Foundations of Physical Education

THE LEGALITY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Article 1, International Charter of Physical Education and Sports,

UNESCO, Par- is, 1978 and Recommendation 1, International
Disciplinary Regional Meeting of Experts on Physical Education,
UNESCO, Brisbane, 1982 –

“The practice of physical education and sport is a fundamental right of

all...”

“And this right should not be treated as different in principle from the
right to adequate food, shelter , and medical care.”

Article XIV, Section 19, 1986 Constitution of the Republic of the

Philippines “The state shall promote physical education and encourage
sports programs, league competitions and amateur sports including
training for international competition to foster self-discipline, teamwork,
and excellence for the development of a healthy and alert citizenry.”

“All educational institutions shall undertake regular sports activities

throughout the country and in cooperation with athletic clubs and other
sectors.”

MEANING OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Many definitions of physical education have been given by authors and

scholars in the field.

1. With new understanding of the nature of human beings in which

wholeness of the individual is the outstanding fact, physical
 education becomes ac- cording to Jesse Feiring Williams (1977)
“education through the physical”.
2. Stressing the total educational experience, John E. Nixon and Ann
E. Jewett, as restated by William Freeman (1977) defined physical
education as “that phase of total process of education which is
concerned with the development and utilization of the individual’s
movement potential and related responses, and with the stable
behavior modifications in the individual which results from these
responses”.
3. According to Robert P. Pangrazi (1998), “physical education is
that phase of general educational program that contributes to the
total growth and development of each child through movement
experiences”.
4. Deborah Wuest and Charles Bucher (1999) defined physical
education as “an educational process that uses physical activity as
a means to help individuals acquire skills, fitness, knowledge, and
attitudes that contribute to their optimal development and well-
being”.

The Allied Fields of Physical Education

The allied fields of physical education and sport share many common
purposes – the development of the total individual and concern for
quality life. These areas allied to the field may vary in content of the
subject matter and the methods used in accomplishing their goals.

Health Education

Health education is concerned with the total well-being of the individual,

which encompass physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual
health. There are three areas within health education that are also
functions and goals of health education.
   Health instruction is focused in teaching the basics of
healthful living to students and the general public.

  Delivery of health services is concerned with developing and

maintaining a satisfactory level of health for all people.

  Environmental health included within health education is

concerned with the development of healthful and safe
environments for all people. Recreation

Recreation is generally thought of as a leisure-time activity. However, it

has been defined as fulfilling an educational goal of “worthy use of
leisure”. It may be a self-chosen activity that provides a means of
revitalizing and refreshing one’s body and spirit.

Dance

Dance activities have been something of a stepchild for physical

education, for dance hangs on the periphery of physical education
(Freeman, 1997). Aesthetic expression through movement is provided
by dance.

THE OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

The objectives of physical education pertain to all educational levels,

although there could be delineation of goals for each level.

Physical Fitness Development Objective

The development of the various organic system of the body is necessary
for an individual to have the ability to sustain adaptive efforts, to recover
and to resist fatigue.

Motor Skill Development Objective

This objective is concerned with developing body awareness, making

purposeful physical movement with a little expenditure of energy as
possible, and being proficient, graceful, and aesthetic in this movement.

Cognitive Development Objectives

The cognitive development objective involves the accumulation of

knowledge and the ability to think and interpret this knowledge.

Social-Emotional-Affective Development Objective

This is concerned with assisting an individual in making personal and

group adjustments as well as adjustments as a member of society.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Philosophy, derived from the Greek word philisophia, means the love of
wisdom. It can also be defined as a set of beliefs relating to a particular
field.

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

Questions Relative to
General
BRANCH FOCUS Physical Education
Questions
and Sport
Metaphysics Nature of What is the What experiences in a
reality meaning of physical education
existence? What program will better
is real? enable the individual
 to meet the challenges
of the real world?
What is the validity of
Nature of the knowledge
knowledge and pertaining to physical
Epistemology methods of What is true? activity and its
obtaining influence on the
knowledge development of the
individual?
What is the What process should a
Systematic and method of researcher use to
Logic orderly reasoning that determine the value of
reasoning will lead to the physical education to
truth? program participants?
How do we
deter- mine what What is the value of
Aims and
has value, and on physical education
Axiology values of
what criteria are programs to the
society
this judgment individual?
based?
What is the
Issues of highest standard How can sport be
Ethics conduct, right of behavior each utilized to develop
and wrong person should ethics?
strive to attain?
Why are skilled
Nature of beau- performer’s
Aesthetics What is beauty?
ty and art movements beautiful
to view?

TRADITIONAL EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES

Because of physical education’s historic association with education, its
pro- gram have been in uenced by the ve traditional educational
philosophies-idealism, realism, naturalism, pragmatism, and
existentialism.

Idealism

As a philosophy, idealism emphasizes the mind as central to

understanding, reasoning plays a critical role in arriving at the truth,
values and ideals are held in high regard and are considered universal
and absolute, values and ideals don change regardless of circumstances.
Intellectual development is emphasized and the teacher plays a pivotal
role in the educational process.

Education under this philosophical approach emphasizes understanding

of concepts and self-development.

As Applied to Physical Education and Sport

 Coaches promote development of character and the ideals of

sportsman- ship among the athletes over winning.
 Physical education professionals emphasize understanding of
concept and self-development.
 Physical fitness and activities contribute to the development of
one’s personality.
 Ideals are emphasized in the physical education and sport
programs.
 The activities should give students the opportunity to develop the
qualities of honesty, courage, and creativity.
 Play is regarded as having recreational values, an opportunity for
the child to be inventive, imaginative, and to express his feelings.

Realism
As a philosophy, realism emphasizes the use of the scientific method to
arrive at the truth. Reasoning and understanding the natural laws of
nature are features of this philosophy.

Education under this philosophy stresses the importance of training

students in the scientific method, the use of proven methods, and
following of orderly progressions, and periodic assessment of progress
to ensure that learning is taking place.

As Applied to Physical Education and Sport

• Physical education focuses on the total development of the person.

• Physical educators carefully evaluate the scientific evidence in order to

better understand the contribution of different types of physical activity
to health.

• Physical educators incorporate frequent assessment procedures into

their classes, so that the students would have a means to monitor their
progress toward attainment of their goals.

