Lab Oratorios

TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH EDITIONS
AN INTRODUCTION TO
Physical Science
Instructor’s Guide to accompany
© Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.
Laboratory Guide
Shipman, James
We have retained the author names as per purple Ohio University
sheet.
The affiliations are added for Shipman and Baker Wilson, Jerry
with reference to supplied title page.
Please provide affiliations for Wilson and Higgins.

Higgins, Charles
Prepared by
Shipman, James
Ohio University
Baker, Clyde
Ohio University
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CONTENTS
Experiments:
1 Graphs 1
2 Measurement 7
3 The Simple Pendulum 11
4 Uniform and Accelerated Motion 15
Determining g, the Acceleration of Gravity
5 19
6 Newton’s Second Law 23
7 Hooke’s Law for a Vibrating Spring 27
8 Centripetal Acceleration and Force 31
9 Laws of Equilibrium 33
10 Principle of Work Using an Inclined Plane and Pulleys 37
11 Waves 41
12 Interference of Light Waves 43
13 Plane Mirrors and Index of Refraction of Light 45
14 Mirrors, Lenses, and Prisms 49
15 The Refracting Telescope 53
16 Color 57
17 Static Electricity 63
18 Magnetism and Electromagnetism 67
19 Ohm’s Law 71
20 Electric Circuits 75
21 Electromagnetic Waves 85
22 Temperature 89
23 Specific Heat 91
24 Heat of Fusion 95
25 Heat of Vaporization of Water 99
26 Radiation 103
27 Spectroscopy 105
28 Density of Liquids and Solids 109
29 Oxygen 111
30 Percentage of Oxygen in Potassium Chlorate 113
31 Percentage of Oxygen and Nitrogen in the Air 115
32 An Exothermic Chemical Reaction 117
33 Avogadro’s Number 119
34 Molecular Structure 123
35 Solutions and Solubility 125
36 Pressure-Volume Relationship of Gases 127
37 Chemical Qualitative Analysis 131
38 Chemical Quantitative Analysis (Volumetric) 133
39 Kepler’s Law 135
40 Stars and Their Apparent Motions 139
41 Locating Stars in the Night Sky 143
42 Motions and Phases of the Moon 149
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43 Observing the Phases of the Moon 153
44 Hubble’s Law 159
45 Measuring the Radius of the Observable Universe 163
46 Air Pressure 171
47 Humidity 173
48 Weather Maps (Part 1) 175
49 Weather Maps (Part 2) 177
50 Topographic Maps 179
51 Minerals 181
52 Rocks 183
53 Rock-Forming Minerals 185
54 Igneous Rocks and Crystallization 187
55 Sedimentary Rocks 189
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Experiment 1
Graphs
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this experiment is to introduce students to graphing and how graphs are used to
illustrate relationships in science.
Some students will most likely be acquainted with graphs and how they are plotted, but for
others, this will be the first experience with graphs. Thus a few remarks are necessary. First, review
the major points in the introduction. Second, go through the guidelines for plotting a good graph.
Some students will need special help in choosing proper scales for the x and y axes. Many students
have trouble compiling a complete title for the graph. Stress guideline 4. Even though full-page
graphs are requested, a few students will still use only about one-fourth of the graph paper to plot the
data. Third, point out that ordered pairs of numbers obtained from an equation will produce a graph
where the plotted points will fall exactly on the curve connecting these points. This will not be the
case when actual data from a physical or chemical experiment are used as the basis for the plotting.
Remind students that mathematics is the language of science, and it must be learned and used
in laboratory experiments. The concepts of direct proportion, inverse proportion, functions, ratio, and
slope can become more familiar to the student through laboratory experience.
Stress the construction and labeling of good graphs. Remind students to compare their graphs
with the example in the Laboratory Guide. Do they have the axes properly labeled with correct units?
Have they given the graph a proper name? Have they shown the calculation for the slope and
recorded the units, if the slope has units? Have they included their name, date, and class in the lower-
right corner of the graph? Graphs may become separated from the experiment during the grading
process. Have they incorrectly used the upper and right margins of the graph for calculations? These
margins should be free of marks of any kind. If these details are not given proper attention in this first
experiment, many students will not produce good graphs in future experiments.
Samples of the three graphs required for this experiment are included in this manual and may
be copied and posted on the laboratory bulletin board for students’ reference.
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Explain how you determined the magnitude of the divisions for both the x and y axes in order
to plot a graph that utilizes the major portion of the graph paper.
Ans: The answer to this question will vary. The following is one method for choosing
convenient spacing. First, examine the data and determine the maximum values to be
plotted on each axis. Next, determine how many divisions are needed so that the
maximum value for each variable will fit on the graph. There are 10 divisions per
inch on each axis, so choose spacing that will make each division an even number.
This will make interpolation easier.
2. Distinguish between dependent and independent variables.
Ans: The independent variable produces a change in the dependent variable. The
dependent variable is, therefore, referred to as a function of the independent variable.
3. Name the dependent and independent variables in Procedure 2.

Ans: The area is the dependent variable. The radius is the independent variable.
4. What must be included in the title used on a graph?

Ans: The name of the graph that refers to the concepts plotted on the x and y axes plus the
subject to which they refer must be included.
5. How are the units for the slope of a graph determined?

Ans: The units for the slope are taken from the quantities plotted on the x and y axes.
Example: slope = rise/run so on the graph for Procedure 1 the units will be
distance/time or m/s.
6. Examine your graph for Procedure 1 and determine if the relationship between the
circumference and the diameter of a circle is a linear relationship? Justify your answer.
Ans: Yes, C = π d = 2π r , which is the equation for a straight line.
7. When the value for x increases faster than the values for y, which way (toward the y axis or
away from the y axis) will the graph curve?
Ans: The graph will curve away from the y axis.
8. State in your own words the relationship between the area of a circle and the radius2 for the
same circle. Use the graph plotted in Procedure 3 to help you formulate this answer.
Ans: The area of a circle is directly proportional to the radius squared, as shown on the
graph prepared in Procedure 3.
ADDITIONAL OR
ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS
1. How does the slope of the graph in Procedure 1 compare with the average value of C d ?
Ans: They are the same.
2
2. What shape of graph should be obtained in Procedure 2?
Ans: A parabola
3. What shape of graph should be obtained in Procedure 3?

Ans: A straight line
4. Does the slope of the graph in Procedure 1 have units? Why or why not?
Ans: No. The units of the x and y axis are the same. They cancel.
5. Which variable is increasing the fastest on the graph prepared in Procedure 2?

Ans: The area increases in magnitude fastest.
6. State the physical meaning that the origin (0, 0) represents on the graph drawn in
Procedure 2.
Ans: These are not measured points, but when the radius is zero, the area must also be
zero.
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Sample Graph for Procedure 1
4
Sample Graph for Procedure 2
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Radius (cm)
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Experiment 2
Measurement
INTRODUCTION
This experiment introduces students to the fundamental units of measurement (length, mass, and
time) and the techniques for taking measurements, plus an introduction to the concepts of least count,
significant figures, accuracy, precision, percent difference, and percent error. The experiment also
provides essential information for future laboratory experiments. Each student should be encouraged
to take an active, hands-on role in the measurement of all items provided in the experiment.
Some students have trouble in determining the least count of a measuring instrument as asked
for in Procedure 1a. To reduce the number of students’ questions, the least count of a typical meter
stick has been determined as an example.
The instructor should introduce the entire class to the use and care of the triple-beam balance
and briefly explain how the simple pendulum is to be supported and how its length should be
measured.
Students will be asked to calculate percent error and percent difference in future experiments.
The necessary equations are given in Appendix III of the Laboratory Guide.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Define least count, and then determine the least count of your (or someone else’s) wristwatch.
Ans: The least count is the smallest division marked on any measuring instrument. One
second is usually the least count of a wristwatch with a second hand.
2. Define measurement, and give an example.

Ans: Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity to a standard. Example: The
long dimension of a page of the Laboratory Guide is 27.7 cm, that us 27.7 times as
long as a standard centimeter.
3. Differentiate between accuracy and precision.

Ans: Accuracy refers to how well the experimental value agrees with the true or exact
value. Precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement, that is, to
the maximum possible variations in of the actual measurements taken. Both may be
expressed as a plus/minus correction value or as a percentage.
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4. Why should the experimenter avoid using the end of a meter stick when making a measurement?
Ans: The end of the meter stick is usually damaged and thus becomes unreliable as a
reference point.
5. Calculate the length in meters of a simple pendulum that has a period of 1.00 second?
T 2g (1.00 s )2 9.80 m s2
Ans: L= = = 0.248 m
4π 2 4 ( 3.14 )
2
6. Explain under what conditions you would use percentage error and when you would use
percentage difference. Why would you sometimes use both?
Ans: Percent error is defined as the ratio of the absolute difference between the
experimental and the accepted values to the accepted value, expressed as a
percentage. Percent difference is defined as the ratio of the absolute difference
between the experimental values to an average of the experimental values, expressed
as a percentage. Percent error is a measure of accuracy while percent difference
relates to precision, so both can tell something valuable about how well an
experiment has been done.
7. How can the accuracy of a measurement be increased?

Ans: Take more readings to make the average better and take more care in using the
measuring instruments to provide as many significant digits as possible in your data.
8. How can precision of a measuring instrument be increased?

Ans: One way to do this is to increase the number of calibrated subdivisions (the least
count) that are marked on the measuring instrument or you might choose a better type
of measuring instrument all together. Example: Use a vernier caliper instead of a
meter stick.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. How can the meter stick be used to measure the thickness of a single sheet of the Laboratory
Guide.
Ans: Measure the thickness of several pages (100 or more) at one time; then divide by the
number of pages measured.
2. Why are several observations or trials taken for each measurement?

Ans: Several trials are taken to improve the accuracy of the measurement by providing a
more representative average value.
3. Explain the relationship between the terms significant figure and significant digit.
Ans: A significant figure is the entire number that contains all known significant digits
(individual integers) plus one doubtful digit.
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4. When performing arithmetical operations using significant figures, how many significant
digits can there be in a final answer that is obtained by multiplying or dividing the original
recorded data?
Ans: The final computed answer can contain no more significant digits than the number of
significant digits in the original measurement with the least number of significant
digits.
5. In what way does the Heisenberg uncertainty principle limit our ability to measure exactly?
Ans: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is a limit on measurement accuracy that is
philosophically significant, but it is of practical importance only when dealing with
measurements made on atomic or subatomic size particles. As long as the size of the
object being measured is relatively large, this effect will be very, very small and can
be neglected. Refer to the textbook, Section 9.5, for more details.
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Experiment 3
The Simple Pendulum

INTRODUCTION
The simple pendulum was introduced in Experiment 2. This experiment offers a more extensive study
of the pendulum, plus an additional study of nonlinear graphing. The pendulum used should be as
long as possible for the first measurement. It is sometimes convenient to set up one very long-length
pendulum for the entire class and then let one student group collect data and write them on the
blackboard for all to copy. Also, if time is a factor, each student can collect data for one length of the
pendulum and share that data with the others.
The instructor must impress on students that the values for the pendulum’s length be made
exactly one-half the value of the preceding length. This procedure allows students to see from the
collected data that a pendulum with a length four times as long as another will have a period twice
that of the shorter length pendulum. Tell students that when they start the pendulum swinging, they
should not start the timing device when they let go of the pendulum bob. Allow the pendulum to
swing through a few cycles before starting the timing device to allow for variations in the way the
bob is released.
For good results in the calculations, the period must be measured to the nearest 1/10 s. If
possible, measure the period to the nearest 1/100 s. Remember that the period is squared in the
pendulum equation so accurate measurements are very important.
L
T = 2π Eq. 3.1
g
The first graph (period versus length) shows a nonlinear relationship as shown in the above
equation (Eq. 3.1). The graph can be extrapolated through the origin, since a length of zero would
have a period of zero. The second graph (period2 versus length) shows an increasing linear
relationship that indicates period2 is directly proportional to the length. The slope should be
approximately 0.04 s2 cm . This graph also can be extrapolated through the origin.
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Some instructors put the equation (part of an infinite series)
L FG1 θ 9 θ IJ
T = 2π
g H
1 + sin 2 + sin 4 +!
4 2 64 2 K
on the chalkboard and indicate that Eq. 3.1 is only accurate for very small angles. The experimental
value for the period in Procedure 3 should be slightly greater than that obtained in Procedure 1. The
students may obtain a slightly greater value if they are timing to 1/100 s and are extremely careful in
determining the time of 10 cycles.
The following are theoretical calculations for the period and period2 for Data Tables 3.1 and
3.2 using Eq. 3.1. The theoretical data will be the same for both tables, since the period of a simple
pendulum is not a function of the mass of the bob. If the student is careful in determining the time for
10 cycles, the experimental data should vary by not more than 5 percent from these values. The data
for Table 3.3 may show slightly larger values for the period. See the answer to Question 5 below.
DATA TABLE 3.1

(Theoretical Calculated Values using Eq. 3.1)
Length Period Period2
160 m 2.54 s 6.45 s2
80 m 1.79 s 3.20 s2
40 m 1.27 s 1.61 s2
20 m 0.90 s 0.81 s2
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Why do you think you were asked to complete more cycles in Procedure 1, Step 3, if the total
time was less than 10 seconds for 10 cycles?
Ans: More cycles were completed to increase the accuracy of the data.
2. What type of graph (straight line, parabola, hyperbola) was obtained in Procedure 1, Step 5?
Ans: The plot of the period of a simple pendulum versus the length will yield a parabola.
3. Which variable (period or length) does the graph show to be increasing the fastest? (Note: If
they were increasing at the same rate, the graph would be a straight line.)
Ans: The value of the length increases faster than the value of the period as shown because
the graph curves toward the length axis.
4. What type of graph was obtained in Procedure 1, Step 6?

Ans: A straight line is obtained when period squared is plotted as a function of length.
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5. State how the period of the simple pendulum varied experimentally with the (a) length of the
pendulum, (b) length of arc (displacement of the bob), and (c) mass of the bob.
Ans: (a) The period increases proportionally as the square root of the length increases.
(b) The period increases slightly as the displacement angle increases. The first-
order approximation explaining this is
L FG1 θ IJ
where theta (θ ) is the displacement angle.
T = 2π
g H
1 + sin 2
4 2 K
(c) Theoretically, the period is independent of mass but if the length of the
pendulum is not measured correctly and with great accuracy this may not be
obvious from the data taken.
6. A simple pendulum has a length L and a period T. If the length is increased to 4L, how will be
the new period be affected? Refer to data tables for the answer.
Ans: The new period will be 2T, that is it will take twice as long for each swing.
7. Using Equation 3.1, calculate the period of your pendulum for a length of 160 cm or for the
maximum length you used. How does this compare with your experimental value? Calculate
the percent error. Use the calculated value of the period as the standard value.
Ans: When L = 160 cm, T = 2.54 s. How well this compares to your experimental value
will depend on how carefully you did your work and the percent error will show that.
8. Assuming the length remains the same, calculate the period of the same simple pendulum on
the surface of the Moon? [Note: The acceleration (g) due to gravity on the Moon is one-sixth
of that on Earth.]
Ans: The period would be greater, because the value of g on the moon is less. Eq. 3.1
shows that if g = 163 cm s2 , the period on the moon would be 6.22 s.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Calculate the period of a pendulum with a length of 1.00 m when placed on the surface of the
moon. The acceleration (g) due to gravity on the moon is 1/6 the value on Earth.
L 100 cm
Ans: T = 2π = 2 × 314
. 980 cm
= 4.92 s
g 6
2. What would be the period of your simple pendulum located in a spacecraft that is orbiting
Earth?
Ans: Because g is zero, the period is zero, the pendulum would not swing back and forth at
all.
3. The period of a simple pendulum depends primarily on (a)

and (b) .
Ans: (a) length
(b) acceleration due to gravity
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4. Is it feasible to use the physical properties of a simple pendulum to designate the standard
values for any of the fundamental quantities? Justify your answer.
Ans: Yes, length and time could be designated with a pendulum but mass could not. The
simple pendulum equation does not include mass.
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Experiment 4
Uniform and
Accelerated Motion
INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this experiment and Experiment 5 are to introduce the concepts of distance,
displacement, velocity, and acceleration for straight-line motion and to use graphing techniques to
analyze the relationships between these concepts.
A linear air track is used to study these concepts, but should one be unavailable, a 2 in × 6 in
× 10 ft long, straight wood plank with a V-groove cut the full length of the 2-in side plus a 3/4-in-
diameter steel ball will be satisfactory for obtaining the data.
Briefly explain and give examples of the difference between distance traveled and
displacement before Procedure 1 is started. Indicate that the distance traveled and the displacement
are the same in this experiment since it is one dimensional motion. Students will need one or more
practice trials to acquaint themselves with taking time measurements. They must obtain the data
during one run of the glider or steel ball since the track or board is level during this procedure.
In this experiment, Procedure 1 data are a function of how much force is applied to start the
glider or ball. Procedure 2 data are a function of the adjusted air track angle. Because the data may
vary, no sample data are provided for the experiment. Also, air tracks come in different lengths, and
the distances to use in Data Tables 4.1 and 4.2 must be chosen by the instructor accordingly. Write
the distances to be used on the blackboard if they will not be the same as those suggested in the
laboratory guide.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Define velocity, and give an example.

Ans: Velocity is the time rate of change of displacement. Ex: a car is traveling north at
60 km/h.
2. Define acceleration, and give an example.

Ans: Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity. Ex: a ball falls with an
acceleration of 9.8 m s2 when released near the surface of the Earth.
3. How does the distance traveled vary with time in uniform linear motion? (Hint: Examine
Eq. 4.1 in the Laboratory Guide.)
Ans: The distance traveled is directly proportional to the time.
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4. How does the distance traveled vary with time in uniform accelerated motion? (Hint: Solve
Eq. 4.3 in the Laboratory Guide for d.)
Ans: The distance traveled is proportional to the time squared. This is not a linear
relationship so a straight line will not be obtained is d is plotted as a function of t.
5. In Procedure 1, what is the relationship between the velocity and the slope of the curve?
(Hint: What are the units for the slope on the graph that you plotted?)
Ans: The slope of this curve is exactly equal to the velocity in both magnitude and units.
6. In Procedure 2, what is the relationship between the acceleration and the slope of the curve?
(Hint: How does Eq. 4.2 in the Laboratory Guide for acceleration compare with the equation
given for slope?)
Ans: The slope of this curve is exactly equal to the acceleration.
7. What kinematic quantity is indicated by the speedometer of an automobile?

Ans: Instantaneous speed.
8. Give an example of an object having a velocity but no acceleration.

Ans: The glider in motion on the air track in Procedure 1. Any object moving in a straight
line at a constant speed.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Define instantaneous velocity.

Ans: At a given instant the ratio of displacement to time is called instantaneous velocity.
2. What do we mean by uniform linear motion?

Ans: If the ratio of displacement to time remains constant, the motion is uniform as long as
the motion is also in a straight line.
3. A car starting from rest reaches a velocity of 80 km/h in 10 s.

(a) Calculate the average velocity of the car.
(b) How many meters did the car travel in 10 s?
v f + v0 80 km h + 0
Ans: (a) v= = = 40 km h
2 2
40 km 10 s 40 km 1 h/ 10 s
(b) d = vt = × = × × = 0110
. km = 110 m
h 1 h/ 3600 s 1
4. Calculate the average acceleration of an automobile that attains a velocity of 60 mi/h in 10 s

starting from rest.
v f − v0 60 mi h 88 ft s
Ans: a= = = = 8.8 ft s 2
t 10 s 10 s
(Here we use the fact that 60 mi h = 88 ft s )
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5. Is it possible for an object to have an acceleration of zero and a numerical value for velocity?
Justify your answer with an example.
Ans: Yes, an object moving in a straight line at constant speed will have zero acceleration.
6. Is it possible for an object to have a velocity of zero and a numerical value for acceleration?
Justify your answer with an example.
Ans: Yes, a ball thrown upward at its maximum height will have an instantaneous velocity
of zero but will still have an acceleration (due to gravity) of 980 cm s2 .
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Experiment 5
Determining g, the
Acceleration of Gravity
INTRODUCTION
This experiment is a continuation of Experiment 4. The objectives are similar, and the same apparatus
is used to obtain the data.
Show students that the acceleration of gravity is difficult to obtain with a free-falling object
because the time of drop is so short that it is difficult to measure. Hold a golf, tennis, or other small
ball or object 1 m above the laboratory floor and ask the students to guess or measure the time of fall.
They will give a variety of answers. Next, point out how the inclined plane slows down the motion so
that more accurate measurements can be made.
Most, but not all, students will have read the introduction to the experiment and understand
the derivation of Eq. 5.2 in the Laboratory Guide. Therefore, the instructor may wish to derive Eq. 5.2
on the chalkboard so that all will see the reasons for the measurement of distance and time. Students
should now be plotting very good graphs. If not, toughen the grading. Require students who turn in
poor graphs to turn in new graphs at the next laboratory period. This makes more work for the
instructor, but the student soon gets the point.
The following data are typical for this experiment when the time is measured to 0.01 s. The
data are for a height of the incline of 30 cm and a length of 300 cm. With this elevation, the angle θ
will be approximately 6°.
Distance Average
Traveled Time
(d), cm (t), s
50 1.01
100 1.43
150 1.75
200 2.02
250 2.26
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. What do you think is the greatest source of error in this experiment? Justify your answer.
Ans: The greatest source of error is in determining the times to travel the various distances
because of the number of different students taking measurements and the human
errors made by each due to their reaction times in starting and stopping the clock.
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2. What kinematic concept (distance, velocity, acceleration, etc.) of the moving object does the
slope of the graph represent?
Ans: The slope of the graph is equal to the acceleration.
3. Calculate the slope of the “distance vs time squared” graph on the graph page itself. How does
the value compare to the value for the acceleration found in calculation 2?
Ans: The value of g will be greater than the value obtained in the experiment. The
acceleration a in Eq. 5.2 in the Laboratory Guide will be greater because the value d
will be greater if an initial velocity is given to the glider.
4. If the initial velocity of the glider or ball was not zero, how would your experimental value of
g compare with the value you obtained by assuming the initial velocity was zero? For
instance, suppose you accidentally gave the object a slight shove down the incline at the
starting point. Would your calculated value for g be larger or smaller?
Ans: Since we are assuming the initial velocity to be zero in our method of calculation,
any initial velocity of the glider or ball down the track would lead to a lower value
for the acceleration calculated in this way.
5. What would be the value of the acceleration when θ (theta) in Fig. 5.2 in the Laboratory
Guide is increased to 90°? (Draw a small sketch to help you visualize this.)
Ans: 980 cm s2 , the glider (or ball) would act just as if it were in freefall.
6. Is the acceleration due to gravity always pointing vertically downward even for an object
whose velocity is vertically upward? Explain your answer.
Ans: Yes. The force of gravity is always acting vertically downward, and the acceleration
is always in the direction of the unbalanced force.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Why does a small error in t produce a greater error in determining g than a small error in d?
Ans: The values of t are squared, whereas in calculating g the values of d are not.
2. How would an increase in friction between the glider and the air track affect the calculated
value of g?
Ans: The value of g would be less, because the ratio of d to t would be less, producing a
lower value for the acceleration measured and thus a lower experimental value for g.
3. Calculate the acceleration down your incline if it were placed on the surface of the moon. The
acceleration due to gravity on the moon is one-sixth that on Earth.
Ans: Using the example values for h and L, h = 30 cm and L = 300 cm
980 × 30 cm
gh
a= = 6
= 16.3 cm s 2 .
L 300 cm
20
4. The force of gravity on an object of mass m is given by the following:
GmM E
F= = mg
bR E +h g 2
where M E and RE are the mass and radius of Earth, respectively. How far from Earth must
the mass m be positioned for F to equal zero?
Ans: The value of F will never go to zero but it approaches zero as RE + h approaches b g
infinity.
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Experiment 6
Newton’s Second Law

INTRODUCTION
The relationship among mass, acceleration, and unbalanced force is basic to the understanding of
physical science, and this experiment provides students with a method for grasping the meaning of
these relationships. They learn firsthand that F in the equation F = ma is the unbalanced or net force,
that m is the total mass being moved by the unbalanced force, and that a is the acceleration of the total
mass in the direction of the unbalanced force.
For a good comparison of results between the two values of acceleration obtained from the
data taken in the experiment, use a precision ball-bearing pulley (Cenco 75655 or equivalent), and
make sure that it is mounted and rotates in a true vertical plane. This reduces frictional forces to a
minimum. Also, all masses should be checked on a balance because the values marked on them may
be incorrect. A small error in one of the masses can produce a large error in the value of the
unbalanced force.
The problems caused by the string bouncing out of the pulley groove and the masses falling
down when the downward moving mass hits the floor (especially when students use excessive mass
for the rider) can be solved by using a different apparatus obtainable at little or no cost. Take two
aluminum soft drink cans and remove the top lids. Put two small holes opposite each other in the
sides of the cans near the open top, through which the string can be attached. Place a small amount of
soft sponge in the bottom of each can. After the total mass of each can plus the sponge is determined
with a balance, the cans may be used to carry any available masses in the laboratory.
The following data were obtained using paired 500-g and 1000-g brass masses. Slotted
masses, which were placed on top of m1 and/or m2 , were used as riders. The same string was used
for obtaining all data. Only the average times are given in the following tables. The distance (d) can
be adjusted for any chosen value by varying the height of the pulley above the floor. A drop distance
of at least 1 m is recommended in order to obtain good time measurements.
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SAMPLE DATA AND CALCULATIONS:
DATA TABLE 6.1

Trial 1 Trial 2
Distance (d) 1.20 m 1.23 m
Unbalanced force (F), in N 0.020 × g* 0.020 × g*
Total mass (M) 2.020 kg 1.020 kg
Average time (t) 5.06 s 3.69 s
2
* The acceleration due to gravity, 9.80 m s .
DATA TABLE 6.2

Trial 1 Trial 2
Acceleration from measurements of distance and time 0.0937 m s2 0.181 m s2
Acceleration from Newton’s second law 0.0970 m s2 0.192 m s2
Percent difference 3.46% 5.90%
DATA TABLE 6.3

Trial 1 Trial 2
Distance (d) 1.20 m 1.20 m
Unbalanced force (F), in N 0.040 × g* 0.020 × g*
Total mass (M) 2.040 kg 2.020 kg
Average time (t) 3.54 s 5.06 s
2
* The acceleration due to gravity, 9.80 m s .
DATA TABLE 6.4

Trial 1 Trial 2
Acceleration from measurements of distance and time 0.192 m s2 0.0937 m s2
Acceleration from Newton’s second law 0.194 m s2 0.0970 m s2
Percent difference 1.04% 3.46%
24
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. What have the data and calculations shown concerning the acceleration, first, as a function of
the mass when the unbalanced mass is held constant, and second, as a function of the
unbalanced force when the total mass is held constant? Answer this by completing the
following two statements:
(a) When the total mass that is accelerating increases (the unbalanced force is held
constant), the acceleration will __________________________________________ .
(b) When the unbalanced force increases (the total mass is held constant), the acceleration
will _______________________________________________________________ .
Ans: (a) decrease (b) increase
2. Distinguish between mass and weight, i.e., define both and explain the difference.
Ans: Mass is a quantity of matter and a measurement of the amount of inertia that an
object possesses. Weight is the force of gravity exerted on any object near Earth’s
surface.
3. Should the mass of the string be added to the total mass being moved by the unbalanced
force? Why or why not?
Ans: Yes, because the string is part of the total mass being moved by the unbalanced force
but if a light string is used it can usually be neglected.
4. Since it was the addition of m3 to the system that produces the unbalanced force on the
system in Procedure 1, why is the unbalanced force in Procedure 2 equal to g m2 + m3 − m1 b g
instead of simply m3 g ?
Ans: m1 and m2 are supposed to be the same value, but this is not always true. There may
be a slight difference from the values stamped on them.
5. Explain where at least three (3) possible sources of error could have occurred in this experiment.
Ans: Possible sources of error are: inaccurate time measurements, having m1 and m2 not
exactly equal to each other, poor measurements of the height (d), friction in the
pulley system, badly calibrated riders, or string heavy enough to effect the results.
6. Which of the sources of error that you cited in question 5 do you think most affected your
experiment? Why?
Ans: The greatest possible source of error is probably in the measurement of the time
because of problems in determining the moment of starting the timer and the exact
moment the mass hits the floor. Also individual reaction times usually cause rather
large errors.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. How would the data be influenced by an increase of friction in the pulley?

