electronics
Article
A Five Convolutional Layer Deep Convolutional Neural
Network for Plant Leaf Disease Detection
J. Arun Pandian 1, *, K. Kanchanadevi 1 , V. Dhilip Kumar 1 , Elżbieta Jasińska 2 , Radomír Goňo 3 ,
Zbigniew Leonowicz 4 and Michał Jasiński 4, *






Citation: Pandian, J.A.;
Kanchanadevi, K.; Kumar, V.D.;
Jasińska, E.; Goňo, R.; Leonowicz, Z.;
Jasiński, M. A Five Convolutional
Layer Deep Convolutional Neural
Network for Plant Leaf Disease
Detection. Electronics 2022, 11, 1266.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
electronics11081266
Academic Editors: Laith Alzubaidi,
Jinglan Zhang, Ye Duan
and Jose Santamaria
Received: 21 March 2022
Accepted: 12 April 2022
Published: 16 April 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11081266
1 Computer Science & Engineering, Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and
Technology, Chennai 600062, India; kanchanadevicse@veltech.edu.in (K.K.);
vdhilipkumar@veltech.edu.in (V.D.K.)
2 Department of Operations Research and Business Intelligence, Wrocław University of Science and Technology,
50-370 Wroclaw, Poland; elzbieta.jasinska@pwr.edu.pl
3 Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
VSB—Technical University of Ostrava, 708 00 Ostrava, Czech Republic; radomir.gono@vsb.cz
4 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland;
zbigniew.leonowicz@pwr.edu.pl
* Correspondence: jarunpandian@veltech.edu.in (J.A.P.); michal.jasinski@pwr.edu.pl (M.J.)
Abstract: In this research, we proposed a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN) model for
image-based plant leaf disease identification using data augmentation and hyperparameter optimiza-
tion techniques. The DCNN model was trained on an augmented dataset of over 240,000 images of
different healthy and diseased plant leaves and backgrounds. Five image augmentation techniques
were used: Generative Adversarial Network, Neural Style Transfer, Principal Component Analysis,
Color Augmentation, and Position Augmentation. The random search technique was used to op-
timize the hyperparameters of the proposed DCNN model. This research shows the significance
of choosing a suitable number of layers and filters in DCNN development. Moreover, the experi-
mental outcomes illustrate the importance of data augmentation techniques and hyperparameter
optimization techniques. The performance of the proposed DCNN was calculated using different
performance metrics such as classification accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-Score. The experimental
results show that the proposed DCNN model achieves an average classification accuracy of 98.41%
on the test dataset. Moreover, the overall performance of the proposed DCNN model was better than
that of advanced transfer learning and machine learning techniques. The proposed DCNN model is
useful in the identification of plant leaf diseases.
Keywords: data augmentation; deep convolutional neural networks; generative adversarial network;
hyperparameters optimization; neural style transfer; principal component analysis; random search
1. Introduction
Identification of plant diseases is essential to improving the farmer’s profit from the
yield and growth of plants. Manual monitoring of plant diseases will not give accurate
outcomes regularly. Moreover, finding domain experts for monitoring plant diseases is
highly complicated and expensive for farmers. Currently, many artificial intelligence tech-
niques are proposed for automatic plant disease detection and diagnosis with fewer human
efforts [1]. A Deep Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN) is a recent artificial intelli-
gence technique for solving computer vision and natural language processing challenges.
The DCNN has been effectively applied in numerous fields, such as agriculture, healthcare,
finance, security, and production. The DCNN uses a sequence of several layers to learn
from the training data. The most common DCNN layers are convolution layers, pooling
layers, and fully connected layers. The convolution layer extracts features from every input
image [2]. The convolutional layer is a significant element of DCNN, and it understands
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Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 2 of 15

the connection among pixels by learning features using input image data. Convolution is
a mathematical operation that takes three inputs, such as an image matrix, filter matrix,
and stride value, and produces feature maps. The filters are supported to extract the fea-
tures from the input images. Moreover, the stride is a numerical value referred to as the
number of pixels that move the filters over the input matrix [3]. After the convolutional
layer, the pooling layer reduces the dimensionality of the future map. Max pooling and
average pooling are the most common pooling techniques. The max-pooling takes the
maximum value, and the average pooling takes the average value from the feature map.
In this research, the performance of the different numbers of convolutional layers and
different pooling functions was compared in terms of the most critical performance metrics.
In addition, the DCNN is required a large volume of training data, optimized hyperpa-
rameters value, and high-performance computing to improve the classification performance.
Data augmentation is the most popular approach to dealing with the insufficient training
data problem for image classification tasks [4]. Data augmentation is producing new images
by different transformation techniques [5]. The five most advanced image augmentation
techniques were used to produce new input images for the training process in this re-
search. The augmentation techniques are Generative Adversarial Network (GAN), Neural
Style Transfer (NST), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), four different color Augmenta-
tion, and seven different Position Augmentation. The position augmentation techniques
are affine transformation, scaling, cropping, flipping, padding, rotation, and translation.
Moreover, the color augmentation techniques are brightness, contrast, saturation, and hue.
The GAN is one of the unsupervised neural networks used to create a new set of
realistic images. The GAN comprises two deep neural networks, such as a generator and
a discriminator. The generator network creates new images similar to the training data,
while the discriminator network classifies the original and newly created images [6]. GAN is
one of the most successful image augmentation techniques in medical image processing
applications. The NST is an image transformation technique to produce new images
using three different images such as content images, style reference images, and input
images. Hyperparameters are the most significant parameters that can influence the
training process of machine learning techniques. The most common hyper-parameters in
DCNN include learning rate, training epochs, filter size, batch size, loss function, activation
function, and dropout value [7]. The selection of hyperparameter values is one of the
most challenging tasks in machine learning algorithm design. Hyperparameter tuning
is the technique of finding the value of the most suitable hyperparameters to achieve
maximum performance [8]. The random search technique is a popular hyperparameter
tuning technique to optimize the value of the hyperparameter of the machine learning
algorithm [9]. In this research, random search techniques were used to optimize the values
of the hyperparameters of all proposed DCNNs.
Transfer learning is an advanced learning technique to reuse a pre-trained model on a
new similar task. It helps to accelerate the training process of the new model and achieve
better performance [10]. The standard transfer learning techniques are AlexNet, VGG16,
Inception-v3, and ResNet. The performance of the proposed DCNN is compared with the
standard transfer learning and most common machine learning techniques. The machine
learning techniques are Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Naive Bayes (NB), and Support
Vector Machine (SVM). Moreover, DCNN requires a huge number of data and iterations to
train the model. In order to train the model with better efficiency and less time consumption,
the machine needs sufficient processing power. The GPU-accelerated deep learning frame-
work is used in this work to train DCNN with a large dataset. The GPU-accelerated deep
learning framework delivers high-performance and low-latency inference for the DCNN.
This research proposed a novel DCNN model for the diagnosis of plant leaf diseases
using leaf images. The performance of the model was improved using data augmentation
and hyperparameter optimization techniques. The remaining sections of the paper were
organized as follows: Section 2 provides the literature survey of the plant leaf disease
classification-related works. Section 3 describes the materials and methodologies of the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 3 of 15

proposed DCNN model. Section 4 contains results and related discussions. Section 5 gives
the conclusions and future directions of the research.

