BCD 411 Rural Sociology Development Revised

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UN
P A U L ’
I VE R S I TY
.
S T
SE R
VANT
S OF GO D AND HUMANI
TY
ST. PAUL’S UNIVERSITY
SPU Distance Learning Course Handbook
BCD 411: RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND

DEVELOPMENT
[ANTONY ODEK]
SPU Distance & E - Learning Program
© Revised 2016
_________________________________________
i
Odek Wando Antony
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
BCD 411
3 CREDITS
PERMISSION TO USE THE CURRICULUM
Only Authorized Person is Granted permission to use the SPU Distant Learning Curriculum.
ii
DEDICATION
To my family in my fondest appreciation for their valuable love, support and contribution that
resulted into the production of this manual.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This module manual was developed by SPU with support from the Antony Wando Odek. SPU
wish to acknowledge the following people for their support in developing this manual: Dr Lilian
Kimani, Department Lecturers and editors.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
ST PAUL‘S UNIVERSITY ...........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT ........................................................................... ii
PERMISSION TO USE THE CURRICULUM .......................................................................... ii
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... iv
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................... xii
COURSE DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................ xii
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE................................................................................................. xiii
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES ................................................................................. xiv
Teaching Methodologies ........................................................................................................... xv
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. xvii
REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... xviii
TOPIC ONE .................................................................................................................................... 1
BASIC SOCIOLOGY CONCEPTS ........................................................................................... 1
Learning Objectives ................................................................................................................. 1
Learning Outcome ................................................................................................................... 1
Discussions .............................................................................................................................. 1
Rural Community .................................................................................................................... 1
Rural Social Structure .............................................................................................................. 1
Rural Social Institutions .......................................................................................................... 1
Rural Culture ........................................................................................................................... 1
Rural Social Change ................................................................................................................ 2
Rural Development Programmes............................................................................................. 2
Agricultural Transformation .................................................................................................... 2
Rural Demography .................................................................................................................. 2
Rural-Urban Differences ......................................................................................................... 2
Rural Social Processes ............................................................................................................. 3
Rural Reconstruction ............................................................................................................... 3
Rural Religion.......................................................................................................................... 3
Land and Agriculture ............................................................................................................... 3
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Rural Stratification Pattern ...................................................................................................... 3
Rural Politics ........................................................................................................................... 4
Rural Social Control ................................................................................................................ 4
Village Development Programmes .......................................................................................... 4
Environmental Crisis ............................................................................................................... 4
Rural Pathology ....................................................................................................................... 4
Action Theory .......................................................................................................................... 5
Agrarian Movement ................................................................................................................. 5
Agrarian socialism ................................................................................................................... 5
Alienation ................................................................................................................................ 5
Comparative Sociology ........................................................................................................... 6
Communal Society .................................................................................................................. 6
Deindustrialization................................................................................................................... 6
De-socialization ....................................................................................................................... 7
Family ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Meaning of Rural Development .............................................................................................. 9
Discussion question ............................................................................................................... 11
Further Readings.................................................................................................................... 11
TOPIC TWO ................................................................................................................................. 12
ORIGIN AND IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY ................................................... 12
Learning Objectives ............................................................................................................... 12
Learning Outcome ................................................................................................................. 12
Discussions Notes .................................................................................................................. 12
Rural sociology ...................................................................................................................... 12
Origin: .................................................................................................................................... 12
Rural Community .................................................................................................................. 14
Rural Social Structure ............................................................................................................ 14
Rural Social Institutions ........................................................................................................ 14
Rural Culture ......................................................................................................................... 14
Rural Social Change .............................................................................................................. 14
Rural Development Programmes........................................................................................... 14
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Agricultural Transformation .................................................................................................. 15
Rural Demography ................................................................................................................ 15
Rural-Urban Differences ....................................................................................................... 15
Rural Social Processes ........................................................................................................... 15
Rural Reconstruction ............................................................................................................. 15
Rural Religion........................................................................................................................ 16
Land and Agriculture ............................................................................................................. 16
Rural Stratification Pattern .................................................................................................... 16
Rural Politics ......................................................................................................................... 16
Rural Social Control .............................................................................................................. 16
Village Development Programmes ........................................................................................ 17
Environmental Crisis ............................................................................................................. 17
Rural Pathology ..................................................................................................................... 17
Reflective Question ............................................................................................................... 18
Reference ............................................................................................................................... 18
TOPIC THREE ............................................................................................................................. 19
SOCIAL GROUPS.................................................................................................................... 19
The Most Important Characteristics of Social Group ............................................................ 19
Types of Social Group ........................................................................................................... 21
Primary Group ....................................................................................................................... 21
Secondary Group ................................................................................................................... 22
Reference Group .................................................................................................................... 22
Question for Discussion......................................................................................................... 23
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 23
TOPIC FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 24
SOCIAL STATUS, ROLES, SOCIAL NORMS AND CULTURE ......................................... 24
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Key Concepts and Terms ....................................................................................................... 24
Acquiring Statuses ................................................................................................................. 25
Social Norms ......................................................................................................................... 27
Social culture ......................................................................................................................... 27
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 27
TOPIC FIVE ................................................................................................................................. 28
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND LEADERSHIP ................................................................ 28
Social stratification ................................................................................................................ 28
Meanings ............................................................................................................................... 29
Origin of Stratification........................................................................................................... 29
Types of Social Stratification: ............................................................................................... 30
Characteristics of Social Stratification .................................................................................. 31
Social Stratification and Social Mobility............................................................................... 32
Types of Social Mobility ....................................................................................................... 33
Stratification and Caste .......................................................................................................... 34
Social Stratification and Class ............................................................................................... 35
Gender ................................................................................................................................... 35
Gender and Sex ...................................................................................................................... 36
Further Readings.................................................................................................................... 37
TOPIC SIX.................................................................................................................................... 38
IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY ON EXTENSION AND COMMUNITUY
DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................................................................... 38
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Question for discussion ......................................................................................................... 40
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 40
TOPIC SEVEN ............................................................................................................................. 41
IMPORTANCE OF CHANGE OF AGENTS AND AGENCIES ............................................ 41
Discussion Notes ................................................................................................................... 41
Characteristics and Roles of Community Change Agents..................................................... 42
Question to discuss ................................................................................................................ 45
References ............................................................................................................................. 45
TOPIC EIGHT .............................................................................................................................. 46
RURAL ORGANIZATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 46
Contribution of Rural Organizations to Development .......................................................... 48
Rural Women and Development ........................................................................................... 49
More investments are, however, needed. .............................................................................. 51
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 53
TOPIC NINE ................................................................................................................................ 54
MANAGING RURAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DESIGNED PROGRAM AND
INNOVATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 54
Discussion notes .................................................................................................................... 54
Key Concepts and Terms ....................................................................................................... 54
Science and Technology Application for Rural Development .............................................. 55
Science and Technology for Women..................................................................................... 55
Integrated Agriculture and Rural Development Programs .................................................... 55
Integrated Development of Rural Infrastructure ................................................................... 56
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Institutional Development and Empowerment of Rural Communities ................................. 56
Farm Development and Management of Improved Irrigation ............................................... 56
Development of Irrigation Systems ....................................................................................... 57
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 58
TOPIC TEN .................................................................................................................................. 59
POVERTY AND NUTRITIONAL PROBLEMS..................................................................... 59
Poverty ................................................................................................................................... 59
Nutritional problem ............................................................................................................... 59
Physiological changes with aging.......................................................................................... 60
Chronic illness - physical or psychological ........................................................................... 60
Multiple medications ............................................................................................................. 61
Chronic alcohol intake ........................................................................................................... 61
Low income ........................................................................................................................... 61
Social isolation ...................................................................................................................... 61
Physical disability .................................................................................................................. 62
Involuntary weight loss or gain ............................................................................................. 62
Poor diet ................................................................................................................................. 62
Nutrition and Chronic Disease Prevention ............................................................................ 62
Effects of poverty and Nutritional problems ......................................................................... 62
Discussion Question .............................................................................................................. 63
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 63
TOPIC ELEVEN .......................................................................................................................... 64
RURAL UNEMPLOYMENT ...................................................................................................... 64
Definition of unemployment: ................................................................................................ 64
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1) Karl Pribram: ..................................................................................................................... 64
2) Fair Child: ......................................................................................................................... 64
Causes .................................................................................................................................... 65
Occupational immobility ....................................................................................................... 67
Geographical immobility ....................................................................................................... 67
Technological change ............................................................................................................ 68
Structural change in the economy ......................................................................................... 68
Voluntary Unemployment ..................................................................................................... 68
Effects of rural unemployment .............................................................................................. 68
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 68
TOPIC TWELVE.......................................................................................................................... 69
RURAL INDUSTRIALIZATION AND EMPLOYMENT CREATION ................................ 69
The Key Concepts and Terms ............................................................................................... 69
Definition of rural Industrialization ....................................................................................... 69
Advantages of rural Industrialization .................................................................................... 69
Further Reading ..................................................................................................................... 71
CHAPTER THIRTEEN………………………………………………………………………….72
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE……………………………………………………..72
Overview……...…………………………………………………………………………….72
Learning Objectives...............................................................................................................72
Learning Outcome.................................................................................................................72
Discussions ............................................................................................................................72
(1) Use of Scientific Method ……………………………………………………………….72
(2) Factual study…………………………………………………………………………….73
(3) Universal Principles……………………….……………………………………………73
(4) Vertical Principles………………………………………………………………………73
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(5) Discovery of cause-effect relationship………………………………………………….73
(6) Predictions………………………………………………………………………………73
Lack of Objectivity………………………………………………………………………….74
Lack of experiment………………………………………………………………………….74
Lack of measurement……………………………………………………………………….74
Lack of Exactness…………………………………………………………………………..75
Lack of Prediction…………………………………………………………………………..75
Reflective……………………………………………………………………………………75
Reference……………………………………………………………………………………75
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES ................................................................................................... I
General Rules ............................................................................................................................... I
CONTACT INFORMATION ................................................................................................... III
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
COURSE DESCRIPTION
xii
1. Origin, growth and current state of rural sociology definition
2. Basic sociology concepts
3. Social groups
4. Social status and roles, social norms, culture
5. Social stratification and leadership
6. Importance of rural sociology on extension and community development
7. Importance of change agents and agencies
8. Rural organizations and developments
9. Meaning of rural development
10. Planned and unplanned rural development
11. Managing rural development through designed program and innovations
12. Poverty and nutritional problems
13. Rural unemployment
14. Rural industrialization and employment creation
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE
xiii
To enable students to (a) understand key issues and (b) acquire professional skills in the field of
rural sociology and development
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
xiv
After completing the course, the students are expected to:
1. Understand concepts of rural sociology and rural development
2. Understand the importance of rural sociology on community development
3. Apply the various approaches to rural development
4. Be fully aware of current issues and challenges in the field of rural development
5. Have update of the frontline rural development challenges
Teaching Methodologies
xv
Handout, Online Discussions, Phone Calls, Case Studies, Library and Research
Instructional Materials and or Equipment
Textbooks, blackboard, handouts and DVDs
Course Evaluation
Continuous Assessment tests and asignments-30%, Final Examination-70%
First assignment should be emailed 7th week or before.
Last Assignment Handing Over 10th Week or before
All asignments should be at least 4 typed pages, excluding cover page (font type Times New
Roman, size 12). Use 1.5 spacing and justified formatting. Adequate margin space, at least 2.5cm
(not inches), must be left on the top, bottom, left and right sides of every page for comments by
your instructor. Papers must be paginated.
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METHODOLOGY
1. This course will be administered by the lecturer through a couple of methods. Most
common will be lectures through handouts and emails/phone interactions.
2. After the first month, the students will be given small research assignments where they he
or she will earn marks.
3. Guided discussion online will be encouraged. Individual exercise will also be a big part
of the course.
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REFERENCES
International Association of Agricultural Student (1999). Workshop proceedings. The role of

agricultural institutions in adapting education for rural development. Nairobi
Kalar S. (2009). Rural Development: Principles, policies and management (3rd Edition). SAGE
Karithi, K.K and Tongoi. D.O (2005) Building a prosperous Kenya: A perspective for the
Church, Christians For A just Society (CFJS)Nairobi
Long, N (1997). An Introduction to the sociology of rural development. Nairobi.
Odelola, T.O and Ademola A. (1993) Sociology: An Introductory African Text. Macmillan Press
Ltd London
Robert Chambers (1989). Rural development. Putting the last first. Longman Scientific
Technical. New York
Sheffied. J.R (1996). Education, employment and rural development. University of Nairobi. East
African Publishing House
Wiley, R and Crounch, B.R (1991). Extension education and rural development. East Africa
Publishing House
xviii
TOPIC ONE
BASIC SOCIOLOGY CONCEPTS
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the basic
Sociology concepts and their meaning
Learning Outcome
The student should be able todefine terminologies used in Rural Sociology
Discussions
Rural Community
To quote Sanderson, A rural community consists of the social interaction of the people
and their institutions in the local area in which they live. Rural Sociology is concerned
with the study of the characteristics, special features and ecology of the village
community.
Rural Social Structure
Social structure is the most important basis of social life. Rural Sociology studies the
various components of rural social structure such as village community, family, caste etc.
It also analyses the effect of religion, customs and tradition on rural social structure.
Rural Social Institutions
Social, economic, political, educational and religious institutions in the context of rural
society constitute the subject matter of rural sociology. Rural Sociology also analyses the
sociological significance of these institutions.
Rural Culture
Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society. It can be conceived of as a
tool kit that provides us with the ideas and technology to deal with the common problems
1
of everyday life. Rural Sociology studies the various aspects of the cultural life of the
rural people such as rural social customs, beliefs, values, attitudes, drives and interests.
Rural Social Change
Consequent upon the forces of industrialization, urbanization, westernization and