Ans: All measured accelerations would have lower values.
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2. In the experiment, m1 and m2 have the same value. How would the data change if m1 and
m2 were slightly different in value?
Ans: The values for the unbalanced force would be slightly more or less. These values
would not be known to the observer, and the data collected would be inaccurate.
3. The unbalanced force acting on an object is zero. What is the direction and magnitude of the
object’s velocity and acceleration?
Ans: The velocity may be zero, or the velocity may have any direction and magnitude, but
the velocity must be constant. The acceleration must be zero.
4. The unbalanced force on an object is zero. Does this imply that the object is at rest?
Ans: No, the object may be at rest or in uniform motion, it just must have an acceleration
equal to zero.
26
Experiment 7
Hooke’s Law for a

Vibrating Spring
INTRODUCTION
Elasticity is a physical property of a material that exhibits a change in shape by the application of an
external force and then returns to its original shape when the external force is removed. Elasticity is
apparent in many solids used every day, from rubber bands and springs to railroad rails.
The proportionality between force and change in shape is known as Hooke’s law. We use the
term law here, but the relationship stated is an empirical observation, not a law in the strictest sense.
A vibrating mass executes simple harmonic motion (SHM) when the restoring force is at all
times proportional to the displacement. A good example of a system undergoing SHM is a mass on a
vibrating spring. In this case, the key to interpreting the motion is Hooke’s law. The law can be stated
in equation form as F = − k x where the minus sign indicates that x and F are in opposite directions.
The period of a vibrating spring is given by the equation
M
T = 2π
k
The common factor here is the spring constant k, whose value is first determined experimentally
using Hooke’s law and then inserted into the equation for the period of vibration. The period can then
be compared with the actual vibration period when this quantity is measured using a simple clock or
stopwatch. Since it is difficult to measure the period of a single vibration, the student should measure
the time for 20 oscillations and divide by 20 to get the period of the vibrating system. This method
should allow for at least three significant figures to be carried through the calculations on this
experiment. If time is pressing, the number of repetitions in each timing run can be reduced to 10 or
even 5, but the accuracy of the calculations will decrease accordingly.
EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURAL TIPS
1. Springs can be found in most local hardware stores. Conventional “jolly balance” springs can
be used if they are already available, but they can be easily stretched out of shape if too much
weight is added by the beginning student, and they are quite expensive. If you buy springs
locally, take along a 100-g mass and a ruler, and choose a style that allows about 2 to 3 cm of
elongation when the 100-g mass is hung from it. Such a spring should cost from $2.00 to
$3.00 each.
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2. Have students take all height measurements from the same point at or near the bottom of the
hanging spring. If the bottom of the suspended mass is used, its position may vary when
different masses (of different sizes) are hung from the spring. This will, of course, not be a
problem if a long 50-g weight hanger is used and all masses are placed on top of its weight
platform.
3. Time measurements are very important and should be taken with as much accuracy as your
clock or stopwatch allows. It is possible to use a standard sweep second-hand on a watch to
make the time measurements, but more vibration cycles may need to be counted, especially at
low mass loads.
4. Make sure that students count the correct number of complete oscillations. When the timing
cycle is begun, they should say “start” and then “one, two,” etc. after each successive
vibration. If they begin the timing on the count of “one” and count to “twenty,” they will have
timed only 19 actual oscillations.
5. The support stand and clamp must be fairly rigid. If they rock or bend while the spring
system is oscillating, the experimental results will not be accurate.
The data in the following tables are for a spring purchased at a local hardware store.
DATA TABLE 7.1 (Record units with all data values.)

Starting height h0 = ___________
Total Mass Height Above Force F
on Spring the Table X = h0 − h F = mg k=
Trial m h X
1 0.100 kg 0.654 m 0.043 m 0.980 N 22.6 N m
2 0.200 kg 0.610 m 0.087 m 1.96 N 22.5 N m
3 0.300 kg 0.575 m 0.132 m 2.94 N 22.3 N m
4 0.400 kg 0.526 m 0.171 m 3.92 N 22.9 N m
5 0.500 kg 0.481 m 0.216 m 4.90 N 22.7 N m
6 0.600 kg 0.436 m 0.261 m 5.88 N 22.5 N m
Average value of k for all six trials 22.6 N m
Note: The incremental mass is 0.100 kg, and the starting height h0 = 0.697 m . The spring mass =
0.0295 kg.
28
DATA TABLE 7.2 (Record units with all data values.)
Effective Theoretical Measured Experimental Percent Error in
Mass (M) of Period (T) Time (t) for 20 Period, Time Experimental
Spring and M Oscillations for 1 Vibration Compared to
Hanging T = 2π t Theoretical
k T=
Trial Number Mass 20 Periods
1 0.110 kg 0.438 s 09.10 s 0.455 s 3.9%
2 0.210 kg 0.605 s 12.80 s 0.640 s 5.7%

3 0.310 kg 0.736 s 15.70 s 0.785 s 6.7%
4 0.410 kg 0.846 s 17.90 s 0.895 s 4.9%
5 0.510 kg 0.943 s 20.2 0s 1.010 s 7.1%
6 0.610 kg 1.030 s 21.80 s 1.090 s 5.8%
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. b g
Why must you use the same reference point h0 on the spring for each subsequent height
measurement?
Ans: The reference point for measuring the height above the table must be chosen in such
a way that elongation of the spring is the variable that is consistently measured. This
measurement may not be consistent if the masses vary in size or if the bottoms of the
masses are used as the height reference point.
2. Why did you use the average value for k from Data Table 7.1 rather than one of the individual
trial values?
Ans: When any data are taken, the average value of several measurements is a better
indication of that measurement than any single value that was taken.
3. Do a calculation of the theoretical value of the period for the oscillating mass for Trial 4
without correcting the effective mass by adding one-third of the mass of the spring. Again
determine the percentage error between the experimental and theoretical values of the period
of oscillation. Do you agree that the effective mass must be corrected in this way to obtain
good results?
M
Ans: T = 2π
k
If M = 0.400 kg instead of the corrected value of 0.410 kg,
T = 2π
0.400 kg
22.6 N m b g
= 2 314
. 0.0177 s2
T = 6.28 0133
. b g
= 0.835 s
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0.846 s − 0.835 s
The error introduced is × 100 = 13%
.
0.846 s
In this case the correction is quite small, but it should be made anyway. For the
0.100-kg mass case (Trial 1), the error is about 4.6 percent, and using the corrected
mass is much more important.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is simple harmonic motion?
Ans: Simple harmonic motion is a vibration caused by a force that follows Hooke’s law. It
is motion in which the acceleration is directed toward the center of the motion and is
directly proportional to the displacement from its equilibrium position.
2. Explain two methods that could be used to find the spring constant of a spring
experimentally.
Ans: (a) Measure the elongation caused by hanging various masses from the spring,
and use Hooke’s law to calculate k.
(b) Measure the period of oscillation for a vibrating mass hung on the spring,
and find k from the equation for the period of a simple harmonic oscillator.
3. How is the mass hung on the spring related to the force that actually stretches the spring?
Ans: The force that Earth exerts on the hanging mass is called weight. The weight of the
mass is the actual force that stretches the spring. Weight = mg, where g is the
acceleration of gravity, 9.8 m s2 .
4. Why must you be careful in how you start the timing when you measure the time increments
for multiple oscillations of a vibrating system?
Ans: If you begin the timing on the count of “one” and count to “twenty,” you will have
timed only 19 actual oscillations.
5. What would happen if you hung so much mass on the spring that it exceeded the spring’s
elastic limit?
Ans: The spring would stretch out of shape and become permanently deformed, making it
unsuitable for further use.
30
Experiment 8
Centripetal Acceleration
and Force
INTRODUCTION
A unique feature in this experiment is the apparatus. This experiment is completed in many
laboratories with a centripetal force apparatus costing hundreds of dollars. Here the apparatus is
constructed from low-cost materials found in most laboratories and shops. The crossbar attached to
the rotating rod should be of equal length on each side of the rotating rod to counterbalance the
rotating system. Two students should work together when data are taken. One student will pull the
string to produce the rotation, while the second student will obtain the time for 20 or more
revolutions. There should be a minimum of 10 s for the number of revolutions counted.
A couple of graphs can be included in this experiment. They have been omitted here because
students are often tired of plotting graphs by the time this experiment is assigned. The two alternative
or additional questions can be asked in place of graphing. The two graphs are (1) Fc versus v and (2)
Fc versus v2.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Assume that the string breaks while the mass (m) was in uniform circular motion. If the
spring is also suddenly unhooked from the mass at the same instant that the string breaks,
what will happen to the mass?
Ans: The mass would fly off tangent to the circle of rotation at the instant the spring
becomes unfastened.
2. How did Fc change when you redid the experiment using the larger mass? Did you expect
this? Why or why not?
Ans: The centripetal force increases with an increase in mass. This is expected, because
the centripetal force is directly proportional to the mass as shown in Eq. 8.2 in the
Laboratory Guide.
3. Why must the string held in the student’s hand be pulled at a uniform rate?
Ans: For the mass on the plumb bob to pass directly above the masking tape marker on
each rotation its angular velocity must be constant and this can only happen if the
string is pulled at a uniform rate.
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4. Calculate the centripetal acceleration for each of the two trials.
Ans: This answer will of course vary with each experimental setup so no exact answers are
given here. Use Eq. 8.2 to make these calculations.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What type of graph would be obtained when the centripetal force is plotted on the y axis and
the velocity is plotted on the x axis?
Ans: A parabola
2. What type of graph would be obtained when the centripetal force is plotted on the y axis and
the velocity squared is plotted on the x axis?
Ans: A straight line
3. Is it possible for an object to have nonzero acceleration but still have the magnitude of its
velocity be zero?
Ans: Yes, an object moving in a circle at constant speed is still changing its direction of
travel and thus has a centripetal acceleration.
32
Experiment 9
Laws of Equilibrium
INTRODUCTION
Statics is the study of objects undergoing zero acceleration under the action of two or more forces.
When this is true, the object is in equilibrium. This experiment is a study of static equilibrium.
Procedure 1 studies the conditions of equilibrium of concurrent coplaner forces. Procedure 2
studies non-current coplaner forces. The experiment provides students with a direct method for
observing torques and the rotations they can produce before the system is brought into equilibrium.
Using the moment-of-force apparatus, students observe and measure the acting forces and moment
arms. The instructor should give a brief lecture on parallel forces, introducing the concept of
equilibrant force. When two parallel forces are placed in equilibrium by a third force, applied in the
experiment with the moment-of-force apparatus at the center of gravity, the clockwise and
counterclockwise torques are equal. From this, students should learn that the two forces are inversely
proportional to the lengths of the moment arms. The following three tables give typical data for the
experiment.
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DATA TABLE 9.1
Mass of the bar 0.1195 kg
Point of balance of the bar 0.502 m (Should be near the 50 cm point)
Clockwise Counter-clockwise Percent
Force Lever Arm Torque Torque Difference in
Part (N) (m) (N m) (N m) Torques
1 0.98 0.202 — –0.198
0.5%
0.49 0.406 +0.199 —
2 0.98 0.400 — –0.392
1.02%
1.96 0.202 +0.396 —
3 0.98 0.400 — –0.392
0.49 0.200 — –0.098 0%
1.96 0.250 +0.490 —
*Note: Table in Laboratory Guide is incorrect because it does not have enough horizontal rows. Have
students add rows or make up new table.
DATA TABLE 9.2

Center of Torques at Zero End of Bar
Lever Arm Counter-clockwise Clockwise
Up Forces Down Forces of Force Torques Torques
Symbol (N) (N) (m) (N m) (N m)
FA +2.40 — 0.18 –0.43 —
FB +1.90 — 0.82 –1.56 —
F1 — –1.00 0.06 — +0.06
F2 — –2.00 0.64 — +1.28
Fm — –1.46 0.50 — +0.73
Sum +4.30 –4.46 –1.99 +2.07
34
DATA TABLE 9.3
Center of Torques at Zero End of Bar
Lever Arm Counter-clockwise Clockwise
Up Forces Down Forces of Force Torques Torques
Symbol (N) (N) (m) (N m) (N m)
FA 5.80 — 0.26 — +1.51
FB 3.60 — 0.66 — +2.38
F1 — 4.90 0.19 –0.93 —

FX — FX* 0.84 0.84 FX —
Fm — 1.20 0.50 –0.60 —
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Explain the difference between force and torque.

Ans: A force is any quantity capable of producing motion. A torque is a force times the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation that
is capable of producing angular motion.
2. State the two laws of equilibrium.

Ans: An object is in equilibrium when (1) the sum of all forces acting on the object is zero
and (2) the sum of all torques acting on the object is zero.
3. How does the fact that the center of gravity of the meter stick, when it is balanced, may not
be exactly at the 50-cm point affect your measurements?
Ans: All length measurements will not be correct unless a correction is made. This, in turn,
will give inaccurately calculated torques if the correction is not properly made.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. When equilibrium was established in Procedure 1, Part 1, what was the relationship between
the two forces and the length of their lever arms?
Ans: They were each inversely proportional to one another.
2. Is it possible for a moving object to be in equilibrium?

Ans: Yes. If the sum of all forces and torques add to zero, the object will be in equilibrium
even though it may be moving at a constant velocity.
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3. How do you determine if a particular torque should be considered + (positive) or –
(negative)?
Ans: By convention a torque that could produce a counter-clockwise rotation is +
(positive), a torque that could produce a clockwise rotation is – (negative).
4. In this experiment which forces are considered + (positive) and which are – (negative)?
Ans: Since all relevant forces are in the y-plane, by convention all upward forces are +
(positive) and all downward forces are – (negative).
36
Experiment 10
Principle of Work Using an

Inclined Plane and Pulleys
INTRODUCTION
The principle of energy conservation states that the energy of an isolated system remains the same
while forces, velocities, and other physical constants change. Energy and work are measured in the
same units. In fact, energy is defined as the ability or capability of a body to do work. We define work
done by a constant force to be equal to the component of the force parallel to the displacement times
the displacement.
The inclined plane and pulley are machines used in this experiment to study the principle of
work. Before beginning the experiment, the instructor should emphasize that a machine is a force
changer that multiplies forces at the expense of displacement but does not multiply work. Stress that
(1) the work out is always less than the work in, (2) the ratio of the output (work) to the input (work)
gives the efficiency of the machine, and (3) this ratio is always less than unity.
The following tables give typical data for the experiment.
DATA TABLE 10.1 Note: Weight = mass × g

W F D H
Weight of (from Percent
Car and spring Difference
Added balance) Between
load Applied Actual Theoretical Actual and
Angle of (if any) Force F W D Theoretical
Plane (N) (N) M.A. = (m) (m) M.A. = M.A.
F H
25° 3.72 0.98 3.80 0.25 m 0.065 m 4.98 27%
25° 7.63 1.96 3.89 0.25 m 0.065 m 4.98 25%
45° 3.72 2.20 1.69 0.25 m 0.130 m 1.92 13%
45° 7.62 4.66 1.64 0.25 m 0.130 m 1.92 16%
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DATA TABLE 10.2
Percent
Load Force Actual D H Theoretical Difference
L F L (D2 – D1) (H2 – H1) D Between
M.A. = M.A. =
(N) (N) F (m) (m) H Actual and
Theoretical
M.A.
7 strands 9.8 1.5 6.53 0.28 0.04 7.00 06.9%
5 strands 9.8 2.2 4.45 0.30 0.06 5.17 15%
EFFICIENCY OF MACHINES
The following are the calculated efficiencies of these machines.
Inclined plane 15° (Trial 1) % Efficiency = 76.3%

7-String pulley system % Efficiency = 93.3%
5-String pulley system % Efficiency = 86.1%
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Define work in terms of applied force and distance.

Ans: The work done by a constant force acting on an object is the product of the
magnitude of the force (or component of force) and the parallel distance through
which the object moves while the force is applied.
2. Why must the spring balance be moving slowly at a constant speed when the applied force is
measured?
Ans: The applied force must not vary in value and the acceleration must be zero, so the
speed must be constant.
3. Distinguish between TMA and AMA.

Ans: TMA is the ratio of the distance the input force moves to the distance the output force
moves. AMA is the ratio of the output force to the input force of any machine.
4. Is the TMA always greater than the AMA for a machine? Explain.
Ans: TMA is always greater than AMA because friction is always present and must be
overcome by the input force, although this effect may be so small that it is difficult to
detect, especially at slow speeds.
38
5. Define efficiency. Give an example.
Ans: Efficiency is the ratio of the work output to the work input. Example: The work input
to a machine is 50 N ⋅ m and the work output is 40 N ⋅ m . The efficiency is 40 50 , or
80 percent.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. State how the mechanical advantages and the efficiency of the inclined plane vary with the
inclination of the plane.
Ans: Both AMA and TMA decrease with an increase in the angle theta θ . The efficiency bg
will remain the same if friction is small enough to be neglected.
2. Which is the best indication of the usefulness of a machine, the actual mechanical advantage
or the theoretical mechanical advantage?
Ans: Since machines are generally used to increase the force that can be applied to a load,
the actual mechanical advantage is usually the most useful. The theoretical
mechanical advantage is sometimes useful, however, when the machine in question is
judged by how far the load is moved during its operation.
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Experiment 11
Waves
INTRODUCTION
Students have fun doing this experiment. They tend to be noisy, and at the beginning of the laboratory
period the instructor should caution them to obtain the data with the least noise possible. In Procedure
5 there will be interference between other nearby resonance columns. Organize the class so that only
one or two resonance columns are operating at the same time, preferably at opposite ends of the
laboratory. Allow some students to start with Step 5 in the Procedure. This will minimize the
interference.
Caution: If the resonance apparatus has a glass tube (some have plastic tubes), be sure to
warn students not to touch the tube with a vibrating tuning fork. The vibrating fork may break the
glass. Also, do not allow students to empty the water from the resonance apparatus. They may be
careless and break the glass tube. Experimental data for this experiment are mostly observational, and
no sample answers or data are provided here.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Define wave motion, and give an example.

Ans: Wave motion is the emanation of energy from the disturbance of matter. Light and
heat energy radiating from a burning match are examples.
2. Distinguish between longitudinal and transverse waves.

Ans: A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particle displacement is in the same
direction as the wave motion. A transverse wave is a wave in which the particle
displacement is perpendicular to the wave motion.
3. Define the velocity, wavelength, and frequency of a wave and give an example of each. Use
symbol notation in the definitions.
Ans: The velocity (v) of a wave is the distance the wave travels per unit of time. The
velocity of a sound wave in air is 330 m/s at 0°C. The wavelength (λ) is the distance
between two similar points on any two consecutive waves. The wavelength of the
sound wave is given in meters. The frequency is the number of cycles per unit time.
The frequency (f) of the sound wave is measured in Hz.
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4. State the relationship between velocity, wavelength, and frequency of a wave.
Ans: Velocity = frequency × wavelength.
5. Define the amplitude of a wave, and give an example.

Ans: Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position. An
example is the maximum displacement of the vibrating string which moves
0.100 meters above and below its equilibrium position. The amplitude in this case is
0.100 meters.
6. State the relationship between the frequency and the period of a wave.
Ans: frequency = 1/period.
7. How do your measurements in Procedure 2 predict the way that the velocity of a wave in a
rubber cord varies with the tension in the cord?
Ans: The wave velocity is proportional to the tension in the cord so wave velocity
increases as the tension is increased.
8. Why is there a maximum vibration of the air molecules at the open end of a resonance tube?
Ans: The air molecules can vibrate more freely at the open end of the tube allowing them
to achieve maximum displacement.
9. How does the velocity of sound in air vary with the air temperature?
Ans: The velocity of sound in air increases with an increase in the air temperature by about
0.6 m/s for each Celsius degree the temperature rises.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What effect does increasing the amplitude of the vibrations have on the data?
Ans: Neither velocity, frequency, nor wavelength are functions of the amplitude.
2. With a drawing similar to Figure 11.6 in the Laboratory Guide, illustrate the particle
displacement in a resonant tube open at both ends.
Ans: Refer to this drawing in the Laboratory Guide, your drawing here should show both
ends of the tube open (as the upper part of Figure 11.6 shows), so the particle
displacement will be a maximum at both ends.
42
Experiment 12
Interference of
Light Waves
INTRODUCTION
The Keuffel and Esser wave pattern transparencies may be purchased from most local bookstores. If
the store does not have them in stock, they can order them for you from Keuffel and Esser.
Most students can complete this experiment in 1 hour or less; therefore, you may want to do
it in conjunction with Experiment 27 on spectroscopy or with a film on wave motion and/or with a
film on interference of light waves. See the Instructor’s Guide for the textbook for film list and
suppliers.
The instructor should check each student’s drawing at the beginning of Procedure 1. A wrong
start will produce a bad drawing and poor data.
The following are typical data for the experiment. The values for x and y will depend on how
far from S1 and S2 the student places the vertical line that is drawn perpendicular to the line labeled
n=0.
DATA TABLE 12.1

d n y x λ c Calculated
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
2 1 y1 = 2.1 x1 = 18.0 0.23
2 2 y2 = 4.2 x2 = 18.3 0.23
2 3 y3 = 6.8 x3 = 19.0 0.24
3 1 y1 = 1.5 x1 = 17.8 0.25
3 2 y2 = 2.9 x2 = 18.0 0.24
3 3 y3 = 4.5 x3 = 18.3 0.25
Average value for λ c 0.24
Measured value for 20 wavelengths = 4.8 cm

1 wavelength = 0.24 cm
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IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Define and explain phase as it relates to wave motion.

Ans: The phase of the vibrating particle experiencing the disturbance is a measure of its
position (an angular measurement) in reference to its equilibrium position.
2. What would you observe when two light waves meet in phase with one another?
Ans: Two waves are in phase with one another when they are displaced at all times in the
same direction will produce a brighter region on a screen.
3. When referring to wave motion, what is the meaning of the expression out of phase?
Ans: Out of phase refers to the position of the vibrating particle’s displacement from its
equilibrium position relative to another particle’s displacement when two waves meet
out of phase the crests of one wave coincide with the troughs of the other.
4. What conditions must be met for complete destructive interference between two waves?
Ans: For complete destructive interference between two waves, they must be 180° out of
phase at all times. The two waves must also have the same amplitude, the same
wavelength, and be traveling in the same direction.
5. Distinguish between the terms slit width and slit separation.

Ans: Slit width refers to the width of the opening, and slit separation refers to the distance
between two separate slits.
6. How does the separation of maxima on the screen vary with slit separation?
Ans: The separation of maxima on the screen is inversely proportional to slit separation.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. The relationship among frequency, wavelength, and velocity of a wave is given by the
equation v = f λ . Calculate the wavelength of green light if the frequency is 5.7 × 1014 Hz .
The velocity of light is 3 × 1010 cm s .
v 3 × 1010 cm s °
Ans: λ= = = 0.5263 × 10 −4 cm = 5263 A
f 5.7 × 1014 cycles s
2. Which regions on the screen show constructive interference and which show destructive
interference if monochromatic light is shown through a double slit?
Ans: The light regions occur where constructive interference takes place, and the dark
regions coincide with destructive interference.
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Experiment 13
Plane Mirrors and Index of

Refraction of Light
INTRODUCTION
Most students enjoy this experiment because it is their first experience with seeing the relationship
between object and image characteristics of mirrors and lenses.
If the laboratory can be darkened, the candle makes a good object because it produces an
image that is pretty and has motion. Caution students about the danger of burning their shirt or dress
sleeves. If the laboratory cannot be darkened, then a flashlight can be used as a light source. Place a
small black arrow on a piece of cheesecloth and put it over the face of the flashlight by removing the
ring that holds the glass plate in place.
SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 13.1

Estimated Estimated
Trial θi Error θr Error
1 22.2° ± 0.4° 21.9° ± 0.4°
2 37.0° ± 0.4° 36.8° ± 0.4°
3 49.3° ± 0.4° 49.5° ± 0.4°
DATA TABLE 13.2

Object Distance Image Distance
Trial (AM), in meters (BM), in meters
1 0.123 0.125
2 0.171 0.169
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DATA TABLE 13.3
Index of
Angle of Angle of Refraction
Incidence Refraction sinθ i
Surface θi sinθ i θr sinθ r n2 =
sinθ r
Left (1) 35.2° 0.5764 22.3° 0.3792 1.52
Right (2) 41.0° 0.6560 25.4° 0.4288 1.53
Calculate the percent difference between your two values for the index of refraction.
% difference = 0.66%
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. State the law of reflection, and give an example showing its relevance to this experiment.
Ans: The law of reflection states that when the reflection of light is from a plane specular
surface, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, and the incident ray,
the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface at the point of contact are all in the
same plane.
2. Distinguish between reflection and refraction.

Ans: Reflection is a change in wave direction due to the bouncing back from a boundary
between two media. Refraction is a change in wave direction due to a change in the
velocity of the wave as it moves into a new media.
3. State the law of refraction (Snell’s law), and explain how it can be used to find the index of
refraction for a glass plate.
Ans: Snell’s law states that for any transparent substance, the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is the same for all angles of
incidence and is equal to the inverse ratio of the refraction indexes of the two
materials.
m2 sin θ i
= .
m1 sin θ r
4. If the index of refraction for a glass plate is higher than the index of refraction for water,
which medium will bend a light beam more when the light beam enters the new material from
the air? Explain your choice.
Ans: The glass, because glass has a higher index of refraction.
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ADDITIONAL OR
1. When studying the angle of incidence in the refraction process, how must this angle be
measured?
Ans: When light rays strike a boundary, the angle of incidence of the incoming ray is
measured in respect to the normal line drawn to the interface surface.
2. Describe the image formed by an object located 1 m in front of a plane mirror.

Ans: The image will be virtual, erect, 1 m behind the mirror, and the same size as the
original object.
3. When a light beam enters glass from air the beam is refracted. Why does this happen? (Hint:
What physical property of the light changes?)
Ans: Light is bent on entering glass from air because the velocity of the light is less in the
glass than it is in air.
4. Is it possible to form a real image with a plane mirror? Why or why not?
Ans: No, because the focal length of a plane mirror is infinite and the image is always
behind the mirror’s surface.
5. Which color was deviated most by the prism used in the experiment?
Ans: Violet
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Experiment 14
Mirrors, Lenses, and Prisms

INTRODUCTION
If the laboratory does not have good mirror and lens holders, caution the students to be careful with
makeshift holders. Also, point out the positions of the mirror and the screen as shown in Figure 14.3
in the Laboratory Guide. Many students place the screen in front of the light source, thus blocking the
rays of light to the mirror. If the sun is visible from the laboratory window or students can step
outside to see it, they will obtain a more accurate measurement of the focal length by using it as a
source of distant light. The sun is also the best source of white light for Procedure 1, Step 5.
Figure 14.3 Top view of optical bench.
Model ray diagrams are explained with drawings for both the concave mirror and the convex
lens in the Laboratory Guide. The following data are typical for a concave mirror with a focal length
of 20 cm and a double convex lens with a focal length of 15 cm.
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DATA TABLE 14.1
Data for a 20 cm focal length mirror.
Trial Focal Length of Mirror
1 19.8 cm
2 19.9 cm
3 20.3 cm
Average 20.0 cm
DATA TABLE 14.2 Data Table for Mirror
Data for a 20 cm focal length mirror.
Information on Image
Position of Position of Real or Erect or Larger or
Light Source Image Virtual Inverted Smaller
+ Infinity (at least 8f) 20.1 cm Real Inverted Smaller
At 4f 27.0 cm Real Inverted Smaller
At 2f = R 40.0 cm Real Inverted Same size
Between R and f 30.0 cm Real Inverted Larger
At f + Infinity Real Inverted Larger
Between f and mirror behind mirror Virtual Erect Larger
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DATA TABLE 14.3
Data Table for 15 cm Length Lens
Information on Image
Position of Position of Real or Erect or Larger or
Light Source Image Virtual Inverted Smaller
+ Infinity (at least 8f) 15.0 cm Real Inverted Smaller
At 4f 20.0 cm Real Inverted Smaller
At 2f 30.0 cm Real Inverted Same size

Between 2f and f 50.0 cm Real Inverted Larger
At f + Infinity Real Inverted Larger
Same size of
Between f and lens Virtual Erect Larger
lens as object
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Describe the difference between a real and a virtual image.

Ans: A real image can be focused on a screen, whereas a virtual image cannot. The
observer must look into a lens or mirror to see a virtual image.
2. Where must the object be located with respect to a concave mirror and its focal point to produce
a real image?
Ans: The object must be located at a distance greater than the focal length of the mirror, in
front of a concave mirror, in order to produce a real image.
3. Where must the object be located with respect to a converging lens and its focal point to
produce a virtual image?
Ans: The object must be located between the converging lens and its focal point to
produce a virtual image.
4. At what distance must the object be placed on the principle axes in front of a concave mirror for
the image to appear the same size as the object? Draw a ray diagram to illustrate your answer.
Ans: The object must be placed at the radius of curvature.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Where must an object be placed to form an erect image with a concave mirror?
Ans: The object must be placed inside the focal point.
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2. Describe the image formed by a convex lens when the object is closer to the lens than its
focal length.
Ans: The image will be virtual, erect, and larger.
3. What type of images are formed by a concave (diverging) lens?

Ans: Only virtual images are formed by a concave (diverging) lens.
4. What type of mirror is needed to form real images?