2. Related Works
Detection of diseases in plant leaves is a significant challenge for precision crop
protection and smart farming. Automatic plant disease detection can facilitate the control of
diseases through suitable control approaches, for instance, chemical applications, pesticides,
fungicides, and bactericide applications, and can increase production. Some earlier efforts
to use machine learning techniques for plant disease detection are reviewed in this section.
The authors in [2] proposed an SVM with a radial basis function and hyperspectral data for
detecting three different sugar plant leaf diseases, such as leaf spot, leaf rust, and powdery
mildew. On average, the classification accuracy using this technique was between 65% and
90%, subject to disease stage and category. The author in [11] proposed the SVM algorithm
for solving the agriculture data classification problems. The SVM is an extensively used
machine learning algorithm. It has been used in various fields, such as image processing and
information retrieval. The F1 measure of the algorithm is higher than the typical machine
learning algorithms, such as NB and ANN algorithms. The author in [12] proposed another
approach based on SVM for the identification of Huanglongbing (HLB) or citrus greening
diseases using multi-band imaging sensor data.
The authors of [13,14] discussed several methods for the detection of plant diseases
using their leaf images that were based on various image processing and feature extraction
techniques. Identification of tomato yellow leaf curl disease can be achieved using SVM
with a quadratic kernel function as proposed by the author in [15]. Overall, the classification
accuracy using this algorithm was 92%. The authors of [16] proposed a Huanglongbing
disease identification model for citrus plants. The SVM and ANN were used to design the
Huanglongbing detection technique. The testing accuracy of the SVM and ANN models
was 92.8% and 92.2%, respectively. The accuracy of the SVM models is higher than that
of the ANN model. The authors of [17] proposed an apple leaf spot disease forecasting
model using a K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN) classifier. The forecasting model achieved 88%
of accuracy, which is higher than other machine learning models.
The authors of [3,18] developed convolutional neural networks (CNN), based models
for recognizing different plant species. Moreover, their experiment shows that performance
improvements in plant leaf disease detection can be made using CNN rather than traditional
machine learning techniques. The authors of [19,20] proposed a CNN-based model for
solving crop disease identification problems using different datasets. In [21], the authors
proposed the AlexNet and VGG16 models for disease detection in tomato crops with
optimized hyperparameters. In [22], the authors proposed a leaf disease detection model
using the AlexNet pre-trained model. The AlexNet based model achieved a test accuracy
of 98%, which is better than machine learning techniques. The author of [23] developed the
GoogLeNet and Cifar10 models based on deep learning for identifying maize leaf diseases.
Overall, the top-1 accuracy using this GoogLeNet and Cifar10 technique was 98.9% and
98.8%, respectively.
The authors of [24] studied numerous deep learning approaches to solve many agri-
culture challenges. Likewise, plant disease detection and diagnosis can be achieved using
convolutional neural network models. This technique was applied to 87,848 images of
25 different plants and presented in [25]. This model achieves an average accuracy of
99.53%. The authors of [26] presented a deep learning-based model for identifying ten
different plant diseases from individual lesions and spots. A nine-layer DCNN model was
developed in [27] for identifying different plant leaf diseases using optimized hyperpa-
rameters, six data augmentation methods, and the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), and it
achieved a classification accuracy of 96.46% in the test data. The authors of [28] proposed a
leaf disease detection model for various plants using a transfer learning technique called
TL-ResNet50. They achieved a classification accuracy of 98.20% on disease detection. Most
recently, the authors of [29] proposed attention-based convolutional neural networks for
 tomato leaf disease classification. The model achieved a classification accuracy of 99.69%
on the test dataset. The performance of the model was compared with standard transfer
learning techniques. In [5], the authors proposed the apple leaf disease detection model
using ResNet-50 and Mask R-CNN techniques. Moreover, they compared the perfor-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 4 of 15
mance of the MobileNetV3-Large and MobileNetV3-Large-Mobile models. The extensive
survey shows the importance of developing a plant disease detection model with high
detection accuracy. A leaf
tomato DCNN with
disease differentThe
classification. convolutional
model achieved layers and hyperparameters
a classification accuracy of 99.69%
was trained andon tested todataset.
the test develop Theanperformance
image-based plant
of the leaf
model was disease
comparedidentification
with standardmodel
transfer
in this research. learning
The following section
techniques. In [5],presents information
the authors proposed theabout
apple the
leaf dataset and themodel
disease detection im-
plemented models. using ResNet-50 and Mask R-CNN techniques. Moreover, they compared the performance
of the MobileNetV3-Large and MobileNetV3-Large-Mobile models. The extensive survey
shows the importance of developing a plant disease detection model with high detection
3. Materials andaccuracy.
Methods A DCNN with different convolutional layers and hyperparameters was trained
This sectionand
provides a complete
tested to develop procedure
an image-based for
plant leafcreating and preprocessing
disease identification the
model in this da-
research.
The following section presents information about the dataset and the implemented models.
taset and designing and developing the proposed DCNN for plant leaf disease identifica-
tion. Initially, a novel CNNand
3. Materials model was proposed with a different number of convolutional
Methods
layers between 3 andThis 5. A hyperparameter
section optimization
provides a complete technique
procedure for was
creating and used to select
preprocessing the
the dataset
most appropriate hyperparameters. The models were trained using optimized hyperpa-
and designing and developing the proposed DCNN for plant leaf disease identification.
rameters on an augmented dataset.
Initially, a novel The training
CNN model andwith
was proposed testing of thenumber
a different DCNN of and pre-trained
convolutional layers
between 3 and 5. A hyperparameter optimization technique was used to select the most
models were performed using an NVIDIA DGX-1 GPU deep learning server and an HP
appropriate hyperparameters. The models were trained using optimized hyperparameters
Z600 workstation. on an augmentedprogramming
The Python language
dataset. The training andofadvanced
and testing the DCNNlibraries were models
and pre-trained used
to implement thewere proposed
performed andusing
existing models.
an NVIDIA The GPU
DGX-1 essential
deep Python libraries
learning server andarean Keras,
HP Z600
OpenCV, NumPy, Pillow, SciPy, and TensorFlow.
workstation. The Python programming language and advanced libraries were used to
implement the proposed and existing models. The essential Python libraries are Keras,
OpenCV, NumPy, Pillow, SciPy, and TensorFlow.
3.1. Data Collection and Preprocessing
The original3.1.dataset was downloaded
Data Collection from an open research data repository [27].
and Preprocessing

