should play a supportive role to
students who do the reporting. It is not easy for students, generally speaking, to muster enough
courage to stand and talk before the class. Consequently during the reporting the teacher may get
into the scene the moment the reporter seems to be at a loss. He must make the topic clearer so the
student reporting could go back to his proper mental setup. These are some things that the teacher
may do:

1. Cite some pertinent examples to make the definition and explanation of certain terms well-
illuminated in his students' minds;
Advantages Disadvantages
2. Ask some
 Highly Cognitive  Less assurance of getting the
leading questions
students’ attention
or bring new ideas
 Help the students to maintain  Not all techniques ensures
focus mastery which could be
 Keeps the students to be  Not all teachers observes the helpful to the
properly informed about students misinformation during understanding of
certain events that take place the reporting. the topic being new
every now and then ideas which could
 Improves students’ be helpful to the
communication skills understanding of
 Offer students with adequately the topic being
well-organized bits of reported on; or
information
3. Ask thought-provoking questions and can present true-to-life Situations in which the ideas
absorbed from the topic could be easily applied.

It will a so be good for students if the teacher briefs them (the reporters) regarding the making
of a good report. He can even go to the extent of demonstrating how to make one. He may provide
them with some important reporting practices like preparing an outline, giving explanation in one's
own words, and not copying it word for word from the book, doing away with reading while reporting,
etc.

The Techniques of Reporting Method

The Reporting Method may be categorized into five (5) techniques, viz: (1) unit or Morrison
technique; (2) individual or group technique; (3) reading technique or storytelling technique; (4)
schematic technique: and (5) the so-called symposium.

1. Unit or Morrison Technique

 One technique of reporting that is teacher-initiated m the beginning and student-directed in its
middle and final phases is the unit or Morrison technique. Such procedure, indeed, shows that the
teacher needs to structure the learning environment of students before they are expected to carry out
certain tasks. It also requires teacher and students to join hands for a common purpose, that is, the
learning of the latter.

Meaning of Unit or Morrison Technique

This technique is the process of taking the contents of a particular subject as big blocks and
not as isolated and fragmentary buts of information. The aim is to approach topics as organized and
integrated body, showing relevance and cognitive relationship. Commonly, the teacher assigns every
course, the activity does not last in just one sitting; it may certainly take several days before one unit
or chapter is completely taken by the class.

Applicability of the Unit Technique or Morrison Technique

This technique is most suitable to classroom situations whereby a large body of information is
to be learned by students. Such is particularly true in highly academic subjects like science and social
studies. While it is not applicable to skill subjects like mathematics and reading, if effectively done, it
ensures on the part of the students mastery of the topic. Some educators believe the steps of the
Advantages Disadvantages technique are
 Not only logical but also  Not all teachers are capable of synonymous with
psychologically sound. making long range unit plans steps of mastery
that cover a week or more. approach, namely:
 The Morrisonian technique  Teachers may just go through (1) pre-test; (2)
corresponds to the steps in the the motions and leave out the teach; (3) re-test;
mastery formula. essence. (4) re-teach; and
 It takes up big blocks of subject  Method alone does not ensure (5) post-test. While
matter and cuts across subject mastery. its focus is highly
boundaries, and is therefore cognitive, it also
more true to life.
aims to develop
 It does away with the
learning skills of
fragmentation of subject matter
students especially
that results with the use of
other traditional methods. their study habits.
 Because the subject matter is
encountered in every step of
the unit and because it is
presented as a unified whole, Process:
what is taught is learned to the
point of mastery. 1. Exploration
– The teacher, through questions and tests, discovers the strengths and weaknesses the
learners have.
2. Presentation – The essential features of the unit are presented and emphasized. The teachers
may make use of different instructional materials.
3. Assimilation – The child learns what has been presented by the teacher, absorbs it, and makes
it part of himself.
4. Organization – Cooperative outlining is being worked out here by the students where they
place these on the board. They criticize, and adopt final form.
5. Recitation – This is the reverse of the presentation where students performs and teachers
facilitate.
2. Individual and Group Reporting

Reporting could be done either by individual students or by group of students. Each technique
has its own particular use. The individual mode of reporting could be sorted to on a selective basis
where only the capable students in class are asked to report. Likewise, the group mode of reporting
should provide students with the opportunity to work together as one body. In both modes of
reporting, the teacher should adequately prepare the students. Making assigned topics clear to them
and giving them the possible sources of information could be helpful in this regard.