modernization, rural society is undergoing profound changes. Rural Sociology studies the
effect of these processes of social change on rural life.
Rural Development Programmes
Rural Sociology evaluates the impact of various rural development programmes such as
Community Development Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme etc. It
also studies the effect of various social legislation measures on the life of the rural
people.
Agricultural Transformation
An important area of study for Rural Sociology is the process of diffusion and adoption
of agricultural technology among the rural farmers and modernization of rural life as a
result of improvement in the farming technology.Rural Sociology also deals with the
extent of gains of the various classes of rural community consequent upon the growth in
the agricultural economy.
Rural Demography
Demography is pre-eminently concerned with the statistical study of the size, distribution
and growth of population over a specific period of time. Rural Sociology studies the
causes of the growth of population and its impact on rural development, rural to urban
and rural to rural migration.
Rural-Urban Differences
All rural sociologists recognize that the social life of the community is divided into two
distinct segments, rural and urban. Though these segments interact among themselves,
2
each is sufficiently distinct from the other. Study of rural-urban differences, therefore,
constitutes an important aspect of the scope of rural sociology.
Rural Social Processes
Social processes refer to the repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in
social life. Rural Sociology studies the various social processes such as cooperation,
accommodation, assimilation, competition – and conflict which occur among individuals
or groups in the rural context. It also deals with the effect of cooperation or conflict in
either uniting or dividing the various groups in the context of rural society.
Rural Reconstruction
Rural reconstruction signifies radical changes in village life in general and renovation or
improvement in the economic system in particular. Most of the scholars today agree that
the aim of rural sociologist is to suggest concrete methods for rural reconstruction so that
all round development of village life becomes possible.
Rural Religion
Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that unites believers
into a moral community. Rural Sociology studies the characteristics of religion in the
rural context and its impact on the rural its impact on the rural people.
Land and Agriculture
Rural Sociology studies problems and structure related to land and agriculture. It deals
with issues concerning land reforms, land ceiling and agrarian relations at a greater
length.
Rural Stratification Pattern
Rural stratification pattern constitutes an important area of the scope of Rural Sociology.
Social differentiation occurs in the rural setting in the form of big farmers, small farmers,
marginal farmers and landless labourers.
3
Rural Politics
Consequent upon the process of modernization and change in the structure and functions
of the Panchayati Raj system, the pattern of rural leadership has undergone considerable
changes. Rural Sociology deals with rural leadership and analyses the working of village
lobby and caste in the context of local/state/national level politics.
Rural Social Control
Social control consists of the forces and processes that encourage conformity, including
self- control, informal control and formal control. Rural Sociology employs informal
means of social control in the form of family, neighbourhood, praise, blame, religion,
customs, folkways, mores etc. in regulating the behaviour of the rural people.
Village Development Programmes
Study of rural development programmes forms an interesting theme of the scope of rural
sociology. The objective of these programmes is to bring about rural welfare on a holistic
note. Secondly, the programmes make the rural people active agents in the task of nation-
building.
Environmental Crisis
Rural Sociology also deals with environmental decay and erosion of ecology.
Rural Pathology
Rural Sociology is concerned with the study of several socio-economic problems such as
rural poverty, rural unemployment, illiteracy, rural indebtedness, and incidence of crimes
in rural areas etc.-their causes, effects and remedial measures.
Inclusion, from the above analysis it is evident that the scope of Rural Sociology is both
wide and comprehensive. It encompasses all the aspects of rural life in a scientific and
systematic manner.
4
Action Theory
It distinguishes action from mere behavior in that action involves meanings or intentions.
Action theory is an analysis of action starting with the individual actor. Analysis proceeds
in terms of typical actors in typical situations by identifying actor's goals, expectations
and values. It looks at the means of achieving these goals the nature of the situation and
the actor's knowledge of the situation.Talcott Parsons refers to these elements as action
frame of reference. Action theory can be traced to the works of Max Weber inspired by
Weber two forms of action theories have been developed one form of action theory is
reflected in the works of Alfred Schultz and subsequently Harold Garfinkel.Here priority
is given to the meaningfulness of the action. The other form of action theory found in the
works of Talcott Parsons in which the idea of meaningfulness is subordinated is the
concept of social structure.
Agrarian Movement
A social movement in which the farmers of a country seek not only to recognize the
agricultural economy but to change the relative importance of agriculture in the total
economy of the country and to improve their own social,economic,educational and
political status.
Agrarian socialism-The political and economic ideology which justifies collectivization

in agriculture
Alienation
It denotes the state of estrangement of individuals from themselves and others. Karl Marx
is responsible for popularizing this concept and for giving it a sociological meaning. The
basis of allegation for Marx lies in the private ownership of means of production. Marx
identified four particular manifestations of alienation- The worker is alienated from the
product of his labour since what he produces is appropriated by others and he has no
control over it.
The worker is alienated from the act of production. The worker is alienated from his
human nature because the first two aspects of alienation deprive him from his productive
activity.
5
The worker is alienated from other men since capitalism transforms social relations into
market relations and people are judged by their position in the market relations rather
than their human qualities.
Weber found manifestation of alienation in the bureaucratic organization of social life in

modern industrial societies.MSeeman has attempted to provide a more comprehensive
definition of alienation by incorporating various social and psychological states within
the scope of this concept.
Applied sociology-The use of the sociological knowledge in solving or reducing social

problems
Comparative Sociology
Durkheim said comparative sociology is not a particular branch of sociology, it is

sociology itself. In so far it ceases to be purely descriptive and aspire to account for
facts.Max Weber also advocated comparative method. Earlier Montesquieu and Comte
favored comparative method.Tylor like Comte said that one of the main aims of
comparison is to discover what he called cultural adhesions or necessary correlations
between two or more cultural phenomena such as rules of kinship behavior and rules of
kinship terminology. According to Oxford dictionary of sociology where a sociological
analysis is explicitly held to be comparative, this usually involves the study of particular
social processes across nation states or across different types of society. Much of what is
normally referred to as comparative sociology is perhaps more accurately described as
cross-national research.
Communal Society
An ideal type society in which most of the everyday life is regulated by tradition, custom
and mores and in which there is relatively little emphasis on individual responsibility.
Deindustrialization
The importance of manufacturing industry has declined in a number of advanced
industrial societies when measured by the share of manufacturing in total output or the
6
proportion of the population employed in the manufacturing industry. Such a trend has
been termed as de-industrialization. This is mainly the result of the expansion of the
services sector and the use of highly efficient technology in production.
De-socialization
The process by which earlier socialization is undone.
Family
It is a group which comes into being to establish or regularize the sexual or procreative
function. It is also a primary group which is made up of two parents and at least one
dependent child all of whom are bound by a feeling of familisms.
Family culture
The traditions customs, group habits, attitudes and understandings which are peculiar to
the members of a given family
Feudal society
An ideal society which is the make up of closed status categories or estates ;it is made up
of a large peasant labor force a small number of privileged land owners, artisans and
merchants, warriors and a priest estate. Each status category would be obliged to observe
its own laws.
Human Capital
Individuals who invested time and money in education, training and other qualities that
increase their productivity and thus their worth to an employer are said to have greater
endowment of human capital.
Industrial Society
It is a society in which an industrial economy crucially affects the social relations among
the people. It is one in which large masses of people who form the labor force live in
large urban areas. They are differentiated into numerous status levels based on
differences in wealth, political power, occupational status and specialization.Because of
7
the use of mass production techniques a wide variety of goods are produced and the
living standards are high. It is a society in which because of its size much of the social
interaction is formal, government is distant and mechanical and mass communication
methods have to be used to reach the people.
Industrial Sociology
The study of the effect of work in industry on the way of life of work men; it includes the
study of work groups as social units and the social relations in theses groups, it views
workmen not as faceless cogs in an impersonal enterprise, but as human beings with
hopes,fears,shortcomings,aspirations and self-esteem who carry on a peculiar tradition
observe a work oriented status system and live a certain way of life which is largely
affected by the occupations.
Institution
The social norms and standardized practices which are performed by special
functionaries in meeting continuous or recurring human requirements. The term is often
loosely applied to a public building.
Institutionalization
The process of formalizing and standing the social practices which serve to maintain the
important social values and establish regular procedures of control in a society
Life Cycle Analogy in Sociology
The attempt to explain the development of social groups and institutional practices in
terms of life-cycle stages of a biological organism for example the birth, growth,
maturation, decline and death of an animal was considered analogous to the development
of a group.
Marriage
It is the ceremony which unites a man and woman into a family. It is also the legal
partnership of a man and a woman.The person to person relationship between a husband
and wife which is made up of their respective roles involving the duties and the privileges
of each toward the other
8
Marxian Theory of Population
It is the view that capitalistic countries must necessarily have problems of population
surplus because low wages make it difficult for workman to support their families. On the
other hand according to the theory the socialistic countries cannot possibly have problems
of population surplus because compensation for labor would be on the basis of need; this
would allow energetic proletarians to have large families since full employment and
adequate income were guaranteed.
Mass Society
The concept of mass society holds that modern industrial society is acquiring the
following characteristics- decline of individuality,routinized and alienating work,
declining influence of religion, absence of deeply held and important social values
although masses are prone to ideological fanaticism.The relationships between the
individuals are weak and ties of kinship have lost their importance. The masses are
politically apathetic and open to manipulation by dictatorship and bureaucracy.
Meaning of Rural Development
Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-
being of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Rural
development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural
resources such as agriculture and forestry. However, changes in global production
networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas.
Increasingly tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource
extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers. The need for rural communities
to approach development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a broad
range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or
resource based businesses. Education, entrepreneurship, physical infrastructure, and
social infrastructure all play an important role in developing rural regions Rural
development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic
development strategies.[ In contrast to urban regions, which have many similarities, rural
9
areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason there are a large variety of
rural development approaches used globally.
There is no universally accepted definition of rural development. The term is used in

different ways in vastly divergent contexts. As a concept, it connotes overall
development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life rural people. As a
phenomenon, it is the result of various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural
and institutional factors. As a discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature representing an
intersection of agricultural, social, behavioural and management of sciences.
In short, rural development is a process that aims at improving the standard of living of
the people living in the rural areas.
Rural development may be defined as overall development of rural areas to improve the
quality of life of rural people. It is an integrated process, which includes social,
economical, political and spiritual development of the poorer sections of the society.
Rural development can be defined as, helping rural people set the priorities in their own
communities through effective and democratic bodies, by providing the local capacity;
investment in basic infrastructure and social services, justice, equity and security, dealing
with the injustices of the past and ensuring safety and security of the rural population,
especially that of women.
According to Robert chambers, rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group

of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves, and their children more of
what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a
livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural
development. The group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.
Thus, the term rural development may be used to imply any one of the above-mentioned
connotations. The avoid ineffective floundering among the myriad definitions, we shall
define rural development as A Process leading to sustainable improvement in the quality
of life of rural people, specially the poor
10
There is no universally accepted definition of rural development. Various scholars have
defined it variously. As a concept, it connotes overall development of rural areas with a
view to improve the quality of life rural people. As a phenomenon, it is the result of
various physical, technological, economic, socio-cultural and institutional factors. As a
discipline, it is multi-disciplinary in nature representing an intersection of agricultural,
social, behavioural and management of sciences.
Some scholars understand rural development as the development of agricultural sector.