• Coaches select training techniques based on the scientific evidence of

their effectiveness, and would use systematic, progressive approach in
designing practices.

• Programs are based on scientific knowledge and orderly progression,

and activities are selected on the basis of scientific evidences.

• The emphasis on teaching is on fundamentals of games and activities

with each skill broken down into its component parts.

Pragmatism

For a pragmatist, experience-not ideals or realities- are the basis of truth.

Reality differs from person to person because individuals experience
different situations.
Therefore, values are relative and are derived from one’s experiences.

Within this philosophical approach, whatever works in a given situation

at a given time is seen as successful, although pragmatists see the truth
as variable and what is right as individually determined, they emphasize
social responsibility. Individuals must recognize and fulfill their
responsibilities to society.

Problem-solving, consideration of individuals’ needs and interest,

development of individuals’ social skills, and cooperation are
emphasized.

As Applied to Physical Education and Sport

 Variety of activities is presented for meaningful experiences.

 Activities are socializing in nature.
 Learning is accomplished through problem-solving method
 The curriculum should be based on the needs and interests of the
students.

Naturalism

The belief that life is governed by the laws of nature is central to

the philosophy of naturalism. Development of both the mind and
body is incorporated in this philosophy.

It emphasizes the importance of considering each individual’s level

of growth and development in learning and designing experiences
that are congruent to the individual’s needs. The natural
environment provides an excellent setting to help individuals learn.
Self-direction, individualized learning, and competition against
oneself are important in this philosophical approach.

 The physical educator allows normal growth.

  Developmentally appropriate physical activities with the students
at all levels of instruction are used..
 Physical educators emphasize individualized learning.
 Play and outdoor activities provide beneficial opportunities for
exploration and problem solving as a means of personal growth
and learning.
 Fitness leaders encourage their program’s participants to take
advantage of opportunities to engage in outdoor pursuits during
their leisure time as a means of incorporating physical activities
into their lifestyle.

Existentialism

According to this philosophy, reality is determined by individuals’

experiences. Individuals must accept responsibility for themselves and
the choices they make. An individual’s experiences and choices create a
uniquely personal worldview and affect their perception of reality. It
emphasizes the freedom of individuals to think as they choose and to
make choices, but stresses that they must accept the consequences of
their actions.

Creativity, individuality, self-responsibility, and self-awareness are

important aspects of this philosophy and learning experiences should
reflect these attributes.

As Applied to Physical Education and Sport

• A sport psychologist encourages an athlete to carefully re ect upon his

experiences in order to identify the thoughts that led to poor
performances. He offers the athlete variety of options to deal with these
issues, allowing the athlete to choose among the alternatives.

• A existentialist coach emphasizes the athlete’s responsibility in

adhering to the established code of conduct. He allows some
individuality in dress, but emphasizes the athlete’s responsibility in
adhering to training rules.

• Physical educators allow students to select from a variety of activities

with in the program, promoting reflection, and individual responsibility
from learning.

• Physical educators emphasize the importance of creativity.

 The activities provide the students opportunities to develop self-

awareness and self-responsibility.
 The teacher is a counselor who promotes reflective thinking while
allowing the students to make choices, and deal responsibly with
the consequences of those choices.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

“By understanding the history of physical education and sport, a

professional can be better understand the nature of the profession ,
appreciate the significant developments from the past to the
present, and project trends for the future” (Bucher and Wuest,
1995).

PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES IN THE PRIMITIVE SOCIETY

Participation in physical activities in the primitive society was

practical. Strong, agile, and powerful body were necessary to carry
on the demands of primitive life. Mimetic games provided children
the opportunity to prepare themselves for adult life and
responsibilities. Through dancing, primitive people communicated
to their gods.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN ANCIENT NATION

 Persia: Physical education was the modality used to accomplish the
primary aim of developing in their young men military skills, high
moral standards and patriotism to strengthen and extend the
empire.

Egypt: Popular activities in ancient Egypt were swimming, since

civilization’s life was based on rivers. Wrestling which was participated
in by the nobility, the soldiers, the merchants, and the unskilled laborers;
and gymnastic activities and games using the skills of fighting and war.
Gymnastics exercises were required exercises to make the body supple,
strong, and capable of great endurance and stamina. One of the most
popular indoor activities was a board game called senet. Dances were
both religious and folk.

China: Physical activities in ancient China were confined to the military

men. They were given examinations on lifting the weights, shooting the
bow, and handling the sword. They boxed, played football (tsu’ u chu),
and practiced jiu-jitsu. Recreational games and sports such as the early
versions of soccer, polo, chess, and competitions in archery and
wrestling, tug-of –war, water games, chi’ ui wan (similar to golf),
shuttlecock, and kite flying were popular. Dancing was popular that a
man’s prestige often depended on his prowess as a dancer. When ancient
Chinese felt weak, Cong Fu, a mild exercises, similar to gymnastics-
oriented calisthenics and developed in 2698 B.C was designed to prevent
diseases and keep the body in good organic conditions.

India: Several physical activities were participated in by ancient India

despite Buddha’s prohibition of games, amusements, and exercises.
Throwing balls, plowing contests, tumbling, chariot races, riding
elephants and horse, swordsmanship, wrestling, and boxing were among
their favorites. Became very popular in India was Yoga, which was a
unique activity involving exercises in posture, regulated breathing, to
discipline the mind and the body. Physical exercises were sometimes
used to promote health. Hindu dancing was considered the oldest of
organized dancing.
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT IN GREECE

Physical education was a vital part of the education of every Greek boy.
Gymnastics was believed to contribute to courage, discipline, and
physical well-being. It stressed a sense of fair play, development of the
individual’s aesthetic values, amateurism, and the utilitarian values
inherent in the activity.

Greek sport manifested itself in the concept of the amateur athlete,

whose primary goal is to compete in a “circuit” of four major national
festivals- the Olympia Festival, the Pythia Festival, the Nemea festival,
and the Isthmia Festival that were designated as the Pan-Hellenic
Festival, and scheduled to ensure that one major competition was held
every year.

