ENT 115 Analogue Electronics 1 - SOLUTION

Assignment 1: Introduction to Semiconductors, Diode Applications & Special

Purpose Diode

PART A: INTRODUCTON TO SEMICONDUCTORS

1. (i) Compare the differences between semiconductor, insulator and conductor.

Characteristic Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Resistance Low resistance for High resistance so Between

easy current flow. current cannot conductor and
flow. insulator.

Valence Atom is tend to Atom is tend to Difficult to free or

electron release valence absorb valence accept valence
electron and it flow electron to valence electron from
freely from one atom layer to make it other atom.
to another. stable and tries to
avoid electrical of
chemical activity.

Energy band Conduction and The energy gap is Between

valence band overlap, big, so electron conductor and
electron easily move cannot easily insulator.
move.

Example Copper, silver, gold, Rubber, plastic, Carbon, silicon,

aluminum glass, mica, quartz germanium

(ii) Explain doping process, donors and acceptors.

Doping: Process which impurity atoms are introduces to instrinsic semiconductor in order to alter
the balance between holes and electrons

Donor: Process when four atom’s valences of antimony are used to form the covalent bonds with
silicon, leaving one electron.

Acceptor: Process when trivalent atom’s valence of boron are used to form the covalent bonds
with silicon, creating a hole.
(iii) Compare the differences between n-type semiconductors with p-type semiconductors.

n-type: To increase the number of conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon, pentavalent atom
(atoms with 5 valence electrons such as arsenic (As), antimony (Sb)) are added.

p-type: To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent atom (atoms with 3 valence
electrons such as boron (B), indium (In) ) are added.

(iv) Describe pn junction and explain how it is created.

pn junction is the boundary between two different types of semiconductive material. It is created
when n-type are doped with p-type.

(v) Express with your own words the definition of diffusion, depletion region and barrier
potential. Explain how they are created.

Diffusion: Movement of free electrons in the n region across the pn junction and into p region.
 Depletion: Thin layer of positive and negative ions that exits on both sides of pn junction. It is
created when the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the pn junction and create a
layer of positive charge near junction. As the electron move across the junction, p region loses
holes as both combine and create a layer of negative charges near junction.

Barrier potential: Potential difference of the electric field in the depletion region and is the
amount of energy required to move electrons through the depletion region

2. Distinguish the differences between ideal, practical and complete diode. Sketch the V-I
characteristic curve of each of these diode models.

An Ideal diode model is the situation where diode has no barrier potential and no internal
resistivity. (Including formula)

A Practical diode model is the situation where diode has a certain barrier potential, for example
0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium. (Including formula)
 A complete model is the situation where diode has a certain barrier potential and internal
resistivity. (Including formula.)

3. Determine the forward voltage and current for the diode as shown in Figure 1. Calculate the
voltage drop across the resistor, R by assuming resistivity of the diode, r’d is 10 Ω.

0.5 kΩ
VBIAS 20 V

Figure 1

(i) Ideal Model

VF= 0 V, IF = 20 V/ 0.5 kΩ = 0.04 A = 40.0 mA, VRLIMIT= 40mA x 0.5 kΩ = 20 V

(ii) Practical Model

VF= 0.7 V, IF = 20 V – 0.7 V/ 0.5 kΩ = 0.0386 A = 38.6 mA,

VRLIMIT= 38.6 mA x 0.5 kΩ = 19.3 V

(iii) Complete Model

IF= (20-0.7)/(0.5 kΩ + 10 Ω)= 0.0378 A = 37.8 mA.

 VF= 0.7 V + (37.8 mA x 10 Ω)= 1.078 V

VRLIMIT= 37.8 mA x 0.5 kΩ = 18.92 V

(iv) If the circuit is modified by adding a resistor 1 k Ω connected in series, determine its
forward voltage, forward current and voltage across the resistors for ideal, practical and
complete model.