Observations show that individual reports seem to fit intellectually superior students who prefer
to work alone by themselves. Likewise, group reporting is preferred by students having varying
mental abilities since in such arrangement the brighter students could be supportive of the less bright
ones. Usually students belonging to the same group elect one as a leader whom they perceive to be
the brightest or most capable among them. The basis for this selection seems to be his or her ability
to speak fluently and substantially.

To make the reporting highly interesting and enjoyable, the students could be encouraged to
go into contrived situations. The styles of reporting could imitate the format of any of the popular
television and radio programs. Reporters could play the role of known personalities in certain fields
Advantages Disadvantages like government,
 Improves students’  Less assurance that all of the movie. Press, etc.
communication skills. group members will participate Some students
in group reporting. even tape music
 Enhance the students’  Less assurance of the listeners’ identified with the
creativity. attention. program and others
 Improves students’ mastery of mimic the voice,
the topic assigned to them. facial expression,
 Ensures independent and and manner of
collaborative learning. dressing of such
 Develops leadership skills personalities.
among the group
Process:

1. Introduction – It is the initiation phase of the report. The teacher directs student reporters to
stay in front and make necessary motivation to the class.
2. Report Proper – It is the actual staging of the report, the necessary materials for the effective
development of the topics to be presented.
3. Clincher – It is the process of verifying and confirming the validity of the information reported.
3. Reading and Storytelling Technique

In the
Advantages Disadvantages elementary level,
 Involves many mediums of  Story telling won’t be effective if reporting cannot
communication for example, use the story teller doesn’t have the be as formal and
of gestures, song and dance. required skills. long as it is being
 Molds characters and provides  The extensively use of the story done in college.
enjoyment. telling method tends to produce
Pupils could
passive listeners who receive
simply be
information without much
probing questioning to allowed to read
understand much better. from their books
 Broadens the knowledge of the  Poor method of active or to narrate their
students and the cultural beliefs participation by learner. own experiences
and activities. in relation to a
 Establishes good relationship  Lessens the opportunity for given topic.
among students and their them to learn by doing.
teacher. Both the
reading and the
 It also makes learning less storytelling parts
burdensome. of a report have
certain aims to
achieve. Reading a passage or two allows the class to focus its attention on particular point or points.
It also makes learning less cumbersome since it does take a bit of information and not a big "chunk"
of knowledge. On the other hand, storytelling activity has an apperceptive basis since students are
able to bring into the consciousness of the whole class their very own experiences. There are also
psychological dimensions involved here --- that is in terms of arousing interests among themselves
and of providing opportunities for self-expression.

Process:

1. Reading of Passage – This is the process where the student focuses its attention on a
particular point.
2. Story Telling – This is the process where the students express what they’ve read in a direct
manner.
4. Schematic Technique

This is a type of reporting which considerably makes use of hard wares of instruction. Hence,
the products of instructional technology are extensively used to aid the reporter. Although this mode
of reporting is ordinarily done by an invited resource speaker and by the teacher himself (if he does
so, it may turn out to be a lecture rather than reporting), several students could be taught to conduct
reporting using modern media of communication like phonograph records, film-showing, film clips and
tapes, slides, tape-recorders, and the like. How to operate these modem equipment could be an
equally significant learning experience for students.

One important principle involved in this reporting technique is stated as: "These products of
instructional technology should be used as means rather than the end of teaching.” This simply
means that they could not be a good substitute for the reporter. The class should not be asked to just
view a film and when it is over, the class is automatically dismissed. The film-viewing is nothing
unless it is properly explained and evaluated by the reporter himself.

Thus, audio-visual devices should serve several purposes during the reporting like (1) making
an interesting vivid and well-done illustration of an idea; (2) substantiating points shared; (3)
sustaining the interest of the audience to the report; and (4) ensuring permanency in learning.
Advantages Disadvantages
Schematic
 Makes the session active and  The hard ware used could not
more interesting. be a good substitute for the technique of
reporter. reporting could
 Less expensive  The session will not be be less
sophisticated
informative if the reporter only
and,
contained the discussion with a therefore,
film-viewing. less expensive
 More feasible than the modern and elaborate.
means of communication. Students could
 Catches the interest of the make use of the
learners diagrams, tables,
graphs, etc. that
 Ensures permanency in learning they personally
made for the
report. Experiences show that such mode is far more feasible than the reporting done using the
modem means of communication. Schools by and large are not adequately equipped with them.