The Spartan approach to physical training (not physical education) was

strictly the training of the body for military purposes. The Spartan boy at
seven years of age is housed in a primitive barracks under the watchful
eye of the Paidonomous, who supervised the educational program called
the Agoge. Instructions in swimming, running, fighting, wrestling,
boxing, ball games, horsemanship, archery, discus and javelin throwing,
field marches, and pancratium, a combination of boxing and wrestling
were given. At age twenty (20), he took an oath of allegiance to Sparta
and went into actual combat where they engaged themselves in intensive
military maneuvers and warfare until the age of fifty (50). A well-
educated Spartan was one who was physically t and a good soldier.

Spartan women at an early age were given physical activities such

wrestling, swimming, and horseback riding to produce healthy babies
when they marry.

In Athens, physical education and athletic competitions was prominent

feature of Athenian education. Sport was associated with philosophy,
music, literature, painting, and sculpture. Athenian youth at age six
started his schooling in the palaestrae, which was commonly a center
where wrestling activity occurred, and provided rooms for various
physical activities and for oiling and sanding the athlete’s body. Exercise
and games were given by the physical education teacher called
paidotribe, who owned the palaestrae. After deserting the palaestrae, the
Athenian youths attended the gymnasium, the physical, intellectual and
social center of Greece, under a specialist called gymnast, who was
responsible for training the youth in particular gymnastic contests. The
gymnasiarch was the chief official at the gymnasium and an over-all in
charge.

There were some Greek philosophers, teachers and medical men who
contributed to the worth of physical education.

Plato believed that gymnastics and music, which were identified as

“physical education” and “academics” respectively educates the body
and the mind/soul. His argument in his Republic is that the mission of
physical education in the schools blends with movements.

Aristotle believed that athletics enables youth to develop strong, healthy

citizens who would defend Athens in time of war and serve her in time
of peace.

Herodotus (Herodikos) used physical education as an aid to medicine as

early as the 5th century.

Hippocrates proclaimed the law of use and disuse of the parts of the
body. He believed that the parts of the body are strengthened through
use. Muscle atrophy and weakness are results of disuse.

Xenophon thought of physical education as important in terms of

military.

ROMAN PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES

Moral and military training were significant to the Romans. The
maintenance of health was a worthwhile and natural goal for the
Romans. These were evident in the proliferation of public baths with
provisions for exercises – the thermae. Re- quired physical skills among
the Roman youths prior to their induction to manhood, and then into the
military were held in the Campus Martinus, the replacement of the
gymnasium after the conquest of Greece. Roman youth were given skills

in running, jumping, swimming, wrestling, horsemanship, boxing,

fencing, archery, and instructions of complete obedience to commands.
The Romans developed their own system of physical training and
demanded the promotion of “team unity”. Athleticism of the Greeks was
not valued militarily. Spectacular gladiatorial com- bats between slaves
and prisoners were held at the Colosseum, the most famous landmark in
Rome. Along with the Colosseum, horse and chariot races and large-
scale entertainment were held at the Circus Maximus, the premier
hippodrome in the Roman Empire.

Claudius Galen who developed a reputation in Alexandra to treat

gladiators was one of the first to incorporate medicine and biomechanics
into the science of exercise, and one of the first to practice sports
medicine. He advocated vigorous exercises, which are performed with
strength not speed, and violent exercises which combined strength and
speed. He was opposed to the professional athlete.

Physical Education In The Middle Ages

An intriguing historical era shortly after the fall of the Western Roman
Empire where the setbacks to learning, public works, and government
associated with the invasions has been commonly termed as the Middle
Ages. The Christian church (Catholicism), the only institution that
survived the fall provided a symbol of stability and order amidst chaos
and fear through intellectual and spiritual leadership. Two movements
worked to its advantage – asceticism that had a belief in the existence of
evil in the body and therefore it should be subordinated to the spirit,
which is pure; and scholasticism, a highly intellectual philosophy that
emphasized the mind. Monasteries were built where Christians could
isolate themselves from the world and evils. Later, schools were
attached to the monasteries and would not allow physical education to be
part of the curriculum. Medieval university also frowned on physical
education and sport. However, games and physical activities were still
participated in by the people. Such were soule, a ball game that
resembled the modern day soccer played by an indeterminate number of
men on each side. Kegels was similar to bowling. There were ball games
that employed the use of sticks and were precursors to modern versions
of hockey and baseball.

St. Thomas Aquinas, the greatest scholastic of all time, embraced the
idea of physical fitness and recreation as a positive force in promoting
social and moral well-being. Under the tutoring of Aquinas, Scholastics
were able to cherish the body and value physical fitness and recreation
for man’s physical, mental, social, and moral well-being.

Chivalry emerged as a kind of education that was physical, social, and

military in nature. Three stages in the training for knighthood: as a Page
– from age 7 to being a Squire – from age 14, and finally to being a
Knight – at age 21. Knighthood was conferred after proving his fitness,
bravery, skill, prowess, strength, and courage. Joust or Medieval
tournament was the most famous of the war games where two mounted
horsemen who would charge each other with long, wooden lances to
knock down the opponent from his horse. Melee was an event in the
tournament where groups of opposing knights would engage in hand-to-
hand combat with dull swords.

Sons of noblemen had two careers to choose from: either they enter the
monastery and become monks, or enter the knighthood.

Because wealth came from the labor of others, leisure became the
unique commodity of nobles. Aristocrats had sporting activities. Hunting
and hawking were other recreational pastime of the nobility. Le jeu de
paume is a form of handball. Royal tennis was played within an
enclosure. Sedentary forms of recreational out- lets included
shuffleboards, billiards, chess, and backgammon.

Physical Education In The Renaissance Period

With the emergence of the philosophy of humanism and its concepts of

the

“universal man”, physical education became more valued. Good

physical health was believed to promote learning. A person needed rest
and recreation from study and work. The body is needed to be developed
for purposes of health and for preparation for warfare.

There were some outstanding leaders during the Renaissance period who
were responsible for spreading these beliefs concerning physical
education and sport.

Petrus Paulus Vergerius’ physical education was preparation for the

military, and his program included pentathlon, swimming, and
horsemanship, the use of the shield, spear, sword and club.

Vittorio da Feltre’s school La Giocosa (Pleasant House) blended the

spirit of Christianity, the classics, and the concepts of P.E. for the sons
of the wealthy. He instituted P.E. as an important part of the educational
curriculum.

Aeneas Silvio Piccolomini (Pope Pius II) believed that to prepare

children to be good soldiers, the use of bow and sling, throw spear, ride
horses, and swim in order to be a good soldier were necessary activities.