The original dataset contained 39 different classes offrom

The original dataset was downloaded 55,448 healthy
an open anddata
research diseased plant
repository [27].
The original dataset contained 39 different classes of 55,448 healthy and diseased plant
leaves and background images. Figure 1 shows the four sample images from random clas-
leaves and background images. Figure 1 shows the four sample images from random
ses of the original dataset.
classes of the original dataset.

Figure 1. Sample images

Figure 1.from random
Sample classes
images from of the
random original
classes of thedataset.
original dataset.

Data augmentation techniques can increase the dataset size and reduce overfitting
Data augmentation techniques can increase the dataset size and reduce overfitting
during the training state of models by adding a small number of distorted images to the
during the training state
training set.ofThere
models by types
are five adding a small
of data numbertechniques
augmentation of distorted
used images to theto
in this research
training set. There arenew
create fivetraining
types images.
of dataTheaugmentation
augmentation techniques
techniques areused in Style
Neural this Transfer
research to
(NST),
create new training images. The augmentation techniques are Neural Style Transfer
Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Network (DCGAN), Principal Component
(NST), Deep Convolutional
Analysis (PCA), Generative Adversarial
Color Augmentation, andNetwork (DCGAN), Principal
Position Augmentation. Com-
The augmentation
techniques increased the dataset size from 55,448 to 234,008 images. It also increased the
ponent Analysissize (PCA), Color Augmentation, and Position Augmentation. The augmen-
of all the classes to 6000 original and augmented images.
tation techniques increased the dataset size from 55,448 to 234,008 images. It also increased
the size of all the3.1.1.
classes to Style
Neural 6000Transfer
original and augmented images.
Neural Style Transfer is a convolutional network to create augmented images using
content images and style reference images [30]. The NST performs the image transforma-
tion, converting the style properties of the style image into a content image for generating
a new output image. The sample content, style reference, and output images of NST are
shown in Figure 2.
 3.1.1. Neural Style
Neural Transfer
Style Transfer is a convolutional network to create augmented images using
content
Neural images and style
Style Transfer is areference images
convolutional [30]. The
network NST performs
to create augmented theimages
image using
transfor-
mation,
content converting
images thereference
and style style properties
imagesof[30].
the The
styleNST
image into a content
performs image
the image for gener-
transfor-
atingconverting
mation,
Electronics 2022, 11, a new output
1266 the image. The sample
style properties content,
of the style style
image reference, and output
into a content imageimages of NST
for gener- 5 of 15

ating are shown

a new in Figure
output 2. The sample content, style reference, and output images of NST
image.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) technique: (a) Content image;(b)
Figure 2. NST (c) image.
(b) style reference image; (c) output
Figure 2. NST technique: (a)2.Content
Figure image;(a)(b)
NST technique: style image;
Content reference image;
(b) style (c) output
reference image.
image; (c) output image.
The VGG-19 based NST technique was used to generate 22,000 different plant leaf
images in this research.
The VGG-19 based NST The augmented
technique wasimages
used towere generated
generate using
22,000 5000 iterations
different plant leafand
The VGG-19 based NST technique was used to generate 22,000 different plant leaf
images in this research. The augmented images were generated using 5000 iterations and
GPUintechniques.
images Figure
this research.
GPU The 3augmented
shows
techniques. some
Figure random
3images
shows augmented
were
some generated
random image samples
usingimage
augmented of the
5000samples
iterations different
and
of the different
GPUclasses using the
techniques. NST
Figure technique.
3 using
classes shows thesome random augmented image samples of the different
NST technique.
classes using the NST technique.

Figure 3. Sample augmented images

Figure 3. Sample usingimages
augmented NST technique.
using NST technique.
Figure 3. Sample augmented images using NST technique.
3.1.2. Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Networks
3.1.2. Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Networks
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are one of the exciting applications of deep
3.1.2. Deep Convolutional
Generative Generative
Adversarial Adversarial
Networks (GANs)Networks
are one of the exciting applications of
neural networks. It creates new images from the input images using random noise and
deep neural networks.
Generative Adversarial
maps them It creates
Networks
into new(GANs)
the input imagesTwo
images. from
are theof
one
models input
arethe images
exciting
trained using random
applications
simultaneously noise
of
by an adversar-
deepand mapsnetworks.
neural them ial
into Itthe
process input
creates
suchnew images.
as images
generator Two models
from
and are trained
the input
discriminator. images
The simultaneously
usingnetwork
generator random by
noise
learns an ad-
to create
andversarial
maps them process such as generator andmodels
discriminator. Thesimultaneously
generator network
new images similar to the input image. Furthermore, the discriminator learns to classify
into the input images. Two are trained by an learns
ad- to
the real dataset images and generator-created images. A Deep Convolutional Generative
createprocess
versarial new imagessuch similar
as to theand
generator
Adversarial Network input image.
discriminator.
(DCGAN) Furthermore,
was used toThe
create the discriminator
generator
augmented network this learns
images inlearns to to
research [6].
classify
create new the real dataset
images similar images
The layered and generator-created
to architecture
the input image. andimages.
Furthermore,
of the generator theAdiscriminator
discriminator Deep Convolutional
of the DCGAN learns toGen-in
are shown
erative
classify the Adversarial
real dataset Network
images
Figures 4 andand5, (DCGAN) was
generator-created
respectively. usedimages.
The DCGAN to creates
create Atheaugmented
Deep images
Convolutional
generator and inGen-
this re-
discriminator net-
search
erative [6]. The layered
Adversarial Network
works, architecture
(DCGAN)ofwas
mainly using the used
convolutiongenerator and augmented
to create
layers without discriminator
a pooling of theinDCGAN
images
function. this re- are
Transposed convolu-
tion and stride are used to upsampling and downsample the features of convolution layers.
shown
search in Figures
[6]. The layered4architecture
and 5, respectively. The DCGAN
of the generator creates the generator
and discriminator of the DCGAN
The DCGAN network was trained using the training epoch of 30,000, the stride
and discrimi-
are
nator
shown in networks, mainly
Figures 4 dimension
and using
of 2 ×convolution
5, respectively. layerssize
Themini-batch
2, and the DCGAN without
creates agenerates
of 64. Itthepooling function.
generator
35,700 and Transposed
discrimi-
augmented images in
convolution
nator networks, and mainlystride
different are
using used to samples
convolution
classes. Four upsampling
layers and downsample
without
of augmented a pooling
images the features
from function.
different of
Transposed
classes convolu-
using DCGAN
tion layers.
convolution and stride are used to upsampling and downsample the features of convolu-
are shown in Figure 6.
tion layers.
Electronics
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2022, 11,
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6ofof15
15
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Figure 4. Layered structure of DCGAN generator.