Process:

A teacher may or may not invite a resource speaker for a particular session. Whether the
resource speaker will do the reporting or the teacher himself, the discussion of the teacher or the
resource speaker must be done before giving a task to the learners. Students may use diagrams,
charts or tables to report a particular topic out of the theme that was talked about.
5. Symposium

Symposia are closely identified with school forums which are open to all faculty members and
students. This is particularly true when there are school celebrations being commemorated.
Significantly, it involves the following phases:

(1) Identifying the theme of a school celebration;

(2) Breaking down the theme into three or more specific topics;

(3) Selecting the appropriate speaker for each topic;

(4) During the symposium proper, each speaker is given equal time to expound on the topic
assigned to him;

(5) Open forum whereby the audience asks questions to the designated speakers.

It should be noted that symposium could not be held as often as other activities simply
because it entails a lot of preparation and it involves certain complexities in its actual implementation.
One symposium during a semester or a school year is enough. Such experience can provide
students with opportunities: (a) to plan and execute certain courses of action; (b) to concretize the
concepts of good leadership and membership; (c) to develop their imagination, creativity, and
resourcefulness; (d) to work in a cooperative and collaborative manner; and (e) to be more exposed
to timely and pertinent issues. Thus activity can also afford them chances to listen analytically, to
organize their thoughts, and to raise sensible questions.

Process:

1. The chairman of the symposium introduces the topic and suggests something of its
importance.
2. Two or more speakers talk from 10 to 20 minutes.
3. The speech may be persuasive, argumentative, informative or evocative. Each speech
proceeds without interruptions.
4. The speeches are followed by questions or comments from the audience as in panel form.

Advantages
 Suited to a large group or classes
 This method can be frequently used to
present broad topics for discussion at
conventions and organization
meetings.
 The organization is good because of
the set speeches prepared beforehand.
 It directs the students to continuous
and independent study.
 It gives deeper insight into a topic.
Disadvantages
 The chairman has no control over the
speakers.
 There is a probability of repetition of
conduct.
 The different aspect of theme is
presented simultaneously.
 Listeners remain passive
 The technique is employed to achieve
the higher objectives of cognitive
domain but affective are not
emphasized properly.
 INVESTIGATIVE CASE-BASED LEARNING

(ICBL) is a variant of Problem Based Learning that encourages students to develop questions
that can be explored further by reasonable investigative approaches. Students then gather data and
information for testing their hypotheses. They produce materials which can be used to persuade
others of their findings. Students employ a variety of methods and resources, including traditional
laboratory and field techniques, software simulations and models, data sets, internet-based tools and
information retrieval methods.

Investigative cases draw from realistic situations in which scientific reasoning can be applied.
Although the case defines a general area of science under investigation, students generate specific
questions to guide their study. Students investigate scientific problems that they find meaningful. In
the process they also learn to:

 locate and manage information;

 develop reasonable answers to the questions;
 use scientific inquiry strategies and methods;
 provide support for their conclusions, and;
 Work on decision making abilities.

Investigative cases are useful for lifelong learning because they are open-ended and draw from a
broad range of situations in which scientific reasoning can be applied. Investigative cases necessarily
shift the focus of student learning beyond the facts to include using scientific knowledge to frame
questions and to answer them.

Investigative case-based learning methods incorporate problem posing, problem solving, and peer
persuasion (Peterson and Jungck, 1988, Jungck et al., 2000). Instructors as well as students are
collaborators in this three phase process, often providing additional insights and defining potential
strengths and weaknesses in the design of the problem statement and the investigation. The
resolution (or clarification) of the problem and its presentation extend opportunities for student
practice in utilizing and evaluating scientific approaches to problem solving.

Advantages
 Cultivates skills for all areas of learning- Students build their comprehension, critical
thinking and communication skills.
 Deepens understanding- It helps students make their own connections about what they
learn.
 Creates ownership- Students explore topics of interest to them, in addition to others,
reinforcing autonomy in learning.
 Promotes engagement- This active learning method encourages students to immerse
themselves into the learning process.
 Provides differentiated instruction- Instructors are able to utilize inquiry-based learning
to reach the entire class through differentiated instruction strategies.
Disadvantages
 Has the potential to confuse learner's if no initial framework is available
 Has limitations in practice when schools try to make it the main way students learn academic
lessons
 Inefficient, it is too time consuming for all academic.
  Requires that the teacher be prepared for too many corrections, a lot of things one discovers
for they turn out to be wrong (process of trial and error)
 Can become a vehicle to reject the idea that there are important skills and information that all
children should learn

LABORATORY TECHNIQUE
Definition
The Laboratory technique is a planned learning activity dealing with original or raw data in the
solution of problem. It is a procedure involving first hand experiences with materials or facts derived
from investigations or experimentation. The Laboratory technique is used to designate a teaching
procedure in the physical sciences that uses experimentation with apparatus. Actively manipulates
and study a given upon which a given problem lies.
Types of Laboratory Technique
1.) Laboratory Exercise -Designed to help students to acquire fundamental knowledge and skills.