But this concept of rural development is not comprehensive enough to define rural
development completely. On the other hand, rural development is understood as being a
multi-dimensional or multi-faceted concept. For example, Katar Singh defines rural
development as the overall development of rural areas, which aims at improving quality
of life of rural people. More specifically, by rural development, he means the
development of agriculture and allied activities, village and cottage industries and crafts,
socioeconomic infrastructure, human resources in rural areas.
Robert Chamber defines rural development as a strategy to enable a specific group of

people (small scale farmers, the tenants, the landless, the poor men and women) to gain
what they want and need for themselves and their children.
Uma Lele defines rural development as improving standard of the mass of the low
income population residing in rural areas and making the process of their development
self-sustaining.
Discussion question
1. Explain the meaning and the emergence of rural sociology
Further Readings
1. Moseley, Malcolm J. (2003). Rural development: principles and practice (1. publ.
Ed.). London: SAGE.
2. Ward, Neil; Brown, David L. (2009). Placing the Rural in Regional Development;
Regional Studies
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TOPIC TWO
ORIGIN AND IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the definition,
origin, growth and the current state of rural technology.
Learning Outcome
1. The student should be able to:

2. Explain or define the origin, growth and current state of rural sociology definition.
3. Student should explain any five importance of studying rural sociology
Discussions Notes
Rural sociology is a field of sociologytraditionally associated with the study of social

structure and conflict rural areas although topical areas such as food and agriculture or
natural resource access transcend traditional rural spatial boundaries
Origin:Sociology is comparatively a new branch of sociology. It was first originated in

the United States of America. It has taken more than half a century to become established
as a distinct academic field or professional study. The main contributors to the
development of rural sociology were Charles Sanderson, Burtherfield, ErnastBurnholme,
John Morris Gillin, Franklin H. Giddings and Thomas Nixon Carver. It was President
Roosevelt who, through the appointment of 'Country Life Commission' gave a good
encouragement to the development to the rural sociology in 1908. The report of this
Commission encouraged the studies of rural society.
In 1917 the Department of Rural Sociology was set up by the American Sociological
Society. In 1919, a 'Rural Sociology Department' was established under the chairmanship
of Dr. C. J. Galpin. The Great Depression of 1930 provided another stimulus to the
growth of rural sociology. In 1937, 'Rural Sociological Society' was formed. It started
publishing a professional journal 'Rural Sociology' containing results of rural sociological
12
research. C. J. Galpin of University of Wisconsin developed techniques for defining and
delimiting the rural community. His approach is still popular today.
The Great Second World War gave yet another fillip to the growth of rural sociology.
The destruction caused by the war demanded reconstruction. The reconstruction work
brought further encouragement to the science. By 1958 there were about 1000
professional rural sociologists in America. Rural sociology crossed the boundaries of
America and became popular in Europe. A European Society for Rural Sociology was
formed in 1957, and a similar organization was started in Japan also. In developing
countries, the role of the rural sociologists is primarily in the applied field of more
effective planning and operation of rural community development programs.
Rural Sociology has taken the shape of an independent social science with its own
characteristic standpoint and methods. The subject matter of Rural Sociology, according
to Nelson, is the description and analysis of the progress of various groups as they exist
in the rural environment.
Similarly, Bertrand has treated Rural Sociology as the study of human relationships in
rural environment. This, again, emphasizes the study of all types of social relationships
existing in village setting.
There are two schools of thought on the scope of Rural Sociology. According to the first
school of thought, Rural Sociology provides only scientific knowledge about rural
society. It offers a composite picture of rural life in its multifaceted dimensions.
So far as the second school of thought is concerned, Rural Sociology addresses itself to
the study of rural-urban contrast, rural-urban continuum and acts as an instrument for
bringing about rural reconstruction.
The two schools of thought, however, have one point in common, that is, they
unanimously agree that Rural Sociology studies the various aspects of rural life in a
scientific and systematic manner.
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The scope of Rural Sociology can be described as follows.
Rural Community
To quote Sanderson, ―A rural community consists of the social interaction of the people
and their institutions in the local area in which they live…….‖ Rural Sociology is
concerned with the study of the characteristics, special features and ecology of the village
community.
Rural Social Structure
Social structure is the most important basis of social life. Rural Sociology studies the
various components of rural social structure such as village community, family, caste etc.
It also analyses the effect of religion, customs and tradition on rural social structure.
Rural Social Institutions
Social, economic, political, educational and religious institutions in the context of rural
society constitute the subject matter of rural sociology. Rural Sociology also analyses the
sociological significance of these institutions.
Rural Culture
Culture is the total way of life shared by members of a society. It can be conceived of as a
tool kit that provides us with the ideas and technology to deal with the common problems
of everyday life. Rural Sociology studies the various aspects of the cultural life of the
ruralites such as rural social customs, beliefs, values, attitudes, drives and interests.
Rural Social Change
Consequent upon the forces of industrialization, urbanization, westernization,

modernization, rural society is undergoing profound changes. Rural Sociology studies the
effect of these processes of social change on rural life.
Rural Development Programmes
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Rural Sociology evaluates the impact of various rural development programmes such as
Community Development Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme etc. It
also studies the effect of various social legislation measures on the life of the ruralites.
Agricultural Transformation
An important area of study for Rural Sociology is the process of diffusion and adoption
of agricultural technology among the rural farmers and modernization of rural life as a
result of improvement in the farming technology.
Rural Sociology also deals with the extent of gains of the various classes of rural
community consequent upon the growth in the agricultural economy.
Rural Demography
Demography is pre-eminently concerned with the statistical study of the size, distribution
and growth of population over a specific period of time. Rural Sociology studies the
causes of the growth of population and its impact on rural development, rural to urban
and rural to rural migration.
Rural-Urban Differences
All rural sociologists recognize that the social life of the community is divided into two
distinct segments, rural and urban. Though these segments interact among themselves,
each is sufficiently distinct from the other. Study of rural-urban differences, therefore,
constitutes an important aspect of the scope of rural sociology.
Rural Social Processes
Social processes refer to the repetitive forms of behaviour which are commonly found in
social life. Rural Sociology studies the various social processes such as cooperation,
accommodation, assimilation, competition – and conflict which occur among individuals
or groups in the rural context. It also deals with the effect of cooperation or conflict in
either uniting or dividing the various groups in the context of rural society.
Rural Reconstruction
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Rural reconstruction signifies radical changes in village life in general and renovation or
improvement in the economic system in particular. Most of the scholars today agree that
the aim of rural sociologist is to suggest concrete methods for rural reconstruction so that
all round development of village life becomes possible.
Rural Religion
Religion is a system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things that unites believers
into a moral community. Rural Sociology studies the characteristics of religion in the
rural context and its impact on the rural its impact on the ruralites.
Land and Agriculture
Rural Sociology studies problems and structure related to land and agriculture. It deals
with issues concerning land reforms, land ceiling and agrarian relations at a greater
length.
Rural Stratification Pattern
Rural stratification pattern constitutes an important area of the scope of Rural Sociology.
Social differentiation occurs in the rural setting in the form of big farmers, small farmers,
marginal farmers and landless labourers.
Rural Politics
Consequent upon the process of modernization and change in the structure and functions
of the system, the pattern of rural leadership has undergone considerable changes. Rural
Sociology deals with rural leadership and analyses the working of village lobby and caste
in the context of local/state/national level politics.
Rural Social Control
Social control consists of the forces and processes that encourage conformity, including
self- control, informal control and formal control. Rural Sociology employs informal
means of social control in the form of family, neighbourhood, praise, blame, religion,
customs, folkways, mores etc. in regulating the behaviour of the ruralites.
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Village Development Programmes
Study of rural development programmes forms an interesting theme of the scope of rural
sociology. The objective of these programmes is to bring about rural welfare on a holistic
note. Secondly, the programmes make the ruralites active agents in the task of nation-
building.
Environmental Crisis
Rural Sociology also deals with environmental decay and erosion of ecology.
Rural Pathology
Rural Sociology is concerned with the study of several socio-economic problems such as
rural poverty, rural unemployment, illiteracy, rural indebtedness, and incidence of crimes
in rural areas etc.-their causes, effects and remedial measures.In fine, from the above
analysis it is evident that the scope of Rural Sociology is both wide and comprehensive. It
encompasses all the aspects of rural life in a scientific and systematic manner.
The value of rural sociology can be understood by the following points:
1. Rural Population is in Majority: The world's is more rural than urban. More than two-
third of people of the world live in villages. It is the village that forms the basis of
society. Rural sociology is inevitable for the study of the majority of the population.
2.Intimate Relationship between the Land and Man: Man is born out of land and his
entire culture depends on it. Land has been the part of and parcel of human life. Progress
starts from the village. The type of land partially conditions the type of society and the
opportunities for human development. This close relationship between man and land has
also been recognised by economists and political scientists.
3. Villages and Rural Life from the Source of Population: Cities normally grow out of
towns and villages. No city can come into existence all of a sudden without having a rural
background. A village, when improved and thickly populated, becomes a town or city.
Thus it is the village population that forms the source of urban life.
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4. Psychological Approach to the Rural Life: Rural progress, rural reconstruction or
improvement of rural societies is possible only when the people have correct idea about
the rural way of life and problems. Rural sociology touches upon the rural psychology
and provides a good understanding of the rural people and their society.
Reflective Question
Describe the history of Rural Sociology discipline.
Explain five importance of studying Rural Sociology.
Reference
Giddens, Anthony, Duneier, Mitchell, Applebaum, Richard (2007).Introduction to

Sociology. Sixth Edition; New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
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TOPIC THREE
SOCIAL GROUPS
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the meaning of a
social group and understand its characteristics
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to:
1. Define a social group

2. State characteristics of social groups
Discussions Notes
A social group is a collection of people who interact with each other and share similar
characteristics and a sense of unity
The Most Important Characteristics of Social Group
(1) Given number of Individual:
A social group consists of a given number of individuals. Without a number of

individuals no social group can be formed. Two or more than that individual are
necessary to form a group. This number may vary. These individuals belong to the group
as members of the group and are considered as unit of the group.
(2) Reciprocal Relations:
There exist reciprocal relations among the members of a social group. These reciprocal
relations among the members are the basis or foundation of social group without which
social group cannot be formed. The members must interact or inter-related with each
other.
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(3) Common Goals:
It is another important characteristic of a social group. The aims, objectives and ideals of
the members are common. For the fulfillment of these common goals social groups are
formed. Here individual interests are sacrificed for group interests.
(4) Sense of unity and solidarity:
Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and bond of solidarity,
common goals and mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and solidarity. This
creates loyalty and sympathy among the members of social group.
(5) A strong sense of awe-feeling:
Members of a social group are characterized by a strong sense of awe-feeling. This we-
feeling fosters co-operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the members
identify themselves with the group and consider others as outsiders.
(6) Group Norms:
Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are supposed
to follow. With the help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over it‘s
members. These norms may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is
followed by punishment. The group norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.
(7) Similar Behavior:
Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the interests, ideals and values of a
group are common hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar behavior
helps in the achievement of common goals.
(8) Awareness:
Members of a social group are aware about the membership which distinguishes them
from others. This is perhaps due to ‗the consciousness of kind‘ as opined by Giddings.
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(9) Group Control:
Social group exercises some sort of control over its members and over their activities.
This control may be direct or indirect. Of course group exercises control only over non-
conformists or deviants.
(10) Social groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. There are permanent groups
likes family and temporary groups like crowd, mob etc.
(12) Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is not static. It responds to different changes.
The nature of change may be slow or rapid but it is bound to occur.
(13) Social groups have established patterns.
Types of Social Group
Primary Group
A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share close, personal,
enduring relationships. These groups are marked by members' concern for one another, in
shared activities and culture. Examples include family, childhood friends, and highly
influential social groups. The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles
Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of Sociology in his book Social
Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind. Although the group initially referred to the
first intimate group of a person's childhood, the classification was later extended to
include other intimate relations. Primary groups play an important role in the
development of personal identity. A primary group is a group in which one exchange
implicit items, such as love, caring, concern, animosity, support, etc. Examples, of these
would be family groups, love relationships, crisis support groups, church groups, etc.
Relationships formed in primary groups are often long-lasting and goals in themselves.
They also are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a
source of support.
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Secondary Group
People in a secondary groupinteract on a less personal level than in a primary group, and
their relationships are temporary rather than long lasting. Since secondary groups are
established to perform functions, people‘s roles are more interchangeable. A secondary
group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities.
They are where many people can meet close friends or people they would just call
acquaintances. Secondary groups are groups in which one exchanges explicit
commodities, such as labour for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these
would be employment, vendor-to-client relationships, etc.
Reference Group
A reference group is a group to which an individual or another group is

compared.Sociologists call any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating
themselves and their own behavior a reference group.
Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given
individual or other group's characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to
which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. It
becomes the individual's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her
experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self. It is important for determining a
person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. It becomes the basis of reference in
making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one's appearance and performance.
Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and
evaluation of group and personal characteristics Robert K Merton hypothesized that
individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social
role to which the individual aspires.
Reference groups are groups that people refer to when evaluating their [own] qualities,
circumstances, attitudes, values and behaviors.
Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate
their achievements, their role performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group
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can be either from a membership group or non-membership group. An example of a
reference group being used would be the determination of affluence. An individual in the
USA with an annual income of $80,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares
himself to those in the middle of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a year If,
however, the same person considers the relevant reference group to be those in the top
0.1% of households in the US, those making $1.6 million or more, then the individual
income of $80,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.
Question for Discussion
Discuss, citing examples the three types of social groups
Further Reading
Gerald Holton (2004). "Robert K. Merton - Biographical Memoirs" (PDF).Proceedings

of the American Philosophical Society148 (4): 506–517. Archived from the original on
2007-08-11.Retrieved 2007-08-07
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TOPIC FOUR
SOCIAL STATUS, ROLES, SOCIAL NORMS AND CULTURE
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the definitions of
social status and roles, social norms and culture and also clearly differentiate between
them
Learning Outcome
1. Define social status and its roles