Figure
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Layered
4. Layered structure
Layered structure of
structure of DCGAN
of DCGAN generator.
DCGAN generator.
generator.

Figure 5. Layered structure of DCGAN discriminator.

The DCGAN network was trained using the training epoch of 30,000, the stride di-
mension of 2 × 2, and the mini-batch size of 64. It generates 35,700 augmented images in
different classes. Four samples of augmented images from different classes using DCGAN
Figure 5.
5. Layered
Layered structure of
of DCGAN discriminator.
discriminator.
are shown in Figure
Figure6.
Figure 5. Layered structure
structure of DCGAN
DCGAN discriminator.
The DCGAN
The DCGAN network
network was
was trained
trained using
using the
the training
training epoch
epoch of
of 30,000,
30,000, the
the stride
stride di-
di-
mension of 2 × 2, and the mini-batch size of 64. It generates 35,700 augmented images
mension of 2 × 2, and the mini-batch size of 64. It generates 35,700 augmented images in in
different classes. Four samples of augmented images from different classes using
different classes. Four samples of augmented images from different classes using DCGAN DCGAN
are shown
are shown inin Figure
Figure 6.
6.

Figure 6. Sample augmented images

Figure 6. Sample usingimages
augmented DCGAN.using DCGAN.

3.1.3. Principal Component Analysis Color Augmentation

3.1.3. Principal Component
Figure 6. SampleAnalysis
augmentedColor
images Augmentation
using DCGAN.
FigurePrincipal
6. SampleComponent
augmented images using(PCA)
Analysis DCGAN.
color augmentation is one of the advanced
Principal Component Analysis
image augmentation (PCA) color
techniques augmentation
that shifts the values ofisthe
one of green,
red, the advanced im-
and blue pixels
3.1.3. Principal Component Analysis Color Augmentation
age augmentation techniques
3.1.3.
in thePrincipal thatbased
shifts
Component
input image the values
Analysis
on which Color ofAugmentation
values the red,maximum
are the green, and bluein
existing pixels in theby
the image
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) color augmentation is one of the advanced im-
input image based on which
Principal
calculating values are
Component
eigenvectors andthe maximum
Analysis
eigenvalues theexisting
(PCA)ofcolor in theThe
augmentation
image matrix. image
is one
PCAof by
the calculating
advanced
algorithm helpsim-
to
age
age augmentation
augmentation techniques
techniques that
that shifts
shifts the
the values
values of
of the
the red,
red, green,
green, and
and blue
blue pixels
pixels in
in the
the
eigenvectors and eigenvalues of the image matrix. The PCA algorithm helps to discover
discover the relative color balance of the input image. This research performed
input image based on which values are the maximum existing in the image by calculating
PCA on
input
the setimage based
of RGB pixelonvalues
whichofvalues areplant
original the maximum existing
leaf disease imagesinand
the generated
image by calculating
26,800 new
eigenvectors and
eigenvectors and eigenvalues
eigenvalues of
of the
the image
image matrix.
matrix. The
The PCA
PCA algorithm
algorithm helps
helps to
to discover
discover
1, 1266 the relative color balance of the input image. This research performed PCA on the7 set of
of 15
RGB pixel values of original plant leaf disease images and generated 26,800 new images
the relativeclasses.
in various color balance
Figure of the input
7 shows image. This
the random research
sample performed
augmented PCA
images on the
using theset
PCAof
RGB pixel values of original plant leaf disease images and generated 26,800 new images
technique.
the
Electronics 2022,
relative color balance of the input image. This research performed PCA on the set7 of
11, 1266 of 15
in various classes. Figure 7 shows the random sample augmented images using the PCA
RGB pixel values of original plant leaf disease images and generated 26,800 new images
technique.
in various classes. Figure 7 shows the random sample augmented images using the PCA
images in various classes. Figure 7 shows the random sample augmented images using the
technique. PCA technique.

Figure 7. Sample augmented images using the PCA color augmentation technique.

Figure 7. Sample
3.1.4. Color augmented images using the PCA color augmentation technique.
Augmentation
FigureColor augmentation
7. Sample augmented techniques
images usingadjust thecolor
the PCA color properties
augmentation of thetechnique.
original images to
technique.
3.1.4. Color Augmentation
Figure 7. Sample augmented images using the PCA color augmentation
create augmented images. In this research, a combination of four different color properties
3.1.4.
is usedColor
Color augmentation
3.1.4. Color techniques
Augmentation
to generate
Augmentationadjust the color properties of the original images to
new images, such as brightness, contrast, saturation, and hue. The color
create augmented
augmentation images.
techniques In thisover
create research,
Color augmentation
47,000 a augmented
techniquescombination of four
adjust the color
images different
properties
in color
of the
different properties
original
classes.
images to
Figure
Color augmentation techniques adjust the color properties offour
thedifferent
original images to
is
8 used to generate
illustrates the new
create
sample images,
augmented
images such
images.
of as
color
Inbrightness,
this research,
augmentation contrast,
a saturation,
combination
from
of
random and
classes. hue. The
color color
properties
create augmented images.
is used In thisnew
to generate research,
images, a combination
such as brightness,ofcontrast,
four different
saturation,color properties
and hue. The color
augmentation techniques create over create
47,000 augmented images in different classes. Figure 8
is used to generate new images, such as brightness, contrast, saturation, and hue. TheFigure
augmentation techniques over 47,000 augmented images in different classes. color
8 illustrates the sample
illustratesimages of color
the sample imagesaugmentation from from
of color augmentation randomrandom classes.
classes.
augmentation techniques create over 47,000 augmented images in different classes. Figure
8 illustrates the sample images of color augmentation from random classes.