Ideal Model

VF= 0 V, IF = 20 V/ 1.5 kΩ = 13. 33mA, VRLIMIT= 13. 33 mA x 1.5 kΩ = 19.99 V

Practical Model

VF= 0.7 V, IF = 20 V – 0.7 V/ 1.5 kΩ = 0.01286 A = 12.86 mA,

VRLIMIT= 12.86 mA x 1.5 kΩ = 19.29 V

Complete Model

IF= (20-0.7)/(1.5 kΩ + 10 Ω)= 0.01278 A = 12.78 mA.

VF= 0.7 V + (12.78 mA x 10 Ω)= 0.8278 V

VRLIMIT= 12.78 mA x 1.5 kΩ = 19.17 V

PART B: DIODE APPLICATIONS

4. Sketch the output voltage waveform for each circuit shown in Figure 2.

+5 V

Vin R
0 47 Ω Vo

-5 V

+50 V

Vin R Vo
0 3.3 kΩ
-50 V

Figure 2
5. The diodes shown in Figure 3 are considered to be ideal.

Figure 3

(i) Sketch the conduction path for the positive and negative alternations of the input voltage
Vi.

Refer answers in (ii)

(ii) Sketch the output voltage waveform across the resistor, R during the positive and
negative alternations.
 (iii) Sketch the output voltage waveform across the resistor, R during the positive and
negative alternations if the circuit is modified by adding a capacitor.

6. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 4.

(i) Identify the type of this circuit.

(ii) Calculate the total peak secondary voltage.

(iii) Calculate the peak voltage across each half of the transformer secondary.

(iv) Sketch the voltage waveform across RL.

(v) Calculate the peak current through each diode.

(vi) Calculate the PIV for each diode.

 Figure 4

7. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 5.

 Figure 5

i. Identify the type of this circuit.

Filtered bridge full wave rectifier

ii. Sketch the input voltage waveform.

Vp(pri) = 1.414Vrms = 1.414(120 V) = 170 V

iii. Sketch the output voltage waveform across RL.

 iv. Calculate the ripple factor of this circuit.
Vp(sec) = nVp(pri) = 0.1(170 v) = 17.0 V

Vp(rect) = Vp(sec) – 1.4 V = 17.0 V – 1.4 V = 15.6 V

Vr(pp) = (1/fRLC)Vp(rect) = (1/(120 Hz) (220 Ω)(1000 µF)15.6 V = 0.591 V

VDC = (1 – 1/2fRLC) Vp(rect)

= (1- 1/(240 Hz) (220 Ω)(1000 µF)15.6 V = 15.3 V

r = Vr(pp)/VDC = 0.591 V / 15.3 V = 0.0039 = 3.9 %

v. You are asked to improve the ripple factor calculated in (iv). What kind of modification you can
do to the circuit in order to get a better filter? Justify your answer.

By increasing the capacitor value. For example, the filter capacitor is increased to 2200 µF.
Vr(pp) = (1/fRLC)Vp(rect)
= (1/(120 Hz) (220 Ω)(2200 µF)15.6 V = 0.269 V

VDC = (1 – 1/2fRLC) Vp(rect)

= (1- 1/(240 Hz) (220 Ω)(2200 µF)15.6 V = 15.6 V

r = Vr(pp)/VDC = 0.269 V / 15.6 V = 0.0017 = 1.7 %

The ripple factor now is improved to 1.7 %. By changing the capacitor to larger value, we can see
that the ripple factor is improved. If RL or C increases, the ripple voltage decreases and the dc
voltage increase.

8. Design a full-wave rectifier using an 18 V center-tapped transformer. The output ripple is not to
exceed by 5% of the output voltage with a load resistance of 680 Ω. Specify the IF(AV) and PIV ratings
of the diodes and select an appropriate diode from Appendix I.
9. As an electronic engineer, you have been given a project to design a basic unregulated power supply
with the following specifications: The input voltage is 120 V rms, the output voltage is 24 V, the
ripple factor is 3% and the load current is 250 mA. Sketch the circuit of your unregulated power
supply by showing all necessary calculation.

A bridge full-wave rectifier is the best choice.

Reason: A full-wave rectifier has less ripple for a given filter capacitor than a half-wave rectifier.
Bridge rectifier provides the most output voltage for a given voltage and PIV is less than for a
center-tapped rectifier. Full-wave bridge rectifier does not require a center-tapped transformer.