2. Define social norms and culture
3. Differentiate between the two
4. Discussions Notes
Key Concepts and Terms
Social statusis the position or rank of a person or group, within the society.
In all of the many social groups that we as individuals belong to, we have a status and a
role to fulfill. Status is our relative social position within a group, while a role is the part
our society expects us to play in a given status. For example, a man may have the status
of father in his family. Because of this status, he is expected to fulfill a role for his
children that in most societies require him to nurture, educate, guide, and protect
them. Of course, mothers usually have complementary roles.
Social group membership gives us a set of statuses and role tags that allow people to
know what to expect from each other--they make us more predictable. However, it is
common for people to have multiple overlapping statuses and roles. This potentially
makes social encounters more complex. A woman who is a mother for some children
may be an aunt or grandmother for others. At the same time, she may be a wife for one
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or more men, and she very likely is a daughter and granddaughter of several other
people. For each of these various kinship statuses, she is expected to play a somewhat
different role and to be able to switch between them instantaneously. For instance, if she
is having a conversation with her mother and young daughter, she is likely to politely
defer to the former but will be knowledgeable and "in-control" with the other. These
roles related behaviors change as rapidly as she turns her head to face one or the
other. However, her unique personal relationships might lead her to think and act
differently than what would be culturally expected. In other words, social group
membership gives us a set of role tags that allow people to know what to expect from
each other, but they are not always straight jackets for behavior.
Acquiring Statuses
The way in which people get our statuses can vary significantly in detail from culture to
culture. In all societies, however, they are either achieved or ascribed. Achieved
statuses are ones that are acquired by doing something. For instance, someone becomes
a criminal by committing a crime. A soldier earns the status of a good warrior by
achievements in battle and by being brave. A woman becomes a mother by having a
baby. She also can acquire the status of widow by the death of her husband. In contrast,
ascribed statuses are the result of being born into a particular family or being born male
or female. Being a prince by birth or being the first of four children in a family are
ascribed statuses. We do not make a decision to choose them--they are not voluntary
statuses. We do not pick the family we are born into nor do we usually select our own
gender.
Both achieved and ascribed statuses exist in all societies. However, some cultures choose
to emphasize the importance of one or the other. In North America today, achieved
statuses outside of the family are reinforced while ascribed ones are generally
rejected. Children are encouraged from an early age to be independent and self-
reliant. They are told to better themselves in life. This can be seen in the admiration of
"self-made people" and in the somewhat negative image in the mass media of people who
are rich only because they inherited it. This strong cultural bias has led to the enactment
of anti-nepotism laws for government jobs. These make it a crime to hire and promote
25
people because they are your relatives. In addition, the North American emphasis on
achieved status has led to an acceptance and encouragement of social class mobility and a
rejection of gender and ethnicity based restrictions. Children are taught in school from an
early age that, despite the fact that they may be from a poor family, male or female, they
should aspire to get a good education, better themselves and their family economically
and even become a leader in society.
In India, ascribed, rather than achieved, social status has been strongly reinforced for
more than 3,000 years and permeates most areas of life even today. As a result, social
mobility has been very difficult to achieve until recent generations. Even now, it is
limited for those at the bottom of society. At the heart of the Indian ascription system are
castes (or varnas). These are carefully ranked, rigidly hereditary social divisions of
society.
Linton (1936) defined status simply as a position in a social system, such as child or
parent. Status refers to what a person is, whereas the closely linked notion of role refers
to the behaviour expected of people in a status.
Status is also used as a synonym for honor or prestige, when social status denotes the
relative position of a person on a publicly recognized scale or hierarchy of social worth.
(See 'Social Stratification').
It is the first meaning of the term status, status as position, which we are going to refer to
in the following paragraphs. Status as honor or prestige is a part of the study of social
stratification.
A status is simply a rank or position that one holds in a group. One occupies the status of
son or daughter, playmate, pupil, radical, militant and so on. Eventually one occupies the
statuses of husband, mother bread-winner, cricket fan, and so on, one has as many
statuses as there are groups of which one is a member.
Social norm- cultural products including values and customs which represent individuals
basic knowledge of what others do and what others think that they should do
Sociologists describe norms as informal understanding that govern individuals
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Social culture is a set of beliefs, customs, practices and behavior that exists within a
population
Social Norms
Social norms grow out of social value and both serve to differentiate human social
behavior from that of other species. The significance of learning in behavior varies from
species to species and is closely linked to processes of communication. Only human
beings are capable of elaborate symbolic communication and of structuring their behavior
in terms of abstract preferences that we have called values. Norms are the means through
which values are expressed in behavior.
Norms generally are the rules and regulations that groups live by. Or perhaps because the
words, rules and regulations, call to mind some kind of formal listing, we might refer to
norms as the standards of behavior of a group. For while some of the appropriate
standards of behavior in most societies are written down, many of them are not that
formal. Many are learned, informally, in interaction with other people and are passed
"that way from generation to generation.
Social culture
That culture is a result of human collectivity has been accepted by most anthropologists.
Tylarian idea can be discerned in a modern definition of culture - culture is the man-made
part of environment
1. Explain the meaning of a social norm and cite three examples
Further Reading
Emirbayer, Mustafa, and Jeff Goodwin (1994) ―Network Analysis, Culture, and the
Problem of Agency.‖ American Journal of Sociology 99 (6): 1411–54
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TOPIC FIVE
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND LEADERSHIP
Learning Objectives
Students should understand the meaning of social stratification and leadership and try to
explain its applications or by giving examples
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to explain the meaning of social stratification and leadership
Discussions Notes
Social stratification is a society's categorization of people into social economic strata,

based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, and derived power
(social and political). As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons
within a social group, category, geographic region, and social unit. In modern Western
states, social stratification usually is manifested as three social classes(i) the upper
class(ii) the middle class, and (iii) the lower class in turn, each class is subdivided into
strata, e.g. the upper-stratum, the middle-stratum, and the lower stratum. Moreover, a
social stratum can be formed upon the bases of kinship or caste or both.
The categorization of people by social strata occurs in all societies, ranging from the
complex, state based societies to tribal and feudal societies, which are based upon socio-
economic relations among classes of nobility and classes of peasants. Historically,
whether or not hunter-gatherer societies can be defined as socially stratified or if social
stratification began with agriculture and common acts of social exchange, remains a
debated matter in the social sciences determining the structures of social stratification
arises from inequalities of status among persons, therefore, the degree of social inequality
determines a person's social stratum. Generally, the greater the social complexity of a
society, the more social strata exist, by way of social differentiation.
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Meanings
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their
members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of
interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others.
In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly
accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of
social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society
into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a
particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style.
The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society in
which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern
stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social
stratification involves two phenomena (i) differentiation of individuals or groups on the
basis of possession of certain characteristics whereby some individuals or groups come to
rank higher than others, (ii) the ranking of individuals according to some basis of
evaluation.
Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also with
their social evaluation.
Origin of Stratification
Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given.
(i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional
necessity of the social system.
(ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in

environmental conditions.
(iii) According to Karl Marx, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different
social strata, i.e. social stratification.
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(iv) Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found
in the conquest of one group by another.
(v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created
whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers.
(vi) Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also lead to stratification.
Types of Social Stratification:
Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of

stratification.The major types of stratification are
(i) Caste
(ii) Class
(iii) Estate
(iv) Slavery
(i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person‘s rank and its
accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular
group. For example-Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste
(ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this, a

person‘s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use
to advantage the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess.
(iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of stratification which
gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state.
(iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was
subjected. The master‘s power over the slave was unlimited.
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Characteristics of Social Stratification
On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social
stratification may have the following characteristics.
(a) Social stratification is universal
There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification
differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon.
According to Sorokin ―all permanently organized groups are stratified.‖
(b) Stratification is social
It is true that biological qualities do not determine one‘s superiority and inferiority.
Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis on
which statues are distinguished. But one‘s education, property, power, experience,
character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities.
Hence, stratification is social by nature.
(c) It is ancient
Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In
almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble
andpowerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to
political, social and economic inequalities.
(d) It is in diverse forms:
The forms of stratification are not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world class,
caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of
stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four
varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided
into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the
plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diverse forms
of social stratification.
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(e) Social Stratification is Consequential:
Social stratification has two important consequences one is ―life chances‖ and the other
one is ―life style‖. A class system not only affects the ―life- chances‖ of the individuals
but also their ―life style‖.
The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every
society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health,
opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and
divorce etc.
Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Life-
styles include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have
gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress,
the kinds of books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be
viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work
of a commonly shared over-all culture.
Social Stratification and Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to the movement within the social structure, from one social
position to another. It means a change in social status. All societies provide some
opportunity for social mobility. But the societies differ from each other to extent in which
individuals can move from one class or status level to another.
It is said that the greater the amount of social mobility, the more open the class structure.
The concept of social mobility has fundamental importance in ascertaining the relative
―openness‖ of a social structure. The nature, forms, direction and magnitude of social
mobility depends on the nature and types of social stratification. Sociologists study social
mobility in order to find out the relative ‗openness‘ of a social structure.
Any group that improves its standard will also improve its social status. But the rate of
social mobility is not uniform in all the countries. It differs from society to society from
time to time. In India the rate of mobility is naturally low because of agriculture being the
32
predominant occupation and the continuity of caste system as compared to the other
countries of the world.
Types of Social Mobility
In social stratification the movement occurs in three directions.
(a) From lower to higher
(b) From higher to lower
(c) Between two positions at the same level.
Social mobility is of two types
(i) Vertical mobility
(ii) Horizontal mobility
(i) Vertical mobility
It refers to the movement of people from one stratum to another or from one status to
another. It brings changes in class, occupation and power. It involves movement
fromlower to higher or higher to lower. There are two types of vertical mobility. One is
upward and other is downward mobility.
When an individual moves from lower status to higher status, it is called upward
mobility. For example, if the son of a peon joins a bank as an officer, it is said to be
upward social mobility but if he loses the job due to any other reason or inefficiency, he
33
is downwardly mobile from his previous job. So downward mobility takes place when a
person moves down from one position to another and change his status.
(ii) Horizontal Mobility
It refers to the movement of people from one social group to another situated on the same
level. It means that the ranks of these two groups are not different. It indicates change in
position without the change in status. For example, if a teacher leaves one school and
joins another school or a bank officer leaves one branch to work in another or change of
residence are the horizontal mobility.
Horizontal mobility
Apart from the above two broad types of social stratification, there are two other types of
social stratification in terms of dimension of time. They are:
(i) Inter-generational mobility:
When changes in status occur from one generation to another, it is called

intergenerational mobility. For example, if the son changes his status either by taking
upon occupation of higher or lower rank with that of his father, there inter-generational
mobility takes place.
(ii) Intra-generational mobility:
When changes in status occur within one generation, it is called intra-generational

mobility. For example, the rise and fall in the occupational structure of a family which
leads to change in its social status within one generation is called intra-generational
mobility.
Stratification and Caste
Under the caste system status is hereditary. It is based on birth, it is purely an ascribed
status. Once such positions are assigned, they can not advance and improve their social
34
status in any way. Hence, caste as a major type of social stratification does not facilitate
vertical social mobility.
Social Stratification and Class
Class is an ―open‖ system. Under this system vertical mobility is absolutely free.
Movement from one status to another has no barrier. Status is based on achievement. It is
determined by the talents, wealth, money, intelligence, power, education, income, etc. of
a person. There is no inheritance of parental status.
Gender
Like caste and class gender is another kind of social stratification system. Gender,
perhaps is the oldest and permanent source of social differentiation. But within the broad
hierarchy of caste and class, gender cuts across caste and class. In present day Indian
society caste, class and gender are dynamic phenomena which vary between groups,
communities and regions. Recent years have witnessed a thorough and widespread
discussion on gender. It has claimed critical address within ender as a concept and as a
set of practices has occurred during the last three decades.
The origin of the concept gender can be traced to the 19th century women‘s movement
and in Marxism. But it seems to have first appeared among American Feminists who
wanted to reject biological determinism. Feminists prefer the term gender than sex.
But the term gender means much more than sex and more inclusive than sex. It is a
socially constructed category rather than biologically determined. The gender of a man is
masculine and a woman is feminine. Neither a man nor a woman is sex alone. Gender
refers to the socially constructed and culturally determined role that men and women play
in their day-to-day lives. Gender is the most potent significant and enormously useful
analytical concept used by the feminists.
It is a matter of social ascription, a socio-cultural construction and provided a deeper

analysis of inequalities existing between male and female. It refers to the social
institutionalization of sexual difference. In feminist literature gender is not a value free
concept rather a value loaded term and has acquired new dimensions. It is a conceptual
35
tool for analysis and is used to highlight different structural relationships of inequality
between men and women. As a socially constructed differences and relations between
males and females it very from time to time and from place to place
Gender is defined as the social construction of relations between women and men and
among various groups of women and men. Feminist consider gender as the socio-cultural
manifestation of being a man or a woman.
(1) According to N. Kabeer ―Gender is seen as the process by which individuals who are
born into biological categories of male or female become the social categories of men and
women through the acquisition of locally defined attributes of masculinity and feminity.‖
(2) According to A. Masefield—‖Gender can be defined as a notion that offers a set of

frameworks within which the social and ideological construction and representation of
differences between sexes are explained.‖
(3) According to ILO, ―Gender refers to the social differences and relations between men
and women, which are learned, which vary widely among societies and cultures and
change over time.‖
Thus, gender involves power structure and economic relationships. It is used to analyze
the role, responsibilities, constraints, needs of men and women in all areas. It
encompasses the social division and cultural distinctions between women and men. It
plays an important role in shaping institutions and practices in every society.
Gender and Sex
The term gender does not replace the term sex. It is necessary to distinguish between sex
and gender. The distinction between sex and gender is fundamental, since many
differences between males and females are not biological in origin. Sex refers to the
physical differences of body where as gender refers to social, cultural and psychological
differences between males and females.
Sex refers to biological differences between male and female which are much more the
same over time and space where as gender refers to socially and culturally constructed
36
differences and relations between males and females which vary from place to place and
from time to time. Sex refers to male and female where as gender refers to masculinity
and feminity. Gender is a structural feature of a society.
Top of Form
Bottom of Form
Definition of social leaderWe use the term social leadership as coined by Esade
Professor JaumeFilella. Social leaders have followers because of their ability to bring
people together, Social skills may be defined as being able to communicate and cooperate
effectively within and across culturally diverse boundaries (organizational, geographical,
demographic, professionally) – experimenting, innovating, connecting, sharing, learning
together and supporting one another.
Social skills are one of the main tools for building high performance teams in that they
help to build trust, respect, team spirit, and reduce conflict among the team members.
This in turn creates an atmosphere of caring about each other. Facilitate agreements and
drive efforts in the same direction. Nelson Mandela can be seen as the prototype of a
social leader.
Differentiate social leadership and social stratification citing examples where necessary
Further Readings
Grusky, David B. and Ann AzumiTakata (1992). Social Stratification. The Encyclopedia
of Sociology; Macmillan Publishing Company
Toye, David L. (May 2004). "The Emergence of Complex Societies: A Comparative