Example: Speech Exercises commonly done in the Speech Laboratory.

2.) Laboratory Investigation- Laboratory Investigation Deeper and more serious undertaking
that requires careful planning
Example: A college student may involve himself in a co relational study whether leadership
skills and academic performance are directly related
Process of the laboratory technique
1.) Pre Laboratory – preparation, reminders and familiarization
2.) Activity Proper – actual laboratory work is done by the students
3.) Post – Laboratory discussion –answering of questions, giving of actual observation, analysis and
comparison of data, discussion of the application
Advantages of laboratory technique
 Psychological Method of teaching
 Close student teacher relationship
 Sense of achievement
 Build scientific attitude Develop practical skills
 Learning by doing Retention of learned material Contact with reality

Disadvantages of laboratory technique

 All knowledge cannot be verified through experiments.
 Shortage of resources
 Lack of funds Students may feel heavy burden
 Teacher find it difficult to attend to the individual needs of the students.
 Need experienced and well qualified teachers only

Problem-Solving Technique
Definition of Problem solving technique
In a problem solving method, children learn by working on problems. This enables the students to
learn new knowledge by facing the problems to be solved. The students are expected to observe,
understand, analyze, interpret find solutions, and perform applications that lead to a holistic
understanding of the concept. This method develops scientific process skills. It requires a learner to
work actively in the solution of a difficulty or an undesirable situation.
Procedural steps of Problem solving Technique
Problem-based learning is a method of educating adult learners that combines theoretical knowledge
with practical activities. The expectation is that participants will have the motivation to learn because
the problem scenarios are based on real-life situations.
The procedural steps can be divided in two phases
a. Pre-active /Planning phase
b. Active / Execution phase
c. Post-active/Evaluation phase
 The Pre-active / planning phase includes:

Defining the problem: The system. Have students identify the system under study by
interpreting the information provided in the problem statement. Drawing a diagram is a great way to
do this.
 Active / Execution phase: Steps

1.) Selection of the Problem and Presentation of the Problem A number of problems are confronted
by the students in the class or outside. They are made to select a problem as per their capacity
and interest.

2.) Generation of alternative solutions: All the facts related to problem are collected either by a
students or group. As a number of facts will be collected, it will help the students to keep the most
pertinent facts and discard rest.
3.) Generate alternative solutions: Postpone the selection of one solution until several alternatives
have been proposed.
4.) Evaluate and select an alternative: Skilled problem solvers use a series of considerations when
selecting the best alternative. They consider the extent to which:
 A particular alternative will solve the problem without causing other unanticipated problems.
 All the individuals involved will accept the alternative.
 Implementation of the alternative is likely.
 The alternative fits within the organizational constraints.

5.) Implement and follow up on the solution: This is most important phase as a proper outline at this
stage will lead to purposeful activity. The teacher will guide students to draw exact plan and follow it
properly so that the solution to problem is reached.
Post-active/Evaluation phase
Reaching the Inferences and conclusions. The tentative solutions which are offered by students are
properly noted down. A good number of arrangements, discussion, brainstorming results in reaching
a satisfactory conclusion.
Advantages of Problem solving technique
 Knowledge Retention- Problem-based learning is practical and it requires participants to use
their reasoning and problem-solving skills to resolve the scenarios they are presented with. As
a result, the learning process is more effective because participants are not trying to memorize
large volumes of information.
 Develops Competencies- This method follows the principle of learning by doing. Problem-
based learning is a collaborative method that fosters teamwork, diversity and mutual respect,
which are invaluable competencies in the workplace. Participants also develop their abilities to
think strategically.
  Context Specific- In schools the problem-based learning may be limited in its effectiveness
because it is highly context specific. During the learning process, participants are given a
specific problem that is based on a foreseeable work scenario. They learn to use old facts in
new references.
 Method is scientific in nature- Develops good study habits and reasoning power. Helps to
improve and apply knowledge and experiences. Stimulates thinking of the child. Develops
desirable study habits in the students.
 Develops qualities of initiative and self-dependence in the students- Students learn virtues
such as patience, cooperation, and self-confidence. Learning becomes more interesting and
purposeful.
 Reduced bias- The shared responsibility of a group in arriving at decisions can encourage
individuals to explore seemingly unrealistic ideas and to challenge accepted ways of doing
things.
 Better solutions- Groups of individuals can bring a broad range of ideas, knowledge and skills
to bear on a problem. This creates a stimulating interaction of diverse ideas which results in a
wider range and better quality of solutions. . They become capable to generalize.