Figure 8. Sample augmented images using color augmentation techniques.

Figure 8. SampleAugmentation
3.1.5. Position augmented images
Figure 8. Sample usingimages
augmented color using
augmentation techniques.
color augmentation techniques.

FigurePosition augmentation
8. Sample augmented techniques
images affectaugmentation
using color the positiontechniques.
of pixel values of the input orig-
3.1.5. Position Augmentation
3.1.5. Position Augmentation
inal image to createPosition
augmented images.techniques
augmentation A combination
affect theofposition
seven-position augmentation
of pixel values of the input
3.1.5.Position
Position
techniques wasaugmentation
Augmentation
used inimage
original techniques
this research, affect the
such as affine
to create augmented position of pixel
images.transformation, values of the input
scaling, cropping,
A combination of seven-position orig-
flip-
augmentation
inal image
ping,Positionto
padding, create augmented
rotation, andtechniquesimages.
translation. A combination
It created of seven-position
47,052ofimages in all of augmentation
thetheclasses
inputof the
techniques was used in this research, such as affine transformation, scaling, cropping,
augmentation affect the position pixel values orig-
techniques
dataset. Thewas used in
flipping, this research,
padding, such
rotation, andastranslation.
affine transformation,
It created 47,052scaling,
images incropping, flip-
all the classes of
inal image to sample
create position
augmented augmented
images. A images of images
combination random classesclasses
of seven-position in the dataset
augmentation are
ping,
shownpadding,
in Figure rotation,
the dataset.and translation. It created 47,052 images in all the classes of the
9. ininthis
The sample position augmented of random in the dataset are
techniques was used
shown research,
Figure 9. such as affine transformation, scaling, cropping, flip-
dataset. The sample position augmented images of random classes in the dataset are
ping, padding, rotation, and translation. It created 47,052 images in all the classes of the
shown in Figure 9.
dataset. The sample position augmented images of random classes in the dataset are
shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Sample Figure

augmented images
9. Sample usingimages
augmented position augmentation
using techniques.
position augmentation techniques.

Figure 9. Sample
3.2. Building the augmented images
3.2. Building the
DCNN Model using
DCNN position augmentation techniques.
Model
DCNN achieved great success in solving image classification problems. Three different
FigureDCNN achieved
9. Sample DCNN great
augmented success
images in solving
using positionimage classification
augmentation leafproblems.
techniques. Three differ-
3.2. Building the DCNN Model
configurations were proposed for making plant disease image classification
ent DCNN configurations were proposed for making plant leaf disease image classifica-
3.2. DCNN theachieved
tionBuilding
from the DCNNgreat
augmented successthree
Model
dataset: in solving image classification
convolutional layer DCNNproblems. Three differ-
(Conv-3 DCNN), four
ent DCNN
convolutionalconfigurations
layer DCNN were proposed
(Conv-4inDCNN), for making plant leaf disease image classifica-
DCNN achieved great success solvingand fiveclassification
image convolutional layers DCNN
problems. Three (Conv-
differ-
tion from
5 DCNN). the augmented dataset: three convolutional layer DCNN (Conv-3 DCNN), four
ent DCNN A random search
configurations hyperparameter
were proposed for tuning
makingtechnique
plant leafwas usedimage
disease to optimize the
classifica-
convolutional layer DCNN (Conv-4 DCNN), and five convolutional layers DCNN (Conv-
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 8 of 15

Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 8 of 15

from the augmented dataset: three convolutional layer DCNN (Conv-3 DCNN), four con-
volutional layer DCNN (Conv-4 DCNN), and five convolutional layers DCNN (Conv-5
hyperparameter
DCNN). A random valuesearch
of each proposed DCNN.
hyperparameter The augmented
tuning dataset
technique was usedwas
to divided
optimizeintothe
the training and testing processes. The training and testing datasets contain 224,552 and
hyperparameter value of each proposed DCNN. The augmented dataset was divided into
9448 images, respectively.
the training Table 1 shows
and testing processes. the hyperparameter
The training and testing options
datasetsfor the hyperparam-
contain 224,552 and
eter optimization process. The random search optimization technique generates the ran-
9448 images, respectively. Table 1 shows the hyperparameter options for the hyperparame-
dom combinationprocess.
ter optimization of parameters for training
The random searchthe model. Thetechnique
optimization generatedgenerates
combinations were
the random
used to train the
combination model for afor
of parameters few epochs.the
training The best form
model. generated combinations
The generated combination waswereiden-
used
to train the model for a few epochs. The best form generated combination
tified from the training performance of the model. The designing and training processes was identified
from
of each themodel
training performance
were explainedofinthe themodel. The designing
following andstarting
subsections, trainingwith
processes of each
the Conv-3
model
DCNN model.were explained in the following subsections, starting with the Conv-3 DCNN model.

Table 1. Options for hyperparameters optimization.

Table 1. Options for hyperparameters optimization.
Hyperparameters Value Options
Hyperparameters Value Options
Batch size Batch size 32, 48, 64, 80 32, 48, 64, 80

epochs 10, 50, 100, 300, 500, 1000,

epochs 1200,
10, 50, 1500,
100, 300, 2000,
500, 3000
1000, 1200, 1500, 2000, 3000
Dropout Dropout 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8
Optimizer Optimizer Nadam, Adam Nadam, Adam

3.2.1.
3.2.1.Three
ThreeConvolutional
ConvolutionalLayer
LayerDCNN
DCNN
Training the three convolutional
Training the three convolutional layer DCNN
layer DCNNmodel using
model the augmented
using image
the augmented da-
image
taset thatthat
dataset is described in Section
is described 3.2 was
in Section 3.2 proposed. ThreeThree
was proposed. convolutional layers layers
convolutional and three
and
max-pooling layers were used in this Conv-3 DCNN model. The max-pooling
three max-pooling layers were used in this Conv-3 DCNN model. The max-pooling and and 2 ×2
stride were used to downsample the feature dimensions. The layered structure
2 × 2 stride were used to downsample the feature dimensions. The layered structure of the of the
Conv-3
Conv-3DCNNDCNNmodel
modelisisshown
shownin inFigure
Figure10.10.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Layered
Layeredstructure
structureof
ofConv-3
Conv-3DCNN
DCNNmodel.
model.