Martin Luther’s physical education was a means of obtaining elasticity

of the body, and a medium of promoting health. He advocated music,
games and dancing as acceptable pastime, and believed that people
should engage in honorable and useful modes of exercises so they would
not fall into vice and evil pursuits during leisure hours.
Thomas Elyot’s being familiar with the latest medical teachings of his
time, he claimed six (6) physiological benefits that could be derived
from exercise: aids in digestion, increases appetite, helps in living
longer, warms the body, raises metabolism, and cleanses the body of its
wastes.

Roger Ascham appreciated the value of exercise as a means of resting

the mind to make it sharper at a later time.

Francois Rabelais believed that physical activities help the students

reach his goal of being a well-rounded individual and these include
horsemanship, martial arts, hunting, and ball playing, running, and
swimming.

Richard Mulcaster’s book Positions dealt specifically to physical

education: for indoors, he recommended dancing, wrestling, fencing,
and climbing; for outdoors, walking, running, leaping, swimming,
riding, hunting, shooting, and playing ball. He was considered the
“father” of the modern educational practice including sports in the
schools.

Michel de Montaigne advocated “manly exercise” where the child

experienced the rougher life in the outdoors.

John Comenius believed that exercise served as a rest from other parts of
the learning process, and P.E. exists to refresh the body and able one to
work and study more efficiently.

John Milton believed that martial arts should be practiced in schools,

because they were useful in time of war.

John Locke believed that P.E. was of primary importance in developing

an educational foundation because physical activity is used to refresh the
individual in order to pursue more intellectual pursuits.

The development of the child’s health was Jean Jacques Rousseau’s first
requirement in the education of the child. He believed that children
should develop their senses through specific physical activities, such as
swimming, running, jumping, spinning a top, throwing stones, etc.

Physical Education In Europe

Germany

Johann Bernhard Basedow founded the Philanthropinum in 1774, where

three hours of the ten-hour school day was to be spent for recreational
activities such as fencing, riding, dancing, and music. His younger
students engaged in “Greek Gymnastics” contests: running, wrestling,
throwing, and jumping; older ones practiced “knightly exercises” as
dancing, fencing, riding, vaulting on live horses, shuttlecock, tennis,
skittles, and playing with large air-filled ball.

Johann Christoph Friedrich Gutsmuths who is considered the real

founder of physical education, and “grandfather of physical education”
legitimized the P.E. profession and believed in the promotion of
people’s health to have a strong nation

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel established the theory of play and

believed that play in the form of physical education was a wonderful
mechanism for stress reduction, and character and moral development.

Friedrich Ludwig Jahn whose system of gymnastics was more political

in nature established the German Turnverein Movement in the spring of
1811. He was called turnvater – father of gymnastics. The word was
coined from the extinct Teutonic word – turnen – to perform gymnastics
exercises.

Adolph Spiess believed that the P.E. program should be progressive that
is, from simple exercises to more difficult. and advocated exercises
combined with music for free expression, and believed in marching
exercises as aid in class organization, discipline, and posture
development.
Sweden

Per Henrik Ling was the founder of the Swedish medical and
pedagogical gymnastics.

Lars Gabriel Branting devoted most of his time to the area of medical
gymnastics where his teachings were based on the premise that activity
causes changes not only in the muscular system of the body but also in
the nervous and circulatory system

Hjalmar Fredrik Ling was credited for the organization of educational

gymnastics.

Denmark

Danish program of gymnastics emphasized fitness and strength with

formalized exercise performed on command and little individualized
expression allowed. It used hanging ropes and ladders, poles for
climbing, beams for balancing and wooden horses for vaulting.

Franz Nachtegall was acknowledged the father of physical education in

Den- mark. Due to his influence, P.E. became a requirement in both
elementary and secondary public schools in Copenhagen. He established
the Normalskol for Gymnastikken to emphasize the need to train P.E.
teachers and provide instruction to students. He employed equipment
such as hanging ladder, climbing poles, balance beam, vaulting horses,
and rope ladder.

Niels Bukh’s “Primitive Gymnastics”, patterned to some extent after the

work of Ling was one of the innovations in the field of physical
education and sports.

Great Britain/ England

Swimming, rowing, archery, riding, hockey, quoits, tennis, golf, football

(soccer), and cricket were played prior to 1800. Sports and recreation
pursuits during this time were clearly among class lines or by economic
status. Popular among the working class were sports that require little
equipment like football (soccer) and boxing. Cricket and rugby were for
the upper-class men. Athletic sports were a feature of English life.
Football (soccer) is one of the oldest of English sports. Hockey and
quoits were played in England as early as the 15th century, tennis as
early as the 1300, golf as early as 1600, and cricket as early as 1700. As
early as the time of Henry II, English youth did wrestling, throwing,
riding, fishing, hunting, swimming, rowing, skating, and shooting the
bow.

Archibald Maclaren who combined his knowledge of medicine, sports

and gymnastics to develop a system of gymnastics for the British army
and navy was the chief contributor to England’s physical education.

Physical Education In the United States

Sports, dance, and dramatic enactments were incorporated into native

American festive celebrations. Physical prowess, cunning, skillfulness,
skill, speed and endurance were valued. Baggataway (lacrosse) was
popular and rituals often sur- rounded the game, also used to settle
disputes. Rules and playing equipment vary by tribe. Shiny, a game
similar to field hockey, in which a stick is used to propel a ball into a
goal was played by both men and women. Swimming, canoeing,
archery, various types of ball games, and games of chance were other
popular activities among the Native Americans. Horse racing was still
popular apparently for the improvement of the breed. Bowling, tennis,
cricket, and early versions of the croquet and shooting matches were
played and enjoyed.

The first horse race was a quarter mile long eventually gave birth to the
Virginia Quarter Horse. Southerners also enjoyed fox hunts, hunting,
shing, rowing, lawn bowling, dancing, cock fighting, boxing, and
fencing. Southern gentlemen from proper families were expected to
exhibit requisite social and athletic skills through riding, dancing, and
fencing.
Tom Molyneux who was America’s first well-known pugilist gained his
freedom from slavery by fighting on the Southern Plantation Circuit.