Disadvantages of the problem-solving technique

 Difficult to teach all topics of curriculum- Difficult to organise e- contents of syllabus
according to this method. All topics and areas cannot be covered by this method. There is a
lack of suitable books and references for the students. This is not suitable for all level students.
 Can encourage dirty competition- Most people working in a group unconsciously perceive
the situation as competitive. This generates behaviour which is destructive and drains the
creative energy of the group. The natural reaction is to regain self-esteem, often by trying to
sabotage the ideas of those who disagreed with us.
 Possible lack of effective direction- Sometimes there is no effective teacher to give direction
to the discussion, with the result that it wanders aimlessly. There is short of talented teachers
to practice this method. There is always a doubt of drawing wrong conclusions.
 Time and resource constraints- Problem solving is a relatively slow process. It is not
economical from time and money point of view. Time consuming method.

Research Technique
Definition
Research-based teaching means that students carry out research in their courses independently and
with an open outcome. This helps to internalize and practice research conducts and methods, skills
such as formulating a precise question and processing and monitoring a research process. The
connection of research and teaching via this active method advances Humboldt's ideal of education
in the framework of the development of character. This form of teaching and learning focuses on the
joint acquisition of new knowledge by lecturers and students. This requires lecturers to reflect on their
role as teachers and learners. In order to provide a framework for the exchange and mutual
development of ideas in relation to research based teaching, focus groups were established. Here,
once a month, lecturers discuss the possibilities and difficulties of this teaching technique using
concrete examples.
Types of Research Activities
1. Interviewing a chosen subject
2. Making a simple survey
3. Constructing the historical episode of an individual, a community or an institution
4. Doing a simple experiment
Process of a Research Technique
 1.) Formulating a research question- An example research paper scaffold and student research
paper should be distributed to students. The teacher should examine these with the students,
reading them aloud.
2.) Research- Have students collect and print at least five articles to help them answer their
research question. This helps students remain focused on their research questions. Be sure to
inform students that their final paper will be much more interesting if it examines several
different perspectives instead of just one.
3.) Notes- Have students bring their articles to class. Once identification is determined as
accurate, students should complete the Literature Review section of the scaffold and list the
important facts from their articles on the lines numbered one through five.
4.) Analysis- Students need to compare the information they have found to find themes. Explain
that creating a numbered list of potential themes, taken from different aspects proposed in the
literature collected, can be used for analysis.
5.) Conclusion- The student’s answer to the research question is the conclusion of the research
paper. This section of the research paper needs to be just a few paragraphs. Students should
include the facts supporting their answer from the literature review.

Advantages
 Fostering critical thinking and analytical skills through hands-on learning
 Defining academic, career and personal interests
 Expanding knowledge and understanding of a chosen field outside of the classroom
 Building community with peers, faculty and organizations on- and off-campus
 Students attain abilities in dealing with uncertainty, independence, teamwork and
organizational skills.

Disadvantages of Research Technique

 Research is a complex domain involving a combination of procedures and definitions, many of
which the ‘academic community itself has no uniform conception of
 Lack of ‘pedagogic culture in research methods teaching and little guidance available to
teachers
 Teaching by methodological experts who do not have a pedagogic background
 Difficulties with teaching the complexities of research methods to students who are new to
research
 Instructors must somehow demonstrate interrelated tasks and complexities so that students
new to the research process (and those not typically majoring in research methodology) can
understand and ultimately apply the approaches