Ans: Real images can be formed by a converging mirror.
5. Under what conditions will a converging (convex) lens produce a real image?
Ans: A converging lens forms a real image when the object distance is greater than the
focal length.
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Experiment 15
The Refracting
Telescope
INTRODUCTION
Caution students to take special care in placing the lens in the lens holder and mounting the lens
holder with lens on the meter stick. Make sure the fittings are tight; otherwise, the lens will fall out
and be chipped or broken. Also, the objective lens and the eyepiece lens must be in line and sharing a
common optical axis. The lenses must be mounted perpendicular to the optical axis.
Students should have had enough experience drawing ray diagrams to complete Alternative
Question 2 without help from the instructor. Some students will need help with number 4 in the
procedure. Even with help, others may not be able to see through the telescope to determine
magnification. Let these students make the necessary marks on the blackboard.
A good choice is to use the double convex 15 cm focal length lens used in Experiment 14 for
the objective lens and a double convex 5 cm focal length lens for the eyepiece. This will give a
refracting telescope with a magnification of three. The data for Table 15.1 is for recording the focal
lengths for the two lenses and the distance of separation when the telescope is constructed. This
distance is slightly less than the sum of the two focal lengths.
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SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 15.1

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
1. Position of objective lens on meter stick 10.0 cm 12.0 cm 15.0 cm
Position of screen on meter stick 25.0 cm 27.1 cm 29.9 cm
Focal length of objective 15.0 cm 15.1 cm 14.9 cm
Average focal length of objective fo a f 15.1 cm
2. Position of eyepiece lens on meter stick 10.0 cm 12.0 cm 15.0 cm
Position of screen on meter stick 15.1 cm 16.8 cm 20.0 cm
Focal length of eyepiece 5.1 cm 4.8 cm 5.0 cm
Average focal length of eyepiece fe a f 4.96 cm
3. Position of objective lens on meter stick 10.0 cm 15.0 cm 20.0 cm
Position of eyepiece on meter stick 30.4 cm 35.6 cm 40.0 cm
Distance between lenses 20.4 cm 20.6 cm 20.0 cm
Average distance between lenses (l) 20.3 cm
4. (a) Vertical height of image hi 9.2 cm
(b) Vertical height of object ho 3.1 cm
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
1. Sum of average focal lengths of lenses (from 1 and 2) L = f o + f e = 20.1 cm

Actual Distance between lenses (from 3 in Data Table 15.1) != 20.3 cm
Percentage difference between L and ! % difference = 0.99 %
height of image hi
2. (a) Magnification (from 4) = = 3.00 cm
height of object ho
focal length of objective f o
(b) Magnification (from 1 and 2) = = 3.05 cm
focal length of objective f e
(c) Percentage difference between magnification values (a) and (b) = 1.67 %
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3. Diameter of objective lens = 4.00 cm (measured in lab)
Light-gathering power of your telescope = 39.1
12.7 cm
4. Resolving power =
diameter of the objective lens in cm
Calculate the resolving power of the telescope constructed in the laboratory. Show your work.
Resolving power of your telescope = 3.18
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. What is the simplest way to increase the magnifying power of a two-lens telescope? Hint:
The eyepiece lens is often mounted in a short tube that can easily be removed from the main
part of the telescope.
Ans: The magnifying power of the telescope is equal to f o f e . Therefore, increasing f o
or decreasing f e will increase the magnifying power. Usually the eyepiece is
changed out so that a shorter focal length one is inserted.
2. Why is it better if a distant object outside the window of the laboratory is used when the focal
lengths of the two lenses were determined?
Ans: To obtain parallel rays of light so the focal length determination will be more
accurate.
3. Calculate the light-gathering power of the 508 cm (200 in) telescope on Mount Wilson. Show
your work.
Ans: The accepted value for the diameter of the lens opening of the average human eye is
0.64 cm so; the light-gathering power =

( diameter of object lens )2 ( 508 cm )2
= = 631,000 .
( diameter of len of eye )2 ( 0.64 cm )2
4. Calculate the resolving power of the 508-cm (200-in) telescope on Mount Wilson. Show
your work.
12.7 cm 12.7 cm
Ans: Resolving power = = = 0.025 .
diameter of objective lens in cm 508 cm
ADDITIONAL OR
1. The two-lens astronomical telescope constructed for the experiment produces an inverted
image of the object. To convert the astronomical telescope to a terrestrial telescope, mount an
inverting lens in the system. Determine the position for an inverting lens that will not change
the magnification of the telescope.
Ans: Place the inverting lens so that the image from the objective lens is at the radius of
curvature of the inverting lens.
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2. What are the functions of the objective lens in the refracting telescope?
Ans: The objective lens collects light from the distant object and brings the light rays to a
focus, forming an image that is the object for the eyepiece.
3. Draw a ray diagram illustrating the position of the distant object and the position and size of
the two images formed by the refracting telescope.
Ans: See figure below.
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Experiment 16
Color
INTRODUCTION
This experiment is designed to use a minimum of equipment while showing a wide variety of color
phenomena. For this reason, a system of six stations has been set up, one for each procedure, so that
the students can “rotate” through these stations during the lab period, but only one set of equipment
needs to be available for each procedure. If more equipment is available, two or more stations for
each procedure could be set up, but from 10 to 14 students can easily complete this experiment in 2
hours with only one station for each procedure.
EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURE TIPS
Procedure 1: Any diffraction grating and white light source can be used. Some very inexpensive,
hand-held diffraction units are available. They are made out of a short plastic tube with the grating in
one end and a thin single slit in the other.
Another method is to provide 2 in × 2 in mounted gratings and to tape black paper over the
front of a high-intensity lamp so that the white light only emerges from a narrow slit in the paper.
This lighted slit can then be viewed directly through the diffraction grating.
Sample Data: The hues of color seen, from long wavelength to short wavelength, are red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Note: Purple is not a spectral color. It is a combination of red
and blue hues.
Procedure 2: There are three methods that can be used to do this procedure. (1) 2 in × 2 in
color filters can be placed in three standard 2 in × 2 in slide projectors so that each projector produces
only one of the primary colors of light. These colors can then be projected and combined on a screen
or white wall. This also makes a very good demonstration of the additive theory of light for use in
class. (2) A Singerman apparatus can be used, which has three rheostat-controlled lamps that project
colored light onto a built-in screen. These lamps can be turned on or off or adjusted in intensity to
produce various color combinations. (3) The Fisher lightbox has a single lamp but comes equipped
with two winglike mirrors that allow the light to be split into three beams (the primary plus two from
the mirrors). A color filter can be placed in each beam, and the light from these three beams can be
viewed separately or mixed together to get the desired effects. The light can be shown on a small
vertical screen or if the entire apparatus is set on a white surface (or a sheet of 8.5 in × 11 in white
paper), the colors can be shown and mixed on the horizontal surface.
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The “white-plus-another-color” procedure can be accomplished by simply removing the
primary color filter from one source to provide the white light. The white light is quite bright
compared with the colored source, so you may need to provide a cardboard sheet with a small hole in
the center to cut down the intensity of the white light source. The cardboard shield can be held in the
beam some distance in front of the projector or mirror, thus allowing less white light to mix with the
colored light.
Sample Data: Primary colors of light are red, green, and blue.
red + blue = magenta
green + blue = cyan
red + green = yellow
red + green + blue = white
red + white = light red (pink)
blue + white = light blue (sky blue)
Procedure 3: Several sources for colored plastic filters are available. You can purchase a set
from a scientific supply house, or you can look around in bookstores or hobby or sewing stores for
sheets of colored acetate or cellophane. If you are short on filters, the primary colors of red, green,
and blue can be used, but it is best if other colors are provided.
If possible, you should get a set of subtractive filters (cyan, magenta, and yellow) so that the
subtractive theory of color can be studied here. These filters can be found in sets such as the one that
comes with the Fisher lightbox or can be purchased separately from a scientific supply house. Local
photographers also use such filters in color processing, so you may be able to borrow a set or get an
old set inexpensively from them. You will want the very dark filters from these sets, which are
generally not used very often anyway. The combination of two primary subtractive filters will give
you blue, red, and green; all three should give black (although you probably will get a gray result
unless the filters are very dark). These filters also can be combined on the surface of an overhead
projector to show the secondary colors of the subtractive theory on a screen.
Note: You cannot use this procedure on an overhead projector with the primary colors of
light to show the additive color theory. You must have three separate light sources, each of a primary
additive color.
If you have a good set of primary subtractive filters, you may wish to add a procedure, 3A, in
which you consider the subtractive color theory in the same way that combinations of additive filters
were used in Procedure 2. Procedure 3 could then still be done using other colored filters. Students
seem to enjoy making up creative names for the various colors produced by the combination of color
filters. Some examples are “forest green,” “olive green,” and “apple green.” The idea here is for them
to see the colors, not to name them in any special way.
Sample Data: For the primary subtractive colors magenta, cyan, yellow:
! magenta + cyan = blue
! cyan + yellow = green
! yellow + magenta = red
! magenta + cyan + yellow = black (dark gray or brown)
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Sample Data Using Random Color Filters
Trial Color 1 Color 2 Combination Color
1 Red Yellow Orange
2 Red Green Black
3 Red Light blue (sky) Violet
4 Red Dark blue Purple
5 Light blue (sky) Light green (apple) Medium green (spruce)
6 Yellow Turquoise Olive
Procedure 4: For this procedure you will need some small cloth swatches. Get them from
some old clothing, or go to a fabric store and ask for strips of several different colors. The swatches
can be any size and shape but should be at least 4 in by 4 in. Try to get different textures and
reflective qualities for your samples. (Fabric stores usually have some odds and ends that are quite
inexpensive or even free.)
Now go to a local paint store and pick out some “color chip” paint cards that you think are
close to matching the cloth swatches. Another good source for these “color chips” is a home
improvement center like LOWE’S or HOME DEPOT and most hardware stores also have them. Get a
few extras in varying tones close to the ones you chose, to compensate for the fact that the lighting in
your classroom may not be the same as in the store. Each color chip should have four to six colors on
it, so you probably will have plenty of choices. (These color chips also should be free if you don’t ask
for too many.)
It is not essential that you have a perfect color match. Note that the questions ask for the color
number that each student thinks is the best match. Often, students in the same group will disagree
about the best choices. You can use these variations in color matchings to lead into a discussion of
color perception and lighting variations.
You can further enhance the impact of this procedure by taking two cardboard boxes and
fixing them so that one interior is lighted by an incandescent bulb and the other by a fluorescent lamp.
(If your room has fluorescent lights, you may need only one box with an incandescent source.
However, if you do use only one box, make sure that sunlight does not “contaminate” the fluorescent
light too badly. A small window of approximately 4 in by 6 in cut into the box for viewing prevents
most room light from affecting your observations.) Try to find at least one cloth swatch that shows a
dramatic change when viewed under the different lighting conditions. Move the swatch from one box
to another to demonstrate the change in apparent color. It is best to use only one set of cloth swatches
and one set of color chips and move them back and forth so that the students will not think the
samples themselves are different.
Sample Data: This procedure depends on your choice of cloth swatches and color chips.
Color comparisons are made more accurately when the two colors being compared are close to each
other. Different students may choose different color chip matches for a given cloth swatch. This
variation is perfectly acceptable, since there is no absolute answer here and color perception may vary
from person to person. If you perform this procedure under different lighting conditions, the results
may also be quite varied.
Procedure 5: Most students love to paint and mix colors. It is best to warn them in advance
to wear old clothes because even water colors can sometimes stain certain fabrics. Use small bottles
of tempera paint so that cross-contamination will not ruin all your paint supply. (Baby-food jars are a
good size.) About two dozen inexpensive artist brushes can be provided for applying the paint, but
wooden splints can be used if no brushes are available. These wooden splints or plastic spoon handles
(remove the spoon part) work well because the paint can be distributed in small quantities. One or
two sticks per color is enough. Have some plastic sheets or wax paper taped on cardboard about 6 in
square to make palettes on which the students can carry and mix their paints.
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Advise students to mix small quantities of paint, one or two drops at a time. Add dark colors
very slowly (in small quantities) to white or you will use up a lot of white paint making tints. Add
black very carefully when making tones or the color will darken too quickly. Mix the colors on the
plastic palettes and then color in the circles.
Several small beakers or glasses (or additional baby-food bottles) will be needed to rinse
brushes between color applications. A thick layer of newspaper over all table surfaces helps in the
cleanup process after the lab is over. If a sink is available, have students rinse off their plastic palettes
after use so that you will not have so much clean up to do later. If the paint is placed on one table and
students can work on one or two adjacent tables, several groups can do this procedure at one time.
You must have more plastic palettes, brushes, and newspapers if several tables are used.
When the same tone of gray is painted on white and also on black paper, the gray seems
darker on the white paper and lighter on the black even though they are the same basic color to start
with. This effect shows the influence of background on color perception.
Sample Data: The colors in the painted circles should be self-evident but will not always be
the same from one student’s paper to the next; the final colors depend on how each student chose to
mix the colors.
Procedure 6: Any localized light source can be used as long as all light coming from it
passes through the color filters provided. If the room is brightly lighted, you may again need a
cardboard box to place over the light and the samples under study to prevent contamination by
ambient white light.
The procedure calls for the use of the colored circles that the students have just finished
painting. This could be messy. You may wish to have a sample of this sheet prepainted to show as an
example when explaining Procedure 5 to the students. This dry sheet may then be used by all groups
in Procedure 6. Your dry sample sheet will be quite similar to those produced by the individual
students, so the observed results will be much the same.
Instruct the students to watch a particular colored circle as the filter is moved in front of the
white light source. When the red filter is used, the reds and related colors should remain relatively
unchanged, but the blues and greens will appear darker. (They would become black if the painted
colors and the filters were perfect.) Similar results should be obtained with the blue and green light
filters. The row of gray tones will show a general tinting toward the color of the light filter used. This
shift occurs because all three primary colors are contained in gray, and so some reflection of each
primary color can occur.
Sample Data: As explained above, the color of an object depends on the colors of light
available to reflect from its surface as well as on the colors absorbed by the surface itself. Some
colored circles will change color, but others will remain nearly the same when each color filter is
placed over the white light source.
ANSWERS TO PROCEDURE 5
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Do there appear to be any differences in color between the two identical gray paint dots that
you applied to the white paper and to the black paper? Explain.
Ans: The same tone of gray does appear different on black paper than on white paper
because background coloration affects color perception. The gray on white will
appear darker in color, whereas the same gray applied on black will appear lighter in
color.
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IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. (a) Place a red-colored filter over a high-intensity lamp, and allow the light to fall on the
piece of white paper on which you painted the dots in Procedure 5. Note any major
changes in the colors of the dots. Remove and replace the filter several times while
watching the color dots, and pick out the ones that show the most dramatic color
changes and describe these changes below.
(Note: Your instructor may provide you with a set of previously painted dots or other
color wheel diagram to use because your paint may not be dry from your work in
Procedure 5.)
(b) Why do you think changes are observed in the different shades of gray when the red
filter is placed in front of the white light source?
Ans: (a) For a red filter, reds and colors containing red remain nearly the
same. Greens and blues turn darker. The extent of change depends on
the quality of the color filter, but changes should be fairly consistent
with these two statements.
(b) Because white reflects all colors and red is the only color of light
present, the different shades of gray take on a pinkish tinge.
2. Now place a blue filter over the light and record any changes in the colors of the dots.
Ans: For a blue filter, blues remain nearly the same. Greens and reds turn darker.
3. Repeat the procedure with a green filter and record any color changes of the dots.
Ans: For a green filter, greens remain nearly the same. Blues and reds turn darker.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Name the color hues found in the spectrum of white light.

Ans: Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet
2. Name the primary and secondary colors of the additive theory of light.
Ans: Primary colors are red, green, and blue. Secondary colors are cyan, magenta, and
yellow.
3. Name the primary and secondary colors of the subtractive theory of color.
Ans: Primary colors are cyan, magenta, and yellow. Secondary colors are red, green, and
blue.
4. If the primary colors of the subtractive theory are cyan, magenta, and yellow, why are the
colors in the artist’s subtractive theory red, blue, and yellow?
Ans: Pigments of cyan and magenta are not found naturally and are not easy to
manufacture. However, red and blue pigments are readily available. This means that
red and blue have been used traditionally by artists as their “primary” colors. A wider
range of colors could be mixed by painters if cyan, magenta, and yellow were used,
but the availability of pigment had led to the continued use of red, blue, and yellow
as the primary colors in the artist’s subtractive theory.
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5. How do colors differ when viewed under incandescent light and fluorescent light?
Ans: Because incandescent light contains a higher ratio of reds and oranges, these colors
predominate when seen under this type of light. Most objects have a “warm
coloration” when seen under incandescent light. Fluorescent light often contains
higher ratios of blue and green; a “cooler” appearance is observed because of the
domination of these shorter wavelength colors. Modern “cool white” fluorescent
lamps do not produce this effect as much as older or less expensive fluorescent lamps
do. The newer tubes have been carefully color-corrected by adjusting the phosphors
found on the inside of the tube to give off light that more closely approximates
noontime sunlight and is thus closer to incandescent light.
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Experiment 17
Static Electricity
INTRODUCTION
A brief lecture on the care and use of the aluminum-leaf or gold-leaf electroscope is a must for this
experiment; otherwise, the electroscope may be damaged. Caution the students never to touch the
knob of the electroscope with any charged body. Also, if the weather is damp, a drying agent will
have to be placed in the electroscope’s metal and/or glass case to help retain a charge on the leaves.
There will be sufficient time to show a film or perform a laboratory demonstration with this
experiment. Faraday’s ice-pail experiment and the Van de Graaff electrostatic generator are good
demonstrations for a small group of laboratory students. Another alternative is to include part of
Experiment 18 with this experiment because Experiment 18 requires considerable time.
DATA TABLE 17.1

Answer A Repelled
Answer B Repelled
Answer C Attracted
Answer D Attracted
Answer E Attracted
Answer F Repelled
Answer G Like charges repel
Unlike charges attract
Procedure 2 is purely observational, no questions.
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1. Determine the charge on a glass rod after rubbing it with silk. The charge on the glass rod is
_______________ (positive or negative). The charge on the silk cloth is _______________ .
Ans: positive, negative
2. Rub each of two inflated toy balloons with wool or fur. Will they attract each other or repel
each other? Explain why.
Ans: They will repel each other. They have like charges.
3. Determine the charge on each balloon using the electroscope when it has been charged
positively. (Hint: Do the leaves spread farther apart or collapse when the charged object is
brought near the electroscope knob?)
Ans: Both balloons will have a negative charge.
4. Determine the charge on the wool or fur after it has been used to rub a rubber rod.
Ans: Positive
5. (a) What kind of charge will a sheet of paper have after it has been rubbed with wool or fur?
(b) What kind of charge will a sheet of paper have after it has been rubbed with silk?
Ans: (a) Negative
(b) Negative, electrons are transferred to the paper in both cases.
6. Obtain a few (four or five) pieces of paper 1 or 2 cm in size. Remove any electric charge by
touching them with your hands. Test for any charge on the pieces of paper by bringing them
near the knob of the charged electroscope. The pieces of paper are neutral. That is, they have
zero charge. Place them on the table free of any electric charge.
(a) Place a negative charge on a rubber rod by rubbing it with wool or fur. Bring the
charged rubber rod near the neutral pieces of paper. What do you observe? Explain.
(b) Repeat using a glass rod and a silk cloth. What do you observe? Explain.
Ans: (a) Attraction. The paper is charged in regions (polarized) by induction.
Attraction takes place because the region closest to the charged rod is
opposite (+) in sign.
(b) Attraction. Regions are polarized, as they were in Procedure 6 (a). But in the
reverse way so the two still attract.
7. Place the two metal spheres mounted on insulated stands in contact with one another as
shown in Fig. 17.4, Part 1. A rubber rod carrying a negative charge is placed near the left side
of sphere A. The spheres are then separated while the rubber rod is held near sphere A. See
Fig. 17.4, Part 2 below. The spheres will now possess an electric charge if they are separated
before the charged rod is removed. Determine what kind of charge will be on each by moving
each in turn near the knob of a positively charged electroscope. Explain why each sphere was
charged the way it was.
Record the charge you detected on each sphere.
Sphere A _______________________ Ans: Positive
Sphere B________________________ Ans: Negative
64
Part 1 Part 2
Figure 17.4
Ans: The two spheres will possess an electric charge. Sphere A will possess a positive
charge, and sphere B will possess a negative charge, because the negative-charged
rubber rod repels the negative charges on sphere A over to sphere B. This places an
excess of electrons on sphere B and a deficiency on sphere A. The spheres are then
separated, leaving them charged as indicated.
1. What kind of a charge can be placed on an electroscope by induction using a glass rod rubbed
with silk? Explain.
Ans: A negative charge is placed on an electroscope by induction when a glass rod rubbed
with a silk cloth is used to charge the rod. A glass rod, when rubbed with a silk cloth,
will possess a positive charge. When the positive charged rod is placed near the knob
of the electroscope, electrons will be attracted to the knob. While holding the charged
rod near the knob, touch the knob with your finger. Electrons will flow from your
body to the electroscope. Remove your finger from the electroscope. The electrons
have no conducting path to leave the electroscope. Thus, the electroscope retains an
excess of electrons and a negative charge.
2. How many different kinds of charges did you observe the effects of in this experiment?
Ans: The effects of two different kinds of charges were observed in the experiment.
3. State the law of signs for electric charges.

Ans: The law of signs states that like charges repel and unlike charges attract.
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4. (a) Sometimes when a person combs their hair on a dry day (low relative humidity), a
crackling sound can be heard as the plastic comb passes through the hair. What
causes this to happen?
(b) Can you guess what type of charge (+ or –) will be left on the plastic comb after it
has been passed through the hair? Will the hair be charged positively or negatively
after the combing is complete?
Ans: (a) Charge separation occurs as the comb passes through the hair. Subsequent
passes of the comb bring the separated charges together again and the crackle
is the electrostatic discharge as this recombination occurs.
(b) The comb should be negative (like the rubber rod rubbed with fur) and the
hair should be left with a positive charge.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Two charged objects attract one another with a force F. If the charge on both objects is
doubled and the distance between them is also doubled, what will be the force between them?
Ans: The force between them will be the same.
2. Two objects (for example, two toy balloons) in the laboratory are observed to attract each
other. Can we be certain that both are electrostatically charged?
Ans: No. Only one balloon must possess a charge. The other balloon could be charged by
induction by the first charged balloon. It is also possible, however, that both balloons
are charged, one positively and the other negatively.
3. Can we be certain that one of the balloons in Question 2 is electrostatically charged?

Ans: Yes. At least one balloon must possess a charge in order to induce a charge on the
other one, or as stated above both balloons could be charged.
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Experiment 18
Magnetism and
Electromagnetism
INTRODUCTION
Some introductory remarks about magnetism that include the following information are usually
beneficial. Distinguish between the intensity of a magnetic field and the direction of a line of force.
Indicate that a magnetic field is a region or volume of space surrounding a magnet within which the
influence of the magnet is noticeable. The north-seeking end of a small compass placed in the region
indicates the direction of the force field or the direction of a line of force at that point, and the force-
per-unit pole is the intensity. In Procedure 2, point out to students that they are mapping the magnetic
field resulting from Earth’s magnetism and the magnetism of the bar magnet. These two magnetic
fields combine to produce the resultant field that the students are mapping using the small compass.
Stress the point that magnetic lines of force are imaginary lines that show the direction of the resultant
magnetic field.
DATA TABLE 18.1 Procedures 1 and 2

Answer A: Repel
Answer B: Attract
Answer C: Attract
Answer D: Repel
Answer E: Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
Answer F: The force that influences the suspended magnet becomes greater as the
distance between them is decreased.
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DATA TABLE 18.2 Procedure 3
Position A Out of page, toward student
Position B Into page, away from student
Position C Out of page, toward student
Position D Into page, away from student
Position E Into page, away from student
Position F Out of page, toward student
IN THE MANUAL
1. State the general rule for the interaction of magnetic poles.

Ans: Like poles repel; unlike poles attract.
2. State Coulomb’s law for magnetic poles.

Ans: The force of attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles is directly proportional to
the product of their pole strength and inversely proportional to the distance between
the poles.
3. How is the direction of a magnetic field defined?

Ans: The direction of a magnetic field is the direction the north seeking pole of a compass
tends to point when placed in the field.
4. What is the polarity (north or south) of Earth’s magnetic pole which is located near Earth’s
north geographic pole? Explain.
Ans: Near Earth’s north geographic pole is a south magnetic pole. A compass needle
aligns its long axis with Earth’s magnetic field. The north-seeking pole is called the
north pole of the magnet. Because unlike poles attract, the magnetic pole near Earth’s
geographic pole therefore must be a south magnetic pole.
5. What is magnetic declination?

Ans: Magnetic declination is the angle that a compass needle deviates from geographic
north.
6. What is the angle of dip?

Ans: The angle of dip is the angle Earth’s magnetic field makes with Earth’s surface (the
horizontal) at a given latitude.
68
7. What is the magnitude of the angle of dip at Earth’s magnetic north pole?
Ans: At Earth’s magnetic north pole the angle of dip is 90°.
8. Explain why the lines of force never cross one another. (Hint: Consider the direction of a
magnetic line of force.)
Ans: If lines of magnetic force crossed one another, the point of intersection would show
two different directions of the magnetic field at the intersecting point. This is
impossible.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Two iron bars are on the laboratory table. They are identical in every respect except that one
is a magnet and the other is not. Without using anything other than the two iron bars, explain
how you could identify the magnet.
Ans: The nonmagnetized iron bar will neither attract nor repel the center section of the
magnetized bar, but the magnetized iron bar will attract the center section of the
nonmagnetized bar.
2. Do magnetic lines of force represent lines of force along the entire length of which the force
on a unit pole would have the same value? Explain your answer.
Ans: No. The force on a unit pole depends on the strength of the magnet producing the
magnetic field and on the distance from the magnet.
3. Is it possible for two force lines of a magnetic field to intersect? Explain.

Ans: No. If two lines intersected, it would indicate that the magnetic field pointed in two
directions at the point of the intersection.
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Experiment 19
Ohm’s Law
INTRODUCTION
Most students have trouble visualizing an electric circuit and have fears of getting shocked when
working with electrical components and circuits. It is best to give an introduction to electricity and
specifically to Ohm’s law before starting the experiment. This introduction is necessary if the students
have not covered this material in the lecture class. Safety should be stressed in terms of both harm to
students and damage to electrical components, especially the ammeters. Emphasize the difference
between amount of charge (coulombs) and rate of flow of charge (amperes), since students often have
difficulty with these two concepts.
No data are provided for this experiment. The voltage and current values vary depending on
the supply voltage and the maximum value of the milliammeter.
Graphs 1 and 2, that are required for calculations 1 and 2 in the Laboratory Guide, will
produce straight lines. The slope of each will yield the value of the resistor used in the circuit.
IN THE MANUAL
1. If you connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 19.1 in the Laboratory Guide with either resistor in
place, but one fuse is removed from the circuit, this represents a circuit with a burned-out
fuse. What is the voltage across the resistor? Explain your answer.
V = ___________
Ans: The voltage across the resistor is zero. Because no current is flowing through the
resistor and one conducting path to the voltage source is open, the voltage across the
resistor will be zero.
2. What is the voltage across the fuse that was left in the circuit? Explain your answer.
V = ___________
Ans: The voltage across the fuse in the other fuse holder will be zero. The explanation is
the same as in Question 1. That is, no current is flowing through the fuse, and there is
no conducting path to the other side of the voltage source.
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3. What is the voltage across the terminals of the fuse holder without the fuse? Explain your
answer.
V = ___________
Ans: The voltage across the fuse holder without a fuse will be nearly equal to the supply
voltage. There is a conducting path from each terminal of the fuse holder back to the
voltage source. Therefore, current will flow in the circuit when the voltmeter is
connected. The internal resistance of the voltmeter is much higher than the resistance
in the circuit shown; therefore, most of the supply voltage will appear across the
voltmeter.
4. A voltmeter reads 80 volts when connected in parallel with an unknown resistor that has
125 milliamperes flowing through it. What is the resistance of the unknown resistance? Show
your work.
Rx = ___________
V 80 V
Ans: Rx = = = 640Ω
.
I 0125 A
5. Distinguish between an open and a closed circuit. Give an example of each.

Ans: An open circuit is one in which a complete electronic path does not exist to allow
electrons to flow. An example is a circuit with an open switch. A blown fuse and a
broken wire are other examples. A closed circuit is one in which there is a complete
path through which electrons can flow. An example is the complete path provided in
a lighting circuit when the light switch is closed.
6. A 60-watt light bulb operates on regular house voltage of 120 volts. Normal current through
the bulb is 0.5 amp. Determine the resistance of the bulb’s filament. Show your work.
Rx = ___________
voltage 120 volts

Ans: Resistance = = = 240 ohms
current 0.5 amp
ADDITIONAL OR
1. The amount of electrical charge passing through a resistor in 10 s is 16 C. What is the current
flow?
Q 16 C
Ans: I= = = 16
. A
t 10 s
72
2. The current flow in a resistor is 2 A. Determine the amount of electric charge that passes
through the resistor in 4 s.
Ans: Q = It = 2 A × 4 s = 8C
3. The relationship between wattage, voltage, and current is given by the following equation:
Watts = voltage × current. Is the resistance of the filament of a 100-watt light bulb more or
less than the resistance of the filament of a 60-watt light bulb? Calculate the resistance of the
filament of a 60-watt light bulb that operates on 120 volts. How does your answer compare
with the answer to Question 6?
V W 60 watts
Ans: R= where I = = = 0.5 amp
I V 120 volts
120 volts
R= = 240 ohms
0.5 amp
This is the same value found in Question 6. For the 100 watt bulb the resistance turns
out to be 144 ohms, so its resistance is less than that of the 60 watt bulb.
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Experiment 20
Electric Circuits
INTRODUCTION
The laws for analyzing electric circuits were formulated in the nineteenth century by Gustav
Kirchhoff (1824-1887), a German physicist.
A circuit junction is a point where three or more conductors come together. A circuit loop is
any closed path that returns to the same point.
Kirchhoff’s laws are an expression of conservation laws applied to electric circuits. The laws
state (1) the sum of the currents entering a junction equals the sum to the currents leaving the
junction, and (2) the sum of the electromotive force around a circuit loop equals the sum of the
potential differences across the resistances around the loop. These laws form the bases for this
experiment.
The following are the answers to all measurements and questions asked for in Procedures 1
through 6.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
PROCEDURE 1
(a) Connect the milliammeter in series with a 47-ohm resistor R1 to the power source as shown in
Fig. 20.3. If you do not have a 47-ohm resistor, use another with a similar value.
R1 = 47 ohms
Figure 20.3 Series circuit with one resistor, a milliammeter, and con-
nected to a power source.
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(b) Measure the total current flowing in the series circuit.
IT = 67 mA = 0.067 amps
(c) Measure the voltage across the power source.