National Period (1784-1861)

During this period, interest in education grew, and more schools were
established. During the mid-1800s, gymnasiums and swimming pools
were constructed. Turnvereins or German gymnastics societies were
established. Horse racing and foot races were popular. The growth of
female private schools increased educational opportunities for women.
In the 1820s and 1830s, physical education began to be incorporated into
the school curriculum. German gymnastics was introduced during the
1820s. Baseball was invented in 1839.

Charles Beck, a Turner, introduced Jahn’s gymnastic program of

exercise and apparatus to his students at Round Hill School. He built an
outdoor gymnasium and started the first school gymnastics program.

Charles Follen organized exercise classes based on the German system

for students at Harvard University.

Catharine Beecher, the director of the Hartford Female Seminary for

Women in Connecticut, an institution of higher education for young
women, developed and implemented program of physical education
within the educational curriculum of the school in 1828. It consisted of
calisthenics performed to music. These exercises included Swedish
gymnastics and were designed to improve the health and vitality of her
students and to prepare them more fully for their future role as
homemakers and mothers.

Civil War Period Until 1900

Dioclesan Lewis developed his system of “light” gymnastics in 1860.

His pro- gram of gymnastics was directed at improving the health and
well-being of his participants.
From 1870 to 1900, when the programs became much more focused and
formalized and terms such as gymnastics, physical culture, physical
training and physical education were used synonymously to describe the
systematic exercise program. Physical education survived as the name
became most closely identified with professional field and the academic
discipline. Swedish gymnastics was recognized for inherent medical
values. Tennis was introduced in 1874. Golf came to America in the late
1880. James Naismith invented basketball in 1895.

Dr. Dudley Allen Sargent became known for his work in teacher
preparation, remedial equipment, exercise devices, college organization
and administration, anthropometric measurement, and experimentation
as basis for activity and scientific research.

Early 20th Century

In the early 20th century, Jessie Bancroft and Elizabeth Burchenal

stressed the importance of intramural games rather than interscholastic
competition for girls. Most institutions of higher learning provided some
program of gymnastics for their students and sports, athletics and team
games became more important.

Thomas Dennison Wood emphasized game and game skills and

introduced his new program under the name “Natural Gymnastics”.

Clark Hetherington emphasized children’s play activities in terms of

survival and continued participation, athletics and athletic skills.

Jessie H. Bancroft influenced the development of physical education as a

responsibility of homeroom teachers in the elementary schools, and
contributed much to the field of posture and body mechanics.

World War I (1916 to 1919)

• Many physical educators provided leadership for physical conditioning

pro- grams for the armed forces and for people on the home front.
Golden Twenties (1920 to 1929)

More games, sports, and free play became popular during this period.
Measurement in physical education was emphasized as a means of
grouping the students, measuring achievements, and motivating
performance. Programs of physical education and sports continued to
expand in schools and colleges. Elementary

school and secondary schools PE program stressed formal activities;

periodic lectures on hygiene were added in the secondary schools.

Jesse Feiring Williams stressed the importance of physical education in

general education

Thomas D. Wood, Rosalind Cassidy, and Jesse Feiring Williams

published the book “The New Physical Education” in 1927.

Depression Years (1930 to 1939)

During the economic depression in the United States, health and

physical education had a difficult time surviving in many communities.
Physical educators be- came more involved in recreation programs in the
agencies and projects concerned with unemployed persons. The trend in
physical education was away from the for- mal-type approach to an
informal game-sports approach. Intramural athletics continued to grow
in colleges and universities. Women’s athletic associations increased in
numbers.

Charles McCloy one the leaders of this time wrote the Philosophical
Bases of Physical Education in 1940. He advocated “education of the
physical” espousing the belief that school physical education’s unique
contribution to the education of the individual is organic and
psychomotor development. School physical education pro- gram, he
said, should focus their efforts on promoting fitness and teaching sports
skills.

Mid-Twentieth Century (1940 to 1970).

Boys and men, girls and women were exposed to the programs of
physical education in American schools and colleges. Girls and women
were provided opportunities to engage in competitive sports at both high
school and college. Lifetime sport was emphasized. Research became
increasingly specialized in such areas as exercise physiology, motor
learning, sociology of sport, and pedagogy. The fitness movement, the
emphasis on preventive medicine, the increased specialization of the
field, and the broadening of physical education and sport programs to
reach all segments of the population are some significant developments
in physical education and sport since 1970 up to the present.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Pre-Spanish Period

Physical activities were necessary for existence. Cock fighting,

introduced by the Malays and considered a favorite sport was popular.
Dancing was a religious activity with several purposes and officiated by
a priest or a priestess. War dances were performed. Bathing and
swimming were important part in the lives of the natives.

Spanish Period

Cock fighting continued to be a favorite sport and found its way to the
other places in the archipelago. Dancing became a major activity
enjoyed by the people. The Fandango, the Jota, the Curacha of Spain;
the Polka, and Mazurka of Central Europe; and the Lanceros and
Rigodon of France were introduced by the conquistadores to lure the
Filipinos to be converted to Christianity. Ceremonial dances were
performed during religious activities.

Recreational games such as the juego de anillo, juego de prenda, and the
duplo (a poetic joust) were introduced. Girls played sungka, siklot, piko,
luksong tinik, and hide and seek. Boys played patintero, sipa, and kite-
flying. Older women played card games. Higher order recreational
activities like horse races triggered the founding of Manila Jockey Club
in 1867 to supervise the holding of races once a year, but were closed
down in 1880. In 1893, gymnastics was recorded to be a required subject
for all candidates for the Elementary Teachers Certificate at the Superior
Normal School for Men Teachers.

American period

1901 - Physical exercise was one of the subjects introduced in the public
schools, and regular program of athletics was developed.

1905 - Baseball and track and field were introduced and taught to young
boys.

1909 - Athletic program for the schools emphasized the playing of

western sports and coaching of tennis.

1910 - Basketball was first introduced as a game for young girls at the
Carnival Meet held in Manila but was later discontinued in 1914 because
it was found very strenuous for the girls. Later, indoor baseball, tennis,
and volley- ball were introduced.

1911 - The “Athletic Handbook” was published by the Bureau of

Education where the first part prescribed few simple games and relays;
the second part contained the rules for baseball, basketball for girls,
volleyball, indoor base- ball, track and field, and lawn tennis.