Field Study Technique

Definition
Field-based learning may serve a diverse range of teaching aims and goals as students are provided
with a perspective of materials, objects or phenomena that are not accessible in, or fully appreciated
through, other settings. Students investigates a given situation by being a part or an integral
component of it.
Process of Field-Study Technique
1. Preparation- Preparation involves action on the part of the tutor counsellor (TC) within and outside
the Contact Session (CS). More specifically, the TC:
2. Actual Investigation- On the field, the students, either in groups or independently, are assigned
certain activities. These activities can vary and their nature depends on their aims and objectives as
well as the opportunities offered by each particular field. Activities on the field can include observation
and comparison, mapping, sample taking, taking of photographs, etc.
3. Making a formal report- After the on-the-field work has been completed, processing of the data
collected follows leading to composition (analysis and interpretation of the collected data).
4. Class Reporting- During this stage, the students could either carry out one or more activities
included in their course books, or prepare a report containing the basic points of their research, draw
up a brochure containing photographs, diagrams, sketches, plans, histograms, or they could merely
exhibit the material they have collected by means of written texts, and so on.
Advantages of Field-study Technique
 Provides an opportunity to present materials, objects or phenomena that are not accessible
otherwise to students in a way that enables direct contact and interaction
 Provides students with an opportunity to practice skills or techniques that cannot be carried out
elsewhere
 Stimulates higher understanding and reinforcement of previously learned classroom material
 Stimulates an appreciation for, concern or valuing of the visited environment
 Field study is useful because it is an experiencing technique. It studies what is happening at
the moment and the place it is happening. All senses are involved. The desired parameters are
recorded, conclusions are extracted, and finally, with the composition process, we are able to
get a final product.

Disadvantage of Field Study Technique

 The studies are expensive and time-consuming and can take years to complete
 It is very difficult for the students to distance themselves from a bias in the research study.
 The notes have to be exactly what the students say but the nomenclature is very tough to
follow.
 It is an interpretive method and this is subjective and entirely dependent on the ability of the
researcher.
 In this method, it is impossible to control external variables and this constantly alters the nature
of the research.
 Safety issues for the students to conduct studies outside the school premises.

Experimenting Technique

Experimental teaching is an important part of teaching work in institutions of higher learning. It is the
main route to cultivate the ability of analyzing and solving problem, the spirit of innovation, and the
quality of comprehensiveness for students. Today, the importance of experimental teaching in talent
training is getting more and more obvious. Sometimes the instructor plays an active role and in other
cases the instructor gives students a period of time to complete the experiment while the instructor is
passive. Teaching notes also generally give suggestions for adapting the exercise to different
classroom environments, for example, large vs. small classes. They may also contain variations that
might help tailor the experiment to an individual instructor's course.
Process
1. Instructor Preparation- Instructors routinely tailor classes to their own students. Some issues you
may encounter when using classroom experiments include, deciding how to best incorporate
experiments into class content. Designating an appropriate amount of time for the experiment.
Matching the experiment to the class level, course atmosphere and the personalities and learning
styles of your students. Choosing a strategy for dealing with the classroom environment: room layout,
number of students, online courses
2. Student Preparation- Helping the students prepare for the experiment is key to them having a
successful learning experience.
Read instructions that explain the experiment and the student's role
Complete a pre-class reading and/or write about their role in the experiment
Make predictions about the outcome of the experiment
3. Conducting the experiment and collecting data-Working through the logistics of carrying out the
experiment can be key to students having a successful experience. It is often helpful to have a
teaching assistant present during an experiment to help answer questions and keep things moving.
You will want to consider:
 Developing a streamlined process for answering questions and collecting data
 Adapting experiments for very large classes, perhaps using computers or clickers
 Modifying experiments so that they will work in an online class

4. Analyzing the data and Extending the Experience- Once you collect the data, communicating the
results to students and linking it to what they are learning in class is very important. Just doing the
experiment isn't enough - you need to guide students through the process of interpreting and learning
from what happened.
5. Assessing student achievement of learning goals- Standard tests, quizzes and homework
assignments can be used to measure what students are learning in class. You might consider adding
additional assessment measures, for example ask students
Test questions about the experiment itself
Open Ended questions that allow students to reflect on their experience and give you an idea of what
they did and did not get from the experiment. These are useful in fine tuning the experiment for the
next semester.
Advantages
 This method of teaching serves as model laboratory instruction.
 Experiment shown as demonstration points out this matter of observation and indicates this
inference. It makes the pupils familiar with the nature and use of apparatus.
 Experiments requiring special skill will merely be shown by the teacher. In this method no time
is wasted.
 Teacher’s time is properly utilized in watching the students doing experiments.
 While doing practical, there remains no necessity for explaining except educating precautions.
 This method proves more useful if the pupils are told beforehand that they are going to do
practical in the laboratory.

Disadvantages
 There is danger of students being dishonest when teacher has to play the main role in the
discussion and demonstration of the topic.
 Teachers may be tempted to lecture rather than to teach.
 Teachers do not try for more experiments than those given in the text book prescribed.
 Oral discussion may not be encouraged, since it will go to restrict the demonstration
experiment.
 Practical as required may not go hand in hand with demonstration work.