Circuit design:

Calculation:
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) – 1.4 V
Vp(sec)= 24 V + 1.4 V = 25.4 V
Turn ratio, n= Vp(sec)/ Vp(pri)=25.4 V/ (120 V)(1.414)=0.15
Calculate the peak-to-peak ripple voltage: (Assume VDC=24 V)
r = Vr(pp)/VDC
Vr(pp)= r VDC = (0.03)(24 V)= 0.72 V

Calculate the load resistor and minimum capacitor value:

RL=24V / 250 mA = 96 Ω
Vr(pp) = (1/fRLC)Vp(rect)

0.72 V= (1/120 Hz x 96 Ω x C)24 V

C= 2894 µF
 PART C: SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES
10. Determine the minimum input voltage required for regulation to be established in Figure 6. Assume
an ideal zener diode with IZK = 1.5 mA and VZ = 14 V. If a practical zener diode with ZZ = 20 Ω and
VZ = 14 V at 30 mA is used, determine its minimum input voltage required for regulation.

Figure 6
11. Determine the minimum and maximum input voltages that can be regulated if a 1N4733A zener
diode is used in Figure 7. Please refer to Appendix II for the zener diode datasheet.

Figure 7

From data sheet, VZ = 5.1 V at IZ= 49 mA, IZK= 1 mA, and Zz = 7 Ω

For the minimum zener current, the output voltage is:

VOUT=Vz - ∆Vz= 5.1 V – (Iz – Izk) Zz= 5.1 V – (49 mA – 1 mA)(7 Ω) = 4.76 V

Therefore,

VIN(MIN)= VR + VOUT = IZKR + 4.76 V = (1 mA)(100 Ω) + 4.76 V = 4.86 V

For the maximum zener current, the output voltage is:

IZM= PD(max)/VZ= 1 W/ 5.1 V = 196 mA

VOUT=Vz + ∆Vz= 5.1 V + (Izm – Iz) Zz= 5.1 V + (196 mA – 49 mA)(7 Ω) = 6.13 V

Therefore,

VIN(MAX)= VR + VOUT = IZMR + 4.76 V = (196 mA)(100 Ω) + 6.13 V = 25.7 V

12. A loaded zener regulator is shown in Figure 8. Determine the minimum and maximum permissible
load currents. Also, find the load regulation expressed as a percentage. Please refer to Appendix II for the
datasheet.
 Figure 8

From data sheet, VZ = 5.1 V at IZ= 49 mA, IZK= 1 mA, and Zz = 7 Ω

For the minimum load current, the zener voltage is:

IZM= PD(max)/VZ= 1 W/ 5.1 V = 196.1 mA

Vz(max)=Vz + ∆Vz= 5.1 V + (Izm – Iz) Zz= 5.1 V + (196.1 mA – 49 mA)(7 Ω) = 6.13 V

VR=VIN - Vz(max) = 8 V - 6.13 V = 1.87 V

IT=VR/R= 1.87 V/22 Ω = 85.01 mA

IL(MIN) = IZM – IT = 196.1 mA – 85.01 mA = 111.09 mA

For the maximum load current, the zener voltage is:

Vz(min)=Vz - ∆Vz= 5.1 V - (Iz – IzK) Zz= 5.1 V - (196 mA – 49 mA)(7 Ω) = 4.76 V

VR=VIN - Vz(MIN) = 8 V – 4.76 V = 3.24 V

IT=VR/R= 3.24 V/22 Ω = 147 mA

IL(MIN) = IT -IZK = 147 mA – 1 mA = 146 mA

%Load regulation = (6.13 V – 4.76 V) / 4.76 V x 100% = 28.7%

13. The circuit in Figure 8 is now modified by using an input voltage from 6 V to 12 V with no load.
Analyze the circuit by determining the percent line regulation.

14. Design a zener voltage regulator to meet the following specifications: The input voltage is 24 V dc,
the load current is 35 mA, and the load voltage is 8.2 V. Select an appropriate zener diode from
Appendix II.