January, 1911 – the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation (PAAF) was

organized to control amateur sports in the Philippines.

1914 – In cognizant to the implementation of the “play for everybody”

policy of the Bureau of Education, the Teacher’s Vacation Assembly
started in Manila to give special training to Filipino teachers to be able
to conduct various physical activities, and in turn recipients of the
special training taught at the provincial normal schools.

March 5, 1919 – A syllabus entitled “Physical education: A Manual for

Teachers” was published as a result of the plan in 1918 for a definite
course of study in Physical Education, submitted by a special committee
of superintendents.

1920 – Physical Education was made a required subject in all public

schools. A rating of 75% which was based on attendance in the required
exercises is necessary for promotion every year from grade four to
fourth year high school. However, the grade was not included in the
computation of the general average.

1928 – A Summer School for Coaching was opened by the Office of the
National Physical Education Director in cooperation with the Bureau of
Education to help the public school teachers who are in- charge of
athletics to improve their coaching methods.

1937 – Physical Education was made a curricular subject in the

secondary schools where the grade was not only based on attendance but
in proficiency in skills as well. The grade was included in the
computation of the general average.

1939 – Women’s track and field was added in the program of the
National Inter- Scholastics.

Japanese Period

The Japanese Military Administration obliged all public schools to

perform daily calisthenics on air called the Radio Taiso, where Japanese
instructors were provided. The demonstration of the exercise was held in
Luneta.

Post-War to Present

1948 to 1952 – Under the joint sponsorship of the PAAF and

Department of Edu- cation, The National College of Physical Education
conducted a Summer school of Physical Education held at the Rizal
Memorial Field. In 1953, PAAF took the sponsorship alone.
The Schools Physical education and Sports Act of 1969 provided
program of activities that included among others a program of health
education and nutrition, a program of physical fitness for all pupils, a
program of competitive athletics, a program of intramural and inter-unit
athletic competition within schools, districts, and provinces, and an
annual competition within and among regions.

In the 70’s and early 80’s, physical education was incorporated in the
subject Youth Development Training or YDT in the high school. The
subjects included Physical Education, Scouting, Health, and Music.

The Physical education Program in the Elementary was revised in 1971

to comprise the activities such as the Testing Program, rhythmic
activities, games, relays and athletic team games, swimming, and
physical education for children needing attention.

The Revised Secondary School Program is contained in the Department

Order No. 20, s. 1973. Two aspects of the program were Youth
Development Training (YDT) for first year to third year and Citizen
Army Training (CAT) for fourth year high school.

In MEC Order No. 6, s. 1982, the New Elementary School Curriculum

(NESC) reflected directions for change based on the Program for
Decentralized Educational Development (PRODED). PE in Grades I and
II is integrated with the subject Sibika at Kultura (Civics and Culture)
No specific time block is allotted to this subject but is taught as the need
arises. Grades III to VI PE is clustered with Art and Music in a subject
entitled Music, Art and Physical Education (MAPE).

The 1989 Secondary Education Development Program (SEDP) is a

response to continue pupil development started by the Program for
Decentralized Educational Development in 1982. Based on DECS Order
No. 11, s. 1989, the New Secondary Education Curriculum (NSEC) of
SEDP is cognitive-affective-manipulative-based and is student-centered
and community-oriented. One of the 8 subject areas in the NSEC is
Physical Education, Health and Music (PEHM).
In the elementary, based on DECS Order No. 53, s. 1994, states that
Physical Education in Grades I and II shall be listed as a separate
additional subject and will be taught daily for 20 minutes beginning
school year 1994 – 1995 in public elementary schools. It shall continue
to be taught as a component of MAPE in Grades III to VI.

THE PHILIPPINE SPORTS COMMISSION

The Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) was created through Republic

Act No. 6847 in 1990 to serve as the “sole policy-making and
coordinating body of all amateur sports development programs and
instructions in the Philippines”. It was mandated to provide the
leadership, formulate the policies and set the priorities and directions of
all national sports promotion and development, particularly giving
emphasis on grassroots participation. Increased participation in sports by
Filipinos (Grassroots Sports); excellence in sports performance by
Filipinos (Elite Sports); and national unity and solidity through physical
fitness and sports are among its objectives.

THE PHILIPPINE OLYMPIC COMMITTEE

The Philippine Olympic Committee, the umbrella organization of all

national sports associations (NSAs), is affiliated with the International
Olympic Committee (OIC) and is recognized in the PSC Charter as the
National Olympic Committee (NOC) for the Philippines. It is a private
organization and autonomous in character, similar to its accredited and
affiliated sports organizations. It is primarily responsible for activities
pertaining to the country’s participation in the Olympic Games, Asian

Games, Southeast Asian Games, and other international athletic

competitions in accordance respectively with the rules of the
International Olympic Committee, the Olympic Council of Asia, the
Southeast Asian Games Federation, and other international sports
bodies.

THE NATIONAL SPORTS ASSOCIATIONS

The National Sports Associations which are autonomous in character
have exclusive technical control over the promotion and development of
the particular sport for which they are organized. They decide on matters
affecting the discipline of their athletes and officials and dispute among
members; adopt a training program for athletes development, in
preparation for international competitions; and select the athletes,
coaches and other officials for their teams, taking into consideration not
only their athletic abilities but their discipline, moral character, aptitude,
and attitude.

Philippine Participation in the Olympics (1924 – 2000)

The Philippines was represented for the first time in the World
Olympics. It was a two-man delegation sent by the Philippine Amateur
Athletic Federation in the 1924 VIIIth Olympiad in Paris. David
Nepomuceno, a Philippine scout competed in the 100 m. and 200 m.
dash and was eliminated in the trial heats. Dr. Regino R. Ylanan was the
representative official and coach.

The first medal (bronze) was garnered in the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics
courtesy of Teo lo Yldefonso in 200 m backstroke. In the Los Angeles
Olympiad in 1932 Teo lo Yldefonso won again a bronze in the same
event. In addition, Simeon Toribio garnered a bronze in high jump and
Jose Villanueva also bronze in boxing bantamweight. Miguel White
brought the bronze in 400m hurdles in the 1936 Berlin Olympics, at the
same time that the Philippine Basketball Team placed 5th place among
23 nations. The first silver medal of the Philippines was won by
Anthony Villanueva in boxing featherweight from Tokyo Olympics in
1964. In 1988 Seoul Olympiad, Arianne Cerdeña brought home the gold
medal in bowling, which was a demonstration sport.