Approach". World History Connected
37
TOPIC SIX
IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY ON EXTENSION AND
COMMUNITUY DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
importance ofrural sociology on extension and community development
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to describe the importance of rural sociology with respect to
extension and community development
Discussions Notes
Rural sociology is a field of sociology traditionally associated with the study of social
structure and conflict in rural areas such as food and agriculture or boundaries.
a) Rural Population is in a Majority
In almost all the Countries of the world majority or the world resides in villages in
villages. It is more true that over 80% population of India resides in villages.
b) It Gives Complete Knowledge of Village Life
Rural sociology gives us complete knowledge of village life. Village is the first unit of
development in country. It is a centre of culture of any country
c) Rural Reformation
Rural reformation is the primary aim of rural sociology. In this context it helps in
following works.
38
i)Organization
Village units which are disorganized and can be organized through rural sociology. It
improved in the co-ordination of various units and helps in bringing an improvement in
economic, social and health conditions.
ii) Economic Betterment
Through detailed study of village problems and observation rural sociology gives stress
on the importance of increasing the quantity and quality of production. This results in to
raising the standard of living.
iii) Provide Technology and Systematic Knowledge and reforms in Farm

Production:
Main occupation of 80% population of village is agriculture. The earlier researches in

rural sociology were made in agricultural college.
iv) Solutions of Pathological Social Problems:
Rural sociology examines the social pathological problems and it suggests ways for the
improving these problem.
v)Education:
The improvement t, the development of any community depends on its education. Rural
sociology lays stress on education in rural problems.
vi)Planning for Development:
Rural sociology encourages the development of various plans for any rural development
program. The work must be carried out according to these plans for the progress in rural
society.
d) Rural Sociology is mostimportant in Agricultural Countries:
39
About 90% of world progress is based on agriculture. It is only in agricultural countries
that people realize the importance of rural sociology. India is mainly agricultural country.
For its all sided development the development of rural sociology is very important.
Question for discussion
Explain the importance of rural sociology
Further Reading
Benford, Robert D., and David A. Snow (2000) ―Framing Processes and
SocialMovements: A Review and Assessment.‖ Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–39.
40
TOPIC SEVEN
IMPORTANCE OF CHANGE OF AGENTS AND AGENCIES
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the importance
of change of agents and agencies
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to explain the importance of change of agents and agencies
Discussion Notes
Following, the term change agent is used for all those persons or groups of persons,
which are responsible for implementing change. Thus, it covers the function of the
change agent in itself, as well as change managers, change leaders or project managers
for change projects.
Sensitivity to changes in key personnel, top management perceptions and market

conditions, and the way in which it impacts the goals of the project
Helps in setting of clearly defined goals of a project
Flexibility in responding to changes without the control of the project manager
Earn building abilities bringing together stakeholders and establish effective working
groups and to define anddelegate responsibilities clearly.
Networking skills in establishing and maintaining appropriate contacts within and outside
the organization
Helps in developing communication skills to transmit effectively to colleagues and

subordinates
Improves interpersonal skills like listening, collecting appropriate information
41
Personal Enthusiasm in expressing plans and ideas
Stimulating motivation and commitment in others involved
Selling ideas and plans to others by creating desirable and challenging vision of the future
Characteristics and Roles of Community Change Agents
A change agent lives in the future, not the present. Regardless of what is going on
today, a change agent has a vision of what could or should be and uses that as the
governing sense of action. To a certain extent, a change agent is dissatisfied with what
they see around them, in favor of a much better vision of the future. Without this future
drive, the change agent can lose their way.
A change agent is fueled by passion, and inspires passion in others, Change is hard
work. It takes a lot of energy. Don't underestimate this. I like to think about the amount of
energy it takes to boil water. From 212 degree water to 212 degree steam takes a lot more
energy than heating water from 211 degrees to 212 degrees. In my experience, without
passion, it is very difficult indeed to muster up enough energy to assault the fortress of
status quo that seems to otherwise carry the day.
A change agent has a strong ability to self-motivate. There will be many days where
everyone around does not understand and will not offer props. The change agent needs to
find it within themselves to get up every day and come to work and risk being
misunderstood and misappreciated, knowing that the real validation may be far in the
future and may be claimed by someone else.
A change agent must understand people.at the end of the day, change is about people.
If you change everything but the people, I doubt you'll be effective as a change agent.
Change will really "stick" when people embrace it. Therefore, change is part sales, part
counseling and part encouragement. It's all about people. At the end of the day, IT is
entrusted with a very powerful lever for change - technology. With that lever, we can
bring very powerful change to our organizations. But in order to do so, we need to
embrace the "way of the Change Agent" and not lock ourselves in Ivory Towers of
Technology.
42
Clear Vision – As mentioned above, a ―change agent‖ does not have to be the person in
authority, but they do however have to have a clear vision and be able to communicate
that clearly with others. Where people can be frustrated is if they feel that someone is all
over the place on what they see as important and tend to change their vision often. This
will scare away others as they are not sure when they are on a sinking ship and start to
looking for ways out. It is essential to note that a clear vision does not mean that there is
one way to do things; in fact, it is essential to tap into the strengths of the people you
work with and help them see that there are many ways to work toward a common
purpose.
Patient yet persistent – Change does not happen overnight and most people know
that. To have sustainable change that is meaningful to people, it is something
that they will have to embrace and see importance. Most people need to experience
something before they really understand that, and that is especially true in schools. With
that being said, many can get frustrated that change does not happen fast enough and they
tend to push people further away from the vision, then closer. The persistence comes in
that you will take opportunities to help people get a step closer often when they are ready,
not just giving up on them after the first try. I have said continuously that schools have to
move people from their point ‘A’ to their point ‘B’, not have everyone move at the same
pace. Every step forward is a step closer to a goal; change agents just help to make sure
that people are moving ahead.
Asks tough questions – It would be easy for someone to come in and tell you how things
should be, but again that is someone else‘s solution. When that solution is someone
else‘s, there is no accountability to see it through. It is when people feel an emotional
connection to something is when they will truly move ahead. Asking questions focusing
on, ―What is best for kids?‖, and helping people come to their own conclusions based on
their experience is when you will see people have ownership in what they are
doing. Keep asking questions to help people think, don‘t alleviate that by telling them
what to do.
Knowledgeable and leads by example – Stephen Covey talked about the notion that
leaders have ―character and credibility”; they are not just seen as good people but that
43
they are also knowledgeable in what they are speaking about. Too many times, educators
feel like their administrators have ―lost touch‖ with what is happening in the classroom,
and many times they are right. Someone who stays active in not necessarily teaching, but
active in learning and working with learners and can show by example what learning can
look like now will have much more credibility with others. If you want to create
―change‖, you have to not only be able to articulate what that looks like, but show it to
others. I have sat frustrated often listening to many talk about ―how kids learn today‖ but
upon closer look, the same speakers do not put themselves in the situation where they are
actually immersing themselves in that type of learning. How can you really know how
―kids learn‖ or if something works if you have never experienced it?
Strong relationships built on trust – All of the above, means nothing if you do not have
solid relationships with the people that you serve. People will not want to grow if they do
not trust the person that is pushing the change. The change agents I have seen are
extremely approachable and reliable. You should never be afraid to approach that
individual based on their ―authority‖ and usually they will go out of their way to connect
with you.
That doesn‘t mean that they aren‘t willing to have tough conversations though; that also
builds trust. Trust is also built when you know someone will deal with things and not be
afraid to do what is right, even if it is uncomfortable. Sometimes trust is built when you
choose to do what is right for your community or organization, as long as it is always
done in a respectful way.
Should every school/district administrator have these qualities? Probably. But with that
being said, positive change is not reserved to be the responsibility of any position. The
best leaders may have all of these qualities but also empower others to be those ―change
agents‖ as well to build a culture of leadership and learning. I can think of many people
that I have encountered who have helped pushed their organizations ahead that have no
formal ―authority‖ over any individual. That being said, some of them do it in spite of
their principal or superintendent and often feel that they are in constant conflict. Things
would obviously move a lot quicker if they had the support of their leader. With that
44
support, change can happen in an organization quickly, but if the leader does not ―clear
the path‖, improvement will take a lot longer than it should.
What is important to note is that being a ―charismatic leader‖ is not something that is
essential. Often, charismatic leaders lack many of these qualities that I have listed above
and although they can seemingly lead change, it is not sustainable and does not permeate
throughout the school or organization; it becomes too dependent upon one person. For
example, was Steve Jobs a change agent, or a charismatic leader? Apple is not doing as
well since he has passed away and their innovation has seem to slow down. Steve Jobs
was known for being notoriously tough to deal with and the trust that is essential to
building a strong culture was probably lacking to some degree. I believe that change
agents will help to create more leaders, not more followers.
Question to discuss
Add other five reasons for change of agents and agencies in an organization
References
Buchanan and Boddy (1992): The Expertise of the Change Agent: Public Performance
and Backstage Activity . Prentice Hall
45
TOPIC EIGHT
RURAL ORGANIZATIONS AND DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
elements of rural organizations and developments.
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to describe rural organizations and developments
Discussions Notes
The World Bank estimates that nearly 800 million people or roughly 40 percent of the
population of the developing nations still live in absolute poverty. Some of their studies
indicate that in many instances the poor have not benefited-indeed, they may have
suffered absolute loss during early stages of national development. In response there has
been growing interest in new approaches to national development intended to bring the
poor more rapidly into full participation in development decisions, implementation, and
benefits. Many observers have looked to effective community controlled social
organizations as important if not essential instruments if the rural poor are to give
meaningful expression to their views, mobilize their own resources in self-help action,
and enforce their demands on the broader national political and economic systems.
Though many national and international agencies claim commitmentto

participativeapproaches to helping the rural poor, little progress has been made in
translating ambitious plans into effective action. The record of earlier community
development and cooperatives efforts is largely a history of failure, resulting more often
in strengthening the position of traditional elites than in integrating poorer elements into
the nationaldevelopment process. Many current calls for involvement of the rural poor
are little more than wishful thinking, in adequately informed by past experience as to the
investmentsin institutional innovation required to give reality to an important idea. The
prevailing blueprint approach to development programming with its emphasis on detailed
46
pre-planning and time bounded projects is itself cited as an important impediment.
Examination of a number of Asian programs suggests that the more successful grew out
of village experience. Consequently they were able to achieve an unusual degree of fit
between beneficiary needs, program outputs, and the competence of the assisting
organization. The key was not preplanning, but an organization with a capacity for
embracing error, learning with the people, and building new knowledge and institutional
capacity through action. A model of the learning process approach to building program
strategies and appropriate organizational competence suggestsa new programshould
progress through three developmental stages in which the focal concern is successively
on learning to be effective, learning to be efficient, and learning to expand.
Unlike the modernization theories the community development approachgave importance

to the development potentialities of the rural communities.Particularly the non-
governmental organizations, which stressed the importanceof the participation of 'local
target groups' in the process of rural development,adopted basic ideas of community
development approach.The central features of the community development approach can
besummarized as follows:
• Establishment of a coordination team at the local level
• Training and assignment of local community development workers as so-called change

agents
• Regular contact and dialogue between the community development team and the
villagers
• Formation of local groups at the village level.
In many parts of the world, rural development is supported by third sector organizations,
such asNGOs, farmer associations, self-help groups, rural partnerships and cooperatives.
Although thecontribution of these organizations to rural development has been widely
recognized empirically (e.g.,OECD 2006), the theoretical understanding of their
economic rationale has remained unsatisfactory(Valentinov, 2012).
47
Producer organizations have played a major role in the successful performance of
thefamily farm in industrialized countries and this role continues unabated today.In the
European Union, for instance, there are some 30,000 agricultural cooperatives with
9million members, accounting for 50% of the overall market for inputs and 60% of the
market forproducts (Mercoiret et al., 2006). In the United States, cooperatives control
about 80% of dairyproduction and most specialty producers in California are organized in
cooperatives.Producer organizations are spreading rapidly in developing countries as well
(Uphoff,1993; Berdegué, 2001). The Indian Dairy Cooperatives have 12.3 million
members, mainlysmallholders and landless households, accounting for 22% of the milk
produced in India. TheNational Federation of Coffee Growers in Colombia has 310,000
members and providesproduction and marketing services to half a million coffee growers,
most of them with less than 2hectares. Besides services to its members, the Federation
also delivers public goods (research,extension, health, education) and infrastructure (rural
roads, electrification) for coffee-growingcommunities.
The provision of basic services and infrastructure in urban and rural areas is one of the
important tasks of local authorities. However, the rapid expansion of urbanization that is
taking place in most towns and villages has caught the authorities unprepared. Hence, this
undermines their capacity in providing services, as they cannot cope with this rapid
expansion. Faced with these problems, some people have responded to it by forming
Community Based Organizations (CBOs), as a strategy towards community Development
and the method of top-down approach.
Contribution of Rural Organizations to Development
Formal cooperatives were first introduced in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by colonial

