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UNIT 1: TRANSDUCERS
1.0 Introduction
A transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another. In this unit, you are
going to cover the following input transducers: light dependent resistor (LDR), thermistor and
strain gauge as well as the following output transducers light emitting diode (LED), buzzer and
relay.

1.1 Input transducers: The light dependent resistor (LDR), thermistor and strain gauge.
1.1.1 The (LDR)
You can make an LDR by sandwiching a film of photosensitive material such as cadmium
sulphide between two metal electrodes. It has a window which allows light to reach the
photosensitive material. An LDR is sensitive to changes in light intensity. Typically, in complete
darkness, its resistance is about 10M , in moonlight, its resistance is about 1M and in bright
sunlight, about 100 . You should also take note that a constant light intensity gives a constant
LDR resistance. The LDR symbol is shown in Figure 1.1 (a).

Figure 1.1 (a): The LDR symbol.

The LDR’s resistance falls with increasing light intensity as illustrated in Figure 1.1 (b).

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Figure 1.1 (b): The variation of resistance with illumination (i.e.), the relationship between light
falling on the LDR (incident light) and the LDR’s resistance.

1.1.2 The thermistor

You can manufacture a thermistor in various shapes and sizes using semi-conductive oxides of
different metals such as nickel oxide or cobalt oxide so that a small change in temperature
produces a significant change in resistance. In this respect, thermistors are also known as
temperature – dependent resistors. The symbol for a thermistor is shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: The thermistor symbol.

Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors have resistances that vary inversely with
temperature (i.e.), their resistance becomes smaller as the temperature increases. This is
illustrated in Figure1.3.

Figure 1.3: The variation of resistance with temperature for an NTC thermistor.

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1.1.3 The strain gauge
You can make a strain gauge by sealing a length of very fine wire in a small rectangle of thin
plastic, as shown in Figure 1.4 (a).

Figure 1.4 (a): The metal wire strain gauge.

If you stretch the plastic, the plastic experiences a strain, and the wire will also be stretched. This
has effects of increasing the wire’s length and decreasing its cross-sectional area slightly. Both
these effects cause the resistance of the wire to increase. This is illustrated in Figure 1.4 (b). If
you want to monitor the strain in a material, you should glue the strain gauge very securely to the
material that is to be put under stress.

Figure 1.4 (b): The variation of resistance with strain.

Example 1.1
Consider a wire with a uniform cross sectional area. Show that the strain which is proportional to
its extension L will also be proportional to the change in resistance R .

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Solution
You should recall that the resistance R of a wire of length L and of uniform cross-sectional area
L
A is given by: R … (i)
A

where ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire.

If you assume that there is a negligible change in the area of cross section when the wire extends
by a small amount L , then new resistance will be:

R  R    L  L  … (ii)
A

where R is the change in the resistance.

You can subtract equation (i) from (ii) to get:

L
R   or R α L .
A

Thus, if you assume that the area of cross section is constant, the strain which is proportional to
the extension L will also be proportional to the change in resistance R .

1.2 Using LDRs, thermistors and strain gauges in potential divider circuits
Input transducers (sensing devices) are usually connected to an electrical circuit which is
designed to provide a voltage that will control an output transducer. You can consider an
example of an input transducer which gives rise to a change in resistance R, say a thermistor in
Figure 1.5. A potential divider like the one shown in Figure 1.5 can be used to convert this
change in R into a change in voltage, V0.

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 Figure 1.5: Potential divider circuit.

If you connect a supply of emf V S and negligible internal resistance in series with a fixed resistor

of resistance R F and a sensing device of resistance R, the output voltage V0 will be:

R
V0   VS
RF  R

Alternatively, you can divide both the numerator and denominator of the above equation by R.

This gives you:

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𝑉0 = 𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝑆 .
+1
𝑅

This alternative expression provides an easier way of observing the dependence of the output
voltage with the changes in the voltage divider’s resistances.

Self Assessment Question 1.1

In Figure 1.5, the sensing device is a negative temperature coefficient thermistor.
(a) What happens to the thermistor’s resistance and eventually, the output voltage V0 as:
(i) the thermistor cools? and
(ii) the thermistor becomes hot?

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(b) Give any real life application of the circuit shown in Figure 1.5.
Example 1.2
A battery of emf 6.0V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with a fixed
resistor of resistance 1kΩ and a strain gauge of resistance 2kΩ as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: Potential divider.

Find the potential difference between the terminals of the strain gauge.

Solution
 Rs 
Potential difference across the strain gauge     Vin
 s
R  R 
 2000 
   6.0
 2000  1000 
 4.0V
Example 1.3
A temperature sensor input subsystem is shown in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Temperature sensor input subsystem.

The thermistor shown in Figure 1.7 has a resistance of 40kΩ at 00C, 15kΩ at 250 C, and 1kΩ at
1000C. Calculate the output voltage V0 at X at a temperature of 250C.