Table
Table 22 shows
shows the
the optimized
optimizedhyperparameters
hyperparametersusingusingthe
the random
random search
search hyperpa-
hyperparam-
rameters tuning
eters tuning technique
technique of the
of the Conv-3
Conv-3 DCNNDCNN for for
the the identification
identification of plant
of plant leaf leaf dis-
diseases.
eases. The random
The random searchsearch technique
technique was used
was used to address
to address the parametric
the parametric uncertainty
uncertainty chal-
challenge
lenge
of theofmodel
the model development.
development. The training
The training and validation
and validation accuracy
accuracy of the Conv-3
of the Conv-3 DCNN
DCNN were 98.32 and 97.87, respectively. The training progress of the Conv-3 DCNN
using the augmented dataset and optimized hyperparameters is shown in Figure 11.
 Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 9 of 15

nics 2022, 11, 1266 9 of 15

were 98.32 and 97.87, respectively. The training progress of the Conv-3 DCNN using the
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 augmented dataset and optimized hyperparameters is shown in Figure 11. 9 of 15

Table 2. Optimized hyperparameters

Table 2. Optimized values of
hyperparameters the Conv-3
values DCNN.
of the Conv-3 DCNN.

Table 2. Optimized
Hyperparameters hyperparameters values of the Conv-3
Hyperparameters DCNN.
Optimized Value Value
Optimized

Training Epochs
Hyperparameters Training Epochs 1000
Optimized Value
1000
Training Epochs
Batch Sizes Batch Sizes 64 1000 64
Batch
Dropout Value Sizes Dropout Value 0.2 64 0.2
Dropout Value
Optimizer Optimizer Adam 0.2Adam
Optimizer Adam

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 11. Conv-3 DCNN model: (a) Training result; (b) validation result.
Figure 11. Conv-3 DCNN
Figure 11. model:
Conv-3 DCNN(a)model:
Training result; (b)
(a) Training validation
result; result.result.
(b) validation
3.2.2. Four Convolutional Layer DCNN
3.2.2. Four 3.2.2. Four Convolutional
Convolutional Layer DCNNLayer DCNN
The
The four-convolutional
four-convolutional layer
layer DCNN
DCNN (Conv-4
(Conv-4 DCNN)
DCNN) model
model using
using the
the augmented
augmented
The four-convolutional
image layer DCNN (Conv-4 DCNN) model using the augmented
image dataset
dataset and
and optimized
optimized hyperparameters
hyperparameters values
values was
was proposed.
proposed. Four
Four convolutional
convolutional
image dataset and
layers optimized
and four hyperparameters
max-pooling layers are values
used in was
this proposed.
Conv-4 Four
DCNN
layers and four max-pooling layers are used in this Conv-4 DCNN model. convolutional
model. The
The layered
layered
layers andstructure
four max-pooling
structure of
of the layers
the Conv-4
Conv-4 DCNNare used
DCNN model
model isin this
is shown Conv-4
shown in DCNN
Figure 12.
in Figure 12. model. The layered
structure of the Conv-4 DCNN model is shown in Figure 12.

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Layered
Layered structure
structure of
of Conv-4
Conv-4 DCNN
DCNN model.
model.

The
The training
training accuracy
accuracy ofof the
the Conv-4
Conv-4 DCNN
DCNN was was 99.12,
99.12, and the validation
validation accuracy
accuracy
was
was 98.74.
Figure 12. Layered Table
structure
98.74. 33 shows
Tableof shows the
Conv-4 DCNN
the optimized
model.hyperparameters
optimized hyperparameters of of the
the conv-4
conv-4 DCNN
DCNN forfor the
the
identification
identification of
of plant
plant leaf
leaf diseases.
diseases. Figure
Figure 13
13 illustrates
illustrates the
the training
training performance
performance ofof the
the
Conv-4
Conv-4 DCNN
The training model
accuracy
DCNN for
of the
model the
the identification
for Conv-4 DCNN was
identification of plant
of plant leafand
99.12,
leaf diseases.
the validation accuracy
diseases.
was 98.74. Table 3 shows the optimized hyperparameters of the conv-4 DCNN for the
Table 3. Optimized hyperparameters of the Conv-4 DCNN.
identification of plant leaf diseases. Figure 13 illustrates the training performance of the
Conv-4 DCNN model for the identification of plant leaf diseases.
Hyperparameters Optimized Value
Training Epochs 1000
Table 3. Optimized
Batch Sizes hyperparameters of the Conv-4 DCNN. 32
 Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 10 of 15

Table 3. Optimized hyperparameters of the Conv-4 DCNN.

nics 2022, 11, 1266 Hyperparameters Optimized Value 10 of 15

Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 Training Epochs 1000 10 of 15
Batch Sizes 32
Dropout Value Dropout Value 0.2 0.2
Dropout Value
Optimizer Optimizer Adam 0.2 Adam
Optimizer Adam

(a) (a) (b) (b)

Figure 13. Conv-4 DCNN model: (a) Training result; (b) validation result.
Figure 13. Conv-4 DCNN
Figure 13. model:
Conv-4 DCNN(a)model:
Training result; (b)
(a) Training validation
result; result.result.
(b) validation
3.2.3. Five Convolutional Layer DCNN
3.2.3. Five Convolutional Layer DCNN
3.2.3. Five Convolutional Layer DCNN
The
The plant
plant leaf
leaf disease
disease identification
identification model
model using
using aa five
five convolutional
convolutional layer
layer DCNN
DCNN
The plant
(Conv-5 leaf diseasewas identificationFive
model using a five convolutional layer DCNN
(Conv-5 DCNN)DCNN) was proposed.
proposed. Five convolutional
convolutional layers
layers and
and five
five max-pooling
max-pooling layers
layers
(Conv-5 DCNN)
were
were used was
used inproposed.
in thisConv-5
this Conv-5 Five
DCNN convolutional
DCNN model.
model. TheThe layers
layered
layered and five
structure
structure max-pooling
of theofConv-5
the Conv-5
DCNNlayers
DCNN
model
were usedmodel
isinshown
this Conv-5
is shown in DCNN
in Figure Figure
14. model. The layered structure of the Conv-5 DCNN
14.
model is shown in Figure 14.

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Layered
Layered structure
structure of
of Conv-5
Conv-5 DCNN
DCNN model.
model.