governments, often for the purpose of promoting production of cash crops by peasant
farmers. After independence, many SSA governments adopted policies that further
accentuated the role of cooperatives and other rural organizations in the agricultural
sector. They became important channels for government-sponsored credit input supply
and marketing programs, and often had to operate under close guidance and control by
the state. This study shows that past efforts by governments to promote efficient and
sustainable rural organizations have been constrained by inappropriate policies.
48
Extensive government intervention has tended to reduce member participation and has
militated against the objective of building self-sustaining organizations. Regulations of
prices and markets have frequently prevented rural organizations from becoming
commercially and financially viable. Based on an analysis of cooperatives and other
farmer organizations in several SSA countries, great emphasis is put on the need for
policy reforms to facilitate the development of sustainable rural organizations.
In order to make cooperatives effective private sector enterprises, their freedom to

operate without undue restrictions on their management and business activities must be
ensured. This calls, in most SSA countries, for a change of cooperative policies and
legislation, which in the past have perceived cooperative organizations as being within
the public sector domain and subject to close control by government authorities. The
World Bank can play a central role in this process by assisting governments in the
identification of legislative, policy and institutional reforms which enable cooperatives
and other rural organizations to evolve into efficient and sustainable organizations
managed by their members and capable of providing competitive services. Capacity-
building is an essential element of action to promote the development of rural
organizations. This study advocates that capacity-building measures, e.g., member
education, staff training and management systems development, should be included in
projects involving cooperatives and other farmer groups. To the fullest extent possible,
they should be planned and implemented through the beneficiary organizations
themselves.
Rural Women and Development
Women are the backbone of the development of rural and national economies. They
comprise 43% of the world‘s agricultural labor force, which rises to 70% in some
countries. In Africa, 80% of the agricultural production comes from small farmers, who
are mostly rural women. Women comprise the largest percentage of the workforce in the
agricultural sector, but do not have access and control over all land and productive
resources.
49
During the last ten years, many African countries have adopted new land laws in order to
strengthen women‘s land ownership rights. This has helped improve the situation of rural
women.To this effect, the lack of appreciation of the role of rural women in agriculture is
harmful and gives rise to a lack of specific policies, policies which are misdirected, high
levels of poverty, illiteracy and non-involvement in the design and planning of programs
and policies, which involves a process of mutual learning that reflects the real and
specific needs of rural women.
Despite the important roles they play in agricultural economies, rural women in Africa
suffer from the highest illiteracy rates and are the most visible face of poverty. Women
guarantee livelihoods, especially in rural areas. As a result of their great efforts in
agricultural production, women‘s production helps to guarantee their self-sustenance.
This is still not enough, however, to cover other needs, such as health care, paying for the
education of their children or the acquisition of other products and goods which are
necessary on a day-to-day basis since they have a limited financial capacity caused by an
inefficient supply chain and poor conservation of their surpluses. Connected with these
problems there is also the issue of climate change, which includes irregular rainfall,
floods, droughts and cyclones, whose effects have a greater impact on rural women and
make their life difficult.
Rural women have to walk, moreover, long distances to carry water and fetch firewood,
which is harmful for the health of humans, causing high rates of infant and maternal
mortality, reversing progress in education and endangering food sovereignty, as well as
food security and nutrition.
Agriculture is the main alternative for Rural Women, and it should come with better
access to land and resources for the prevention, adaptation and mitigation of climate
change, combined with rural women learning how to deal with cultural resistance and
adapting to various manifestations of this phenomenon.
Realizing the importance of rural women in agriculture is an important aspect of gender

relations. In many countries, the role of women in agriculture is considered just to be a
"help" and not an important economic contribution to agricultural production. Social
50
customs dictate, moreover, that women, especially rural women, should - in addition to
agricultural activities - be responsible for cooking, carrying water and fetching firewood,
limiting their participation in decision-making processes and their exposure to those
economic opportunities that arise, thus increasing the level of inequality vis-à-vis their
partners.Nowadays many governments tend to pay more attention to the agricultural
sector than ever before.
More investments are, however, needed.
It is a fact that rural women guarantee increases in food production. This is not, however,
sufficient to meet future needs. Fighting hunger and malnutrition are some of the
measures which should be taken to guarantee higher income and better living conditions
for the most vulnerable communities, which are mostly formed by rural women who
practice small-scale agriculture, especially in developing countries such as Mozambique.
It is true that agricultural activities should lead to rural women increasing their income.
Mere financial support is, however, not sufficient. The adoption of measures that
facilitate the transition to a type of agriculture that respects the environment and
contributes to the conservation of natural resources that benefit women is, in
particular, necessary.
One of the major weaknesses of the agricultural sector is to be found in the production,
disposal, preservation, processing and marketing of agricultural products. We must
undertake joint efforts to create favorable conditions in agricultural areas, including the
reinforcement of road networks for the transportation of produce from production areas
where rural women work, as well as the processing and commercialization of such
products.
There is a need to drop policies which are less favorable to rural women, focusing on the
appreciation of their role as producers of wealth and strengthening the network of public
services in rural areas, including health, education, and welfare services, as well as
establishing policies that combat the asymmetries that prevent rural women from being
protected against the effects of climate change. The training of rural women is very
important, especially with the adoption of modern agricultural techniques that are tailored
51
to local conditions and that use natural resources in a sustainable manner, with a view to
achieving economic development without degrading the environment.
It requires the dissemination of the results of research carried out by experts - including
those on agro-ecological techniques -with a view to increasing Rural Women‘s
production levels.
To this effect, it must be pointed out that agro-ecological practices require the provision
of certain public goods, such as extension services, storage facilities, rural infrastructure
(roads, electricity, and information and communication technologies), access to markets
and access to credit, as well as supporting organizations and farmer cooperatives.
Governments have a key role to play in relation thereto, as well as supporting the access
to land, water and seeds by rural women who are involved in small-scale agriculture.
Giving support to rural women is a way of breaking the vicious cycle that leads to rural
poverty and to the expansion of slums in the cities, where the poor get poorer.
Development strategies should consider rural women as the epicenter, paying special
attention to their social skills both within and without agriculture sector.
Policies established for the benefit of rural women should be tested and reassessed by the
beneficiaries, using them as a social learning tool and not as individuals on whom
political authority is exercised. Rural women - instead of being treated as mere
beneficiaries – should, in other words, be viewed as experts who possess knowledge
which complement experts‘ formal knowledge.
Participation in policies that benefit rural women can ensure truthful answers being given
to this vulnerable group, since membership empowers impoverished subjects and is a
vital step towards poverty alleviation.In order to contribute to an increase in the levels of
production and productivity, it is necessary to provide support to those women's
organizations and farmers who promote new conceptual and development programs and
who contribute to the implementation of new ideas by women with a view to diversifying
income-generating activities and the provision of other services in rural areas.
It is extremely important to recognize the role that rural women play and the contribution
that they make in networks and cooperatives, giving them greater political and financial
52
support and involving them in the training and conducting of development programs that
enhance women's role in agricultural production.
Networks operating in rural areas, especially rural women's organizations are partners to
be involved in the conception of development programs. These organizations must be
aware of the local reality. To put it another way, even though global partnerships will
always be necessary and useful, such organizations should work towards the
empowerment of rural women since actions are always local.
Discus the contribution of rural organizations to development
Further Reading
Korten, D.C. (1980). "Community Organization and Rural Organization and Rural
Development: A Learning Process approach". PublicAdministration Review. 40(5), pp.
480-511.
53
TOPIC NINE
MANAGING RURAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH DESIGNED PROGRAM
AND INNOVATIONS
Learning Objectives
elements of managing rural development through designed program and innovations
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to understand the management of rural development and
innovations
Discussion notes
Key Concepts and Terms
The societal programmes have aimed at deriving optimum benefits by careful

management of resources, science and technology experience and skills in consideration
OF needs of the people. It has been possible to bring in specific intervention packages for
the benefit of people in rural areas, particularly weaker sections such as women, tribal
and people belonging to scheduled castes. While individual projects have been supported
to develop sustainable technology models, large numbers of replicable models
demonstrated over a few years have started getting recognition from various agencies.
Such models are now being replicated in very large numbers through various ministries
as well as international agencies like United Nations. The interface between technology
institutions and science and technology field groups has also been promoted specifically
to encourage voluntary organizations to adopt science and technology as part of the
process of change.
54
Science and Technology Application for Rural Development
This program has provided unique opportunity of pursuing action oriented research and
development work by interested scientists, especially from the younger generation,
committed to work in the field of rural development. It has also helped in local
networking and coordination amongst various science and technology based voluntary
organizations and developmental agencies. Areas where science and technology have
been effectively utilized:
Rural natural resource management through micro-watershed development
Dissemination of solar photovoltaic systems and training in operation and maintenance
Development of solar powered refrigerator for use in rural areas
Development of village information network through computerized support system and

database for use by local communities in effective planning and access to technology in
the areas of health, sanitation, sustainable agriculture, education, watershed management,
etc.
Water area development along with horticulture planning through appropriate technology
Low Cost energy saving local renewable technology for water systems development
Science and Technology for Women
The scheme science and technology for women supports projects relating to identifying
technological needs of women, development, adaptation of technology and transferring
available technology models for the benefit of women. A salient feature of this scheme is
its unconventional approach, women centered policies and involvement of women at all
the stages of the program from problem identification to dissemination of technology.
Integrated Agriculture and Rural Development Programs
The implementation of sustainable agricultural policies sensitive to the environment and

the diffusion of technological innovations must be integrated with agricultural programs
and rural development designed carefully with an awareness of the realities of local,
55
national, and international markets, balanced by a focus on issues agricultural, social,
economic, ethnic and rural communities. Companiesshould mobilized multidisciplinary
and multi-sector teams to design and implement these programs successfully.
Integrated Development of Rural Infrastructure
Various companies in the world are offering a wide range of services from planning to
administration and facilitation of the construction and improvement of rural
infrastructure, including crop farming, transport and storage facilities, water wells,
irrigation systems, roads, farms, supplies rural water facilities, and strengthening of
community institutions to ensure these facilities. Their extensive experiences with farm-
level participatory methodologies helps ensure that projects are performed cost-effective
and to provide farmers with a strong sense of belonging.
Institutional Development and Empowerment of Rural Communities
Different firms also provide services for institutional development in many ways:
assisting rural communities to develop skills and confidence to participate in
development programs; strengthening cooperatives and agricultural irrigation, and
institutional reforms for government agencies. When establishing and strengthening
cooperatives and agricultural irrigation, empowering beneficiaries and economic
weaknesses in their witness to participate in economic activities
Farm Development and Management of Improved Irrigation
Many organizations offer services in the development of farm from experience in

participating in projects hand-in-hand with farmers. Their designs are made to meet the
needs of farmers and their abilities to ensure sustainable transfer of skills and
facilities. They have ample experience in improving the administration of water
resources and irrigation efficiency, from the preparation of technical manuals and post
construction instructions and operation and maintenance of irrigation schemes.
56
Development of Irrigation Systems
Technical services of companies promoting agriculture include studies, planning, design,

construction supervision, and administration and operation of dams, underground water
sources, canals and irrigation facilities as well as the establishment and strengthening of
water user associations. They also produce irrigation schemes and environmentally
sensitive designs for the efficient use of funds available while facilitating the
participation of the parties and agencies involved.
Support Services and Farm Training
Various firms work to improve the knowledge, technical skills, local organizations and
support services to farmers and local communities. They have extensive experience in
software development for crop diversification, product development, marketing, credit
schemes, and technical and administrative training. The training, along with research and
development, encourages technical innovations that are often needed in farming
communities. They also help to design and implement management information systems
using tools such as geographic information systems (GIS) to promote more effective and
sustainable use of natural resources.
Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic wellbeing
of people living in relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Rural development
has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land intensive natural resources such as
agriculture and forestry.
Planned rural development is when rural communities approach development from a

wider perspective and has created more focus on a broad range of development goals
than agriculture by the help of local rural development programs by NGOs,agencies.
Unplanned rural development is uncontrolled, unrestricted development of the rural areas

without following a particular nature or procedure and mostly it only develops the
agricultural sector.
57
The difference between the two is that planned development other than looking at
agriculture and forestry alone, it also looks into socio-economic factors like roads and
schools. Planned rural development also has a procedure or programs that aid in their
development unlike unplanned development
Discus how rural development can be effectively managed through designing programs
and innovation
Further Reading
Ahmed, R. and C. Donovan(1992). Issues of infrastructural development: A synthesis of

the Literature. Washington, D.C. Int. Food Policy Res. Institute
58
TOPIC TEN
POVERTY AND NUTRITIONAL PROBLEMS
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand poverty and
nutritional problems in relation to ruraldevelopment.
Learning Outcome
1. Define poverty and nutritional problems