MEDALS and HONORS

Efren “Bata” Reyes was dubbed as “The magician”, when he became the
1985 Red 9-Ball Open champion for his ability to execute brilliant shots.
Eric Buhain was a bronze medalist in swimming in the 1990 Beijing
Asian Games.

Eugene Torre became Asia’s first grandmaster at the age of 22.

Elma Muros was the only track athlete who won in different events in
the Southeast Asian Games. She was hailed as the Southeast Asian
games heptathlon queen in 1997.

Francisco Pancho Villa Guilledo was Asia’s first world champion in

boxing and dubbed as the greatest flyweight of the century.

Gabriel “Flash” Elorde was dubbed as the greatest Filipino boxer of all
time.

Gerald Rosales was an Asian Games silver medalist and Southeast Asian
Games two-time champion in golf.

Jennifer Rosales was a ve-time champion in golf in the ladies’ Amateur

open (1994-1998) before she turned professional.

Lydia de Vega was Asia’s fastest woman in the 1980s. She brought
home the gold medal twice in arrow in the Asian Games in the 100-
meter dash and the silver medal in the 200m run.

Manny Pacquiao won the International Boxing Federation super

bantamweight championship at the age of 23.

Mikee Cojuangco-Jaworski is the accomplished equestrienne who

bagged the gold medal for the Individual Show jumping competition in
the 2002 Asian Games.

Paeng Nepomuceno is an all-time greatest international bowler with six

world championships to his credit; some considered him as the greatest
Filipino athlete of all time for making it to the Guinness Book of World
Records.
Ramon Fernandez was the Philippine Basketball Association’s rst four-
time Most Valuable player and played in the league for a record of 20
seasons.

Robert Jaworski was one the Philippine Basketball Association’s 25

greatest players of all time. At his time of retirement, he was the oldest
professional basket- ball player in the world.

Toni Leviste was part of the Philippine Team that won silver medal in
the 2002 Asian Games show jumping competition.

Alvin Patrimonio was a four-time Philippine Basketball Association

Most valuable Player, two of which were won back-to-back in 1993 and
1994.

Bong Coo made her mark in the bowling world when she delivered nine
consecutive strikes in 1979.

Carlos Loyzaga led the Philippine Team that won bronze medal in the
1954 World Basketball Championship and four golds.

Dorothy Delasin is the Filipina who has become the youngest Ladies’
Professional Golf Association Champion in the last 25 years.

The Origin of the Olympic Games

The first recorded Olympic game was in 776 B.C. held at the foot of
Mount Olympia in ancient Greece The Games were held every 4 years.
Although Greek cities had continuous wars, hostilities were suspended
during the Games for 1 month and later extended to three months as they
were sacred festivals in honor of Zeus. At first, it consisted only of one
event called the stade, a 192 yard foot race. Koroibus of Elis was
recognized as the first champion. Only male citizens could compete and
watch the Games. Women were not allowed to observe and participate
as athletes, except for the priestess Demeter, who observed the Games.
Women caught observing the Olympic Games were taken to Mount
Tympaion and thrown to their death. Other events were added thereafter.
The Games were held for 1169 years until 393 A.D. Running and
jumping events, discus and javelin throwing were held at the stadium.
Horseback and chariot races were done in the hippodrome or race
course. An open space in front of the altar of Zeus was the arena for
boxing and wrestling. The games were abolished by Roman Emperor
Theodosius in 394 AD in the belief that the games were pagan in nature.

THE MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES

In his quest to revitalize the youth of France, with his family being a
well-to-do member of the French aristocracy, and an impeccable social
and political connections the Frenchman Baron Pierre de Ferdy de
Coubertin established the modern Olympic Games.

Inaugural Olympic Games of the modern era was held in Athens, Greece
in 1896. The goal of the Olympic Movement is to contribute toward
achievement of mutual understandings and global peace by overcoming
differences including race, nationality and culture through physical and
mental disciplines. Its underlying concept is called Olympism, which is
defined as a philosophy of life, the way of man- kind within the Olympic
charter.

Three Latin words “ Citius, Altius, Fortius” meaning “Faster, Higher,

Stronger” were adopted with permission as the Olympic Motto. The
phrase was coined by Coubertin’s friend Father Didon during an IOC
public conference held in a northern French town of Le Havre in the
following year of inaugural Athens Olympiad. The Olympic Flag
designed by Coubertin himself in 1914was used in1920 Antwerp Games
in Belgium. Five colored rings from left to right in blue, yellow, black,
green and red symbolizing unity of 5 continents of the world were set
against a white
background which is symbolic of peace. It was also in this year that the
Olympic oath was introduced. The Ceremonial Lighting of the Olympic
Flame was introduced in 1928 during the Olympic Games in
Amsterdam, Netherlands.. Women competed in athletic events for the
first time. The first torch relay from Olympia to the host city was
introduced in 1936 by Dr. Karl Diem, the director general of the Berlin
Olympic Games.

THE ASIAN GAMES

The Asian Games are held for the purpose of developing intercultural
knowledge and friendship within Asia. The member countries and
regions affiliated to the Olympic Council of Asia participate in this
multi-sports event. The Games are held every four years in between the
Olympic Games. This was first conceived in 1950, and the first Asian
Games were held in New Delhi, India in 1951 with its motto Ever
Onward. The 2nd Asian Games was held in Manila in 1954. In 1994
Asian Games, despite opposition from other nations, OCA admitted the
former Soviet Republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan.

THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN GAMES

The South East Asian Games were known as the South East Asian
Peninsular Games until 1975. When SEAP Games Federation accepted
Indonesia and the Philippines as members, the name was then changed
to South East Asian (SEA) Games. Its aim is to promote cooperation,
understanding and good relations among countries in the region. The
first SEAP Games was held in Thailand in 1959.The hosting of the SEA
Games is rotated alphabetically by nation name which removes the
politics of bidding for the games, and allows the host countries ample
time to plan for their turn at the games. Manila has hosted the 1981,
1991, and 2005 SEA Games.
THE ASEAN Para Games

The ASEAN Para Games is a biannual multi-event held after every

Southeast Asian Games for athletes with physical disabilities. Patterned
after the Paralympics, they include the mobility, disabilities, amputees,
visual disabilities, and those with cerebral palsy. The Para Games is
under the regulation of the ASEAN Para Sports Federation (APSF). The
games are hosted by the same country where the SEA Games took place.
The 1st ASEAN Para Games was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in
2001. To promote friendship and solidarity among persons with
disabilities in he ASEAN region through sports; to promote and develop
sports for the differently able; and to rehabilitate and integrate persons
with disability into mainstream society through sports are the underlying
objectives of the Games.