The
The random
random search
search hyperparameter
hyperparameter tuningtuning technique
technique waswas used
used toto discover
discover the
the value
value
Figure 14. Layered
of the
of the structure
hyperparameter of Conv-5
of the DCNN
conv-5 model.
of the conv-5 DCNN. Table 4 shows the optimized hyperparame-
DCNN. Table 4 shows the optimized hyperparameters
ters for plant
for the the plant leaf disease
leaf disease identification
identification modelmodel
using using the conv-5
the conv-5 DCNN.DCNN. The conv-5
The conv-5 DCNN
The random
DCNN search
achievesachieves hyperparameter
a traininga training
accuracyaccuracy
of 9923 tuning technique
of 9923
and was used
and a validation
a validation accuracy to discover
accuracy
of 98.93. theThese
of 98.93.
These valueac-
accuracies are
of the hyperparameter
curacies
much higherare muchof the
than theconv-5
higher than
other DCNN.
the other
proposed Table 4algorithms.
proposed
DCNN shows
DCNN thealgorithms.
optimized
Figure hyperparame-
Figure 15the
15 illustrates illustrates
training
ters for thetheplant leaf performance
training
performance disease identification
of the Conv-5 ofDCNN
the Conv-5 model
model for using
DCNN themodelthefor
conv-5 ofDCNN.
plant leafThe
the identification
identification of conv-5
plant leaf
diseases.
diseases.
DCNN achieves The performance of all the proposed models was calculated using
a training accuracy of 9923 and a validation accuracy of 98.93. These ac- the different performance
metrics that were discussed in the subsequent section. New input images were used to compare
curacies are much higher than the other proposed DCNN algorithms. Figure 15 illustrates
Table 4. Optimizedofhyperparameters
the performance the proposed models of the with
conv-5 DCNN. classification techniques.
advanced
the training performance of the Conv-5 DCNN model for the identification of plant leaf
diseases.
Hyperparameters Optimized Values
Training Epochs 1000
Table Batch
4. Optimized
Sizes hyperparameters of the conv-5 DCNN. 32
Dropout Value 0.2
Hyperparameters Optimized Values
 Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 11 of 15

Table 4. Optimized hyperparameters of the conv-5 DCNN.

Hyperparameters Optimized Values

Training Epochs 1000
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 11 of 1
Batch Sizes 32
s 2022, 11, 1266 Dropout Value 0.2 11 of 15
Optimizer Adam

(a) (b)
Figure 15. Conv-5 DCNN model: (a) Training result; (b) validation result.

The performance of all the proposed models was calculated using the different per
(a) formance metrics that were discussed in the(b) subsequent section. New input images wer
used to compare the performance of the proposed models with advanced classification
Figure 15. Conv-5 DCNN
Figure model:
15. Conv-5 (a) Training
model: (a)result;
techniques.
DCNN (b)result;
Training validation result. result.
(b) validation

4. Results and
The performance of all 4. Results
Discussions
the and Discussions
proposed models was calculated using the different per-
The proposed The
Conv-3 proposed
formance metrics that were discussed in the Conv-4
DCNN, Conv-3 DCNN,
subsequent
DCNN, Conv-4
section. DCNN,
New DCNN
and Conv-5 and Conv-5
input imagesDCNN
models models
were
were com-were com
pared to advanced classification techniques using the most critical performance metric
used to compare the performance of the proposed models with advanced classification and
pared to advanced classification techniques using the most critical performance metrics
9448 original inputand 9448 original
images. input images.
Classification Classification
accuracy, accuracy,
precision, recall, precision, recall,are
and F1-Score andthe
F1-Score ar
techniques. the most critical performance metrics. The following subdivision calculates the classifica
most critical performance metrics. The following subdivision calculates the classification
accuracy of all thetion accuracy of all the models.
models.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1. Classification Accuracy
The proposed Conv-3 DCNN,
4.1. Classification AccuracyConv-4 DCNN, and Conv-5 DCNN models were com-
Classification accuracy is one of the critical performance metrics, which refers to th
pared to advanced classification
Classification techniques
accuracy
percentage
is one ofusing the most
the critical
of correct predictions madecritical
performance performance
metrics, whichmetrics
by the classification
refers to the
model. Figure 16 illustrate
and 9448 original input images.
percentage of correct Classification
predictions
the individual
madeaccuracy,
by
class testing
the precision,
classification
accuracy recall,Conv-3
model.
of the proposed and F1-Score
Figure 16 are DCNN, and
illustrates
DCNN, Conv-4
the individual class testing accuracy of the proposed Conv-3 DCNN,
the most critical performance metrics. The following subdivision calculates the classifica-
Conv-5 DCNN models. Conv-4 DCNN,
and Conv-5 DCNN models.
tion accuracy of all the models.
Testing Accuracy
4.1. Classification Accuracy
100
Classification98accuracy is one of the critical performance metrics, which refers to the
96
Accuracy

percentage of correct
94 predictions made by the classification model. Figure 16 illustrates
92
the individual class
90 testing accuracy of the proposed Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN, and
Conv-5 DCNN models.88
86
84

Testing Accuracy
100
98
96
Accuracy

94
92 Class
90
88 Conv-3 Conv-4 Conv-5
86
84 Figure 16. Testing accuracy of individual classes for proposed Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN,
Figure 16. Testing accuracy of individual classes for proposed Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN, and
and Conv-5 DCNN. Conv-5 DCNN.
 Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 12 of

Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 12 of

Figure 17 shows that the classification accuracy of the proposed Conv-5 DCN
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 12 of 15
model is higher than the Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN, and advanced machine learni
and transfer learning
Figure 17 showstechniques. The range of accuracy
that the classification the classification accuracy isConv-5
of the proposed between 0a
DCN
100%. is higher than the Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN, and advanced machine learni
model
and transfer
Figure 17 shows learning
that the techniques.
classification The range
accuracy of theofproposed
the classification accuracymodel
Conv-5 DCNN is between 0 a
100%.
is higher than the Conv-3 DCNN, Conv-4 DCNN, and advanced machine learning and
transfer learning techniques. The rangeAccuracy
of the classification accuracy is between 0 and 100%.
91.79 96.46 98.26 98.41
100 87.87 84.81 90.03 90.34
81 Accuracy
72.24

(%) (%)
80 98.26 98.41
50.7 90.03 90.34 91.79 96.46
100
60 87.87 84.81
Accuracy 72.24
81
80
40
60
20 50.7
Accuracy