2. Explain the effects of poverty and nutritional problems on rural development
Discussions Notes
Poverty is general scarcity or dearth or the state of one who lacks a certain amount of
material possessions or money. It is a multifaceted concept, which includes social,
economic political elements. Poverty seems to be chronic or temporary, and most of the
time it is closely related to inequality. As a dynamic concept, poverty is changing and
adapting according to consumption patterns, social dynamics and technological change
.Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the deprivation basic human needs, which
commonly includes food water, sanitation, clothing, shelter and health care. Relative
poverty is defined contextually as an economic inequality in the location or society in
which people live.
Nutritional problemis defined as a state in which the physical function of an individual

is impaired to the point where he or she can no longer maintain adequate performance in
such processes as growth, resisting and recovering from disease, pregnancy, lactation and
physical work. Such a definition does not imply aetiology, which proximately may be
food-related and/or health-related. This book focuses primarily on chronic protein-energy
malnutrition - i.e. problems of deficit rather than excess. Micronutrient deficiency
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problems are considered only briefly, while the important areas of diet-related chronic
disease - which refer largely to excesses and/or imbalances - are not included.
Physiological changes with aging
As we age, changes in our body composition, systems, and organ function can affect our
food choices, and ultimately our health and nutritional status. The usual physiological
changes of aging include:
A decrease in lean body tissue, reducing energy needs
A loss of bone mass, increasing the risk of osteoporosis
A decline in immune function, enhancing the risk of infection
Reduced taste and smell, contributing to lack of appetite
Tooth loss and dry mouth, compromising food intake
A decline in kidney function and in the thirst mechanism, increasing the risk of
dehydration
Changes in gastrointestinal function, contributing to constipation and impaired nutrient

absorption (slow bowels)
Not all older adults experience these changes. There is remarkable variation in the usual
aging process, partly due to genetic differences. Nevertheless, because of these changes,
the requirements for some nutrients are higher after we reach 50 years of age. Nutrients
with increased requirements include vitamin B6, vitamin D, and calcium.
Chronic illness - physical or psychological
Diseases such as chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD), heart failure, cancer,
infections, thyroid disorders and uncontrolled diabetes can contribute to
malnutrition. Many chronic conditions can make it difficult to swallow properly, which
interferes with food intake.
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Mental illness can result in a decrease food intake and can contribute to social
withdrawal. Depression is the most common cause of weight loss and anorexia in the
older adult. Early diagnosis is important to begin antidepressant therapy and nutritional
support.
Multiple medications
The more prescription and over-the-counter (herbal, multi-vitamins, etc.) medicines you
take, the greater the chance for side effects from drug interactions. These side effects
(e.g. loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea) can affect our ability to consume food
and our body‘s ability to retain the nutrients from food. Nutrients most at risk include
folic acid, vitamins B12, B6, C, D, and K, as well as the minerals phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, and zinc. Prescription drugs and over-the counter remedies may
also interact with certain foods. It is important that a physician knows of all medications
being taken to avoid these potential problems.
Chronic alcohol intake
Consuming more than 1-2 drinks per day can significantly impair the appetite. Alcohol
contains ―empty‖ calories…high calories (7 kcal per gram) with no other
nutrients. Frequent consumption of large amounts of alcohol can damage many vital
organs such as the brain, heart, and liver. Alcohol can also interact with medications.
Low income
Having a low income can make it difficult to obtain the foods required for a healthy
diet. Although healthier foods are not necessarily more expensive, a person may need to
cut back on the food budget to accommodate the cost of their medications. The cost of
transportation and housing are also factors.
Social isolation
Because eating is a social event, social isolation can have a negative effect on our
nutritional health. Social isolation can be increased by reduced communication abilities
such as loss of hearing or sight. The loss of a loved one through death, indifference or
61
separation can also impair food intake. Being with people has a positive effect on
morale, well-being, and eating.
Physical disability
Many older adults, particularly those with a physical disability, have trouble walking,
shopping, buying, and cooking foods. These individuals would need support from
friends, family, or social services in order to achieve good nutritional health.
Involuntary weight loss or gain
Losing or gaining weight when not trying to is generally a red flag for poor nutritional
health. Unintentional weight loss/gain of more than 3 kg (6.6 lbs) in a three-month
period is an important warning sign.
Poor diet
A poor diet can be due to eating too little or too much, not having a varied diet, or not
eating enough fruits, vegetables, and milk products. This can be the result of any of the
other factors listed above.
Nutrition and Chronic Disease Prevention
Healthy eating can play a major role in the prevention of many chronic diseases that
affect Canadians today. These diseases include cancer, cardiovascular disease (e.g.
congestive heart failure, hypertension, stroke), diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders (e.g.
diverticular disease, irritable bowel syndrome, constipation, hemorrhoids), and
osteoporosis. A healthy diet that is well-balanced and varied reduces your risk for all of
these diseases.
Effects of poverty and Nutritional problems
Leads to luck f manpower that can be used in the rural development
Leads to diversion of resources that can be used in rural development like in feeding
people
62
Leads to increase in crime and other criminal activities
Leads to exhaustion of resources
Poverty leads to school drop outs hence less skilled labour that cant be used in rural
development
Leads to slow development in social economic independence
Leads to unemployment
Poor housing & living conditions, a classic cause of diseases;
Water and food-related diseases, simply because the poor can't always afford "safe" foods
Discussion Question
Discuss the effect of bad nutrition with respect to rural development
Further Reading
Benford, Robert D., and David A. Snow (2000) ―Framing Processes and
SocialMovements: A Review and Assessment.‖ Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–39.
63
TOPIC ELEVEN
RURAL UNEMPLOYMENT
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand meaning of rural
unemployment, its causes and its effects
Learning Outcome
1. Define rural unemployment

2. Know its effects and its causes
Discussions Notes
Definition of unemployment:
The term ‗unemployment‘ has been defined by various scholars in various ways, chief
among them are as follows:
1) Karl Pribram:
Unemployment is a condition of the labour market in which the supply of labour power is
greater than the number of available openings. Apart from Karl Pribram other economists
and social thinkers have also defined the situation of unemployment.
2) Fair Child:
Unemployment is forced and involuntary separation from remunerative work on the part
of the normal wages and normal conditions.
3) Sargent Florence:
Unemployment has been defined as the idleness of persons able to work
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4) According to Gillin and other:
Unemployment is a condition in which a person is able willing to work normally,

dependent upon his earnings to provide the necessities of life for himself and family is
unable to obtain gainful employment.
Unemployment is, therefore, the lack of earning or idleness on the part of a person who is
able to work.Unemploymentoccurs when a person who is actively searching for
employment is unable to find work.Unemploymentis often used as a measure of the
health of the economy.
Rural unemployment occurs when a person who is willing to work in rural areas is unable
to find work
Causes
1) Excessive increase in population or population explosion:
In India the population is crossing all bounds. It is accepted that within 20 years or so the
population of this country shall have doubled. At this rate of increase in population, no
country can guarantee full employment to its hands. This is truer of the rural areas where
avenues of employment are limited. Programmes of family planning attempts to restrict
the increase in population have so far not yielded the desired results. This does not work
well for the country.
2) Limited land and great pressure on land:
India has a limited area of agricultural land. Attempt is being made to break the barren
land and bring greater area under the orbit of the agriculture. In spite of it the rapid
increase in population has so far failed all the attempts of the Govt. To provide proper
agricultural land to all those persons who do not have land. Apart from this there is
greater pressure on the land. In rural areas most of the people depend on land for their
livelihood. This creates the situation of unemployment for a large number of persons in
the rural areas.
65
3) Seasonal nature of agriculture:
Agriculture in India is a seasonal affair. It keeps the people engaged only for a few
months. After sometime the farmer have nothing to do. There is a season for sowing and
harvesting. After that the farmers have no job. During this period they remain
unemployed and without job. This has adverse effect on the earning of the people and the
standard of living. What is needed is that for this period, the agriculturalists should be
provided with some job. This would help them to earn more and employ their free time in
a gainful manner.
4) Lack of subsidiary and other village industries:
We have just now seen that for at least 4 to 5 months in a year village people remain
unemployed. Their standard of living can improve only when they employed this period
in a gainful manner. Such a thing can happen when cottage industries and other industries
pertaining to agriculture are set up in the village. So far this thing has succeeded on the
other hand, the village and cottage industries have deteriorated and so large number of
people still remains unemployed.
5) Too much dependence on nature:
Agriculture in India depends too much on nature particularly for irrigation. If there is lack
of such at the proper moment, the crop gets a set back. If there is inclement weather at the
time of harvesting, the agriculture again gets a set back. All these factors create problems
of unemployment.
6) Undeveloped and traditional methods of agriculture:
In India, agriculture is carried out through traditional methods. These methods are
undeveloped. They require a good deal of time and large number of hands, yet the yield is
not enough as to feed a large family and also provide for their other necessities. This has
an adverse effect on agricultural employment position.
66
7) Lack of education and ignorance about scientific and modern means of
agriculture:
Agricultural people are not educated. Due to lack of education, they are not able to utilize
their energy in proper manner. Apart from it they are not able to know about the scientific
and modern methods of agriculture. This makes their task cumbersome and time
consuming. This has also an adverse effect on employment position which requires
rethinking and reconsideration.
8) Lack of adequate means of irrigation:
We have just now seen that agriculture in India very much depends on nature. There are
no adequate means of irrigation. Whatever means existing are hardly sufficient to provide
water to all the fields. Because of dearth of irrigation facilities the agricultural yield is not
at all sufficient to help the agriculturist to live respectably. It also has an adverse effect on
employment position which in its turn has an adverse effect on the standard of living.
9) Small holdings and fragmentation of land:
Agriculture in India is disorganized. We have already talked about the dearth of irrigation
facilities, too much of dependence on nature and other factors. The holdings are small
and they are scattered and fragmented. Because of these drawbacks, the agricultural
product is not at all sufficient for the people who depend who depend on it. Apart from it
the agricultural out put is not commensurate with the labour that is spent on it. This has
an adverse effect on the employment position. It also adds to the poverty of the village.
Occupational immobility-This refers to the difficulties in learning new skills applicable

to a new industry, and technological change, e.g. an unemployed farmer may struggle to
find work in high tech industries.
Geographical immobility-This refers to the difficulty in moving regions to get a job, e.g.
there may be jobs in London, but it could be difficult to find suitable accommodation or
schooling for their children.
67
Technological change- If there is the development of labour saving technology in some
industries, then there will be a fall in demand for labour.
Structural change in the economy- The decline of the coal mines due to a lack of
competitiveness meant that many coal miners were unemployed; however they found it
difficult to get jobs in new industries such as computers.
Voluntary Unemployment
This occurs when people choose to remain unemployed rather than take jobs available.
For example, if benefits are generous, people may prefer to stay on benefits rather than
get work. Frictional unemployment is also a type of voluntary unemployment as they are
choosing to wait until they find a better job.
Effects of rural unemployment
It leads to rural urban migration, more crime and poverty and exhaustion of natural
resources among others.
Discussion Question
Discuss the effects of unemployment in your rural area
Further Reading
Booth, D., L. Hanmer and E. Lovell (2000). Poverty and transport: A report prepared for
the World Bank in collaboration with DFID. London: Overseas Dev. Institute
68
TOPIC TWELVE
RURAL INDUSTRIALIZATION AND EMPLOYMENT CREATION
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the definition of
rural industrialization and employment criterion
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to define rural industrialization and employment creation
Discussions Notes
The Key Concepts and Terms
Definition of rural Industrialization
It involves entrepreneurship emerging atvillage level which can take place ina variety of
Endeavour such asbusiness, industry, agricultureacts as a potent factor foreconomic
development. Rural industrialization means encouraging location oflarge and small scale
units away from urban areas. It is the planned shifting of small units fromurban to
rural.Existing Medium and large urbanunits should not to be disturbed.Encouragement
from governmentsfor industrialization in rural areas
Rural economic systems throughout the developedworld are very much regulated by
national policiesand increasingly by global pressures of competition.Regulation theories
argue that the mainforces for socio-economic changes occur withinnational economies
and that the world economyconsists of relations between national economiesand their
institutions (Lipietz 1986).
Advantages of ruralIndustrialization
Small and cottage industries require low capital investment and therefore can be very
easy and affordable to grow compared to urban industrialization.
69
Rural industries can take advantage of local resources and hence ensure effective and
economical utilization of locally available resources for development of rural areas.
By catering to local demand, avoidtransaction cost.
Employment generation for the rural people which raise the standards level of the
population and greatly reduce poverty levels
Specialized components of largeindustries manufactured at less costin small rural unit by

sub-contractsystem.
Rural Industries can produce bestproducts where skilled labor ofspecific nature required.
An effective mobilization of ruralresources, capital and skills whichmight otherwise

remain unutilized
Rural Industrialization will slow down urban migration and thus the educated people can
remain in their community and contribute towards development
Higher income generation for the rural people which make them to meet their daily needs
and even educate their children
Meeting local consumption demands
As such,role of rural industries isof paramount importancefor economic developmentofa