VB = 3.2 volts
(d) Measure the voltage across the resistor R1.

V1 = 3.1 volts
(e) Calculate the resistance of R1 using Ohm’s law.

V1 3.1 volts
R1 = = = 46 ohms
I T 0.067 amps
1. How does the value of the voltage across the power source VB compare with the voltage
across the resistor R1?
Ans: They are very nearly the same.
2. Find the percentage error between the value printed on resistor R1 and the value calculated in
Procedure 1(e).
47 ohms − 46 ohms 1
Ans: Percent error = × 100 = × 100 = 2.1%
47 ohms 47
PROCEDURE 2
(a) Add a second 47-ohm resistor R2 in series with R1 and the milliammeter. If a 47-ohm resistor is
not used, fill in a different value for R2. R2 = 47 ohms. See Figure 20.1.
(b) Measure the total current.

IT = 34 mA = 0.034 amps
(c) Measure the voltage across each resistor.

V1 = 1.6 volts
V2 = 1.5 volts
(d) Measure the voltage across both resistors at once. Note: This is the same as the voltage
supplied by the voltage source.
V1+ 2 = VB = 3.1 volts
76
(e) Calculate the resistances R1, R2, and R1 + 2.
V1 16
. volts
R1 = = R1 = = 47 ohms
IT 0.034 amps
V2 15
. volts
R2 = = R2 = = 44 ohms
IT 0.034 amps
VB 3.1 volts
R1+ 2 = = R1+ 2 = = 91 ohms
IT 0.034 amps
(f) Calculate the value of the series combination of resistors R1 and R2 with the series resistor
equation using the values marked on the resistors. R1+ 2 = R1 + R2 .
R1+ 2 = 47 ohms + 47 ohms = 94 ohms
1. How well do the values for the resistors R1 and R2 calculated in Procedure 2(e) compare with
the value marked on them by the manufacturer?
Ans: R(1), 0 percent error; R(2), 6 percent error.
2. Calculate the percentage difference between the value calculated for R1+ 2 in Procedure 2(e) and
the value calculated for the series combination of these two resistors R1+ 2 found in Procedure
2(f).
94 ohms − 91 ohms
Ans: Percent difference = × 100 = 3.2%
92.5 ohms
PROCEDURE 3
(a) Add a third 47-ohm resistor R3 in series with R1, R2, and the milliammeter. If a 47-ohm
resistor is not used, fill in a different value for R3,
R3 = 47 ohms

IT = 22 mA = 0.022 amps

V1 = 1.1 volts
V2 = 1.1 volts
V3 = 1.1 volts
(d) Measure the voltage across all three resistors in series at once, and record this value below.
Note: This is also the value for the voltage supplied by the voltage source, VB.
V1+ 2 + 3 = VB = 3.2 volts
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(e) Calculate the resistances R1, R2, R3, and R1 + 2 + 3.
V1 11
. volts
R1 = = R1 = = 50 ohms
IT 0.022 amps
V2 11
. volts
R2 = = R2 = = 50 ohms
IT 0.022 amps
V3 11
. volts
R3 = = R3 = = 50 ohms
IT 0.022 amps
VB 3.2 volts
R1+ 2 + 3 = = R1+ 2 + 3 = = 145 ohms
IT 0.022 amp
(f) Calculate the value of the series combination of resistors R1, R2, and R3 with the series resistor
equation using the values marked on the resistors. R1+ 2 + 3 = R1 + R2 + R3
R1+ 2 + 3 = 47 ohms + 47 ohms + 47 ohms = 141 ohms
1. Calculate the percentage difference between the values calculated for R1+ 2 +3 in Procedure
3(e) and the value calculated for the series combination of these three resistors R1+ 2 +3 found
in Procedure 3(f).
145 ohms − 141 ohms
Ans: Percent efficiency = × 100 = 2.8%
143 ohms
2. Add the voltages measured across the three resistors V1, V2, and V3 together and compare this
sum with the value measured for V1+ 2 + 3 in Procedure 3(d).
Ans: This calculation gives about three percent difference.
3. Calculate the IR drops across the three resistors in the series circuit and compare them with
the voltages measured across each resistor.
Ans: I T R1 = 1.1 volts V1 = 1.1 volts
I T R2 = 1.1 volts V2 = 1.1 volts
I T R3 = 1.1 volts V3 = 1.1 volts
4. Add the three values for the IR drops together and compare them with the value for the
voltage across the entire series circuit.
Ans: Sum of 3 IR drops = 3.3 volts VB = 3.2 volts
PROCEDURE 4
(a) Replace two of the resistors in the series circuit used in Procedure 3 with a 10-ohm resistor and a
22-ohm resistor. This makes R1 = 10 ohms, R2 = 22 ohms, and R3 = 47 ohms. Again, if you do not
have resistors of these exact values, use similar ones and fill in their values below.
R1 = 10 ohms
R2 = 22 ohms
R3 = 47 ohms
78
IT = 40 mA= 0.040 amps

V1 = 0.40 volts
V2 = 0.95 volts
V3 = 1.95 volts
(d) Measure the voltage across all three resistors at once.

V1+ 2 + 3 = VB = 3.1 volts
(e) Calculate the resistances R1, R2, R3, and R1+ 2 +3 .

V1 0.40 volts
R1 = = = 10 ohms
I T 0.040 amp
V2 0.95 volts
R2 = = = 24 ohms
I T 0.040 amp
V3 195. volts
R3 = = = 49 ohms
I T 0.040 amp
VR 3.1 volts
R1+ 2 + 3 = = = 78 ohms
I T 0.040 amp
(f) Calculate the value of the series combination of resistors R1, R2, and R3 with the series resistor
equation using the values marked on the resistors. R1+ 2 + 3 = R1 + R2 + R3
R1+ 2 + 3 = 10 ohms + 22 ohms + 47 ohms = 79 ohms
4(e) and the value calculated for the series combination of these two resistors R1+ 2 +3 found
in Procedure 4(f).
79 ohms − 78 ohms
Ans: Percent efficiency = × 100 = 13%
.
78.5 ohms
2. Add the voltages measured across the three resistors V1, V2, and V3 together and compare this
sum with the value measured for V1+ 2 + 3 in Procedure 3(d).
Ans: V1+ 2 + 3 = 0.40 volts + 0.93 volts + 195
. volts = 3.3 volts
compared = N B = 31 . volts about 6% error
the voltages measured across each resistor.
Ans: ITR1 = 0.40 volts V1 = 0.40 volts
ITR2 = 0.96 volts V2 = 0.95 volts
ITR3 = 1.96 volts V3 = 1.95 volts
These compare within less than 1% error.
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4. Add the three values for the IR drops together and compare them with the value for the
voltage across the entire series circuit.
Ans: Sum of 3 IR drops = 3.3 volts VB = 3.1 volts
5. In general, how do you think the sum of all of the IR drops in a series circuit compares with
the total voltage across the entire circuit based on your results in Procedures 2, 3, and 4?
Ans: Sum of the IR drops = total voltage across the circuit to within about 6%
6. Why didn’t you have to take separate measurements for the individual currents through
resistors R1, R2, and R3 in Procedures 2, 3, and 4?
Ans: In a series circuit the current is the same in each component.
7. Do you think that this experiment confirms the validity of the series resistor equation used in
Procedures 2(f), 3(f), and 4(f)?
Ans: Yes, these results are well within the errors inherent in the reading accuracy of the
electrical meters used.
PROCEDURE 5
(a) Connect three 47-ohm resistors in parallel with the milliammeter as shown in Fig. 20.4. If 47-
ohm resistors are not used, fill in a different value in the space below.
R1 = R2 = R3 = 47 ohms
Figure 20.4 Parallel circuit shown as it might look with three

resistors connected using clip leads (ends marked with x). Ammeter
can be moved to points 1, 2, and 3 to measure current through the
individual resistors.

IT = 191 mA = 0.191 amps
(c) Measure the voltages across each resistor.

V1 = 3.2 volts
V2 = 3.2 volts
V3 = 3.2 volts
The voltage is the same across each resistor.
80
(d) Measure the voltage across the power source.
VB = 3.2 volts
(e) Now carefully move the milliammeter from point T in the parallel circuit to point 1, and
measure the current through resistor R1 and record this value below. Now repeat by moving
the milliammeter to point 2 and to point 3. Keep all three parallel resistors connected while
you make each measurement. If you happen to have four milliammeters available, you can set
up the circuit with meters at T, 1, 2, and 3 all at once and take the current readings in that
way, but you will get acceptable results if you use one meter and carefully move it to each
location in turn. Now calculate the resistances R1, R2, R3, and R1+ 2 +3 .
V1
I1 = 64 mA = 0.064 amps R1 = = 47 ohms
I1
V2
I2 = 65 mA = 0.065 amps R2 = = 46 ohms
I2
V3
I3 = 63 mA = 0.063 amps R3 = = 48 ohms
I3
VB 3.2 volts
R1+ 2 + 3 = = R1+ 2 + 3 = = 16.7 ohms
IT .
0192 amp
(f) Calculate the value of the parallel combination of resistors R1, R2, and R3 with the parallel
resistor equation using the values marked on the resistors.
1 1 1 1
= + +
R1+2 + 3 R1 R2 R3
R1+ 2 + 3 = 15.7 ohms
1. How well do the values calculated for the resistors R1, R2, and R3 compare with the value
marked on them by the manufacturer?
Ans: They are within 1 ohm.
5(e) and the value R1+ 2 +3 calculated for the parallel combination of these three resistors
found in Procedure 5(f).
16.8 ohms − 15.7 ohms
16.25 ohms
3. Add the currents I1, I2, and I3 that you measured flowing through the three resistors in
Procedure 5(e), and compare this sum with the value measured for IT in Procedure 5(b).
Ans: I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0192
. amps
I T = 0191
. amps
They agree within about 0.5%.
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the voltages measured across the individual resistors V1, V2, and V3.
Ans: I1R1 = 3.00 volts V1 = 3.0 volts
I2R2 = 2.99 volts V2 = 3.0 volts
Again these compare very well.
PROCEDURE 6
(a) Replace one of the resistors in the parallel circuit used in Procedure 5 with an 82-ohm resistor
and take the third one out of the circuit completely. This makes R1 = 47 ohms and R2 = 82
ohms. Again, if you do not have resistors of these exact values, use similar ones.
R1 = 47 ohms R2 = 82 ohms
(b) Measure the current flowing through both resistors at once.

IT = 100 mA = 0.10 amps

V1 = 3.0 volts
V2 = 3.1 volts
(d) Measure the voltage across the voltage source.

VB = 3.1 volts
(e) Measure the current flowing through each resistor I1 and I2. You may have to move the
milliammeter around in the circuit if you only have one meter. Then calculate the resistances
R1, R2, and R1 + 2.
V1
I1 = 66 mA = 0.066 amps R1 = = 45 ohms
I1
V2
12 = 36 mA = 0.036 amps R2 = = 86 ohms
I2
VB . volts
31
R1+ 2 = = R1+2 = = 30 ohms
IT 0.102 amps
(f) Calculate the value of the parallel combination of resistors R1 and R2 with the parallel resistor
equation using the values marked on the resistors.
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + = = + = 0.022 + 0.012 = 0.034
R1+2 R1 R2 R1+ 2 45 86
1
R1+ 2 = = 29 ohms
0.034
82
1. Calculate the percentage difference between the values calculated for R1+ 2 in Procedure 6(e)
and the value calculated for the parallel combination of these two resistors R1+ 2 found in
Procedure 6(f).
30 ohms − 29 ohms
29.5 ohms
2. Add the currents you measured flowing through the two resistors I1, and I2 together and
compare this sum with the value measured for IT in Procedure 6(b).
Ans: I1 + I2 = 66 mA + 36 mA = 102 mA; IT = 100 mA.
Again nearly the same.
3. Calculate the IR drops across the two resistors in the parallel circuit and compare them with
the voltages measured across each resistor V1 and V2.
Ans: I1R1 = 3.0 volts V1 = 3.0 volts
The calculated values are the same as the measured values.
4. After reviewing the data from Procedures 5 and 6, in general how do you think the sum of all
the currents flowing through the resistors in a parallel circuit compares with the total current
flowing in the circuit?
Ans: The sum of all currents = I T
5. After reviewing the data from Procedures 5 and 6, in general how do you think the voltages
across individual elements in a parallel circuit compare with the total voltage supplied to the
circuit?
Ans: The supply voltage = voltage across each component.
6. Why do you have to take separate measurements for the individual currents through resistors
in Procedures 5 and 6?
Ans: The currents are not equal. The current through each component depends on the
resistance of each component.
7. Does this experiment confirm the validity of the parallel resistor equation used in Procedures
5(f) and 6(f)?
Ans: Yes, quite well.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Are the light bulbs in your home, say in three separate lamps, connected in series or parallel
across the 110 volt power line coming from the fuse box in your home?
Ans: They are connected in parallel.
2. If 1.2 amps flows in each light bulb, what is the total current flowing in the circuit?
Ans: I T = I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 3.6 amps
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3. How much voltage appears across each bulb?
Ans: Since they are in parallel, the full 110 volts appears across each bulb.
4. What is the internal resistance of each light bulb?

V 110 volts
Ans: R1 = 1 = = 92 ohms
I1 12 . amps
84
Experiment 21
Electromagnetic Waves
INTRODUCTION
Although the term electromagnetic waves may not be familiar to all students, most are certainly
acquainted with the terms heat, light, microwaves, radio, TV, and X-rays. Since these terms are
common in our daily life, this experiment’s objective is to bridge the gap between informal
experience and scientific understanding.
We cannot expect students taking this physical science course to understand Maxwell’s
electromagnetic field theory, but we can stress the fact that electromagnetic waves are generated and
that energy is propagated from accelerated charges. Emphasize this fact at every opportunity you have
with your students. Note that column two in Table 21.2 repeats this fact for each type of radiation.
This is strictly a math-oriented experiment. Where possible, it is suggested that you display
an LC circuit (an old uncased portable radio) or other devices for generating and detecting
electromagnetic waves. Display an ultraviolet lamp, a Geiger tube, an old X-ray tube, or any of the
devices listed in column two and three in Table 21.2 if you have them available.
Many students have trouble plotting graphs. One of the major problems is the choice of scale
for the x and y axes. The graph in this experiment deals with very large numbers on the y axis and
very small numbers on the x axis, so students may need some assistance from the instructor on how to
select the scales for the two axes.
DATA TABLE 21.1

Calculated Wavelengths for Visible Light Frequencies
Frequency f Wavelength λ Wavelength λ Wavelength λ Color
(Hz) (m) (Å) (nm)
4.3 × 1014 8 × 10–7 8000 800 Red
5.0 × 1014 6 × 10–7 6000 600 Orange
6.0 × 1014 5 × 10–7 5000 500 Green
7.5 × 1014 4 × 10–7 4000 400 Violet
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1. State in words the relationship between frequency and wavelength that your graph illustrates.
Ans: This is an inverse relationship; as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.
2. Refer to Experiment 1 in this Laboratory Guide and give the name that describes the curve in
your graph. (Hint: What is the equation for the curve?)
Ans: Hyperbola
DATA TABLE 21.2 Electromagnetic Radiations
Frequency Range Wavelength Range Meters
Name of Hertz (cycles/s) to be Calculated
Radiation Approximate Values by Student
Radio waves
AM broadcast band AM 0.55 × 106 to 160
. × 106 545 to 188
FM broadcast band FM 88 × 106 to 108 × 106 3.40 to 2.78
TV broadcast band TV 54 × 106 to 890 × 106 5.55 to 0.34
Microwaves MW 1 × 109 to 1 × 1011 3 × 10–1 to 3 × 10–
Infrared
1 × 1011 to 4.3 × 1014 3 × 10–3 to 8 × 10–
(heat waves)
Visible light 4.3 × 1014 to 7.5 × 1014 8 × 10–7 to 4 × 10–
Ultraviolet 7.5 × 1014 to 3 × 1017 4 × 10–7 to 1 × 10–
X-rays 3 × 1017 to 3 × 1019 1 × 10–9 to 1 × 10–
Gamma rays Greater than 3 × 1019 Less than 10–11
Calculate the energy of a photon in Joules with an associated frequency listed below:
(a) 2 × 1014 Hz
Ans: E = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s × 2.0 × 1014 cycles s = 13
. × 10 −19 J (infrared)
(b) 4.3 × 1014 Hz

Ans: E = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s × 4.3 × 1014 cycles s = 2.9 × 10 −19 J (red light)
86
(c) 7.5 × 1014 Hz
Ans: E = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s × 7.5 × 1014 cycles s = 5.0 × 10 −19 J (violet light)
(d) 3 × 1018 Hz
Ans: E = hf = 6.63 × 10 −34 J-s × 3 × 1018 cycles s = 2 × 10 −15 J (X-rays)
1. What is the basic explanation for the origin of electromagnetic waves?

Ans: The acceleration of an electrically charged particle (electron, proton, or ion) will
release energy that spreads outward as electromagnetic waves.
2. All electromagnetic waves have the same physical characteristics. They differ only in frequency
and wavelength. How are they classified into different types?
Ans: Basic names are given to electromagnetic waves depending on the frequency and
wavelength ranges within which they fall. They are further classified by the method
by which they are generated or detected.
3. How do you account for the fact that a sharp dividing line does not exist between one type of
electromagnetic wave and its neighbor?
Ans: The methods of generating the radiation overlap one another.
4. How are radio waves generated? How are they detected? What do you think limits the highest
radio frequency that can be generated?
Ans: Radio waves are generated and detected by an LC circuit. The highest frequency is
limited by the physical dimensions of the LC circuit.
5. Why is it impossible to generate radio waves with a frequency of 4 × 1014 Hz ?

Ans: An LC circuit cannot be made small enough for this frequency.
Use the data given in Table 21.2, Fig. 21.1, and Fig. 21.2 to answer Questions 6, 7, and 8.
6. How are X-rays generated? Give three methods for detecting them.
Ans: X-rays are generated by disturbed electrons in atoms. They are detected by
photographic film, Geiger tubes, ionization chambers, and fluorescent screens.
7. What is the minimum frequency generated by radioactive nuclei? The maximum wavelength?
What is the name of this radiation?
Ans: f = 3 × 1019 Hz , λ = 1 × 10 −11 m , gamma rays
8. Name the type of radiation that has the greatest range of frequencies. Give the range width.
Ans: Infrared; 4.3 × 1014 Hz = 4300 × 1011 Hz ;
4300 × 1011 Hz − 1 × 1011 Hz = 4299 × 1011 Hz of frequency range width.
9. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. State the relationship between the electric,
magnetic, and wave velocity vectors.
Ans: The three vectors are 90° to one another.
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10. Calculate the difference in energy (joules) between red and violet light.
Ans: Refer to the answers to Procedure 4. 5.0 × 10 −19 J − 2.9 × 10−19 J = 2.1 × 10 −19 J
11. Does a photon associated with blue light have more or less energy than a photon associated
with red light? Give the reason for your answer.
Ans: A photon of blue light has more energy because its frequency is higher so E = h f
means more energy per photon.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. The electrical energy supplied to this laboratory is specified as 120 volts ac, 60 Hz. Calculate
the wavelength associated with this frequency.
c 3 × 108 m s
Ans: Wavelength = = = 5 × 106 m
f 60 Hz
2. What is the phase relationship between the electric vector and the magnetic vector of
electromagnetic waves?
Ans: The two fields are exactly in phase.
3. Give the SI units for velocity, wavelength, and frequency.

Ans: Velocity is in m/s, wavelength is in m, frequency in cycles/second or Hertz
4. How long (time in seconds) does it take light (electromagnetic radiation) to travel from the
Sun to Earth? See your textbook (inside back cover) for the distance between the Sun and
Earth.
d 15 . × 1010 m
Ans: Time = = = 5 × 102 s or about 8 minutes
t 3 × 108 m s
5. The term radar is an acronym for radio detecting and ranging. Radar generators produce and
emit short bursts of electromagnetic waves, which are reflected by objects and detected by the
radar receiver.
(a) Determine the wavelength of a radar frequency of 5.3 GHz.
(b) Refer to Data Table 21.1 and give the name of this radiation.
3 × 108 m s
Ans: (a) Wavelength = 9
= 5.7 × 10 −2 m
5.3 × 10 Hz
(b) Radio (microwaves)
6. The term laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. If a
certain laser generates a wavelength of 1.3 µm.
(a) Determine the frequency associated with this wavelength.
(b) Refer to Data Table 21.1 and give the name of this radiation.
3 × 108 m s
Ans: (a) Frequency = −6
= 2.3 × 1014 Hz
. × 10 m
13
(b) Infrared
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Experiment 22
Temperature
INTRODUCTION
In this experiment students can discover how the Celsius temperature scale was devised and
constructed by calibrating an alcohol-in-glass or a mercury-in-glass thermometer.
The experiment can be completed in 1 hour or less by most students. If a film on heat or
temperature is not available, Experiment 21 or 22 also could be done during this laboratory period
using the thermometer calibrated in this experiment.
One can present temperature as the concept having a great influence on students’ daily lives.
Air temperature influences our mood, dress, homes, and activity.
No data are supplied for this experiment since nearly all of this experiment is observational
and revolves around he construction of a simple thermometer.
IN THE MANUAL
1. What is the least count of your hand calibrated thermometer?

Ans: One degree Celsius.
2. What is the percent error of your newly calibrated thermometer in your determination of the
existing air temperature in the laboratory? Use the reading on the standard commercially
calibrated thermometer as the accepted value. Show your work.
Percent error = ____________
Ans: The percentage error is equal to the absolute difference between the temperature
measured with the laboratory thermometer and the student’s calibrated thermometer
divided by the laboratory thermometer reading × 100.
3. Would you expect the steam point on your calibrated thermometer to be higher or lower than
a regular standard thermometer? Why?
Ans: The steam point determined by the student’s thermometer may be lower because the
standard thermometer is calibrated at sea level where the air pressure is greater.
4. What are the disadvantages of using a water-in-glass thermometer to measure outside air
temperature?
Ans: The major disadvantage is that water exists only between 0° and 100°C so it might
freeze or boil in the thermometer.
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5. When a mercury-in-glass thermometer is placed in boiling water, the mercury level falls
slightly at first and then begins to rise. Explain this effect. If you have lab time, perform the
experiment. Obtain the lab instructor’s permission.
Ans: Because the mercury is enclosed in the glass bulb, the glass bulb is the first to
become hot and expand. The larger glass volume allows the mercury to fall. Once the
mercury itself begins to receive heat, it expands rapidly and rises again to the
maximum level.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Explain the meaning of temperature.
Ans: Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is, or more specifically,
temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules that make
up the object.
2. The relationship between the Celsius and the Fahrenheit temperature scales is given by the
following equation: C = 5 9 ( F° − 32° ) . Normal body temperature is 98.6°F. Determine the
equivalent Celsius temperature. Show your work.
Ans: C = 5 9 ( 98.6°F − 32° ) = 37°C
3. Explain what causes the mercury in the glass thermometer to rise and fall with a change in
temperature.
Ans: The mercury expands or contracts in volume when heat energy is added to or taken
from the mercury and this causes its heat to vary in the thermometer.
4. At what temperature on the Fahrenheit temperature scale does water at atmosphere pressure
boil?
Ans: Water boils at 212°F.
90
Experiment 23
Specific Heat
INTRODUCTION
Briefly remark on the method of mixtures, emphasizing that there is no direct method for measuring
heat. Although the term calorimeter means the measurement of heat, the device does not measure
anything. Explain the difference between the calorimeter cup and the housing used to hold and
insulate the cup from the atmosphere. Because the most critical part of the experiment is obtaining the
final temperature of the mixture, emphasize number 5 in the Procedure in your remarks.
Although better results for the specific heat of a metal can be obtained with metal pellets, a
small solid object can be used.
A percentage error of 5 percent can be obtained with careful taking of data. Students should
make a second trial if the data do not yield results within 5 percent.
If a regular calorimeter is not available, a coffee-cup calorimeter can be constructed using
two polystyrene coffee cups placed one inside the other and held in a glass beaker. The top cup can be
fitted with a Styrofoam lid with two cut holes for the thermometer and the stirrer.
The following data are typical for the metal copper, which has a specific heat of
0.093 cal g °C .
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DATA TABLE 23.1
Metal used: Copper
Mass of the calorimeter cup and stirrer (1) mcn 48 g
Mass of the calorimeter cup, stirrer, and water (2) 201 g
Mass of the calorimeter cup, stirrer, water, and metal (3) 273 g
Mass of the water [(2) − (1)] mcw 153 g
Mass of the metal [(3) − (2)] mmt 72 g
Temperature of the hot metal Tmt 99° C
Temperature of the cold water Tcw 22° C
Temperature of final mixture Tf 25° C
IN THE MANUAL
1. Distinguish between heat and temperature. Compare definitions and units of measurements.
Ans: Heat is energy in transit and is measured in calories or British thermal units.
Temperature is a measurement of the hotness or coldness of an object, and
temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius or degrees Fahrenheit.
2. State the specific heat of water in terms of standard SI energy units (joules).
Ans: In the cgs system of units, specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise one
gram of a substance one degree Celsius. Heat capacity is the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of the given mass (amount varies) one degree Celsius. Heat
capacity = mass × specific heat.
3. The heat capacity of a material is defined as: heat capacity = mass of the material times its
specific heat. What is the heat capacity in calories for:
(a) 100 g of iron?
(b) 2,500 g of water?
Ans: (a) Hc = mc = 100 g 0105
. b
cal g° C = 10.5 cal g° C g
(b) Hc = mc = 2,500 g 100 b
. cal g° C = 2500 cal g° C g
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4. If the final temperature was determined incorrectly (a value greater than the true value was
obtained), how would this affect the calculated value of the specific heat? Explain your
answer.
Ans: The value for the specific heat will be much greater because the temperature
difference for the water and the calorimeter cup will increase and the temperature
difference for the metal will decrease. The specific heat for the metal is determined
by dividing water and cup values by the metal values.
5. Where, do you feel, is the greatest possible source of error in this experiment? Why?
Ans: The greatest possible source of error is the measurement of the final temperature of
the mixture because the process of mixing the two substances evenly is difficult to
accomplish.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. The specific heat of soil (average value) is one-fourth of a calorie per gram degree Celsius.
Explain why water is a better moderator of temperature than soil.
Ans: A higher specific heat means it takes more heat (and therefore more time) to raise the
temperature of water by one degree. For example, the Sun will heat soil four times
faster than it will heat water. When the heat source is removed, the soil will cool four
times faster than the water.
2. Which has the greater specific heat, a pint of water or a gallon of water? The greater heat
capacity? Explain.
Ans: Both have the same value of specific heat. The gallon of water has the greater heat
capacity. Heat capacity equals mass × specific heat. One gallon of water has more
mass than one pint of water.
3. A metal having a mass of 65 g and a temperature of 100°C is placed in 150 g of water held in
a coffee-cup calorimeter at 22° C. The highest temperature of the mixture was 25°C.
(a) Calculate the change in the water temperature.
(b) Calculate the change in temperature for the metal.
(c) Calculate the specific heat of the metal.
Ans: (a) ∆T for the water = 25°C – 22°C = 3° C
(b) ∆T for the metal = 100°C – 25°C = 75°C
150 g × ( 25° − 22° ) × cw 450 × cw
(c) Specific heat = = = 0.092 cal g °C
65 g × 100° − 25° 4875
cw = the specific heat of water = 1 cal g °C
4. What is specific about specific heat?

Ans: A specific amount of mass. The standard one gram of any substance is the mass taken
to determine the magnitude of the specific heat of that material in calories.
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Experiment 24
Heat of Fusion
INTRODUCTION
The law of conservation of energy is used here to find an experimental value for the heat of fusion of
ice. The method of mixtures is used to obtain the experimental value.
A problem in this experiment will be random errors, and students will need special skills to
keep them to a minimum. The greatest possible source of errors will be wet ice. Caution students that
it is important for good results to have ice as free of water as possible.
The experimental value for the heat of fusion should be within 5 percent of the accepted
value of 80 cal/g. Require a second trial of a student who fails to obtain results within this limit.
An aluminum calorimeter cup was used to obtain the information for Data Table 24.1.
DATA TABLE 24.1

Mass of calorimeter cup and stirrer (1) mcup 48 g
Mass of calorimeter cup, stirrer, and water (2) 248 g
Mass of water [(2) − (1)] mw 200 g
Mass of cup, stirrer, water, and melted ice (3) 268 g
Mass of ice [(3) − (2)] mi 20 g
Initial temperature of water, cup, and stirrer Tw 22° C
Final temperature of water, cup, and stirrer Tf 13.5° C
b
∆T Tinitial − Tfinal g 8.5° C
Specific heat of water cw 1.00 cal g°C
Specific heat of calorimeter cup and stirrer (obtain from instructor) ccup 0.22 cal g°C
Heat of fusion of ice (experimental value) Hf 81 cal g
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CALCULATIONS FOR STEP 9
OF THE PROCEDURE
200 g× 1 cal g ⋅ °C ( 22°C − 13.5°C ) + 48 g × 0.22 cal g°C ( 22°C − 13.5°C )

Hf =
20 g
−20 g × cal g ⋅ °C ( 22°C − 13.5°C )
20 g
( 200 × 8.5) cal + (10.6 × 8.5) cal − ( 20 × 8.5 ) cal
Hf =
20 g
1700 cal + 90 cal − 170 cal 1620 cal
Hf = = = 81 cal g
20 g 20 g
IN THE MANUAL
1. The accepted value for the heat of fusion of ice is 80 cal/g. This is the amount of energy that must
be transferred into one gram of ice at its melting temperature (0°C) in order to change it into
liquid water. Also, 80 cal/g is the amount of energy that must be removed from one gram of water
at 0°C in order to change liquid water to ice. Calculate the percent error for your experimental
value of the heat of fusion of ice using this value as the standard. Show your work.
Ans: The percent error should be 5 percent or less. Refer to Appendix III for an equation to
calculate percent error.
2. How will using wet ice (some water at 0°C is added along with the ice) affect the experimental
value for the latent heat of fusion of ice? Explain.
Ans: The calculated value for the heat of fusion of ice will be lower, because the mass of
melted ice water in the experiment will be greater. See Eq. 24.3.
3. If the calorimeter is not well insulated, how will heat from the air in the laboratory affect the
experimental value for the latent heat of fusion of ice? Explain.
Ans: The calculated value for the heat of fusion of ice will be less because part of the heat
transferred to melt the ice and raise the temperature of the melted ice water will be
supplied from the air in the laboratory; therefore, not as much heat will come from
the water and calorimeter cup. This will make the calculated value low.
4. How do you think citrus growers in Florida might use heat of fusion to protect against frost
damage?
Ans: Water sprayed on the citrus fruit requires that heat be removed from the water to
change phase to ice. Eighty calories of heat must be removed per gram. This heat
transfer warms to air temperature and this helps to keep the crop from freezing.
5. Is it possible to add heat energy to a substance and not increase its temperature? Give an
example.
Ans: Yes. The melting of ice.
96
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Which has the greater effect in cooling a substance, 1 g ice at 0°C or 1 g water at 0°C?
Explain.
Ans: One gram of ice, because it will take 80 cal of heat to change phase from ice to water
at 0°C.
2. Where are the greatest sources of error in this experiment?