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Solution
You can observe that at a temperature of 250C, the thermistor has a resistance R of 20kΩ.
Therefore, if you apply the potential division formula, you get:

 15 
V0   6
 15  5 

V0  4.5V

Self Assessment Question 1.2

The LDR shown in Figure 1.8 has a resistance of 500 in bright light. What is the value of the
output voltage V0 .

Figure 1.8: Potential divider.

1.3 Output transducers:- The light – emitting diode (LED), buzzer and relay
1.3.1 The LED
An LED is a diode that emits light only when it is forward biased. The symbol for an LED is
shown in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9: The LED symbol.

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LEDs can emit different colours of light such as red, green, yellow, blue, white and amber (etc.),
depending on the material used in their manufacturing. Their low power consumption makes
them suitable for use as indicators. LEDs are solid-state devices, so they are much more robust
than filament lamps. A resistor is frequently connected in series with an LED, so that when the
LED is forward biased (the diode is conducting), the current is not so large as to damage the
LED.

Self Assessment Question 1.3

The LED in Figure 1.10 needs a current of 5mA and a forward voltage drop of 1V across it to
make it light correctly.

Figure 1.10: LED in series with a resistor R.

(a) Calculate the amount of power used by the LED.

(b) Given that the LED is on:
(i) what is the current through resistor R?
(ii) calculate the voltage across resistor R.

Example 1.4
An LED is used as the output device in a digital system that gives an output voltage of
0V or 12V as illustrated in Figure 1.11.

(a) Show in Figure 1.11 how the LED and another component should be connected
to the system to light when the output is high.

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 Figure 1.11: Digital system.

(b) (i) The LED has a forward voltage drop of 2 V when it is conducting the required
current of 25mA. Calculate the value of the component you have chosen in part (a).
(ii) Find the power dissipated by this component.
(iii) If 25mA is the maximum allowable current through the LED. Choose an appropriate
preferred value for this component.
(iv) What is the colour code for the chosen value in part (b)(iii) if it has a tolerance of 5%?

Solution
(a)

Figure 1.12: Digital system.

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(b) (i) 12  2  10V
10
 400 .
0.025
(ii) 10  0.025  0.25W .
(iii) 430 Ω (allow 470 Ω).
(iv) Yellow, orange, brown and gold.

Self Assessment Question 1.4

Explain the use of LEDs as devices to indicate the state of the output of electronic circuits.

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Infinite slew rate (i.e.), a sudden change in the input results in a sudden change in the output, without
any time delay.

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 Advantages of negative feedback
 Greater operating stability / Stabilized gain.
 Amplitude and frequency distortion is reduced.
 Reduces electrical noise which is generated within the feedback loop.
 Increases the bandwidth (i.e.), improves the frequency response.
 Modify the input and output impedance levels.

Disadvantages of negative feedback

 Reduces the overall gain.
 Requires more stages of amplification.

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An input signal Vin is applied to the input resistor Rin. Negative feedback is applied by means of the
feedback resistor Rf. The resistors Rin and Rf act as a potential divider between the input terminal and the
output of the OP-AMP.

ASSUMPTIONS and VIRTUAL EARTH POINT P

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
Assumptions have to be made when deriving the closed loop gain of the ideal Op-Amp.

1. Assume that the current flowing into the Op-Amp is zero.

2. Assume there is no SATURATION and Op-Amp gain is infinite, hence it drives the output voltage to
any value required to satisfy the input conditions. This assumes that the Op-Amp output voltage can
achieve any value.

3. Assume virtual earth approximation, i.e. voltage (potential difference) between the input terminals is
zero. The implication of zero voltage between the input terminals means that if one input is tied to
ground, then the other input is at the same potential. The current flow into the input leads is zero, so
the input impedance of the op amp is infinite.

VIRTUAL EARTH POINT P

In order that the OP-AMP does not saturate, the two input voltages V+ and V- must be almost the same.
The non-inverting input terminal is connected directly to the zero-volt line (the earth)and so it is at
exactly 0V ie V+ = 0V. Since V+ must be equal to V-, then V- = 0V but it is not directly connected to earth.
V- is called virtual earth potential. Point P is called virtual earth.

VIRTUAL EARTH IS BEING AT EARTH POTENTIAL BUT THE POINT IS NOT DIRECTLY CONNECTED TO EARTH.

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THE SCHMITT TRIGGER
Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit which applies positive feedback to the non-inverting input of a
comparator or differential amplifier, i e a Schmitt trigger consists of an OPAMP in the non-
inverting mode with positive feedback. The circuit is named a "trigger" because the output retains its
value until the input changes sufficiently to trigger a change in the output voltage. When the input is
higher than a chosen threshold/changeover voltage, the output is high, ie the output always saturates
positively and vice versa when the input is below or lower than the chosen threshold/changeover
voltage. When the input is between the two levels the output retains its value.

The input voltage Vin of the trigger is obtained from a moveable contact wiper on a
potentiometer as shown below.

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The pre-set value/the changeover value Vin at which Vo switches/triggers from a negative
maximum value to a positive maximum value or vice versa is set in the OPAMP before wiping
up or down.

The input voltage Vin is varied by wiping the wiper contact up or down on the potentiometer.