country
Rural economies are affected by various institutionsand development policies, e.g. land
useplanning, conservation, rural industrial policy andthe provision of public services.
Land ownershipdiffers from country to country, leading to differentagricultural and forest
management systems. Furthermore,the composition of the farming system(i.e. size of
farms, specialization, etc.) is influencedby national legislation and institutions and the
culturaland industrial legacy of each region. Ruraldevelopment is deeply rooted in the
history ofeach country, often originating from fundamental political processes such as
colonization, land reformsor measures enacted in response to unemploymentand
migration.
70
The number of people working in the manufacturingsector in rural areas increased by 46
per cent inthe 1970s, followed by a decline in the 1980s anda recovery in the 1990s.
During the last decadesrural areas have acquired an increasing share of total employment
in manufacturing. Thussome of the jobs lost in the primary sector have at least
numerically – been compensated for byindustrialization.
China provides an excellent example of how a rural development strategy focusing on

rural industrialization can bring about significant, and mostly positive, change not only in
the lives of rural people but also in the structure of the rural economy. China‘s rural
enterprises, widely known as Township and Village Enterprises (TVEs) have remarkably
contributed to economic growth, rural development and institutional transformation. The
Chinese experience is an important area of investigation largely because the huge
participation in rural industrialization by rural people resulted in a fairly diversified
industrialization over a quarter century. This makes the features of industrialization in
China quite successful and different from those of other countries.
In conclusion it can be said that rural industrialization helps in creating jobs thus
employment opportunities are created hence it should be encouraged. It has positive
effects on our socio-Economic life
Discussion Question
Discuss the effects of rural industrialization on the economies of rural areas
Further Reading
Baker, Peter, Dugger and Celia (2009). "Obama enlists major powers to aid poor farmers
with $15 billion". The New York Times; Retrieved 27 May 2011.
JasonHickel (2015). It will take 100 years for the world‘s poorest people to earn $1.25 a
day. The Guardian; Retrieved 31 March 2015.
71
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
RURAL SOCIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
Overview
By the nature of Rural Sociology, as we generally mean, it is not clear whether it is a

science or not. Augusta Comte, the father of Sociology, called Sociology as the queen of
sciences. Some sociologists have come to view Sociology in terms of natural sciences.
Most of the sociologists opine that Sociology possesses all the characteristics of science
and it is, no doubt, a science. Since Rural Sociology is a specialised branch of Sociology,
therefore it is also a science.
Learning Objectives
The objective of the topic is to enable students to effectively understand the fact that rural
sociology is a science.
Learning Outcome
The student should be able to identify any five indicators of rural sociology as a science
Discussions
Before we proceed to elaborate Rural Sociology as a science, it is essential to know what

science is. Science is a method and way of looking at things consisting of systematic
steps like observation, collection and classification of data, hypothesis, testing, theory
and conclusion. Science possesses six basic ingredients.
Firstly, science employs the scientific method. Secondly; it is a study of facts. Thirdly
scientific principles are universal. Fourthly, scientific laws are vertical. Its validity can be
examined at any time and it proves true in every place. Fifthly, science discovers the
cause-effect relationship in its subject-matter and in this connection provides universal
and valid laws. Finally, science can make predictions on the basis of universal and valid
laws relating to the cause-effect relationship in any subject. The function of science is
based upon a faith in causality.
The nature or Rural Sociology as a science can be examined on the following grounds.
(1) Use of Scientific Method:
Rural Sociology employs scientific method. All the methods used in Rural Sociology are
scientific in nature. These methods are observation, interview, case study, schedule, and
72
questionnaire and so on. In these methods, the first step is collection of data through
observation. Then the date is classified and finally the results are brought out on the basis
of accepted data. The validity of these results is verified.
(2) Factual study:
Rural Sociology is always based on factual study. It studiesrural social relationship and
activities in a factual way. It makes a scientific study of facts, general principles and
theories involved in them.
(3) Universal Principles:
The laws and principles of Rural Sociology are universalin nature. Because they prove
true at all times and at all places and produce the same results. For example, the
principles of family disorganisation and social disorganisation are correlated, it true every
where.
(4) Vertical Principles:
The principles of Rural Sociology prove true at everyverification and re verification.

Their validity can be examined by any one. For example one can consider the law that
and increase in the rate of divorces indicates acceleration of family disorganisation. This
principles can be examined any where by anyone.
(5) Discovery of cause-effect relationship:
LikeSociology, Rural Sociology also discovers a cause effect relationship between the
phenomena. For example, in the modern society, the rate of divorce increases rapidly due
to the family disorganisation. Similarly, due to the rapid growth of population the rate of
poverty and unemployment increase in the Rural Society.
In these illustrations, family disorganisation and population growth are two causes and
divorce as well as poverty and unemployment are their effects. Rural Sociology has
discovered a cause effect relation between the phenomena and population growth and
divorce. Thus Rural Sociology traces cause-effect relationship in social disorganization
and other incidents, activities and relationship in Rural Society and then formulates laws
concerning them.
(6) Predictions:
Finally, on the basis of cause-effect relationship. Rural Sociology can anticipate the
future and make predictions concerning social relationship, activities, incidents and so on.
For example, if disorganisation in the families becomes pronounced, it can make
predictions concerning the number of divorces and many other things. Knowing the
cause-effect relationship, Rural Sociology can determine ‗what will be‘ on the basis of
‗what is‘.
73
Thus, it is evident from the above analysis that Rural Sociology, by nature, is a science. It
possesses all the essential characteristics of science.
But a lot of objections against the scientific nature or Rural Sociology are found. Some
sociologists have raised their views against the nature of Rural Sociology as a science.
They have strongly objected to the scientific nature Rural Sociology on the basis of the
following grounds.
(1) Lack or Objectivity:
The first objection rose against the nature of Rural Sociology being called a science is
that, an unbiased and objective study cannot be made in it. The main cause of this is that
the sociologists have to play dual role of both the doctor and the patient in society. They
are the members of that very society which they studies. From this point of view, they
have established a very close relation with the contents, very beginning of society.
The sociologists study religion, family, marriage, economic system etc. But they possess
their observation lacks the ingredient of objectivity, which is so much essential to
science. The sociologist being a member society can study it just like a teacher can teach
himself.
(2) Lack of experiment:
The second objection against the scientific nature of Rural in it. Rural Sociology is not a
science just because of the term, science used in it. If science is used for physical
sciences, then Rural Sociology cannot claim to be a science. The term science is used for
physical sciences includes the twin process of experimentation and prediction.
Rural Sociology, in this context, is not a science because its subject matter, the human
relationship and behavior and they are abstract in nature. We can neither see nor touch,
neither weighs nor analyse in the test tube of the laboratory. It does not possess the
instruments like the microscope and the thermometer to measure the human behavior as
science does. It is not possible to verify and test the theory and the principles of Rural
Sociology like science.
(3) Lack of measurement:
The third argument against the nature of Rural Sociology as a science is that it lacks
measurement. In natural sciences, definite and standard measurement is used to measure
and weigh. The different measurements like units, grams, meters, centimeters etc, by
which the subject matter of natural sciences can be measured the units or Rural
Sociology. Due to the lack of measurement, the results of Rural Sociology vary from time
to time which is no possible in the case of natural sciences.
74
(4) Lack of Exactness:
The fourth objection is. Rural Sociology lacks exactness. It is not possible to follow the
laws and principles or Rural Sociology universally as the principles of natural science can
be followed. Its law and principles vary on the basis of time and place concerned. For
example, the rural social problems of one country may be different from the other
country. In India untouchability is a serious rural problem but in America it is not so.
(5) Lack of Prediction:
The fifth and final objection against the nature or Rural Sociology being called a science
is that it lacks prediction. Observation and hypothesis are the two basic ingredients of
science. On the basis of observation and hypothesis, science has formulated many laws
and through which any prediction can be possible about any experiment. But due to the
lack of objectivity and electivity, the principles that are formulated by Rural Sociology
are not always correct.
As a result, nay prediction cannot be possible about the laws and principles of Rural
Sociology. For instance according to the standing principles of natural science we can
predict that the combination of two hydrogen molecules and one oxygen molecule
produces water. But such type of prediction is almost impossible in the field of Rural
Sociology.
It is evident from the above analysis regarding the nature of Rural Sociology, that it is
very difficult to determine whether, by nature it is science or not. Because there are dual
opinions both in favour and against the scientific nature of Rural Sociology. The laws and
principles of natural sciences so far as the ex activity, laboratory experimentation and
prediction are concerned, Rural Sociology is day-to-day handing towards that.
There can be no doubt over the question that rural Sociology use scientific technique like
observation, experimentation, classification and tabulation in the collection and
interpolation of data systematically. The conclusion drawn by the Rural Sociology is
based upon empirical realities. The sociologists are prospects of Rural Sociology.
Therefore Rural Sociology, no doubt can definitely be a novel branch of science having
the subject-matter and methodology of its own.
Reflective
Justify assertion that rural sociology is a science or not
Reference
Oakley, A. (1974) The Sociology of Housework. London, Martin Robertson.
75
POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
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final grades will be determined. Include a discussion of the relative importance of session
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The course will include information of course target group e.g. this course intended for
Undergraduate -Bachelors degree level learners.
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SPU Distance Learning Program will offer 44 units to be completed within 11 quarters over 3
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Study Skills:
Adult leaner methodology, self regulated learning, action learning and self assessment. The
module instructor will provide guidelines on how to access e-library, website, and contact details
I
of SPU Director of D& E Learning program, module instructor, ICT support contact person, and
e -Library support.
Methodology & Assessment:
SPU Distance learning program will use adult learner methodology that includes the following:
self- assessment application, individual assignment, and final exam, three seminar.
Assignment Guidelines for learners: The instructor will deduct 5 points for any assignment
submitted day after deadline; deduct 1 point each day after up to five days. Student can request
for extension for one more week through HOD (based on SPU assignment requirements).The
assignments will include the following:
(a) The marking of Leaner assignment that should be completed within a period of one week
and will get feedback from the course instructor.
(b) Grading: Use marking scheme - Self reflection (personal application at end of each
topic) assignments at the end of each module. The learner‘s assignment will be practical
and mentally challenging. Instructors will give the learners constructive feedback and
academic support.
II
CONTACT INFORMATION
BCD 411: RURAL SOCIOLOGY ANDDEVELOPMENT
Antony Wando Odek,
Lecturer -Department of Development Studies,
St Paul's University,
Private Bag 00217,
Limuru, Kenya.
Tel: +254 723552773/0738503793
Website: wwww.spu.ac.ke
Week days 2-4pm
SPU Course Instructor’s Signature: _____________________________Date: ______
SPU Distance Learner’s Signature: __________________________ Date: ______
SPU Director Distance & e-Learning Program Signature:________________________
Date:_____________________
III

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Private Bag 00217 LIMURU, KENYA Tel Office: +254 (0)20 – 2020505/10

Email: distancelearning@spu.ac.ke Mobile: +254 (0)728 - 669000

Website: www.spu.ac.ke (0)736 - 424440

ST. PAUL’S UNIVERSITY

SPU Distance Learning Course Handbook

BCD 411: RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND

SPU Distance & E - Learning Program

RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

PERMISSION TO USE THE CURRICULUM

resulted into the production of this manual.

Kimani, Department Lecturers and editors.

General Rules ............................................................................................................................... I

CONTACT INFORMATION ................................................................................................... III

RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT

2. Basic sociology concepts

4. Social status and roles, social norms, culture

5. Social stratification and leadership

6. Importance of rural sociology on extension and community development

7. Importance of change agents and agencies

8. Rural organizations and developments

9. Meaning of rural development

10. Planned and unplanned rural development

11. Managing rural development through designed program and innovations

12. Poverty and nutritional problems

13. Rural unemployment

14. Rural industrialization and employment creation

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

rural sociology and development

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Understand concepts of rural sociology and rural development

2. Understand the importance of rural sociology on community development

3. Apply the various approaches to rural development

5. Have update of the frontline rural development challenges

Instructional Materials and or Equipment

Textbooks, blackboard, handouts and DVDs

Continuous Assessment tests and asignments-30%, Final Examination-70%

First assignment should be emailed 7th week or before.

Last Assignment Handing Over 10th Week or before

common will be lectures through handouts and emails/phone interactions.

or she will earn marks.

International Association of Agricultural Student (1999). Workshop proceedings. The role of

Long, N (1997). An Introduction to the sociology of rural development. Nairobi.

BASIC SOCIOLOGY CONCEPTS

The student should be able todefine terminologies used in Rural Sociology

Rural Social Structure

Rural Social Institutions

Rural Social Change

Consequent upon the forces of industrialization, urbanization, westernization and

Rural Development Programmes

Rural Social Processes

Land and Agriculture

Rural Stratification Pattern

Rural Social Control

Village Development Programmes

Agrarian socialism-The political and economic ideology which justifies collectivization

Weber found manifestation of alienation in the bureaucratic organization of social life in

Applied sociology-The use of the sociological knowledge in solving or reducing social

Durkheim said comparative sociology is not a particular branch of sociology, it is

Life Cycle Analogy in Sociology

Meaning of Rural Development

There is no universally accepted definition of rural development. The term is used in

According to Robert chambers, rural development is a strategy to enable a specific group

Some scholars understand rural development as the development of agricultural sector.