FAULTING

When two ground masses move with respect to one

another, elastic strain energy due to tectonic processes is
stored and then released through the rupture of the
interface zone. The distorted blocks snap back towards
equilibrium and an earthquake ground motion is produced.
This process is referred to as 'elastic rebound’.
FAULTING
The resulting fracture in the Earth's crust is termed a 'fault’.

During the sudden rupture of the brittle crustal rock seismic

waves are generated. These waves travel away from the source
of the earthquake along the Earth's outer layers. Their velocity
depends on the characteristics of the material through which they
travel.
FAULTING

A fault is a crack across which the rocks have been offset.

They range in size from micrometers to thousands of kilometers

in length and tens of kilometers in depth, but they are generally
much thinner than they are long or deep. In addition to variations
in size and orientation, different faults can accommodate different
styles of rock deformation, such as compression and extension.
FAMOUS ACTIVE
FAULTS
SAN ANDREAS FAULT
 ▪ The San Andreas Fault is the sliding boundary
between the Pacific Plate and the North American
Plate.

▪ An example of a transform fault.

▪ The plates are slowly moving past one

another at a couple of inches a year.
(same rate as how fingernails grow)

FAMOUS ACTIVE FAULTS

CORINTH CANAL FAULT
 ▪ was built from 1881 to 1893.
▪ At their highest the walls of the
canal are 90 m high.
▪ The base of the canal is only 20m
wide.

FAMOUS ACTIVE FAULTS

 PARAMETERS USED TO
DESCRIBE FAULT MOTION
PARAMETERS USED TO
DESCRIBE FAULT MOTION

▪ AZIMUTH (Φ) – the angle between the trace of the fault, that is the intersection of
the fault plane with the horizontal, and the northerly direction (0° ≤ Φ ≤ 360°). The
angle is measured so that the fault plane dips to the right-hand side.
▪ DIP (δ) – the angle between the fault and the horizontal plane (0° ≤ δ ≤ 90°).
▪ SLIP/RAKE (λ) – the angle between the direction of relative displacement and the
horizontal direction (-180° ≤ λ ≤ 180°). It is measured on the fault plane
PARAMETERS USED TO
DESCRIBE FAULT MOTION

▪ RELATIVE DISPLACEMENT (Δu) – the distance travelled by a point on

either side of the fault plane. If Δu varies along the fault plane, its mean
value is generally used.

▪ AREA (S) – surface area of the highly stressed region within the fault
plane.
PARAMETERS USED TO
DESCRIBE FAULT MOTION

A. The orientation of the fault motion is defined by the:

▪ Azimuth (Φ)
▪ Dip (δ)
▪ Slip/Rake (λ)

B. Dimension is given by the Area (S)

C. Fault Slip is measured by the Relative Displacement (Δu)
 FUNDAMENTAL
FAULT MECHANISMS
FUNDAMENTAL
FAULT MECHANISMS

1. DIP-SLIP FAULTS – one block moves vertically with respect to the other.

a. Normal Fault
▪ Is caused by tensile forces.
▪ Foot Wall moves up the dip and away from the Hanging Wall

b. Reverse Fault
▪ Is caused by compressive forces.
▪ Hanging Wall moves up in relation to the Foot Wall.
FUNDAMENTAL
FAULT MECHANISMS
FUNDAMENTAL
FAULT MECHANISM

2. STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
▪ The adjacent blocks move horizontally past one another.
▪ Can be caused by either compression or tension stresses.
 SOURCE
PARAMETERS
SOURCE
PARAMETERS
SOURCE
PARAMETERS

Most Earthquakes:
▪ Shallow Focus - have focal depths in the range of 5-10 km.

Intermediate Events:
▪ Intermediate Focus - have foci at about 20-50 km underground.

Deep Earthquakes:
▪ Deep Focus - 300–700 km underground
SEISMIC ZONE

▪ is used to describe an area where earthquakes tend to

focus.

▪ active seismic zones at present are related to either

tectonic activity at continental plates or the motion of a
plate under continental or oceanic plates.
SEISMIC HAZARD ZONE

A region with a specific level of earthquake risk is referred

to as a seismic hazard zone. A higher seismic hazard zone
is typically located closer to a seismic zone where there are
more earthquakes, and a lower seismic hazard zone is
located further away from a seismic zone.
The World’s Seismically Most Active Zones
Seismic Zone on International Context
THE CIRCUM-PACIFIC BELT
Seismic Zone on International Context
 ▪ The world’s greatest volcanic and earthquake belt, where 81
percent of recorded earthquakes occur.
▪ Located along the rim of the Pacific Ocean along boundaries
of tectonic plates, where various plates are subducting
beneath another plate.
▪ The Philippines is located along this belt.
▪ The largest instrumentally recorded earthquakes:
- magnitude 9.5, Chile 1960
- magnitude 9.2, Alaska 1962

The World’s Seismically Most Active Zones

Seismic Zone on International Context
 ALPIDE BELT
Seismic Zone on International Context
 Alpide Belt
▪ Located in the southern region of Eurasia, where 17 percent
of the world’s largest earthquakes occur.

▪ the largest instrumentally recorded earthquakes:

- Sumatra, 2004, magnitude 9.1 earthquake, which
generated a tsunami that killed over 230.000 people
- Pakistan, 2005, magnitude 7.6 earthquake, where over
80,000 fatalities were reported.

The World’s Seismically Most Active Zones

Seismic Zone on International Context
THE MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE
Seismic Zone on International Context
 ▪ An example of a divergent plate boundary.
▪ The most earthquake-prone area along the mid-
Atlantic Ridge is Iceland, which is located directly
over it.
▪ This belt is deep underwater and far from any
human infrastructure, so in general, it does not
influence much of human lives.

The World’s Seismically Most Active Zones

Seismic Zone on International Context
PHILIPPINES SEISMIC ZONES
Seismic Zone on National Context
PHILIPPINES SEISMIC ZONES
Seismic Zone on National Context
Seismic Zone on International Context
PHILIPPINES SEISMIC ZONES
Seismic Zone on National Context
Fig. 208-1 Referenced Seismic
Map of the Philippines
NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE
OF THE PHILIPPINES
The goal of the code is to ensure
low probability of structural collapse.

-Miriam Tamayo, former ASEP President

https://aseponline.org/part-2-what-makes-buildings-earthquake-
ready/#:~:text=The%20goal%20of%20the%20code,low%20probability%20of%20s
tructural%20collapse.&text=Where%20is%20it%20safe%20to%20build%3F
 REFERENCES

Elnashai & Dia Sarno (2015). Fundamentals of Earthquake Engineering from Source to Fragility 2nd Edition

The San Andreas Fault. https://geology.com/articles/san-andreas-fault.shtml

Seismic Zone. https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-seismic-zone-or-seismic-hazard-zone

The World’s Most Earthquake-Prone Areas and Countries. https://quantectum.com/the-worlds-most-

earthquake-prone-areas-and-countries/

National Structural Code of the Philippines Vol. I, 7th Edition, 2015