MOTOR BEHAVIOR

One of the primary concerns of physical education is the learning and

refinement of motor skills. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior and performance as a result of practice or
experience. Motor behavior is concerned with the learning and
acquisition of skills across the lifespan and encompasses three areas:
motor control, motor learning, and motor development. Motor control
and motor learning trace its roots to experimental psychology, while
motor development traces its roots to developmental psychology.

• Motor Learning is the study of the acquisition of movement skills as a

consequence of practice. Learning of a movement skill is inferred from
performance. To assess how well an individual learned the skill, the
instructor would observe the performance of the skill.

It focuses on studying the cognitive aspects of motor skill acquisition.

The goals are “understanding the influence of feedback, practice, and
individual differences especially how they relate to the retention and
transfer of motor skill”.
  Motor Control is the study of the neurophysiological and
behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements.
The goals are understanding “how the muscles and joints are
coordinated during movement, how a sequence of movements is
controlled, and how to use environ- mental information to plan and
adjust movement”.
 Motor development is the study of the origins of and changes in
movement behavior throughout lifespan. It involves understanding
how motor behavior is influenced by the integration of
psychological, sociological, cognitive, biological, and mechanical
factors.

Learning Theories in Physical Education

The physical educator is concerned with facilitating learning in all

three domains.

• Cognitive Learning. The concern of physical educators in

teaching for cognitive learning is increasing the individual’s
knowledge, improving problem-solving abilities, clarifying,
understanding, and developing and identifying concepts.

• Affective Learning. In teaching for affective learning, the

physical educator is concerned with attitudes, appreciations, and
values.

• Psychomotor Learning. This type of learning is the heart of the

physical education and sport experience. The development of
motor skill is the concern in teaching for psychomotor learning.

Stages of Learning

Cognitive Stage. During this stage the learner is endeavoring to

understand the nature and/or goal of the activity to be learned.

Associative Stage. At this point the basics of the skill have been learned
and the learner concentrates on refining the skill.
• Autonomous Stage. This stage is reached after much practice. the
learner can perform the skill consistently with few errors. The skill is
well coordinated and may appear to be performed effortlessly.

Forces Influencing Learning

 Readiness. It is the successful acquisition of new information or

skills de- pends on the individual’ readiness. The desire and
willingness to learn will affect his acquisition of that particular
skill. Physiological readiness is the learner’s readiness to control
his body in physical activities to such a degree. Psychological
readiness refers to the learner’s state of mind; it is one’s feeling or
attitude toward learning a particular skill.
 Level of Development. As psychologist Piaget stated, “learning
proceeds most rapidly when instructional experiences are geared to
individual’s physical and intellectual abilities.
 Motivation. It refers to a condition within an individual that
initiates activity directed toward a goal. Needs and drives form the
basic framework for motivation.
 Reinforcement. It is using events, actions, and behavior to increase
the likelihood of a certain response (e.g., a skill or a behavior)
recurring.
 Individual differences. In any learning situation, the physical
educator must provide for individual differences – in social and
economic back grounds, physical abilities, intelligence and
preferred learning styles, and personality.

Concepts, Factors, and Conditions that Promote the Learning of Motor

Skills and improve Performance

1. Practice sessions should be structured.

2. The task to be learned must be understood by the learners.

3. The nature of the skill should be considered when designing practice.

4. Consider the learner in deciding whether to teach the skill by the
whole or by part method, the nature of the task and the background of
the learner.

5. Whether speed or accuracy should be emphasized in learning a skill

depends on the requirement of the skill.

6. Transfer of learning can facilitate the learning of motor skills.

7. Essential for learning is feedback.

8. Plateaus ( a period in which little or no progress is made) in

performance may be experienced by the learners.

9. Self-analysis should be developed.

10. The leadership provided determines to a great degree how much

learning will take place.

SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

AND SPORTS

SOCIOLOGY

Physical educators are interested in an important factor that motivates

the formation of groups - the drive action that is inherent in a child.
After becoming a member of a group, certain collections are important
for successful adjustments.

1. Need for affection – the belief that he is liked by the other

members
2. Belongingness – the belief that he is accepted
3. Independence – exempli es the individual’s right to make his
own decisions.
4. Social approval and Opportunity to Maintain Self-Esteem
SOME THEORIES OF PLAY

1. Surplus-Energy or Spencer Theory expresses the idea of play as

the aimless expenditure of exuberant energy. (Friedrich Schiller)

2. Recreation Theory emphasizes the recreative values of play, and

play as a means of revitalization. (Guts Muths)
3. Relaxation Theory emphasizes play as a medium for relaxation in
today’s mode of work that leads to nervous disorders if the
organism does not have a means to relax from the work’s ordeal.
4. Instinct Theory declares that human beings have an instinctive
tendency to be active at various stages of their life-time.
5. Social-Expression Theory by Bernard S. Manson expresses the
modern theory of play. Physiological and anatomical structure of
man as an active creature limits his activity. His degree of physical
fitness at any time affects the kind of activity in which he engages
in. The psychological inclinations that are the result of
physiological needs and learned responses, habits, or attitudes
propel him into certain types of play activities.

PLAY THEORISTS

 Herbert Spencer believed that play could be used to expend excess

energy, which was necessary for survival.
 G. Stanley Hall viewed play and its natural extensions (games and
sport) as ideal mechanisms of development, an ideal type of
exercise for the young, most favorable for the growth, and most
self-regulating.
 John Dewey believed that play was not a physical act that has no
meaning, rather it was an activity the integrated mind and body.
 Karl Groos believed that play provides necessary experiences &
prepares the individual for the coming tasks of life.
 Luther Halsey Gulick emphasized the bene ts of play for the
development of both the private (sense of self) and social aspects
( social self) of the individual.