Ans: The greatest sources of error are keeping the ice dry and determining the final
temperature accurately.
3. During the phase change of ice to water, the temperature remains constant. If energy cannot
be destroyed, where does the supplied heat energy go?
Ans: The supplied energy goes to separate the crystalline structure of the ice.
4. Is heat absorbed or released by ice when it melts?

Ans: Heat is absorbed.
5. In what direction did the heat flow in this experiment?

Ans: Heat flowed from the water (hot) to the ice (cold).
6. What basic thermodynamic law applies to Question 5?

Ans: The second law of thermodynamics
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Experiment 25
Heat of Vaporization
of Water
INTRODUCTION
The method of mixtures is used in this experiment, and the law of conservation of energy applies. The
steam gives up a certain amount of heat in condensing to water at its boiling point without a change in
temperature.
Caution the students to have a heavy flow of steam from the outlet tube and to lower the
outlet to the bottom of the calorimeter cup. The steam flow causes turbulence in the water; therefore,
no stirring is required. When the water temperature rises to about 40°C, remove the steam outlet from
the water. Do not shut off the steam until the steam outlet has been removed from the water in the
calorimeter cup. Also remind the students that the thermometer reading the steam temperature may
not reach 100°C because the laboratory may have an elevation above sea level.
A second trial is recommended if the results are not within 10 percent of the 540 cal/g.
The following data for Data Table 25.1 are typical for the experiment.
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DATA TABLE 25.1
Mass of calorimeter cup and stirrer (1) mcup 48.0g
Mass of calorimeter cup, stirrer, and water (2) 248.0 g
Mass of water[(2 – 1)] mw 200.0 g
Mass of cup, stirrer, water, and condensed steam (3) 204.6 g
Mass of steam [(3) – (2)] ms 4.6 g
Initial temperature of water, cup, and stirrer Tw 22° C
Final temperature of water, cup, and stirrer Tf 36° C
b
∆T Tf − Tw g 14° C
Specific heat of water cw 1.00 cal g⋅° C
Specific heat of calorimeter cup and stirrer ccup

(obtain from instructor) 0.22 cal g⋅° C
Temperature of steam Ts
100° C
*If you are not given another value, use 99.0°C
Heat of vaporization of water (experimental value) Hv 556 cal/g
Calculate the value for the heat of vaporization of water using Eq. 25.3. The final temperature
of the condensed steam will be the same as the final temperature of the water in the calorimeter cup.
( mc∆T )water + ( mc∆T )cup = ( mH v ) + ( mc∆T )condensed steam

200.0 g (1 cal g ⋅ °C )(14°C ) + 48.0 g ( 0.22 cal g ⋅ °C )(14°C ) = 4.6 g H v + 4.6 g (1 cal g °C )(100°C )
= 36°C
2800 cal + 51 cal − 294 cal
Hv = = 556 cal g
4.6 g
100
IN THE MANUAL
1. The accepted value for the latent heat of vaporization is 540 cal/g. This is the amount of
energy that must be removed from one gram of steam at its boiling temperature (100°C) in
order to change it into liquid water. Also, 540 cal/g is the amount of energy that must be
added to one gram of water at 100°C in order to change liquid water to steam. Calculate the
percentage error in your experimental value of Hv , using this value as the standard. Show
your work.
556 cal g − 540 cal g
Ans: Percentage error = × 100 = 3%
540 cal g
2. How will the experimental value be affected if some water (liquid) comes through the hose
into the calorimeter cup along with the steam?
Ans: The experimental value will be lowered.
3. If the calorimeter is not well insulated, how will heat from the air in the laboratory affect the
experimental value for the latent heat of vaporization?
Ans: A heat loss from the calorimeter cup will take place. Part of the heat energy from the
steam will be lost, and the value for the heat of vaporization calculated will be
lowered.
4. How can a steam turbine use the heat of vaporization to increase the output of electrical
energy it is generating?
Ans: The change in phase supplies 540 cal/g of heat energy to the process.
5. Is it possible to remove heat energy from a substance and not change its temperature?
Explain, and give an example.
Ans: Yes. The change in phase from a gas to a liquid, as shown by the condensation of
steam in this experiment.
6. Calculate the percentage increase in the mass of the water in the calorimeter cup with the
addition of the condensed steam. Use mass data from Table 25.1 for your calculation.
Ans: Using sample data, the percent increase in the mass of water is ms mw × 100 = 2.3%
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What are some of the sources of error in the experiment?

Ans: (a) Failure to obtain the correct temperatures.
(b) Failure to determine the masses correctly.
(c) Failure to have a good flow of steam.
(d) Allowing condensed steam (water) from the supply system to enter the
calorimeter cup.
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2. What is the advantage of the steam trap?
Ans: The steam trap collects condensed steam (hot water) and prevents most of it from
entering the calorimeter cup.
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Experiment 26
Radiation
INTRODUCTION
Because the introduction to this experiment is rather brief, give a few remarks on radioactive sources
and their emitted radiation, along with an introduction to radioactive decay and half-life.
PROCEDURE
1. The background count should be quite low but it is interesting to point out to the students that
we live in a world where our bodies are continually exposed to external radiation. If the count
rate for the sources used in this experiment is also quite low, the background count must be
subtracted before the intensity is recorded in the tables. If it is only 1 or 2 percent, it can be
ignored but proper procedure would be to subtract it anyway.
2. Count rate should decrease rapidly as the sources are moved away from the detector.
3. The thicknesses of the 3 shields should be about the same to show this effect properly. Then
the counts/min should decrease for the beta particles for paper and wood but the gamma
should remain about the same. The lead should shut off the beta particles entirely and reduce
the gamma depending on its thickness.
4. A strong magnetic field should deflect beta particles (electrons) because of their negative
charge and the count rate should reduce when the magnet is first in place. Gamma rays are
not effected so no change should be observed.
5. The penetrating power of the radiation should allow you to distinguish easily between the two
sources.
IN THE MANUAL
1. Why aren’t the three readings for background radiation in Procedure 1 identical?
Ans: Background radiation comes from cosmic rays and local radioactive sources in a
random way, and a time of 1 minute is too brief to obtain identical readings but these
variations will average out over longer times.
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2. Does your data for Procedure 2 suggest that there is a relation between 1 d 2 and the
intensity? If so, what? Should there be a relationship? Discuss sources of error in this part of
the experiment.
Ans: A graph plotting 1/d2 versus intensity produces a straight line so there is a direct
relationship. Possible sources of error: (1) failure to take enough time to determine an
accurate radiation count, (2) inaccurate measurement of the distance between the
radiation source and the center of the sensitive region of the Geiger tube.
3. Why are alpha particles so easily stopped by even very thin sheets of insulation material?
Ans: Alpha particles are easily stopped because of their large size and because they carry a
+2 positive charge.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Name the three distinct types of radiation emitted by radioactive sources.

Ans: Alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays
2. State the physical characteristics of the three types of radiation from radioactive sources.
Ans: Alpha particles are the nucleus of a helium atom and carry a +2 charge. Beta particles
are electrons and carry a –1 charge. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of
very high frequency and carry no charge at all.
3. How could you test an ore sample for radioactivity?

Ans: Use the Geiger tube and detector equipment used in this experiment.
4. How could you identify alpha, beta, and gamma rays coming from an ore sample?
Ans: Pass the radiation from the ore sample through a magnetic field. The alpha and beta
particles will be deflected in different directions. The magnetic field has no effect on
the gamma rays or more practically use shielding material to make the tests like you
did in Procedure 3.
104
Experiment 27
Spectroscopy
INTRODUCTION
As an introduction to spectroscopy and to this experiment, set up and demonstrate two student
spectrometers. One spectrometer should have a grating with a large number of lines per centimeter,
and the other, a smaller number to illustrate the type of spectrum produced by different values of the
grating space. The demonstration also shows students that photographs of line spectra are photos of
the slit illuminated by the source. Allow students to vary slit width while observing the spectrum
lines, if possible.
Take special care to shield the students’ vision as much as possible from the ultraviolet
radiation coming from the mercury lamp. The students should be warned not to look directly at
the mercury lamp. The following data for Table 27.2 in the Laboratory Guide were obtained using a
sodium lamp and a grating with 7500 lines per inch. The grating space
. × 10 −4 in or 3.38 × 10 −4 cm .
d = 1 7500 lines per in = 133
DATA TABLE 27.2

Distance, s Average Average
Between x1 x1 of x1 x2 x2 of x2
Grating and Left Right Left and Left Right Left and
∗ ∗
Slit (cm) (cm) (cm) x1 Right (cm) (cm) x2 Right sin θ 1 sin θ 2
40 7.0 7.1 7.05 14.5 14.5 14.5 0.1750 0.3625
60 10.6 10.6 10.60 20.5 20.5 20.5 0.1770 0.3417
80 14.0 14.0 14.00 27.4 27.5 27.5 0.1750 0.3437
100 17.7 17.7 17.70 35.4 35.5 35.5 0.1770 0.3540
Average values of sin θ 0.1760 0.3505
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ANSWERS TO CALCULATIONS
1. Using nλ = d sin θ
For the data for 80 cm in Data Table 27.2
λ=
−6
d sin θ 1 3.38 × 10 m 0.1750
=
b
= 5.915 × 10 −7 m
g
n 1
5.915 × 10 −7 m
FG
1 avg IJ
H
1 × 10 −10 m
= 591 avg
K
Compared to the acceptable value, 5893 avg
% error = 0.4%
b g
−6
d sin θ 2 3.38 × 10 m 0.3437
λ= = = 5809
. × 10 −7 m
n 1
× 10 −7 m
1 FG
avg IJ
5809
.
H
1 × 10 −10 m
= 5809 avg
K
with % error = 1.4%
2. Again using the acceptable value, 5893 avg = 5893

. × 10−7 m
∆E =
hc
=
e
6.67 × 10 −34 Js 3.00 × 108 m s j
λ 5893
. × 107 m
∆ E = 3.40 × 10 −19 J
IN THE MANUAL
1. What is a diffraction grating?

Ans: A diffraction grating consists of many very fine, closely spaced parallel slits. The
number of slits varies from a few hundred per inch to several thousand per
centimeter.
2. What is the grating spacing?

Ans: The grating space is the width of one slit.
3. In the first-order spectrum of mercury, if available for you to observe, is the red line or the
violet line closest to the central image?
Ans: The red line is closest to the central image.
nλ
sin θ =
d
and red light has the shorter wavelength (λ) which places it closer to the central image.
106
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Are the higher-order spectra more accurate than lower-order ones in determining wavelengths
of light? Why or why not?
Ans: The higher orders are more accurate because there is a greater spread of the spectrum
lines and the measurements are generally more accurate.
2. One specific wavelength of red light is incident normally on a diffraction grating having 5000
lines/cm. If the first-order spectrum makes an angle of 22° with the normal of the grating,
what is the wavelength of the red light?
Ans: nλ = d sin θ
1
d= = 0.002 cm = 2 × 10−6 m
5000 line cm
 !  !
λ = 2 × 10 −6
m × 0.375 1 = 0.7492 × 10 −6
m  1A  = 7492 A
 1 × 10 − 10
m 
 
3. What will be angle θ in Question 2 for the second-order spectrum?

nλ 2 × 0.7492 × 10 −6 m
Ans: sin θ = = = 0.749
d 2 × 10 −6 m
θ = 48.5°
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Experiment 28
Density of Liquids
and Solids
INTRODUCTION
Density is a concept that is important in the science of chemistry and physics, and this experiment can
be performed by the student when studying either branch of science. Note that the maximum density
of pure air-free water occurs at 3.98°C. This is the temperature at which the density of water is
defined to be exactly 10000
. g cm3 .
Pycnometers are rather fragile, and students should be cautioned to handle them with care.
Also advise students to remove all excess water from the surface of the volumetric flask before
weighing.
Because the data for this experiment vary greatly depending on the type and amount of
sample used, no specific information is provided for the data tables.
These calculations are quite straightforward. The results should be very close to the accepted values
given.
IN THE MANUAL
1. Define density, and give an example, using SI units.

Ans: Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Example: The mean density of Earth is
5517
. g cm3 .
2. Calculate the volume of 1.00 g of pure, air-free water at atmospheric pressure and at the
following temperatures. Make these calculations to four significant figures.
(a) 2°C
(b) 22°C
Ans: Use Table 28.1 (a) By visual extrapolation the density of water at 2°C is above
0.9999 so the volume is 0.9999 ml (or cm3 ); (b) 0.9978 ml (or cm3 )
3. State the maximum density of pure water and give the temperature at which this maximum
density occurs.
Ans: Maximum density = 10000
. g cm3 , which occurs at 3.98°C.
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4. Determine the mass of a solid that has a volume of 6.39 cm3 and a density of 5.4 g/cm3. Be
sure that your answer contains the correct number of significant digits.
Ans: Mass = d × V = 6.39 cm3 × 5.4 g cm3 = 34 g . This answer is given to two significant
digits.
5. Determine the volume of a liquid that has a mass of 24.6 g and a density of 0.82 g/cm3. Be
sure the answer has the correct number of significant digits.
Ans: Volume = m d = 24.6 g 0.82 g cm3 = 30 cm3 . Again, to two significant digits.
6. Explain how the volume of the human body could be determined experimentally.
Ans: The volume of the human body can be determined by submerging the body in a
liquid, collecting the liquid displaced, and then measuring the displaced volume.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Why does the density of water vary with temperature?

Ans: A brief answer the student might give is that the density of water is a function of the
mass of the water molecules and the spacing between them. The spacing is a function
of temperature and becomes a minimum at 3.8°C.
2. How can density be helpful in identifying a pure metal from an alloy?

Ans: The density of a pure metal is a definite physical constant. An alloy will have a
slightly different density. A check on melting points will give further evidence.
3. Gold has a density of 19.32 g cm3 . A basketball has a volume of approximately

7 × 103 cm3 . Determine the mass of a solid gold basketball.
Ans: Mass = d × V = 19.32 g cm3 × 7 × 103 cm3 = 135. × 105 g = 135
. × 102 kg
2
. × 10 kg = 297 lb
135
110
Experiment 29
Oxygen
INTRODUCTION
If this is the first chemistry experiment, outline for students the special safety precautions for using
and handling chemicals and equipment in the laboratory. You may want to review the safety rules at
the beginning of the Laboratory Guide and present additional ones that pertain to your particular
laboratory setup.
In this experiment the instructor should dispense the manganese dioxide, because many
students tend to use too much. In fact, some instructors keep a prepared mixture of KClO3 and MnO2
on a side laboratory table in test tubes ready for use.
If this is the students’ first experience with the Bunsen burner, give instructions for lighting,
adjusting, and using it. Mention where the flame has the highest temperature. Also emphasize the
precautions necessary when heating the KClO3––MnO2 mixture.
The answers to the procedures are the observations to the tests done with oxygen.
TESTS WITH OXYGEN
1. The flame should rekindle and burn brightly.
2. Initial flame is blue and very low. In oxygen the flame turns yellow and increases in size.
3. Tip of wire will glow much more brightly.
4. The reaction in the oxygen produces a burst of glowing sparks like a sparkler on the 4th of
July.
IN THE MANUAL
1. What do you think holds the water in the bottles that, after being filled, are inverted in the
pneumatic trough?
Ans: Atmospheric pressure holds the water in the collecting bottles.
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2. From the results of Tests 1 and 2 in this experiment, what statement could be made about the
effect of oxygen on the process of combustion?
Ans: The pure oxygen supports and enhances combustion because normal air is only about
40% oxygen.
3. When sulfur is oxidized (combined with oxygen), of what chemical elements is the product
composed?
Ans: Sulfur and oxygen
4. In Test 4, the sulfur does not become part of the final product. Comparing Tests 3 and 4 of
this experiment, what was the purpose of the sulfur in Test 4?
Ans: The sulfur retains the heat and allows the iron to reach its kindling temperature so the
iron actually burns.
5. In Test 4, what happened to the iron wire? Of what chemical elements was the product of the
reaction composed?
Ans: The iron was oxidized. Iron and oxygen
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Why is it possible to collect oxygen by the displacement of water?

Ans: Oxygen does not react with water or dissolve in water.
2. How many grams of oxygen can be obtained from 100 g of KClO3?

K Cl O3
Ans: 39 + 35+ 48 = 122
100 x
=
122 48
x = 39 g
3. Write the electronic configuration for oxygen.

Ans: 1s 2 2 s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 4
4. Give the Period and Group number for oxygen.

Ans: Period 2, Group 6A
5. Oxygen is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust. Refer to Section 11.3 in the textbook
and look up the percentage (by weight) of oxygen in the Earth’s crust.
Ans: From the pie chart (Figure 11.9 on page 288) this percentage is 46.5 percent
112
Experiment 30
Percentage of Oxygen
in Potassium Chlorate
INTRODUCTION
The procedure of heating a test sample to a constant weight is often used by scientists in determining
the composition of compounds. In this experiment, when the weight difference between two
successive weighings is 0.01 g or less, it may be assumed that all the oxygen has been driven from the
potassium chlorate.
Caution students to heat the test tube gently and evenly, being careful not to generate any hot
spots on the test tube. To do this the Bunsen burner may have to be slowly moved back and forth
along its length.
The following data are typical for this experiment.
DATA TABLE 30.1

Weight of test tube and MnO2 21.45 g
Weight of test tube, MnO2, and KClO3 before heating 20.24 g
Weight of test tube and residue after heating 20.99 g
COMPUTATIONS
Weight of KClO3 0.46 g
Weight of oxygen driven off 38.0%
Percentage of oxygen in KClO3 21.45 g
From the formula KClO3 and the known atomic weights of its elements, calculate the
theoretical percentage of oxygen in potassium chlorate. Compare this with the value obtained in your
experiment by computing percent error; the percent error should be small.
Theoretical percentage of oxygen in KClO3 39.2%

Percent error in this data 3.1%
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IN THE MANUAL
1. What is the purpose of the manganese dioxide in this experiment?

Ans: The manganese dioxide is a catalyst. It speeds up the reaction in the experiment but
does not enter into the reaction products themselves.
2. What is the theoretical percentage of Cl in KClO3? Show your calculations.

K Cl O3
39 35 48 122
Ans: + + =
122 122 122 122
b g
35
× 100 = 29% for chlorine
122
3. What is the theoretical percentage of K in KClO3? Show your calculations.

K Cl O3
39 35 48 122
Ans: + + =
122 122 122 122
39
122
× 100 = 32% for potassium b g
4. What do you think is the greatest source of error in this experiment? Why?
Ans: Most students with poor results fail to remove all the oxygen from the KClO3. Some
students are not careful in using and reading the balance.
5. Balance the chemical equation:

________ KClO → _____ KCl + ________ O2
Ans: 2 KClO 3 → 2 KCl + 3O 2
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the residue remaining in the test tube after this experiment is completed?
Ans: Potassium chloride
2. Determine the percentage composition of KCl.

K Cl
Ans:
39 35 74
+ =
74 74 74
39
74
b
× 100 = 52.7% for potassium g
35
74
× 100 = 47.3% for chlorineb g
114
Experiment 31
Percentage of Oxygen
and Nitrogen in the Air
INTRODUCTION
This experiment will give the percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in the air within 5 percent of
accepted values, provided there are no air leaks in the system. A good test for leaks in the system can
be made as follows: With no heat applied to the combustion tube, pour 100 mL of water into bottle
B1. This will force 100 mL of air through the system that will be collected in bottle B2, providing
there are no leaks in the system. Carefully measure the volume of displaced gas in B2 to check this.
Caution: Do not allow students to remove the copper turnings from the combustion tube.
They tend to burn their fingers and consequently drop one end of the tube from the clamp. The tube
then falls on the table and breaks. Let the tubes cool completely before the copper turnings residue is
pushed carefully from the tubes with a wooden dowel rod.
The following data are typical for this experiment.
DATA TABLE 31.1

First Trial Second Trial
Number of mL of nitrogen 240 238
Number of mL of air forced through 300 300
COMPUTATIONS
Percentage of nitrogen in air 80% 79.3%
Percentage of oxygen in air 20% 20.7%
IN THE MANUAL
1. Why must the air be forced slowly through the combustion tube?
Ans: The air was forced slowly through the combustion tube to allow sufficient time for
the oxygen in the air to react with the copper so that only nitrogen passes on into the
collection bottle.
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2. If part of the 300 mL of water were lost by an overflow of the thistle tube, how would the
results of the experiment be affected?
Ans: If part of the 300 mL of water input was lost, then 300 mL of air would not be forced
through the combustion tube, and the experimental values for the percentage of
nitrogen would be too low.
3. If an air leak developed at the right end of the combustion tube, how would the results of the
experiment be affected?
Ans: A leak at the right end of the combustion tube would result in a loss in the amount of
nitrogen collected, which would give a lower percentage of nitrogen and a
correspondingly greater amount in the percentage of oxygen.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Which element, nitrogen or oxygen, has the greatest weight in a sample of normal air?
Ans: Nitrogen has the greatest weight.
2. Calculate the percentage composition of copper oxide (CuO).

Ans: Cu O
635. 16 79.5 635.
+ = × 100 = 79.9% copper
79.5 79.5 79.5 79.5
16
× 100 = 201%
. oxygen
79.5
3. Why was bottle B2, containing the collected nitrogen, covered and then placed upright on the
table?
Ans: To prevent any further loss of water left in the bottle after the 300 mL or air has been
processed.
116
Experiment 32
An Exothermic
Chemical Reaction
INTRODUCTION
The amount of heat given off during a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the concentration
of the reacting solutions. This experiment is written to illustrate this and to provide students with a
simple hands-on method for understanding the exothermic concept.
The calorimeter most widely used is the double-walled typed with a heavy, spun-aluminum
inner cup. If this is not available, construct a coffee-cup calorimeter using two polystyrene cups.
Place one cup inside the other, and place both in a beaker that will hold them firmly. If plastic cups
are not available, use glass beakers. Place one small beaker inside a larger beaker insulated from one
another by crumpled paper or some other insulating material.
No specific data are provided for this experiment. The slope of the graph should be
approximately 010. °C ml .
IN THE MANUAL
1. What does the graph indicate concerning the relationship between percent concentration of
solution and the changes in temperature?
Ans: The change in temperature is directly proportional to the percent concentration.
2. Explain the relationship between the heat released by the chemical reaction and the change in
temperature.
Ans: The heat released is directly proportional to the change in temperature.
3. Explain the slope of your graph.

Ans: The slope of the graph is a straight line indicating that the change in temperature is
directly proportional to the concentration.
4. How would the slope of your graph change if the volume of the solutions were doubled?
Explain your answer.
Ans: The slope will be approximately the same. The temperature change will be about the
same. The amount of heat released will be twice as much because the volume was
doubled.
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5. Assume that the chemical reaction between the NaOH and the HC1 is complete. (a) With the
100% standard solution, how many sodium ions react with how many chlorine ions? (b) With
the 25% solution, how many water molecules were formed?
Ans: For the 2.0 M standard solutions used here:
(a) Avogadro’s number × 2 that is 12.046 × 1023 sodium ions and the same
number of chlorine ions.
12.046 × 1023
(b) = 3.0115 × 1023 water molecules formed
4
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Define an exothermic reaction. Give an example.
Ans: An exothermic reaction is one that gives off heat. The combustion of methane (NH4)
is an example.
2. Is the burning of a match an exothermic reaction?

Ans: Yes.
3. Is an activation energy required to obtain the reaction in studied in this experiment?

Ans: No, the reaction takes place spontaneously when the two solutions are mixed at room
temperature.
118
Experiment 33
Avogadro’s Number
INTRODUCTION
If the classroom teacher has not lectured on Avogadro’s number, then briefly explain it at the
beginning of the laboratory class. You might give a quick review of the introduction to the
experiment and answer any students’ questions.
Caution students to be careful in washing and handling the copper anode and cathode. The
mass difference must be measured as accurately as possible. Also, the electric current must be kept
constant. Keep the solution well mixed at all times, and adjust the rheostat for any voltage
fluctuations to maintain a constant current reading on the milliameter.
The following data are above average but can be obtained if the student is careful in
determining the loss and gain in mass of the two copper electrodes.
SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 33.1

1. Current I = 1.92 A
2. Time t = 1800 s
3. Loss of mass of anode (original mass – final mass) mlost = 1.12 g
4. Gain of mass of cathode (final mass – original mass) mgained = 1.14 g

mlost + mgained
5. Average mass transferred maverage = maverage = 1.13 g
2
1. Determine the amount of flow of charge q.

q = It
q = _________ coulombs
Ans: . C s × 1800 s = 3456 C = 3.46 × 103 C
q = I × t = 192
C
Remember A = (units)
s
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2. Determine the number of electrons ne flowing through the solution, where
q
ne = −19
. × 10
16 coulomb
ne = _________ electrons
q
Ans: ne = −19
. × 10
16 coulomb
3
3.46 × 10 C
ne = = 2.16 × 1022 electrons
1.60 × 10 −19 C
3. Determine the number of copper atoms that were transferred from the anode to the cathode.
The charge carried by each copper atom is +2.
n
N c = no. of copper atoms transferred = e
2
N c = _________ electrons
This is the number of copper atoms in the amount of mass transferred between the anode and
cathode ( maverage ). Using this, we can set up a ratio of this mass to the mass of one gram
mole of copper (63.54 g) and set this equal to the ratio of copper atoms transferred to
Avogadro’s number:
maverage N c
=
m1 mole No
ne
Ans: nc =
2
2.16 × 1022
nc = = 1.08 × 1022 copper atoms
2
4. Determine the number of copper atoms N o in 1 mole of copper. This will be equal to
Avogadro’s number
m
N o = 1 mole N c
maverage
N o = __________
Ans: There are 63.54 g of copper in 1 mole so the following ratio can be set up.
b
6354
. g. : : N o : 1.08 × 1022
g: 114
. N o = 6354
114 b. × 1023
. × 108 g e j
N o = 6.02 × 1023 Note: this result is Avogadro’s number.
120
5. Determine your percent error using N0 = 6.022 × 1023 atoms/mole as the accepted value.
__________ %
6.02 × 1023 − 6.02 × 1023
Ans: % Error = × 100 = 0%
6.02 × 1023
For this data there is no error. Usual errors of around 6–8% are, however, common in
this experiment.
IN THE MANUAL
1. Define one mole, and give an example.

Ans: One mole is the amount of substance containing Avogadro’s number of any kind of
chemical unit. For example, one gram molecular weight of water is 18 g.
2. State the numerical value of Avogadro’s number.

Ans: 6.022 × 1023
3. How many sodium ions are there in one mole of sodium chloride (NaCl)? How many
chloride ions?
Ans: (a) Avogadro’s number
(b) Avogadro’s number
4. How many molecules are there in 47.8 grams of CuSO4?

47.8
Ans: × 6.02 × 1023 = 180
. × 1023 molecules
160
5. What do you think is the greatest source of error in this experiment? Why?
Ans: The greatest source of error is probably in the determination of the loss and gain in
mass of the two copper electrodes.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. State the periodic law of chemistry that is used to set up the periodic table.
Ans: The properties of elements are periodic functions of the atomic number.
2. Define one gram atomic weight.

Ans: The mass in grams of one mole of the naturally occurring atoms of an element.
3. Define electrolysis.
Ans: The separation of a compound into simpler substances through the use of an electric
current.
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4. How many oxygen atoms are there in one mole of copper sulfate?
Ans: There are 4 × 6.02 × 1023 atoms of oxygen in one mole of copper sulfate, because
there are 4 oxygen atoms in each copper sulfate molecule.
5. How many hydrogen atoms are there in 18.0145 g water?