When the changeover voltage value Vin is not reached yet, Vo remains saturated at a constant
value, i e the OPAMP ‘remembers’ the previous Vo until Vin the changeover/pre-set value is
𝑹𝒇
attained/reached. Gain for OPAMP above is 4 (Gain for a non-inverting OPAMP, A = 1 + )
𝑹𝒊

SLIDING WIPER UPWARDS and DOWNWARDS

Suppose the wiper is at the lowest end at switching 0n, -12V so as to make the voltage at the
non-inverting input X negative and hence, less than the voltage at the Y input which is kept at
0V and output Vo.

The potential at point X is given by the potential divider rule.

𝟏𝟐(−𝟏𝟐)
Vx = = -9V Vo = AVx ∴Vo = 4 x -9 = -36V So Vo saturates at -12V.
𝟒+𝟏𝟐

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Sliding the wiper further upwards, makes Vin less and less negative until Vin = 0V, but Vo remains
saturated at -12V.

𝟒(−𝟏𝟐)
When Vin = 0V, potential at X, Vx = = -3V So Vo = 4(-3V) = -12V.
𝟒+𝟏𝟐

The OPAMP is still at Vo = -12V.

General Equation For Pre-set Value/Changeover Value

Vo from the OPAMP is given by the expression 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑨𝑽𝒙 where A is the gain of the non-
𝑹
inverting OPAMP A = 1+ 𝑹𝒇
𝒊

𝑹𝟏 𝑽𝒐
The changeover voltage Vin is given by the expression 𝑽𝒊𝒏 = − 𝑹𝟐
The diagram below shows the resistances R1 and R2 used in the equation

Where Vo is output voltage before the changeover voltage Vin was achieved/attained.

For the circuit of Figure 2.15 above

4 (−12)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = − ( ) = 4V.
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E. g. When wiper is moved so that Vin= 4V as shown in the circuit below.

4(16𝑉)
Potential at point X, Vx is given by Vx = 4 - = 0𝑉
4+12

Vo = 4 x vx = 4 x 0 = 0V

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The value Vo = 0V means that the output voltage Vo switches from -12V through 0V to +12V.

Further moving the wiper upwards makes Vin more positive but Vo remains saturated at 12V.

When sliding downwards, the above process is reversed and changeover voltage value occurs at -4V.

The characteristic graph below shows the output voltages when sliding the wiper upwards and
downwards.

USES OF A SCHMITT TRIGGER

 A Schmitt trigger converts an analog input signal to a digital output signal. So it is used in the
regenerators used in digital communications for regeneration.
 It is used to clean up noise in the music industry
 It used to convert analogue music when making CDs.

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COMBINATIONAL LOGIC

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CONTROL SYSTEMS

It is required to design a logic circuit which detects broken glass to and smoke in a house any
time of the day. The circuit should be able to be tested during the day only. The circuit below is
intended to provide the necessary protection. Construct its truthtable and explain whether the
circuit provides the required protection.

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Solution
Truth table.
Day/night Break glass Smoke R S Output to
switch detector detector outside siren
0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 1

(a) The proposed system will not provide the building with adequate protection because the
siren is not activated if just one of Smoke detector, Break glass detector or Day/night switch
is at logic state 1. The circuit below is the intended design.
(b) Since the circuit does not provide the required protection, design one that sounds the siren
when the glass is broken or when smoke is detected in the house any time of the day. Show
suitability of your circuit by means of a truthtable.

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LOCK SYSTEM

SOLUTION
A B C D Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 SOUND
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 SOUND
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
CORREECT CODE = 0110 A = 0 B = 1 C = 1 D = 0

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PRACTISE QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms:
(a) logic gate,
(b) truth table.
2. An air conditioner should switch on a fan when temperature in a room rises or becomes too hot
during the day. You are supplied with a relay, AND gate and a fan. Using these three apparata,
design the necessary circuit.
3. Use two switches, an LED and a dc power supply to draw a circuit diagram which
behaves in exactly the same way as an EX-OR gate. Explain your diagram.
4. A logic circuit is required to activate an alarm when the temperature of a hot radiator
FALLS during the day. A switch is necessary to test the circuit any time of the day.
Design the circuit and construct its truthtable. In your design include a relay since current
from a logic gate is too small to run an alarm.
5. Table below shows how the input sensors A and B of an electronic system control the
outputs P, Q and R.

A B P Q R
0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1

(a) Which type of logic gate will produce the P output?

(b) Which type of logic gate will produce the Q output?
(c) Write down an expression which describes the R output.
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For the circuit above draw up its truthtable and identify a single equivalent gate that acts in the
same way as the circuit.

7 The truth table for a logic circuit is shown below

Truth table.

W X Y Z Q
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0

(a) Inputs W and X are connected to two logic gates having outputs Y and Z. Given that Y and Z form
the inputs to a third gate which provides the output Q. Complete diagram below by drawing the
logic circuit that would give these outputs.

(b) Name a single logic gate which performs the same function as the complete circuit
above.

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