400
20
0

Model

Model
Figure 17. Testing accuracy of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
Figure 17. Testing accuracy of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
4.2. Precision
Figure 17. Testing accuracy of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
4.2. Precision Precision is defined as the ratio of correctly predicted values to the total predict
Precision is4.2. Precision
values.
definedFigure 18 represents
as the that the predicted
ratio of correctly proposed Conv-5
values DCNN modelpredicted
to the total achieved a precisi
value
values. Figure 18 of 0.94, that
Precision
represents much higher
is defined
the asthan
proposed the other
the ratio
Conv-5 techniques.
of correctly
DCNN predicted
model valuesa to
achieved the total predict
precision
values.
value of 0.94, much Figure
higher 18 represents
than that the proposed Conv-5 DCNN model achieved a precisi
the other techniques.
value of 0.94, much higher than the other techniques.
Precision
0.89 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94
1 0.84
0.8 0.73
0.81 Precision
0.8 0.82
0.94
Precision

1 0.51 0.89 0.88 0.9 0.92

0.6 0.81 0.8 0.82 0.84
0.8 0.73
0.4
Precision

0.6 0.51
0.2
0.40
0.2
0

Model
Figure 18. Precision value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
Model
Figure 18. Precision value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
4.3. Recall
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266
The 4.3.
recall is Recall
Figure
also 18. Precision
known value of alland
as sensitivity the advanced
is a ratioand proposed techniques.
of correctly predicted values to all 13 of
available values in a The recall is also known as sensitivity and is a ratio of correctly predicted values
particular individual class. Figure 19 represents the recall value of the
Conv-4 DCNN,4.3. all
and Recall
available values
the Conv-5 in a particular
DCNN individual class.
is more significant Figure
than all 19techniques.
other represents the recall value
the Conv-4 DCNN,
The recall and
is also the Conv-5
known DCNN and
as sensitivity is more
is a significant than allpredicted
ratio of correctly other technique
values
Recall individual class. Figure 19 represents the recall value
all available values in a particular
0.9979 0.9983 0.996 1 1
1 0.9896 the Conv-4 DCNN, and the Conv-5 DCNN is more significant than all other technique
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.9524 0.9535 0.9546 0.9566 0.9575
Recall

0.96
0.95
0.94
0.93
0.92

Model
Figure 19. Recall value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
Figure 19. Recall value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.

4.4. F1-Score
The F1 score is the most crucial performance metric and is defined as the weight
 Model
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 13 of 15
Figure 19. Recall value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.

4.4. F1-Score
4.4. F1-Score
The F1 score is the most crucial performance metric and is defined as the weight
The F1 score is the of
average most crucial
precision andperformance metric and
recall. The F1-Score is proposed
of the defined as the weighted
models and other advanc
average of precision and recall.
techniques The F1-Score
are shown in Figureof20.the
Theproposed
F1-score models and other
of the Conv-4 DCNN advanced
and Conv-5 DCN
is higher than other techniques.
techniques are shown in Figure 20. The F1-score of the Conv-4 DCNN and Conv-5 DCNN
is higher than other techniques.

F1-Score
0.935 0.917 0.928 0.959 0.97
1 0.837 0.894 0.87 0.882 0.894
0.8 0.67
F1-Score

0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Model
Figure 20. F1-Score value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
Figure 20. F1-Score value of all the advanced and proposed techniques.
Outcomes of all performance metrics show that the Conv-5 DCNN model produced
Outcomes
much higher performance thanof allother
the performance
proposed metrics
Conv-3show that the
DCNN, Conv-5
Conv-4 DCNNDCNN model produc
models,
muchtransfer
and state-of-the-art higher performance
learning and than the other
machine proposed
learning Conv-3 DCNN,
techniques. Conv-4 DCNN mo
The proposed
Conv-5 DCNN els, and achieved
model state-of-the-art transfer
superior learning
results usingand machine hyperparameters
optimized learning techniques.
and The propos
Conv-5 DCNN
an augmented dataset. model
Moreover, theachieved
proposed superior
Conv-5results
DCNN using optimized
model uses thehyperparameters
optimized and
augmented dataset. Moreover, the proposed Conv-5 DCNN model
number of convolutional layers for extracting the feature information from the dataset.uses the optimiz
number of convolutional layers for extracting the feature information from the dataset
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this research, a DCNN based approach was proposed to identify plant leaf diseases
from leaf images. This In this research,
model a DCNN based
can successfully approach
identify was proposed
26 different to identify
plant diseases plant leaf disea
through
leaf images. Five from leaf images. This
augmentation model can
techniques weresuccessfully identify 26
used to enhance thedifferent
datasetplant diseases throu
size from
55,448 to 234,000 leaf images.
images. TheFive augmentationtechniques
augmentation techniquesare
were used Style
Neural to enhance the(NST),
Transfer dataset size fr
Deep Convolutional55,448Generative
to 234,000 images. The augmentation
Adversarial techniques
Network (DCGAN), are Neural
Principal Style Transfer (NS
Component
Analysis (PCA), Color Augmentation, and Position Augmentation. The individual classCompon
Deep Convolutional Generative Adversarial Network (DCGAN), Principal
Analysis
size of the dataset (PCA),
was 6000 Color Augmentation,
original and augmented and Position
images. Augmentation.
Training The individual
of the most suc- cl
cessful Conv-5 DCNN model was completed with the use of an augmented dataset of
224,552 images and optimized hyperparameter values. The random search hyperparameter
tuning technique was used to optimize the value of the hyperparameters. The proposed
Conv-5 DCNN model achieved a classification accuracy of 98.41%, a precision value of
0.94, a recall value of 1.0, and an F1-Score of 0.97 using an augmented plant leaf image
dataset. The optimized hyperparameters and the data augmentation process had a more
considerable influence on the result. Compared with other proposed approaches and
advanced machine learning and transfer learning techniques, the proposed Conv-5 DCNN
model has superior classification performance. An extension of this study will add new
classes of plant diseases and an increasing number of training images to the dataset and
modify the architecture of the DCNN model.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.A.P. and K.K.; methodology, V.D.K.; software, J.A.P. and
K.K.; validation, R.G., M.J. and Z.L.; formal analysis, E.J.; investigation, J.A.P. and K.K.; resources,
V.D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, J.A.P., K.K. and V.D.K.; writing—review and editing, M.J.;
visualization, J.A.P. and K.K.; supervision, V.D.K., E.J., R.G. and Z.L.; funding acquisition, R.G. and
Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: SGS Grant from VSB—Technical University of Ostrava under grant number SP2022/21.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1266 14 of 15

References
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