Ans: There are 2 × 6.02 × 1023 atoms of hydrogen in one mole or 18.0145 g of H2O
because there are 2 hydrogen atoms in each water molecule.
122
Experiment 34
Molecular Structure
INTRODUCTION
Although the introduction to this experiment discusses chemical bonding, it may be worthwhile to
explain covalent and ionic bonding, again especially if students have not yet learned about chemical
bonding in the lecture class. Also explain the concepts of isomers and how the models should be
assembled and dismantled. A demonstration showing how to assemble and dismantle a model of CH4
is helpful.
This experiment uses a molecular-models kit to construct models of molecules, so no specific
data are provided.
IN THE MANUAL
1. What do the “dots” around and between the chemical symbols in the drawings in this experiment
represent?
Ans: The “dots” represent individual valence electrons.
2. What do the single, double, and triple “bars” between the chemical symbols in the drawing
represent?
Ans: The single “bar” represents the sharing or 1 pair, that is 2 electrons. The double “bar”
represents the sharing or 2 pair, that is 4 electrons. The triple “bar” represents the
sharing or 3 pair, that is 6 electrons.
3. How many valence electrons are associated with:

a hydrogen atom
a carbon atom
a nitrogen atom
a chlorine atom
Ans: 1 valence electron
4 valence electrons
5 valence electrons
7 valence electrons
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ADDITIONAL OR
1. Define covalent bond. Give an example.

Ans: Covalent bonding is bonding in which atoms share electrons.
H
|
Example: H2O O—H
2. What are isomers? Give an example.

Ans: Isomers are molecules that have the same molecular formula but a different structure
or arrangement of atoms, for example, n-butane and isobutane.
3. Distinguish between single, double, and triple bonds.

Ans: A single bond: Cl2 Cl — Cl
A double bond: CO2 O—C—O
A triple bond: N2 N—
—N
124
Experiment 35
Solutions and Solubility

INTRODUCTION
This experiment is not very exciting for many students, so if the equipment is available, give a
demonstration showing the Brownian movement or the Tyndall effect. If you demonstrate the Tyndall
effect, you will have to explain a colloidal suspension, unless the lecture-class instructor has already
introduced this concept.
Careful measurement of temperature is very important in this experiment and care must also
be taken not to spill solution when pouring it into the evaporating dish. Exact measurements of mass
are also critical.
IN THE MANUAL
1. Define the term solution. Give an example.

Ans: A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances—for example, sugar
and water.
2. What is a saturated solution?

Ans: A saturated solution is a solution in which the dissolved and undissolved solutes are
in equilibrium.
3. Distinguish between solvent and solute.

Ans: The solvent is the dissolving medium of a solution. The solute is the dissolved
substance in a solution.
4. Define solubility. Give an example.

Ans: The solubility of a given solute is the amount of solute that will dissolve in a
specified volume of solvent (at a given temperature) to produce a saturated solution.
5. Is solubility a function of temperature? Explain.

Ans: Yes, solubility is a function of temperature. Increasing the temperature usually
increases the solubility of solids in liquids because of increased molecular activity.
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ADDITIONAL OR
1. What effect would stirring the mixture have on the rate of dissolving the solid in a liquid?
Ans: Stirring increases the rate of dissolving.
2. What effect would powdering the solid have on the rate of dissolving the solid in a liquid?
Ans: Powdering the solid increases the rate of dissolving because it increases the surface
area of the solute in contact with the solvent.
126
Experiment 36
Pressure-Volume
Relationship of Gases
INTRODUCTION
Modern thermodynamics deals with the properties of systems for the description of which
temperature is an essential quantity. The zeroth law of thermodynamics states the existence of a
fundamental concept that we call temperature. The law defines temperature. The law states that if a
system is in thermal equilibrium with two other systems, then these two systems are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other. The word zeroth is used because the law was formulated after the first
and second laws were stated but is considered even more fundamental.
This experiment is concerned with a constant-temperature system. What is the relationship
between the volume and the absolute pressure of a gas held at constant temperature (Boyle’s law)?
The data in Data Table 36.1 were obtained using the apparatus shown in Figure 36.1in the Laboratory
Guide.
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SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 36.1

D = 2.40 cm A= π r2 = 4.52 cm2 = 4.52 × 10–4 m2
Mass Force F Pabs = Volume

Pmeas =
M F = mg A Pmeas + Patm Vcc Volume V Pabs × V
(kg) (N) (Pa) (Pa) (cc) (m3) (Pa ⋅ m3 )
0 0 0 1.01 18.2 18.2 1.84
1.00 9.80 2.17 1.23 16.0 16.0 1.97
2.00 19.60 4.34 1.44 14.1 14.1 2.03
3.00 29.40 6.50 1.66 11.2 11.2 1.86
4.00 39.20 8.68 1.88 9.9 9.9 1.86
5.00 49.00 10.80 2.09 8.7 8.7 1.82
6.00 58.80 13.02 2.31 7.6 7.6 1.76
7.00 68.60 15.20 2.53 7.0 7.0 1.77
Patm = 1.013 × 105 Pa (Pabs × V) av = 186 × 1010 Pa m3

% Difference in data = 11.3%
128
3.00
2.90 1
Pressure vs for a gas at constant temperatur e
volume
2.80
2.70
2.60
2.50
2.40
2.30
2.20
2.10
2.00
1.90
1.80
1.70
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.30
1.20
1.10
1.00
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
(
Volume m 3 × 10 6 )
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IN THE MANUAL
1. Explain the shape of the curve you have plotted.

Ans: The graph of P versus 1/V is a straight line because pressure is inversely proportional
to the volume when the temperature is held constant. The reciprocal of the volume
thus shows a direct relationship to the pressure.
2. State the relationship between the volume and pressure of a gas when the temperature is held
constant (Boyle’s law).
Ans: When the temperature is held constant, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional
to the volume.
3. Do the data taken in the experiment support the idea that the pressure times the volume for an
ideal gas is constant when the temperature remains at the same temperature?
Ans: Yes. See the last column in the data table.
4. The temperature of a gas is increased while the volume is held constant. Does the pressure
decrease, increase, or remain the same? Explain.
Ans: When the volume is held constant, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature. An increase in temperature increases the average kinetic energy
of the molecules as the pressure is increased.
5. A volume of gas is decreased by half while the temperature remains constant. How much
does the gas pressure change?
Ans: The new pressure will be twice as great.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. When the temperature is constant, does the product of volume and pressure hold for any
substance? Explain.
Ans: No. The relationship holds only for ideal gases but it is a very good approximation
for many real gases.
2. A sample of gas has a volume of 100 cm3 at a pressure of 80 cm of mercury and a

temperature of 27°C. What would be the volume if the temperature remains the same and the
pressure increases to 90 cm of mercury?
80
Ans: 80 × 100 cm3 = 90 × V V= × 100 cm3 = 88.9 cm3 = 89 cm3
90
3. Name the type of curve obtained in a graph of pressure versus volume.

Ans: Hyperbola
4. Which temperature scale must be used in the ideal gas formula?

Ans: If the pressure of a gas is held constant, the volume of the gas is directly proportional
to its absolute temperature, so the Kelvin temperature scale must be used.
130
Experiment 37
Chemical Qualitative
Analysis
INTRODUCTION
The objective of Experiments 37 and 38 is to provide students with sufficient experience to

distinguish between qualitative and quantitative analyses and to see how each analysis is
accomplished.
It is best to give an unknown sample containing only one or two ions. Not obtaining a
positive result makes students doubt whether they did the tests correctly. Having all three ions present
in the unknown sample gives the same results as the trial run and appears to some students as a repeat
performance of the analysis. This is probably the first experiment in which students will be handling
chemicals that can harm their body and clothing. Inform them about the proper care and handling of
reagents, showing them how to open, hold, and pour acids from reagent bottles. If not informed, many
students lay the bottle stopper on their book, papers, or the lab table.
The procedure and results for this experiment are shown in the flow diagram. No additional
data is provided.
IN THE MANUAL
1. What is the purpose of qualitative analysis?

Ans: Quantitative analysis is used to determine which chemical elements are present in a
specific physical sample.
2. How is any lead chloride in the sample removed in step 2?

Ans: Any lead chloride present is dissolved in the hot water that is poured through the
filter paper in this step and is carried away as part of the filtrate.
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3. What are the final indicators that show the presence of the following elements.
Pb _______________________________________________________________________
Hg _______________________________________________________________________
Ag _______________________________________________________________________
Ans: Pb—A yellow cloudy solution after step 3 shows the presence of lead.
Hg—A black precipitate in the filter paper after step 4 shows the presence of
mercury.
Ag—A change from clear to cloudy (white) of the filtrate after step 5 indicates the
pressure of silver.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Define qualitative analysis.

Ans: Qualitative analysis is the systematic effort to determine what elements are present in
a sample of unknown constituency.
2. Distinguish between a precipitate and a filtrate.

Ans: A precipitate is usually a solid that separates from a solution as a result of some
physical or chemical change and can be removed by filtration. A filtrate is the liquid
that has passed through a filter.
3. How was the lead chloride separated from chlorides of lead and mercury?
Ans: By adding hot water to the chlorides which dissolves only the lead chloride, if it is
present.
4. How were the silver ions separated from the lead ions?
Ans: The silver ions were separated from the lead ions by adding ammonium hydroxide to
the ions.
5. Describe how a 1.0 M solution of hydrochloric acid is prepared.

Ans: One mole of hydrochloric acid, HCl, has a mass of 36 g. Adding this amount of HCl
to enough water to make exactly 1 L of solution produces a 1.0 M solution.
132
Experiment 38
Chemical Quantitative
Analysis (Volumetric)
INTRODUCTION
The introduction for this experiment is given in Experiment 37. In Procedure 2, 1.0 M HCl and 0.5 M
NaOH were used for the data given in Table 38.2.
SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 38.1

Volume of vinegar 15 mL
Volume of sodium hydroxide 10 mL
COMPUTATIONS
Weight of volume of vinegar 15 g
Weight of acetic acid present 0.6 g
Percentage of acetic acid 4 %
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SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 38.2

Volume of hydrochloric acid 15 mL
Volume of sodium hydroxide solution 30 mL
COMPUTATIONS
Weight of volume of NaOH solution 15 g
Weight of NaOH present 1.2 g
Percentage of NaOH 4 %
IN THE MANUAL
1. Find the number of grams of KCl in 500 mL of a 3 molar solution.

K Cl
Ans: 39 + 35 = 74 g
A 1.0 M solution will contain 74 g/L solution.
A 3.0 M solution will contain 3 × 74 or 222 g/L solution. So 500 mL or 1/2 L will
contain 222/2 = 111 g of KCl per 500 mL of solution.
2. What would be the molarity of an NaCl solution if 250 g of salt is used to make 5 L of solution?
Na Cl
Ans: 23 + 35 = 58 g (1 gram-molecular weight)
250 g of solute (NaCl)/5 L solution is the same as 50 g of solute (NaCl) in a single
liter of solution. The molarity of this sample would be: 50/58, equal to 0.862 M.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Define one gram molecular weight. Give an example.

Ans: The mass of a molecular substance in grams equal to the sum of all the molecular
weights of the elements in the substance expressed in grams. Example: For water
bg b g
(H2O) 2 1 + 1 16 = 18 g
2. Define molarity. Give an example.

Ans: The concentration of a solution expressed in moles of solute per liter of solution. One
mole of NaCl 1 23 + 1 355 b g b g
. = 58.5 has a mass of 58.5 g. This amount of NaCl
dissolved in enough water to make exactly 1 L of solution produces a 1.0 M solution.
3. Explain how to make a 1.0 M solution of H2SO4.

bg b g b g
Ans: One mole of H2SO4 2 1 + 1 32 + 4 16 = 98 has a mass of 98 g. Dissolving this
amount of H2SO4 in enough water to make exactly 1 L of solution gives a 1.0 M
solution.
134
Experiment 39
Kepler’s Law
INTRODUCTION
Although this experiment pertains to Kepler’s law of equal areas, the instructor should review
Kepler’s other two laws of planetary motion. Also explain how the drawing at the end of the
experiment was obtained, mentioning that it is an exaggerated ellipse representing a planetary orbit
with the Sun at one focus. The actual path of a planet is more nearly a circle.
The five triangles for Figure 39.2 in the Laboratory Guide were drawn and data for the
experiment are given below. Suggest to your students that they begin with triangle number 1 as
shown in the sample completed drawing of Figure 39.2/A, and number the other triangles as
illustrated. This will make it easier for the grader to check the student’s experiment. The sample data
provided show the accuracy that can be obtained in this experiment if is done carefully.
It is very important to remind students to construct the perpendicular exactly 90° to the
longest line (emphasize longest line), not at some angle other than 90°. Many students ignore this
instruction and obtain very poor results.
Triangle 6
Triangle 1
Triangle 5
Triangle 2
Triangle 4
Triangle 3
A Drawing showing the elliptical path of a revolving body with one possible set
of triangles drawn in.
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SAMPLE DATA
DATA TABLE 39.1

W ×h
Triangle Width W (cm) Height h (cm) Area of Triangle
2
cm2 e j
1 09.40 3.20 15.0
2 15.25 1.90 14.5
3 16.60 1.75 14.5
4 16.20 1.85 15.0
5 12.10 2.45 14.8
6 07.90 3.75 14.8
Average area = 14.8
% difference = 3.0%
1. What would happen if both pins in Procedure 1 were located at the same point, that is, right
next to each other actually touching? (Try it if you need to, so that you can see what the result
would be.)
Ans: The line traced out will be a circle.
2. In Figure 39.2 the time interval between the dots is 0.10 seconds. What is the overall period
for one swing of the pendulum bob that was photographed to make this figure?
Ans: There are 18 spaces between the dots so: 18 × 0105 . = 185
. .
3. What is the period (time for one complete revolution) for the planet Earth to travel around the
Sun on its elliptical path?
Ans: 365 days
4. If Fig. 39.2 represents a planet with the same period as Earth, how long does it take for the
planet to move from one dot to the next?
Ans: Time = 365 days/18 dots = 20.3 days.
5. Remembering that each set of dots is separated by the same time interval, where on its
elliptical path will the planet be traveling the fastest?
Ans: A planet will travel at its greatest speed when it is closest to the Sun where the dots
are farthest apart.
136
6. If Earth is closest to the Sun in January of each year, what can we say about the speed of
Earth in its orbit around the Sun at this time of year?
Ans: In January the speed of Earth in its orbit around the Sun will be the greatest that it is
all year.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Earth is closest to the Sun in January and farthest from the Sun in July. Compare the number
of seconds in an Earth day for these two months.
Ans: The number of seconds in an Earth day is greater in January, because Earth is closer
to the Sun in January and traveling at a greater orbital speed. Greater orbital speed
causes Earth to travel a greater orbital distance. Thus Earth must rotate through a
greater angle for one complete day to occur, that is, from 12 noon to 12 noon.
2. A pencil, two thumbtacks, and a loop of string with a circumference of 29 cm are used to
draw an ellipse. How does the shape of the ellipse change as the distance between the two
thumbtacks is increased?
Ans: The ellipse becomes more egg-shaped as the distance between the two tacks is
increased, that is, the eccentricity increases as the distance between the two tacks
increases.
3. The average distance between Earth and the Sun is 9.3 × 107 mi. Assume a circular orbit for
Earth and calculate the distance Earth travels in 1 year.
Ans: Circumference = 2π r = 2π × 9.3 × 107 mi
. × 108 mi
d = 58
4. Use the distance calculated in Question 3 and determine Earth’s speed in mi/h.
d 5.8 × 108 mi
Ans: v= = = 6.7 × 104 mi h
t 365 days × 24 hours
1 day
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Experiment 40
Stars and Their

Apparent Motions
INTRODUCTION
This is a long experiment, and it is difficult for some students. The instructor should go through the
discussion part of the experiment step by step with the entire class, especially the setting of the
celestial sphere. Explain how this sphere is set for a latitude, a day, and a time of day. Have the
students set the sphere as you give the directions, answering questions as you proceed. Circulate in
the laboratory, checking to see if students have the sphere set correctly. Pay particular attention to the
angle for the correct altitude of the pole star. Always have students count the number of degrees to
make sure the sphere is set correctly. Many students make an error in setting the celestial sphere for
this angle and get incorrect answers when using it to solve problems.
The following data are for October 26. If you want answers for the experiment to match the
dots given here, tell your students to use this same date. Many students will have trouble with
Questions 4, 5, and 6 in Procedure 2. For this date (October 26) the answers will be easier to obtain if
the star Vega is used instead of Sirius.
PROCEDURE 1
1. Declination of the Sun 7° S

Right ascension of the Sun 13 hours
Altitude of the Sun 83°
Altitude of Polaris 0°
2. Altitude of the Sun 22° above the western horizon

Altitude of Polaris at this time 0°
3. Altitude of the Sun 12° below the horizon

4. Altitude of the Sun 12° below the horizon

5. Altitude of the Sun 39°

Time of sunrise 7:30 A.M.
Time of sunset 5:30 P.M.
Hours of daylight 11
Hours of darkness 13
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Daylight hours at equator 12
Daylight hours at north pole 0
Daylight hours at south pole 24
Apparition 51°N to 90°N
Occultation 51°S to 90°S
6. Declination of the Sun (June 21) 23.5°N

Declination of the Sun (December 21) 23.5°S
Altitude of the Sun on June 21 74.5°
Degrees east of due south for sunrise on June 21 108°
Degrees west of due south for sunset on June 21 108°
Altitude of the Sun on December 21 28.5°
Degrees east of due south for sunrise on December 21 56°
Degrees west of due south for sunset on December 21 56°
PROCEDURE 2
1. See the drawing on the following page for this answer.
2. Great Nebula in Andromeda on the overhead meridian 10:42 P.M.
3. Declination +41°
Right ascension Zero hours 42 min
4. Time Sirius will rise 11:20 P.M.
5. Sirius on the overhead meridian at 4:45 A.M.
6. Altitude of Sirius 35°
Cassiopeia
Polaris
Little
Dipper
39°
Big
Dipper
Northern horizon
Diagram for stars as seen on October 10 at 10:00 P.M. from 40°N latitude
140
IN THE MANUAL
1. How does the declination of the Sun vary over 1 year?

Ans: The declination of the Sun varies from 23.5°N to 23.5°S back to 23.5°N during 1
year. The starting point for the answer is optional, but you must start at 23.5° or less.
2. Where on the ecliptic is the vernal equinox located?

Ans: The vernal equinox is located on the celestial sphere where the Sun crosses the
celestial equator going from south to north.
3. How does the altitude of the North Star vary for an observer located at the equator? At 39°N?
Ans: For an observer at the equator, the altitude of Polaris is 0° at all times. For an
observer at 39°N, the altitude of Polaris is 39° at all times.
4. Why was the globe rotated westward when positioning the celestial sphere to portray a P.M.
(afternoon) local time?
Ans: The globe was rotated westward to portray a P.M. local time because the Sun appears
to travel westward across the sky as the day progresses.
5. Does the Sun ever set north of due west for an observer located at Washington, D.C. (39°N)?
What time of year would this occur?
Ans: Yes, during the winter months of each year.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. From your local latitude, what is the declination of a star that appears on the southern horizon
(0° altitude)?
Ans: The answer depends on the latitude as perceived by the observer. The star will be 90°
south of the observer’s position. Example: If the observer is at 40°N, the declination
of the star will be 90° south of 40°N. The answer is 50°S.
2. What is the maximum altitude of the Sun for an observer located at the north pole (90°N)?
On what date will the Sun be observed at the maximum altitude?
Ans: Maximum altitude is 23.5°, which will be observed at the time of summer solstice
(June 21 ± 2 days).
3. It is July and you are in your hometown. As you travel northward toward the north pole, how
does the number of daylight hours vary? How does the number of daylight hours vary as you
travel southward toward the south pole?
Ans: The number of daylight hours increases as you travel northward. As you travel
southward the number of daylight hours decreases.
4. Answer Question 3 using January as the date.

Ans: The number of daylight hours decreases as you travel northward. The daylight hours
increase as you travel southward.
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5. Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is 8.7 ly from the Sun. Determine Sirius’ declination and
right ascension.
Ans: Declination: 16° 39’; right ascension: 6 h 43 min as found on the celestial sphere.
The distance that the star is from the Sun does not affect this answer.
6. Sirius, the brightest star in the sky, is part of what constellation?

Ans: Canis major as found on the celestial sphere or in stellar tables.
142
Experiment 41
Locating Stars in
the Night Sky
INTRODUCTION
Looking at the night sky, even without a telescope, can be interesting and fun. Some students really
enjoy pointing out the brightest stars and the shapes of constellations to their families and friends.
This experiment uses star charts, a celestial sphere, and actual observation of the stars to teach
students how to find their way around the night sky during one of the four seasons of the year.
EQUIPMENT AND
PROCEDURE TIPS
Procedures 1 and 2: The first element of this study involves the use of two star charts that show the
position of the brightest stars in the night sky for observers at 40°N latitude. There are actually four
sets of these paired star charts, one set for each season of the year. Choose the pair of star charts that
best represents the sky for the current season of the year. The first star chart in each pair shows not
only the brightest stars but also the outline of the constellations in which these stars are found. The
second star chart in each pair shows only the stars. After studying the outline of the constellations and
the names of the brightest stars on the first star chart, the student is to fill in from memory as much
data as possible on the second chart, which shows only the stars. All four sets of seasonal star charts
are provided in the Laboratory Guide, so the only additional equipment needed for this part of the
experiment is a pencil.
Procedure 3: After about 10 minutes of work from memory, the students are allowed to
compare their work on the second chart with the first one showing the constellations and star names.
This is a very important part of the experiment. It allows the students to immediately check on the
accuracy and completeness of their knowledge of the star charts for the current season of the year and
also reinforces that knowledge so that they will be more prepared to find stars in the night sky. Notice
that the star charts can be used for any month by adjusting the observer’s viewing time as indicated at
the bottom of each chart. This allows one chart to serve each season of the year.
Procedure 4: A table of stars in the Laboratory Guide provides the names of eight of the
brightest stars that are found in the night sky during each season of the year. After the names of the
stars being studied during the chosen season of the year have been transferred to Data Table 41.1 in
the Laboratory Guide, students should fill in the names of the appropriate constellations; then they
should use a celestial sphere to find each star and determine its right ascension, declination, altitude,
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zenith angle, and the approximate compass direction for the current date at 9:00 P.M. local solar time.
The procedures for using a celestial sphere are explained in Experiment 40 and will not be repeated here.
If a celestial sphere is not available, the right ascension and declination can be found from a star
atlas or from the master list of stars provided in this Instructor’s Guide (Table B). The compass direction
can be determined from the star charts by drawing a North––South, East––West coordinate system
through the observer’s zenith point (the center of the circle on the star chart). A line can then be drawn
from the center of the chart through the star and its compass direction determined by using a protractor.
The altitude and zenith angle are not as easy to find without a celestial sphere because any polar
projection map becomes greatly distorted toward the edges. The best you will be able to do is a rough
estimate of these values. Remember that Polaris has an altitude of 40º if you are located at 40ºN latitude.
This can give you some guidance as to the general altitude of other stars on the star charts.
The student is asked to find information for the current date and for the same hour (9:00 P.M.
local solar time) as the star charts indicate. This time may be adjusted to Standard Time if you wish,
but the location of the stars will be within 0.5 hours (about 7º) of their correct locations no matter
where you are located with respect to the nearest standard meridian. Therefore, the sky will appear
much the same whether or not this correction is made. Daylight Savings Time, however, should be
taken into account because this can cause about 15º of shift in the position of the stars. If you are on
Daylight Savings Time, subtract 1 hour from the times indicated on the star charts.
Procedure 5: Again, the master list of stars provided in this Instructor’s Guide (Table B) can
be used to fill in Data Table 41.3 in the Laboratory Guide if a good star atlas is not available. You
may wish to make several photocopies of Table B for in-class use. The right ascension and
declination that are filled in during this step should be checked to see that the data in Data Table 41.1
in the Laboratory Guide was found correctly using the celestial sphere. If the values are not close, the
student should recheck all the information for that star again. The data in both Data Tables 41.1 and
41.2 in the Laboratory Guide will help the students find the stars in the actual night sky in the next
procedure. Note that all the stars used are second magnitude or brighter, so they will be the key stars
observed when the students look up into a clear sky at night.
The spectral class and the color of a star as seen in the night sky are correlated in Table A. You
also may wish to provide a copy of this table for student use when they compare their observations in
Data Table 41.3 with the data taken in Data Tables 41.1 and 41.2 in the Laboratory Guide.
Table A
Color Spectral Class
Reddish K and M class stars
Yellow G class stars
White A and F class stars
Blue-white O and B class stars
Procedure 6: The real fun of this experiment comes in applying all the information learned
in Procedures 1–5 to understanding and observing the night sky. Data Table 41.3 in the Laboratory
Guide provides space for recording each student’s actual observations. Data Table 41.2 in the
Laboratory Guide should be used as a reference when the student goes outside to observe the night
sky. This table, along with the star charts, gives the altitude and compass direction for each of the
brightest stars. This information should be very helpful when actually locating these stars in the sky.
After the stars have been located, their observed zenith angle and compass direction are
recorded along with the apparent magnitude (brightness) and the observed color of each star. These
colors are sometimes quite subtle, especially if there is haze or dust in the air. The best way to note
the difference in color is to compare one star to another while observing them in the sky. Table A can
be used to compare the observed color of each star to the color associated with its spectral class.
144
Procedure 7: A good source of data on planets currently observable in the night sky may be
found in either Sky and Telescope or Astronomy. These magazines can be purchased at most
newsstands or supermarkets. Since these magazines show data for one month in advance of their
release dates, you should purchase a copy about 30 days before you plan to give out information to
your students. Your local library or school library also may have copies of these magazines. Up-do-
date star charts and tables show the position of the planets. The information is given near the center of
both of these publications. The answers to Questions 1 and 2 at the end of Procedure 7 should be
given to the students before they go outside to observe the night sky. They should provide the
answers to Questions 3 and 4 from their actual observations.
Table B The Twenty-Five Brightest Stars (as Seen from 40ºN Latitude)
Apparent Spectral
Star Right Ascension Declination Magnitude Luminosity* Class

h min degrees
Adhara 6 57 –28.9 1.6 9000 B
Aldebaran 4 34 +16.5 0.9 150 K
Algol 3 06 +40.8 2.1 V** 130 B
Alnitak 5 39 –2.0 1.8 35000 O
Altair 19 49 +8.8 0.8 10 A
Antares 16 28 –26.3 1.0 10000 M

Arcturus 14 14 +19.4 –0.1 110 K
Bellatrix 5 24 +6.4 1.6 3800 B
Betelgeuse 5 54 +7.4 0.4 V** 15000 M
Capella 5 14 +46.0 0.1 140 G
Castor 7 33 +32.0 1.6 35 A

Deneb 20 40 +45.2 1.3 55000 A
Dubhe 11 02 +61.9 1.8 150 K
Elnath 5 24 +28.6 1.7 1500 B
Fomalhaut 22 56 –29.7 1.2 13 A
Mirfak 3 22 +49.8 1.8 4700 F

Mirzam 6 21 –17.9 2.0 7000 B
Polaris 2 03 +89.1 2.5 5500 F
Pollux 7 43 +28.1 1.2 33 K
Procyon 7 37 +5.4 0.4 8 F
Regulus 10 07 +12.1 1.4 155 B

Rigel 5 13 –8.3 0.2 55000 B
Sirius 6 43 –16.7 –1.6 23 A
Spica 13 24 –11.0 1.0 1700 B
Vega 18 36 +38.8 0.0 52 A
*Luminosity is expressed as a multiple of the absolute brightness of the Sun.
**V indicates a variable magnitude star.
Sample Data: Data taken for the date April 21 at 9:00 P.M.
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SAMPLE DATA FOR SPRING
DATA TABLE 41.1
Name of Right Zenith Compass
Star Constellation Ascension Declination Altitude Angle Direction
h min
Aldeberan Bootes 14 12 +20º.0 45º 45º 8ºS of E
Algol Areiga 5 16 45º.0 32º 58º 38ºN of W
Altair Gemini 7 30 +31º.0 55º 35º 6ºN of W
Capella Ursa Minor 2 03 +89º.0 40º 50º North
Deneb Gemini 7 40 +28º.0 55º 35º 5ºS of W
Formaihaut Canis Minor 7 32 +5≤°.0 32º 58º 20ºS of W
Polaris Leo 10 08 +13º.0 62º 28º 67ºS of W
Vega Virgo 13 20 –10.5º 30º 60º 48ºS of E
Note: Altitude + zenith angle = 90°
DATA TABLE 41.2

Luminosity
Name of Right Apparent Compared Spectral
Star Ascension Declination Magnitude to Sun Class
h min
1 Arcturus 14 14 +19.4º –0.1 110 K
2 Capella 5 14 +46.0º 0.1 140 G
3 Castor 7 33 +32.0º 1.6 35 A
4 Polaris 2 03 +89.1º 2.5 5500 F
5 Pollux 7 43 +28.1º 1.2 33 K
6 Procyon 7 37 +5.4º 0.4 8 F
7 Regulus 10 07 +12.1º 1.4 155 B
8 Spica 13 24 –11.0º 1.0 1700 B
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DATA TABLE 41.3
Approximate Approximate Apparent Apparent
Name of Zenith Compass Color Magnitude
Star Constellation Angle Direction of Star of Star
1 Arcturus Boötes 45º 10ºS of E Reddish 1st
2 Capella Auriga 60º 40ºN of W Yellow 1st
3 Castor Gemini 35º 10ºN of W Blue-white 2nd

4 Polaris Ursa Minor 50º North White 2nd
5 Pollux Gemini 35º 5ºS of W Reddish 1st
6 Procyon Canis Minor 60º 25ºS of W White 1st
7 Regulus Leo 30º 70ºS of W Blue-white 1st
8 Spica Virgo 60º 50ºS of E Blue-white 1st
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the brightest star in the sky other than the Sun?
Ans: Sirius, which has an apparent magnitude of –1.6.
2. How do we specify the location of a star on the celestial sphere?

Ans: We use two coordinates called right ascension and declination to specify a star’s
position.
3. How do we specify the location of a star in the night sky?

Ans: We use two coordinates, altitude or zenith angle, and compass direction.
4. Define altitude.
Ans: The altitude of a star or other object in the sky is the angular distance above the
horizon at which that star or object can be found at that date and time.
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Experiment 42
Motions and Phases

of the Moon
INTRODUCTION
This experiment will be easier for students to complete because they have now had experience with
the celestial sphere. It is worthwhile to demonstrate the motion and phases of the moon using a light
bulb for the Sun, an Earth globe, and a ball about one-fourth the diameter of the Earth globe for the
Moon. The demonstration is more effective when performed in a darkened laboratory. This attracts
the students’ attention, and they are unable to read or work on the experiment in the dark.
The use of masking tape to represent the Sun and the Moon on the celestial sphere is a must.
The students have a difficult time using only figures to keep track of the positions for the Sun and the
Moon on the celestial sphere.
The celestial globe does not fit perfectly in the cradle, so the answers obtained may not be all
that precise. When grading, allow ±3° in angle measurements and ±12 min in time measurements.
PROCEDURE 1
DATA
(a) Altitude (Moon on overhead meridian) 27.5°
(b) Altitude (Moon on overhead meridian) 51°

Local solar time the Moon rises 7 A.M.
Local solar time the Moon sets 5 P.M.
(c) Altitude (Moon on overhead meridian) 74.5°

Local solar time the Moon rises 4:45 A.M.
Local solar time the Moon sets 7:15 P.M.
(d) Altitude (Moon on overhead meridian) 51°

Local solar time the Moon rises 5:45 A.M.
Local solar time the Moon sets 6:15 P.M.
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PROCEDURE 2
Washington, D.C. (39°N, 77°W) is the observer’s position. Assume that Washington is on Eastern
Standard Time, rather than Daylight Saving Time.
(a) Date of new moon September 23

Altitude (Moon on overhead meridian) 51°
(b) Date of first-quarter moon October 1

Local solar time first-quarter moon is on overhead meridian 6 P.M.
Standard time first-quarter moon is on overhead meridian 6:08 P.M.
Altitude of first-quarter moon when on overhead meridian 28°
Rising time (local solar) of first-quarter moon 1 P.M.
Rising time (standard) of first-quarter moon 1:08 P.M.
Setting time (local solar) of first-quarter moon 10:30 P.M.
Setting time (standard) of first-quarter moon 10:38 P.M.
(c) With the passing of another 7 3/8 days, the Moon will be in full phase. Solve for the
following information using previously learned facts and the celestial sphere.
Date of full moon October 8
Local solar time full moon is on the overhead meridian 12 midnight
Standard time full moon is on the overhead meridian 12:08 A.M.
Altitude of full moon when on overhead meridian 58°
Rising time (local solar) of full moon 5:20 P.M.
Rising time (standard) of full moon 5:28 P.M.
Setting time (local solar) of full moon 6:20 A.M.
Setting time (standard) of full moon 6:28 A.M.
Degrees east of due south at which full moon rises 87°
Degrees west of due south at which full moon sets 87°
(d) When the Moon has revolved to 270° east of the Sun, it will be in the last-quarter phase.
Solve for the following information using previously learned facts and the celestial sphere.
Date of last-quarter moon October 15
Local solar time last-quarter moon is on the meridian 6 A.M.
Standard time last-quarter moon is on the meridian 6:08 A.M.
Altitude of last-quarter moon when on overhead meridian 73°
Rising time (local solar) of last-quarter moon 10:40 P.M. Oct. 14
Rising time (standard) of last-quarter moon 10:48 P.M. Oct. 14
Setting time (local solar) of last-quarter moon 1:20 P.M.
Setting time (standard) of last-quarter moon 1:20 P.M.
IN THE MANUAL
1. During what month will the full moon achieve its maximum altitude, as observed from Wash-
ington, D.C. (39°N)? When will it have its minimum altitude?
Ans: The full moon will be observed at maximum altitude during the month of December
from latitude 39°N. Minimum altitude will be observed during the month of June.
150
2. Is it possible to see a waxing crescent moon on the overhead meridian at 10 A.M. local time?
How about at 4 P.M. local time? Explain your answers.
Ans: A waxing crescent moon cannot be observed on the overhead meridian at 10 A.M.
local time but can be seen on the overhead meridian at 4 P.M. The waxing crescent
moon begins as the new moon ends (12 noon local solar time), continues for 7 3/8
days, and ends at the time of the first-quarter phase of the moon. Because the new
moon occurs at 12 noon local solar time, and the first quarter at 6 P.M., the waxing
crescent can be seen on the overhead meridian between these two times.
3. In this experiment, what is the maximum possible error in degrees that could be made in deter-
mining the Moon’s altitude by assuming the Moon traveled in the same plane as the ecliptic?
Ans: The maximum possible error would be plus or minus 5°.
4. Assuming the Moon actually travels in the same plane as the ecliptic, how many total lunar
eclipses would occur each year? How many total solar eclipses?
Ans: There would be a total of 12 lunar and 12 solar eclipses each year if the two planes
were the same.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. For an observer at the equator, what will be the time the full moon rises on February 1?
Ans: The full moon rises about 6 P.M. local solar time.
2. Will the full moon’s rising time for an observer at 40°N on February 1 be the same, earlier, or
later than the rising time for an observer at the equator?
Ans: The full moon will rise earlier for the observer at 40°N.
3. Is it possible for an observer at 28°N to see the full moon on the zenith? Why or why not?
Ans: It is possible for an observer at 28°N to see the full moon on his or her zenith. The
maximum northern latitude of the Moon is 23.5° + 5° or 28.5°.
4. What is the maximum altitude of the full moon as observed from Washington, D.C. (39°N)?
How often will this maximum altitude occur?
Ans: The maximum altitude will be
90° – [39° – (23.5° + 5°)] = 79.5°
This will occur once every 18.6 years. The orbital plane of the Moon precesses and
makes one complete cycle in 18.6 years. The 5° angle is added to 23.5° once every
18.6 years.
5. If the Moon revolved in the equatorial plane, what would be the maximum altitude of full
moon for an observer at Washington, D.C.? How often would the maximum altitude occur?
Ans: The maximum altitude would be 90° – 39° = 51°. Maximum altitude of the full moon
would occur once every 29.5 days.
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6. The average distance from Earth to the moon is approximately 238,000 mi.
(a) Calculate the average orbital speed of the Moon in mi/h.
(b) Compare this with Earth’s orbital speed around the Sun.
Ans: (a) C = 2π r = 2π × 238,000 mi = 15. × 106 mi
d 1.5 × 106 mi
v= = = 2.1 × 103 mi h
t 29.5 days × 24 h
1 day
(b) Refer to Additional Question 4 in Experiment 39 for the orbital speed of

Earth.
6.7 × 104 mi h
= 32
2.1 × 103 mi h
Earth’s orbital speed is about 32 times greater than the Moon’s orbital speed.
152
Experiment 43
Observing the Phases

of the Moon
INTRODUCTION
This experiment is done outside of class by observing the Moon over a period of several weeks to
learn its phases and when it will be visible in these various phases. All observations will be made with
the unaided eye, so telescopes and binoculars are not required. The observing sequence can begin at
any time during the month, but the students must be told the dates of the next full- or new-moon
phases so that they can plan their observations accordingly.
Data Table 43.2 can be filled in at any time. It might be a good idea to have the students do
this on the day that this assignment is first given so that they will have a reference that indicates the
time when each phase of the Moon will be above the horizon. In this table the Moon is assumed to be
above the horizon for 12 hours each day. In reality, the duration of time the Moon is up can vary by
one or more hours depending on the season of the year. If you are observing from the northern
hemisphere in the summertime, the new moon will be above the horizon longer than our assumed 12
hours because it is high in the sky with the Sun. This corresponds to the longer hours of daylight
observed during the summer for residents of the northern hemisphere. In contrast, during the summer,
the full moon will be low on the horizon and above the horizon less than 12 hours each day because
its declination is 23.5°S during this season of the year. In the winter, the reverse is true. The duration
of time that the Moon is actually above the horizon also varies with latitude. The rising and setting
times in Data Table 43.1 are only a rough guide as to when the Moon actually will be on the
observer’s horizon.
Data Table 43.2 is to be completed outside of class and can only be filled in on days when the
sky is clear enough for the Moon to be seen. You may want the students to record each date for about
two-thirds of a month, indicating observational data as well as those dates on which no observation
could be made because of the weather, or you can have students skip the dates when no observation
was made, leaving room in the table for a full month of observations.
The observing location, phase of the Moon, date and time of observation (using standard time as
read from your everyday clock) must be recorded. The altitude may be difficult to estimate unless you
have your students build a simple astrolabe from a piece of cardboard, a straw, a piece of string, and a
weight such as a small nut or washer. (See Science Resources for Schools,* Vol. 3, No. 1.) Even if only a
rough estimate is made, the student should be able to get to within about 10° of the correct altitude by
using a simple hand-span calculation. (When your arm is held straight out, one hand-span covers about
15° of sky.) The student also must know the direction of due south in order to estimate the compass
direction of the Moon at the time of observation. Here the degree markings on a homemade astrolabe
may be helpful. An estimate to within 5 to 10 degrees is all that is normally expected for this reading.
*Sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1333 H St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005.
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The last column in Data Table 43.2 requires that the local solar time be calculated when the
Moon will be (or was) on the observer’s overhead meridian. Using the fact that one hour passes for
each 15° that the Moon is east or west of your overhead meridian, you must estimate the time the
Moon will be on your overhead meridian. This correction is then added to or subtracted from the time
of observation to give the standard time at which the Moon was or will be on your overhead meridian
that day. This time cannot be compared directly with the information in Data Table 43.1 until it has
been changed to local solar time. The difference between standard time and local solar time depends
on where you are with respect to your nearest standard meridian.
The standard time zones in the continental United States and the meridians that keep the
mean times are Eastern Standard Time (EST) 75°W, Central Standard Time (CST) 90°W, Mountain
Standard Time (MST) 105°W, and Pacific Standard Time (PST) 120°W.
After the local longitude is known, we can then determine how many degrees east or west of
the nearest standard meridian your observation point will be. The time correction is 4 minutes for
each degree. The local solar time will be later if you are west of the nearest standard meridian and
earlier if you are east of the nearest standard meridian.
The sample data given below are for observations made from Zanesville, Ohio (40°N, 82°W).
The time correction will be for the Eastern Standard Time zone.
82°W – 75°W = 7°
7° × 4 minutes = 28 minutes, or about 0.5 hours
Since this observation site is west of the 75°W standard meridian, the local solar time (LST)
will be later than the clock time (EST), and the estimated time for the Moon to be overhead will be
0.5 hours later than the EST (clock time) of the observation.
DATA TABLE 43.1

Moon on Overhead
Phase Moon Rises Meridian Moon Sets
New moon 6:00 A.M. 12:00 noon 6:00 P.M.
Waxing crescent 9:00 A.M..* 3:00 P.M.* 9:00 P.M.*
First quarter 12:00 noon 6:00 P.M. 12:00 midnight
Waxing gibbous 3:00 P.M.* 9:00 P.M.* 3:00 A.M.*
Full moon 6:00 P.M. 12:00 midnight 6:00 A.M.
Waning gibbous 9:00 P.M.* 3:00 A.M.* 9:00 A.M.*
Third quarter 12:00 midnight 6:00 A.M. 12:00 noon
Waning crescent 3:00 A.M.* 9:00 A.M.* 3:00 P.M.*
*The times marked with an asterisk must be considered the center point of a ± 3 hour range because the crescent and
gibbous phases of the Moon last for nearly a week, so the times for rising, being overhead, and setting can be within a six
hour range.
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DATA TABLE 43.2
Personal Observation Log (Sample data)
Date/Time of Estimated LST
Observing Phase of Observation Altitude/ Time When the
Location for the Moon (Standard Time) Direction Moon Was or Will
this Record Observed DST of the Moon Be Overhead*
Home Full 6/14 / 10:30 P.M. 15° / 40°E of S 12:00 midnight
Home Waning gibbous 6/15 / 10:30 P.M. 05° / 50°E of S 01:00 A.M.
— Waning gibbous 6/16 / Cloudy
Work Waning gibbous 6/17 / 7:30 A.M. 05° / 45°W of S 02:00 A.M.
Home Waning gibbous 6/20 / 7:30 A.M. 35° / 35°W of S 04:30 A.M.
Home Waning gibbous 6/21 / 7:30 A.M. 40° / 20°W of S 05:00 A.M.
Work 3rd quarter 6/22 / 7:30 A.M. 50° / 15°W of S 06:00 A.M.
Work Waning crescent 6/23 / 7:30 A.M. 55° / South 07:00 A.M.
— Waning crescent 6/24 / Cloudy
Work Waning crescent 6/26 / 7:30 A.M. 55° / 65°E of S 09:30 A.M.
Home Waning crescent 6/27 / 7:30 A.M. 45° / 80°E of S 10:00 A.M.
Work Waning crescent 6/29 / 10:30 A.M. 60° / 70°E of S 11:30 A.M.
Work New moon 6/30 / 10:30 A.M. 45° / 80°E of S 12:00 noon
Work Waxing crescent 07/1 / 10:30 A.M. 55° / 45°W of S 12:30 P.M.
*Corrected by adding 0.5 hour for longitude position and adding 1.0 hour for Daylight Savings Time.
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This experiment should be closely monitored, not just assigned and then ignored until the
observation period is completed. Check the students’ progress each week, and make sure that they are
using the proper observing and data-recording procedures. Students who complete this exercise
usually become quite interested in observing the Moon, and whole families often get involved with
these observations. One of our students reported that after several weeks of these “family”
observations his 5-year-old brother stopped in the middle of a supermarket parking lot one afternoon
and yelled “Look Mommy, there’s the Moon, there’s the Moon,” and nearly everyone in the parking
lot stopped to look. Few people expect to find the Moon in the sky during the daytime hours. This
experiment seems to be the kind of science project that successfully gets students and their families
interested in observing the natural world around them.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. Why does an observer on Earth always see the same side of the Moon’s surface?
Ans: The Moon rotates on its axis with the same period as it revolves around Earth, so the
same side always faces our planet.
2. During which phase of the Moon can a lunar eclipse occur? During which phase can a solar
eclipse occur?
Ans: Lunar eclipses occur at the full-moon phase; solar eclipses occur at the new-moon
phase.
3. Make a drawing illustrating the positions of the Sun, the Moon, and Earth during a total solar
eclipse. Show the shadows of both the Moon and Earth. (It is not necessary to make the
drawing to scale.)
Ans: See Figure 17.9 in the textbook.
4. The term terminator refers to the boundary line dividing day and night on the surface of a
planet or moon. In this experiment, it is the line between the bright and dark side of the
Moon. State the phase of the Moon when the terminator is the (a) sunrise line, (b) sunset line.
Ans: (a) waxing phase; (b) waning phase.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What phase follows directly after the new phase of our Moon?
Ans: Waxing crescent
2. How long does it take for the Moon to go from new phase to first-quarter phase?
Ans: About 7 3/8 days
3. At what local solar time will the first-quarter moon be on an observer’s overhead meridian?
Ans: 6:00 P.M.
156
4. What type of eclipse can be observed when part of Earth is in the shadow of the Moon?
Ans: A solar eclipse will occur at this time for people within the shadow region.
5. The Sun and the Moon are both on an observer’s overhead meridian during what phase of the
Moon?
Ans: New moon
6. At what angle is the orbit of the Moon around Earth inclined with respect to the orbital plane
of Earth around the Sun?
Ans: Five degrees
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Experiment 44
Hubble’s Law
INTRODUCTION
This is a math-oriented experiment in which students may have trouble converting units. This is to be
expected, because students who dislike math often try to avoid problems that stretch their math skills.
The experiment is fairly simple and easy to complete with a hand calculator.
Present knowledge indicates that the value for Hubble’s constant is between 50 and
100 km/s/mpc. The distances in light-years to the galaxies in Figure 44.1 in the Laboratory Guide
were calculated using a value of 50 km/s/mpc. The photographs in Figure 44.1 in the Laboratory
Guide have been reproduced in many textbooks and periodicals with several different values for the
distances to the galaxies. Don’t be surprised when you see several different values for the distances
given, either in light-years, parsecs, or megaparsecs, because different values for the Hubble constant
were used to obtain the distances.
DATA TABLE 44.1

Recessional Hubble’s
Distance in Distance in Velocity Constant
Light-Years Megaparsecs (km/s) (km/s/mpc)
Virgo 7.80 × 107 23.9 1,200 50.2
Ursa Major* 1.00 × 109 306 15,000 49.0
Corona Borealis 1.40 × 109 429 22,000 51. 3
Boötes* 2.50 × 109 767 39,000 50. 8
Hydra 3.96 × 109 1220 61,000 50.0
Average value for Hubble’s constant 50.3
* These are good data points but the photos are not included in this edition. You can supply them to the students if you wish
to provide more points to graph.
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70,000
Recessional velocity vs
distance of star from Earth
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
rise 61,000 km s − 1,200 km s 59,800 km s
Slope = = =
run 1220 Mpc − 23.9 Mpc 1196 Mpc
Hubble’ s constant = slope = 50.0 km s Mpc
0
0 500 1000 1500
Distance in megaparsecs
IN THE MANUAL
1. How does the slope of the curve compare with the average value of H calculated in Step 3?
Ans: The slope should equal approximately 50 km/s/mpc which is Hubble’s constant.
2. Determine the value of Hubble’s constant in units of kilometers per year per kilometer. To do
this, convert units of kilometers per second per megaparsec to kilometers per year per kilometer.
Set the average value of Hubble’s constant plus units as recorded in Table of Conversion Factors
equal to itself (see below). Multiply by the correct conversion factors, until the desired
answer is obtained in the units you need. Show your work in the space below.
50 km/s/mpc = 50 km/s/mpc × (conversion factor)
See inside of manual’s back cover for appropriate conversion factors.
365 days
50 km × 86day
,400 s
× year
= 51.03 × 10 −12 year
s
Ans: 19
mpc
× 1 mpc
3.09 ×10 km
1
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3. The age of the universe (a rough estimate) can be obtained from the Hubble constant. The
time elapsed since the Big Bang, which is the age of the universe, is the time of separation
(distance d) of galaxies receding from one another with a velocity (v). From the equation for
b
velocity v = d t we obtaing
d
t =
v
From Hubble’s law v = Hd , substituting, we get
d
t =
Hd
Canceling the d’s, we get
1
t =
H
Calculate the value of t, in years, using the value for H determined in Question 2. Show your
work. Here t is an estimate of the age of the universe.
1
Ans: t= = 19.6 × 109 years
. × 10 −12 year
5103
This is about 20 billion years.
4. How does the calculated value of the age of the universe vary as the value of Hubble’s constant
increases?
Ans: The calculated age of the universe decreases as the value of Hubble’s constant
increases.
5. How does the force of gravity between galaxies affect the recessional velocity of the galaxies?
How would this affect the value of Hubble’s constant? The calculated age of the universe?
Explain your answers.
Ans: The effect of gravitational force on galaxies will decrease the recessional velocity of
the galaxies. Hubble’s constant will be smaller because the constant is proportional to
the velocity. This will give an increase in the calculated age of the universe.*
* Current findings show, however, that this effect may be completely canceled by some unknown, even
stronger repulsion force that appears to be causing the overall expansion rate of the universe to be
accelerated, not slowing down at all.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. A cluster of galaxies has a recessional velocity of 100,000 km/s. Assume a value for Hubble’s
constant equal to 50 km/s/mpc and calculate the distance to the cluster.
v 100,000 km s
Ans: d= = = 2000 mpc
H 50,000 km s mpc
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2. The calculated distances in light-years to the cluster of galaxies in Figure 44.1 are from
present observed recessional velocities. Are the calculated distances the present distances to
the galaxies?
Ans: No. They are the distances from us at the time light left the cluster of galaxies.
162
Experiment 45
Measuring the Radius of

the Observable Universe
INTRODUCTION
Many students do not understand that nearly all of the information that we have about the universe,
other than for our own planet Earth, comes to us by the use of electrometric radiation. Our modern
telescopes are not limited to optical and radio signals as they were in the past. Now we can detect
radiation from the entire spectrum of EM signals and this gives us a much deeper understanding of
the universe around us.
Different types of electromagnetic radiation tell us about a great number of things. In this
experiment we will concentrate on the ones that allow us to measure the distance to various parts of
the universe. Modern telescopes and spectrometers make it possible to measure both the distance to
far away galaxies and also their red shifts. This in turn has given us the ability to use these red shifts
as a way to measure distance but this scale has had to be calibrated by using other methods of
determining how far various celestial objects are from the Earth.
Each procedure in this experiment deals with a specific use of electromagnetic radiation to
provide data that can enable us to determine distances. The closest celestial objects, those within our
own solar system can be measured using radar, that is radio waves. For more distant objects, that is
the nearest stars in our Milky Way galaxy, we can use stellar parallax which requires the use of light
signals. Then spectroscopic parallax comes into play using these same light waves but now analyzing
them with a spectrometer to get even more information from them. Then pulsating stars lead us to
information about their distance from us. For even longer distance measurements the Tully-Fisher
relation used another spectroscopic clue, the line with of the hydrogen 21-cm radiation comes into
play, and finally Hubble’s Law allows us to deal with distance measurements that extend to the very
limits of our ability to detect electromagnetic radiation.
The instructor should go over these various methods and show how standard candles, stars for
which we believe that we know the absolute brightness from other measurements, provide the keys to
using the inverse square law of distance for outgoing radiation to show us how far away things really
are. Once the student has these basic concepts in mind, they can proceed to the various activities in
this chapter and learn about making distance measurements throughout our universe.
Please note that there are a couple of errors in the Laboratory Guide for this experiment. On
page 297, Procedure 1, Question 1, the round trip time for radio waves should be 299.2 seconds. In
Question 2, the unit on 0.300 should be A.U. not A.V. Finally the Electromagnetic Radiation Ladder,
Figure 45.1, has several corrections that make it more useable.
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PROCEDURE 1
1. Calculate the distance to the planet Venus at its closest approach to Earth. The time for radio
waves transmitted to Venus, at closest approach, and returned to Earth is 299.2 seconds to
4 significant figures.
299.2 FG IJ
Ans: d = vt = 3.00 × 105 km s
2 H K
s = 4.488 × 107 km = 4.50 × 107 km
bor g = 186,000 mi sFGH 2992 .2 sIJK = 2.78 × 10 7

km
2. Using your answer to question one and knowing that Venus is 0.300 AU from Earth at its
closest approach, calculate the length of one astronomical unit.
Ans: Setup the following ratio and solve:
1 AU
=
0.300 AU
X=
4.50 × 107 kg 1 AU b g
. × 108 km
= 150
X 4.50 × 107 km 0.300 AU
. × 108 km
Therefore: 1 AU = 150
Electromagnetic radiation
all wavelengths Hubble’s Law
7 × 108 ly Step 6
To
Observer The Tully-Fisher relation
Step 5
5××10
1.5 1067 lys
Cepheid variable stars
Step 4
4 × 10 ly
4
Spectroscopic parallax
Step 3
300 ly
Stellar parallax
Step 2
solar system only
Radar ranging
Step 1
Radio waves
Earth
Distance Ladder
Electromagnetic Radiation Distance Ladder

to the Observable Limit of the Universe
Figure 45.1 Steps used to measure successively more distant parts of the universe.
164
PROCEDURE 2
1. The nearest star to Earth (excluding the Sun) is Proxima Centauri, which has a parallax of
0.772 arc seconds. Calculate the star’s distance from Earth.
1
Ans: d= = 129
. pc
0.772
2. Our Earth’s observatories cannot measure parallax smaller than 0.01 seconds of arc. Calculate
the maximum distance, in parsecs, that we can measure to a star using stellar parallax.
1
Ans: d max = = 100 pc
0.010
3. The star Altair, in the constellation Aquila, has a parallax of 0.2 arc seconds. Calculate the
distance, in light years, to the star.
d=
1
= 5.0 pc b g
3.26 light years FG
= 16.3 light years
IJ
Ans:
0.20
or 5.0 pc
1 pc H K
4. The maximum base line for measuring parallax of stars is the major axis of Earth’s orbit around
the sun. With our modern technology, suggest how astronomers can increase the base line.
Ans: (1) Place the telescopes on Mars and use that planet’s semi-major axis for the
base line.
(2) Take measurements using space probes or satellites around other outer
planets.
PROCEDURE 3
1. Calculate the distance to a star with an apparent magnitude of 7 and an absolute magnitude
of 2.
m− M +5 7 − 2 +5
Ans: d = 10 5 = 10 5 = 102 = 100 pc
2. Calculate the distance (in kilometers or miles) that light travels in one year.
Ans: d = vt = 3.00 × 105 km s 1 year

1 year
b 1 day
gFGH
365 days 24 hr 60 min 60 sec
1 hr
IJ FG
1 minKH
IJ FG
KH
IJ FG
KH
IJ
K
12
d = 9.46 × 10 km
3. Calculate the radius (in kilometers or miles) of the Hubble volume.

Ans: If the age of the universe is taken to be 13.7 billion years 13.7 × 109 years : e j
e
γ = 9.46 × 1012 km 13.7 × 109 years jFGH 3.09 ×110pc 13
IJ
km K
γ = 4.19 × 109 pc babout 4 billion parsecsg
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PROCEDURE 4
1. On a clear night sky the galaxy Andromeda can be seen with unaided eyes. Was astronomer
Hubble able to observe Cepheids in Andromeda? Justify your answer.
Ans: Yes, since Andromeda is visible with unaided eyes, Hubble could easily detect
Cepheids using the powerful 200-inch telescope. Andromeda is about 2.2 million ly
from Earth.
2. Can the magnitude-distance equation be used to find the distance to pulsating Cepheids?
Justify your answer.
Ans: Yes, once the period of Cepheid is determined by observation, its period can be
located on the period vs. absolute brightness graph and the absolute magnitude (M)
can be found. Then if the apparent magnitude (m) is also measured, you can calculate
the distance.
m − M +5
d = 10 5 pc
3. Name the two parameters that are directly measured by observing pulsating Cepheids.
Ans: (1) period, and (2) apparent brightness can be directly measured for a Cepheid.
4. If the observations were made from the surface of the moon, could the distance to Cepheids
be increased beyond 15 million parsecs? Justify your answer.
Ans: No, a difference of 240 thousand miles closer to a Cepheid would not make any
noticeable difference in the star’s apparent brightness and the Hubble telescope
already gives us measurements that are not seen through Earth’s atmosphere.
PROCEDURE 5
1. What is the significance of the Tully-Fisher relation?

Ans: The Tully-Fisher relation gives astronomers another direct measurement tool for
determining the absolute magnitude of a spiral galaxy using the width of H2 lines in
the light spectrum that is independent of the radial motion measurements made using
red-shifts.
2. What type of galaxy was observed by Tully and Fisher?

Ans: A spiral galaxy.
3. What is the relation between galaxy brightness and the width of the emission lines?
Ans: The wider the H2 line the brighter the galaxy.
4. How are the Tully-Fisher calculations for the distance to a galaxy different from those used
for spectroscopic parallax?
Ans: Since we are still using the apparent and absolute brightness measurements the
calculations are the same but here we are using another independent variable to
determine the absolute brightness.
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PROCEDURE 6
1 v
1. Show that H0 = . Where H0 = Hubble’s law, and by definition that
t d
velocity v = bg
distance d bg
time t
.
bg
v d t 1
Ans: H0 = = =
d d t
2. If the age of the universe is really 13.7 billion years, calculate the value of the Hubble
constant H0 .
1 1
Ans: H0 = =
t 13.7 billion years
1
=
FG
365 days 24 hr 60 min 60 sec IJ FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ
13.7 × 109 years
1 year 1 day H 1 hr KH
1 min KH KH K
1
H0 = 17
= 2.31 × 10 −18 sec
4.32 × 10 sec
To get this in the more familiar form we must introduce the units km Mpc .
F 3.09 × 10 km I = 71.4 km s Mpc
19
H0 = 2.31 × 10 −18 sec GH 1 Mpc JK
3. Calculate the distance to a galaxy that has a recessional velocity of 50,000 km/sec using the
value of H0 that you calculated above in Question 2.
v 50,000 km s
Ans: d= = = 700 Mpc
H0 71.4 km s Mpc
IN THE MANUAL
1. Do you think that our universe is the only one that exists? Justify your answer.
Ans: There is no data to suggest that our universe MUST be the only one that exists, and
there is no data the PROVES that there is more than one universe like ours. This is
much like the question about whether there is more than one galaxy in our universe
of if the Milky Way is the only one. Until Hubble found experimental indications that
there were stars too far away to be part of our own galaxy, people could believe
whichever they chose. We are still waiting for some definitive data to answer this
question so the student may express either opinion.
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2. What do you think exists beyond (a) our Horizon Volume (b) the radial limit of our universe?
Ans: (a) Current indications are that there is more of our universe outside of the
present Horizon Volume and this should look essentially the same as the
portion of space that we find inside this boundary.
(b) As with Question 1 above, this answer has no proven answer and there could
be things quite different outside of the radial limit of our universe. It stands
to reason that a student who believes that there is a possibility of more than
one universe will have a different view of this question than a student who
does not, but at this time almost any answer is acceptable since in this region
“all things are possible”.
3. If we assume space to be infinite, what is the possibility of multiple universes where the laws
of physics may be different than those of our universe?
Ans: Since we have not detected a limit to space we must treat it as theoretically infinite,
and since there are regions beyond the outer limits of our current observations we
should probably admit the possibility of regions where the laws of physics are
different. If such regions exist, however, it will be very difficult for us to understand
what goes on there since our explanations of what we observe in space relies heavily
on our belief that the principles of science that we see in action on and near our
Earth, must also hold true for other regions of space as well.
4. How big is the universe? You calculated the radius of the Hubble Volume (the observable
universe) in Procedure 3. Is it possible to calculate the radius of the entire (everything that is)
universe? Justify your answer. (Hint: Consider the expansion rate.)
Ans: Since space appears to be expanding and accelerating, the radius must be increasing.
Our present data places no limits on this expansion and since it is space itself that is
expanding, we cannot begin to calculate the location of an outer edge even if such an
edge does exist. Because of this we cannot determine how big the universe is so no
total radius can be calculated.
5. Ask yourself a question concerning the unknown beyond our universe. If you wish, answer
the question.
Ans: Students with good imaginations may have questions or views about what lies
beyond our current limits of observation. Formulating and discussing such questions
may be fun, but it must be remembered that any speculations about these regions of
space are not backed up by any concrete data and must be treated as possibilities
only.
168
ADDITIONAL OR
1. In Procedure 6, Question 2, a conversion factor between km and Mpc was used. Derive this
from the number of m in one parsec given in the table of conversion factors found on the last
page of the Laboratory Guide.
1 km FG IJ
Ans: 1 pc = 3.09 × 1016 m 3
1 × 10 m H
= 3.09 × 1013 km
K
Multiply both sides by 106 since there are 106 pc in one Mpc.
1 × 106 pc = 1 Mpc = 3.09 × 1013 × 106 km
1 Mpc = 3.09 × 1019 km
2. If color is an indicator of the surface temperature of a star, would a reddish star in the sky
have a higher or lower surface temperature than our yellow colored Sun?
Ans: The reddish star would have a lower surface temperature than our Sun.
3. Would the reddish star in Question 2 give off more or less overall energy than our Sun?
Ans: It depends on the size of the reddish star. If it had the same diameter as our Sun, it
would give off less energy but if it was much, much larger (like some red giant stars
really are) it could give off more overall energy.
4. From what you learned in Procedure 1, explain why there was a delay in the answers that our
astronauts on the Moon sent back to NASA on Earth.
Ans: It takes time for any EM radiation to travel from one distant point to another so the
radio signals from NASA took some time to reach the Moon and the astronauts’
answers took some time to return from the Moon to Earth.
5. How long is the delay described in Question 4? The distance from Earth to the Moon is
2.4 × 105 km .
d 2.4 × 105 km
Ans: t= = = 0.80 seconds for the radio signal to travel 1 way, so the
v 3.0 × 105 km s
round trip would take 1.60 seconds.
6. What variables are plotted as the coordinates on an H-R diagram?

Ans: The absolute brightness of a star is plotted as a function of the spectra class (or
sometimes the color) of a star. Spectra class is closely related to the surface
temperature of a star and thus its color.
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Experiment 46
Air Pressure
INTRODUCTION
No special introduction is provided for this experiment, but one or two demonstrations of air pressure
can be performed easily. The Magdeburg hemispheres, if available, provide a good hands-on
experience for students studying air pressure. If the hemispheres are not available, a metal 1-gallon
can is the classic tool for demonstrating what atmospheric air pressure can do. Place approximately 1
in water in the can, boil the water, then screw the cap down tight. When the water cools, a partial
vacuum forms, and the can is crushed by the air pressure.
IN THE MANUAL
1. If the atmosphere were condensed to the density of mercury, how high above sea level would
the upper level of the liquid be? Use the data from this experiment to answer the question.
Ans: The answer to this question, in inches and centimeters of mercury, is given in number
2 in the Procedure. The column of mercury is balanced by the weight of the
atmosphere. (1 atm = 30 in of Hg = 76 cm of Hg)
2. What is the existing local air pressure in millibars? Show your work for obtaining the answer.
_________ mb
Ans: Assume the present barometric pressure is 29.7 in of mercury. Refer to the
introduction to find that 1 atm = 1013 mb = 30 in of mercury.
29.7 in Hg 1013 mb
× = 1003 mb
1 30 in Hg
3. Is the air pressure in Question 2 considered to be a low or a high pressure when compared to
normal atmospheric pressure? Explain.
Ans: The answer depends on the barometric pressure of the neighboring surface area, but
is somewhat lower than what is generally considered standard.
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4. What pressure units is a meteorologist using when he or she says the barometric pressure is
29.68 and falling?
Ans: The barometric pressure reading of 29.68 has units of inches of mercury.
5. Using information gained from this experiment, explain why:

(a) a ship moving in a narrow canal may collide with the side of the canal.
(b) a person in a parked automobile along a freeway feels the car being “pulled” toward a
semitrailer truck as it passes by.
Ans: Both answers (a) and (b) are based on Bernoulli’s principle where the pressure on the
side of a moving object will be lower on the side where the air is moving faster.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. State Bernoulli’s principle.

Ans: In simple terms, Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is
maximum, the pressure is minimum. Where the pressure is minimum, the velocity of
the fluid is maximum.
2. In number 7 in the Procedure, what is the maximum possible pressure on the rubber base?
Ans: The maximum pressure on the base will be a value equal to the atmospheric pressure
in the room on that day.
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Experiment 47
Humidity
INTRODUCTION
Give a brief lecture stressing the difference between absolute and relative humidity, using examples.
If a psychrometer is available, give a demonstration and determine the relative humidity of the air in
the laboratory. Saturated water vapor tables are given in both SI units and British units. This allows
the instructor to select the system he or she wishes to use in the laboratory. Although the introduction
gives information and an example, some students will have trouble using the saturated water vapor
tables to determine both absolute humidity and dew point, so it is worthwhile to explain how to use
the tables, again in detail.
IN THE MANUAL
1. Explain the difference between absolute humidity and relative humidity.

Ans: Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor in a given volume of air and is
usually measured in grains ft 3 or g m3 . One grain is 1/7000 lb. Relative humidity
is the ratio of the absolute humidity to the maximum moisture capacity at a given
temperature.
2. The air temperature in the laboratory is lowered 5°C. Assuming the absolute humidity remains
constant, would the relative humidity increase or decrease? How much? Show your work.
Ans: Assume the amount of moisture present to be 2.4 grains.
2.4
Relative humidity at 70° F = × 100 = 30%
8.4
2.4
Relative humidity at 65° F = × 100 = 35%
6.8
3. In this example the relative humidity increases by 5% but the actual moisture content of the
air remains the same. If the relative humidity of the air in the laboratory is 25 percent at its
present temperature, what is the absolute humidity?
Ans: Obtain the air temperature in the laboratory. Refer to Table 46.1 and determine the
moisture capacity at laboratory temperature. Absolute humidity = 0.25 × capacity.
Example: If the room temperature is 68°F (20°C) the absolute humidity here is
17.3 g m3 ×.25 = 4.3 , or 7.9 grains ft 3 ×.25 = 2.0 grains .
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ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the absolute humidity of a saturated air sample at 21°C? Convert the Celsius
temperature to degrees Fahrenheit, then use Table 46.1.
Ans: 21°C = 70°F. The absolute humidity equals about 8.3 grains or 17.7 grams for a
saturated air sample at this temperature.
2. The air temperature in your dormitory room is 80°F, and the relative humidity is 30 percent.
A relative humidity of 50 percent is best for the human body. How can you increase the
relative humidity of the air in your room without adding moisture to the air?
Ans: Relative humidity can be increased by lowering the temperature of the air in the
room. The absolute humidity here is about 25.5 grams* so 50% of this is 12.8 grams.
This means the temperature would have to be lowered to 59°F which is quite chilly
so this is not a very practical solution to the problem.
* How do you arrive at 25.5 grams here? You can interpolate between reading in the table.
86°F 30.4 grams 

 subtract both
77°F 23.0 grams 
9° F 7.4 grams
7.4 grams
Divide number of grams by °F to get = 0.82 grams °F so 80°F requires
9° F
3°F increase above 70°F or 2.47 grams more water vapor. At 80°F the absolute
humidity would be about 23.0 grams + 2.47 = 25.47 grams. Rounded to 3 figures this
would give us the 25.5 grams reported above.
174
Experiment 48
Weather Maps (Part 1)

INTRODUCTION
This experiment acquaints students with the Daily Weather Map* issued by the National Weather
Service and reinforces their knowledge of the concepts used to describe weather.
For science laboratories not having access to maps from the National Weather Service, a
Specimen Station Model and Weather Map Symbols are included in the experiment. These forms can
be used as references for symbol notations and for determining the position of symbols around the
weather station. The information on these forms is sufficient to answer all questions asked in the
experiment. The instructor may want to change some of the city names listed in Data Table 48.1 to
correspond to cities familiar to the students.
The barometric pressures for the cities listed in Data Table 48.1 are shown on the weather
map (Figure 48.3) in the Laboratory Guide. If other cities are used on this weather map, the
barometric pressure values will have to be interpolated from the nearest isobar.
DATA TABLE 48.1

Bismark, Oklahoma Montgomery, Houston, New Orleans,
ND City, OK AL TX LA
Temperature,
27 37 45 57 52
in degrees F
Dew point,
18 32 45 55 50
in degrees F
Barometric pressure,
1022.0 1020.0 1017.5 1016.5 1017.8
in millibars
Wind direction* N WNW SE N Calm
Wind magnitude,
13–17 3–7 3–7 8–12 0
in knots
*Daily Weather Maps can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.
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IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. List the changes in the temperature and the air pressure that occur as a warm front passes over
a surface area.
Ans: As a warm front passes over a surface area, the air temperature rises and the air
pressure generally drops.
2. List the changes in the temperature and the air pressure that occur as a cold front passes over
a surface area.
Ans: As a cold front passes over a surface area, the air temperature drops and the air
pressure generally rises.
3. The Surface Weather map presents data and analysis for what time of day?
Ans: The Surface Weather Map presents data and analysis for 7 A.M. EST.
4. Define an isobar. How are they represented on the weather map?

Ans: An isobar is a line of equal pressure. Isobars are represented as solid lines on the
weather map.
5. Define an isotherm. How are they represented on the weather map?

Ans: An isotherm is a line of equal temperature. Isotherms are represented as short dashed
lines on the weather map.
6. How is the amount of precipitation indicated on the weather map?

Ans: The amount of precipitation is indicated on the weather map as a number in inches
during the past 6 hours. The number is located at the six-o’clock position of the
weather station.
7. What is the lowest pressure indicated by an isobar on Fig. 48.3?

Ans: 96 mb over Iowa
8. What is the highest pressure indicated by an isobar on Fig. 48.3?

Ans: 1028 mb over Saskatchewan
ADDITIONAL OR
1. How is the direction and magnitude of a wind indicated on the weather map?
Ans: A straight line indicates direction. The number of flags on the line indicates
magnitude.
2. Distinguish between an occluded front and a stationary front.

Ans: An occluded front is the boundary between two air masses where a fast-moving cold
front is overtaking a warm front. A stationary front is the boundary between a warm
front and cold front. The opposing fronts balance each other so no movement occurs.
3. How is a thunderstorm indicated on the weather map?

Ans: The following symbol represents a thunderstorm.
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Experiment 49
Weather Maps (Part 2)

INTRODUCTION
A brief lecture should review Experiment 48 Emphasize the concepts of high- and low-pressure cells.
Define the bar and give the conversion factors needed to change millibars to inches of mercury.
The answer to Question 2 is found on the back of the Sunday issue of the Daily Weather
Maps, Section 12, or on the weather map explanation sheet put out by the Environmental Data
Service. These explanation sheets are for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. They are sold in 50-copy lots at a reasonable price.
You should have a map of the United States in the laboratory or be prepared to answer
questions concerning location of cities in states that have more than one city listed. You could make a
copy of the map for number 5 in the procedure, write in any other cities that you want the students to
examine during this experiment, and post the map on the bulletin board or place a copy on each lab
table.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. How is the unit of pressure, the bar, defined? (See Experiment 46.)
Ans: The unit of pressure, the bar, is defined as 106 dynes/cm2. One bar equals 1000
millibars (mb). One atmosphere equals 1013.2 mb.
2. What is the normal range of atmospheric pressure (in millibars) at Earth’s surface?
Ans: The usual range of atmospheric pressure (in millibars) at Earth’s surface is
approximately 950 to 1050 mb.
3. What is the difference in pressure indicated by two adjacent isobars on a weather map?
Ans: The difference in pressure indicated by two adjacent isobars is 4 mb.
4. What is the direction of the air circulation around a low-pressure cell in the northern hemi-
sphere?
Ans: The direction of air flow around a low-pressure cell in the northern hemisphere is
counterclockwise.
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5. What kind of weather is usually associated with a low-pressure cell in North America? Why?
Ans: Bad weather is usually associated with a low-pressure cell. Cloud cover and
precipitation can usually be expected in and around low-pressure cells.
6. What is the direction of the air circulation around a high-pressure cell in the northern hemi-
sphere?
Ans: The direction of air flow around a high-pressure cell in the northern hemisphere is
clockwise.
7. What kind of weather is usually associated with a high-pressure cell? Why?

Ans: Good weather is usually associated with a high-pressure cell because moisture laiden
air is kept from entering the area.
8. A pressure of 1012 mb is indicated on a weather map. Is this pressure high or low? Explain.
Ans: A pressure reading of 1012 mb may indicate a high- or low-pressure cell. The reading
depends on the value of the pressure for the surrounding area but the reading is a
little lower than the value generally associated with normal atmosphere pressure at
sea level.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. Distinguish between a high- and a low-pressure cell.

Ans: In a high-pressure cell the air is heavy and descending. The air at ground level is
leaving the cell to move to neighboring areas, and the air circulation is clockwise. In
a low-pressure cell the air is lighter and rising. The air from neighboring areas is
entering the cell at ground level, and the air circulation is counterclockwise around
the center of the cell.
2. At Earth’s surface what is the direction of the air flow between a high- and low-pressure cell?
What is the direction aloft?
Ans: At the surface the air flow is from the high- to the low-pressure cell. Aloft the air
flow is from the low- to the high-pressure cell.
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Experiment 50
Topographic Maps
INTRODUCTION
The U.S. Geological Survey maps called quadrangles are issued in three common sizes. They have
scales as follows: 1:250,000 covers an area of 2° longitude and 1° latitude; 1:62,500 covers an area of
15 min by 15 min; 1:24,000 covers an area of 7 min 30 sec by 7 min 30 sec.
A brief lecture on topographic maps is a must. Don’t assume students know the definitions of
latitude and longitude. Define, explain, and give examples of each by referring to the values given on
the topographic maps. Explain the scale of the map and show how to calculate the area of the map in
units of square miles (1 min of arc equals 1 nautical mile or 1.15 land miles). Indicate to students that
the topographic map portrays both horizontal and vertical distances. Explain how to obtain each.
The answers to the questions for this experiment depend on the quadrangle map selected by
the instructor.
IN THE LAB MANUAL
1. What are quadrangle maps and what governmental agency produces them?
Ans: Quadrangle maps show both the horizontal and vertical layout of the land. U.S.
Geological survey.
2. What can be said about the terrain shown on a topographic map where the contour lines are
very close together?
Ans: The elevation of the land is changing rapidly.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the latitude and longitude of the point at the lower right-hand corner of the
topographic map? The point at the upper left-hand corner?
Ans: The answer is given at the corners indicated in the question and is written directly on
each map.
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2. If you have a topographic map of the local area, what is the latitude and longitude of your
school?
Ans: Obtain the answer from the x and y coordinates of the map.
3. State the scale of your topographic map in units of inches per mile; that is, one inch equals
how many miles?
Ans: The answer depends on the scale of the map the students are using and can be found
on the map key printed on each map.
4. What is the distance (in feet) indicated by adjacent contour lines? How is a difference of 100
ft indicated on the map?
Ans: The distance between contour lines is usually 20 ft. The 100-ft differences are
indicated by a heavier line.
5. Where is the highest point on the topographic map? Determine the average slope due north
and due south of the highest point. Give your answer in feet per mile. Slope equals the change
in elevation divided by the change in horizontal distance.
Ans: The answer depends on the map the students are using.
6. What is the difference in elevation, measured in feet, between the highest and lowest points
on the map?
Ans: The answer depends on the map the students are using.
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Experiment 51
Minerals
INTRODUCTION
Many students find the study of rocks and minerals fascinating, but most have a difficult time
identifying them. Arouse students’ interest with a brief lecture on gems such as diamonds, emeralds,
rubies, and sapphires. State their chemical composition and explain their crystalline structure. If you
can, tell something of their origin and where they are found. Also, using an ultraviolet light to show
fluorescent minerals appeals to students.
You also might give a brief lecture on the physical properties of minerals and how they are
identified.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the composition of minerals?

Ans: Minerals are composed of elements.
2. Discuss the crystalline structure of minerals.

Ans: A crystalline substance has a definite internal structure such that the atoms are in
specific proportions and are arranged in an orderly geometric pattern. Under ideal
conditions of crystal growth, perfect crystal faces will form. Although the size of a
crystal may vary, the angle between faces of a specific mineral will be the same.
Substances that when crystallizing become solid without a definite internal structure
are called amorphous.
3. Distinguish between cleavage and crystal faces.

Ans: Natural crystal faces form and produce perfect geometric patterns when a substance
is crystallized. Cleavage develops from planes of weakness within the crystal
structure. The crystal will break along the weakness planes.
4. Define and give an example of tenacity.

Ans: Tenacity refers to the ability of a mineral to hold together. Quartz, a very brittle
mineral, has low tenacity. Biotite, a very elastic mineral, has high tenacity.
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5. Distinguish between fluorescence and phosphorescence.
Ans: Fluorescence is the immediate emission of radiation, such as visible light, produced
by the absorption of other radiation of a higher frequency. Phosphorescence is the
persistent emission of light following exposure to and removal of incident radiation
from the sample.
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Experiment 52
Rocks
INTRODUCTION
Using some common specimens of each rock classification, give an introduction to their physical
characteristics, composition, and how they are identified.
Emphasize the fact that nearly 75 percent of Earth’s crust consists of only two elements,
oxygen and silicon, and almost 99 percent is composed of these two plus six others. Listed in order of
abundance, they are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Define and
explain silicates. Minerals that contain oxygen and silicon plus one or more of the other six elements
are known as silicates.
Most rocks are aggregates of minerals. Thus, to identify and classify rocks, we need to know
(1) what minerals make up the rock’s composition, (2) the texture of the rock—that is, grain size, and
(3) how the grains are arranged.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. How is a rock defined?

Ans: A rock is any naturally occurring, solid mineral mass that makes up part of Earth’s
lithosphere.
2. How are rocks classified?

Ans: Rocks are classified according to how they formed or originated.
3. State the three chief classifications of rocks.

Ans: Rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic.
4. What are the two most abundant elements found in Earth’s crust?
Ans: The two most abundant elements are oxygen and silicon.
5. What are silicates?

Ans: Silicates are rock-forming minerals composed of one or more of the metals plus
silicon and oxygen.
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Experiment 53
Rock-Forming Minerals
INTRODUCTION
Briefly review the introduction to Experiments 51 and 52, adding basic information on some of the
chemical groups that comprise the rock-forming minerals. Begin with the feldspars, since they are the
most abundant. Orthoclase feldspar, KAlSi3O8, is usually pink to flesh colored and is the dominant
mineral in granite. A feldspar specimen should be passed among the students during the lecture.
Following this, give information on the silicates (quartz and olivine), the micas (biotite and
muscovite), the oxides (hematite and magnetite), the sulfides (pyrite and galena), the sulfates
(gypsum and anhydrite), and the carbonates (calcite and dolomite).
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What is the composition of silicates?

Ans: Silicates are composed of one or more of the metals plus silicon and oxygen. Some
rocks contain several silicate groups.
2. Name the chemical group most abundant in the rocks of Earth’s crust.
Ans: The feldspars form the most abundant group of rock forming minerals.
3. What is the chemical composition of quartz?

Ans: Quartz is silicon dioxide (SiO2).
4. Distinguish between the micas, biotite, and muscovite.

Ans: Biotite and muscovite are both members of the family of minerals known as micas.
Biotite is a dark-colored mica, brown, black, or sometimes green, containing iron and
magnesium. Muscovite is a light, almost colorless mica containing potassium and
aluminum. Mica has perfect cleavage in one direction.
5. What is the common name for pyrite (FeS2)?

Ans: The common name for pyrite is “fool’s gold.”
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Experiment 54
Igneous Rocks and

Crystallization
INTRODUCTION
Because a rock is an aggregate of minerals and a mineral is any naturally occurring, inorganic,
crystalline substance, an experiment showing crystal growth provides a better understanding of the
crystalline structure of minerals.
There will be time to show a film on crystal growth if one is available. Films can be obtained
on loan from the U.S. Geological Survey. See the Instructor’s Guide for the textbook for the address.
Caution students not to handle the thymol with their bare hands. Although thymol is not
poisonous, it may irritate the eyes and skin.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. How does the rate of cooling affect grain size?

Ans: Slow cooling produces large-sized grains. Fast cooling produces small-sized grains.
2. Define texture.
Ans: Texture refers to grain size—that is, glassy, fine, medium, or coarse grain, or mixed.
3. What does the texture of a rock indicate about its cooling process?
Ans: The texture is a good indicator of how the magma cooled. For example, a porphyritic
texture indicates both a slow- and a fast-cooling process took place at different times
as the magma cooled.
4. What are the two criteria used in Table 54.1 to identify and classify igneous rocks?
Ans: Texture and mineral composition
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Experiment 55
Sedimentary Rocks
INTRODUCTION
You might give a brief lecture on the composition of sedimentary rocks emphasizing the four major
constituents—quartz, calcite, clay, and rock fragments—and show a short film on the major processes
involved in the genesis of sedimentary rocks. Point out that sedimentary rocks supply geologists with
the most accurate information, because they are the most abundant rock and the processes that
produce them are very accessible, in contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks.
ADDITIONAL OR
1. What are the four materials most often involved in the making of sedimentary rocks?
Ans: Quartz, clay, rock fragments, and calcite
2. Name the three groups of sedimentary rocks

Ans: Clastic, biochemical or chemical, and organic
3. Why are sedimentary rocks and the processes that produce them more accessible than igneous
and metamorphic rocks?
Ans: Sedimentary rocks are formed at or near Earth’s surface. Most igneous and all
metamorphic rocks are formed deep inside Earth.
4. What is the meaning of porosity?

Ans: Porosity refers to how permeable to liquids a substance’s composition is, that is, how
much water could be held in that type of rock sample.
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Appendix
Integrated Equipment
and Supply Lists
INTRODUCTION
Laboratory experiments for the Laboratory Guide have been designed with the needs of the
prospective elementary-education teacher in mind. Three principles determined the choice of
experiments:
1. Present basic scientific principles assigned and discussed in the lecture class as simply as
possible.
2. Keep the cost of the equipment and supplies to a minimum.
3. Select experiments that can be duplicated by students later when they are themselves
teaching.
In this equipment list for all 55 experiments, only five pieces of equipment cost more than
$100. The most expensive experiments deal with radioactivity. The air track is expensive, but the
wooden plank is a good substitute. The balance, inclined plane, and celestial sphere (globe) each cost
less than $200.
To assist the instructor in planning the course, the equipment and supply lists for the
experiments are listed by scientific discipline. This arrangement necessarily includes a few
duplications. Note also that each list may not contain every small supply item.
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PHYSICS
EQUIPMENT
Balance, Triple beam or electronic Meter sticks (one- and two-meter)

Boyle’s law apparatus Micrometers or calipers
Bunsen burner and gas lighter Milliammeter (0–500 mA, dc)
Calorimeter Mirror (concave)
Centripetal-force apparatus Moment-of-force apparatus
Clamps (assorted) Pendulum (simple)
Color filters (plastic transmission, assorted Pulleys (assorted)
colors) Pulley (precision ball bearing)
Compass (magnetic) Radiation detector with power supply
Diffraction grating and holder Resonance apparatus
Dip needle Rheostat (40-ohm)
Electroscope Rutherford scattering box
Fisher light and optics set Slit with attached scale
Hall’s carriage Spring (k = 20,000 – 30,000 dynes/cm)
High-intensity light SPST switch
Inclined plane Steam generator
Lamp (sodium vapor or mercury arc) Timing device
Lens (convex) Tuning forks
Linear air track or wooden plank Vacuum base
Magnets (bar) Voltmeter (0–10 V, dc)
Masses (hooked and slotted gram sets)
SUPPLIES
Balloons (toy) Paint brushes (small)

Beakers (assorted) Radiation sources
Candles Resistor (40-ohm, 5-watt)
Cardboard screen Rods (hard rubber and glass)
Cloth, wool (or fur), silk Rubber hammer
Coiled spring Rubber tubing
Color chips (from paint store) Slinky
Deflagrating spoon Tempera paint
Dry cells (1.5 V or 6.0 V) Stopper (cork)
Fuse holder String
Glass marker Support rods and holders
Keuffel and Esser wave-pattern transparencies Trays (large, water)
Lead shielding Tripod base for glass beaker
Lens filter (colored) Weight hangers for slotted weights (masses)
Lens holder Wing tip for Bunsen burner
Masking tape Wire (electrical hook-up)
Metal can (large coffee) Wooden blocks (small)
Metal pellets (aluminum or copper) Wooden splints
192
CHEMISTRY
EQUIPMENT
Bunsen burner and gas lighter Milliammeter (0–500 mA, dc)

Burettes Molecular-models kits
Calorimeter Pneumatic trough
Clamps (assorted) Pycnometer
Combustion tube Ring stand
Coulometer Stirring motor
Cylinders (graduated 100 mL) Support rods and holders
Evaporating dishes Trays (large, water)

Erlenmeyer flasks
SUPPLIES
Chemicals (assorted) Metal pellets

Filter paper Rubber tubing
Funnel Stoppers (assorted)
Glass marbles Thermometers
Glass wool Wire (steel, picture)
Glassware; Beakers (Pyrex), Bottles, Wood splints
Stirring rods, Test tubes
ASTRONOMY
EQUIPMENT
Celestial sphere
SUPPLIES
Rulers Protractors
Masking tape
METEOROLOGY
EQUIPMENT
Calorimeter Tray (large, white, enamel)

Meter stick Vacuum base
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193
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SUPPLIES
Balloons (toy) Rubber bands

Beakers (Pyrex) Rubber tubing
Cardboard index cards Soda straws (plastic)
Clamps (pinch) Straight pins
Glass plates (small) Thermometer
Ping-pong balls Tumbler (small, glass)
Plastic bottles (250 mL) Weather maps
Plastic spoon (small)
GEOLOGY
EQUIPMENT
Compass (magnetic) Millimeter rule

Magnifying glass Ultraviolet lamp
SUPPLIES
Acid (hydrochloric, dilute) Liquid dropper

File (steel) Topographic quadrangles
Forceps Rock and mineral specimens
Glass jar (small) Sand (coarse)
Glass slide or evaporation dish Sand mixture
Knife Solution of several salts
194

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TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH EDITIONS

Please provide affiliations for Wilson and Higgins.

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Publisher, Physics and Astronomy: Charles Hartford

Associate Development Editor: Brandi Kirksey

Editorial Assistant: Brendan Killion

Marketing Manager: Jack Cooney

Senior Media Editor: Rebecca Berardy Schwartz

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3. Name the dependent and independent variables in Procedure 2.

4. What must be included in the title used on a graph?

5. How are the units for the slope of a graph determined?

3. What shape of graph should be obtained in Procedure 3?

5. Which variable is increasing the fastest on the graph prepared in Procedure 2?

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2. Define measurement, and give an example.

3. Differentiate between accuracy and precision.

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7. How can the accuracy of a measurement be increased?

8. How can precision of a measuring instrument be increased?

2. Why are several observations or trials taken for each measurement?

be neglected. Refer to the textbook, Section 9.5, for more details.

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The Simple Pendulum

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DATA TABLE 3.1

4. What type of graph was obtained in Procedure 1, Step 6?

obvious from the data taken.

3. The period of a simple pendulum depends primarily on (a)

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1. Define velocity, and give an example.

2. Define acceleration, and give an example.

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7. What kinematic quantity is indicated by the speedometer of an automobile?

8. Give an example of an object having a velocity but no acceleration.

1. Define instantaneous velocity.

2. What do we mean by uniform linear motion?

3. A car starting from rest reaches a velocity of 80 km/h in 10 s.

4. Calculate the average acceleration of an automobile that attains a velocity of 60 mi/h in 10 s

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Newton’s Second Law

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DATA TABLE 6.1

Unbalanced force (F), in N 0.020 × g* 0.020 × g*

Total mass (M) 2.020 kg 1.020 kg

Average time (t) 5.06 s 3.69 s

DATA TABLE 6.2

Acceleration from Newton’s second law 0.0970 m s2 0.192 m s2

Percent difference 3.46% 5.90%

DATA TABLE 6.3

Unbalanced force (F), in N 0.040 × g* 0.020 × g*

Total mass (M) 2.040 kg 2.020 kg

Average time (t) 3.54 s 5.06 s

DATA TABLE 6.4

Acceleration from Newton’s second law 0.194 m s2 0.0970 m s2

Percent difference 1.04% 3.46%

1. How would the data be influenced by an increase of friction in the pulley?

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Hooke’s Law for a

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