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UNIT X. LOGIC
by Jaynelle G. Domingo

Overview

Logic is a science that deals with formal reasoning. It is used in engineering, law, philosophy, computer science,
mathematics, and many other disciplines. This unit will discuss symbolic logic which is mainly the study arguments. It
includes different types of logic statement, quantifiers and connectives that are being used to form an argument, and
establishing the validity of arguments using truth tables and Euler Diagram.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the unit, I am able to:

1. use mathematical concepts and tools in other areas such as in finance, voting, logic, business, networks and
systems;
2. Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and endeavors in life.

Setting Up (Unit 10)

Name: _______________________________________________________Score: ______________________________

Course/Year/Section: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________________

Directions: Consider the two scenarios below. Which of the two is more acceptable? Make a convincing argument why
your chosen one must be considered and why the other one is not. State your reasons on the blank provided.

Scenario 1: Scenario 2:
If it rains, Jay will be sick. If it rains, Jay will be sick.
It did not rain. Jay was not sick.
Therefore, Jay was not sick. Therefore, it didn’t rain.

(State your reasons here.)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Note: At the end of this unit, verify if your answer is correct. The validity of the two arguments will be determined.

Lesson Proper

Logic Statement and Quantifiers

Statement
A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but cannot be both true and false at the same
time. Statements are usually denoted by the letters 𝑝, 𝑞, and 𝑟. The truthfulness or falsity of a statement is called truth
value.
Statement can also be composite (compound), which are composed of sub-statements and various connectives.
Simple statement connected with words and phrases such as and, or, if-then, and if and only if (iff) creates a compound
statement.
The table below summarizes logical connectives.
Type of Symbolic
Connective Statement
Statement Form
Negation ∼ not 𝑝 ∼𝑝
Conjunction ∧ 𝑝 and 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
Disjunction ∨ 𝑝 or 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
Conditional → if 𝑝 then 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
𝑝 if and
Biconditional ↔ 𝑝↔𝑞
only if 𝑞
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In the discussion of logic in Unit 2, logical connectives such as negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and
biconditional statements were introduced. These types of statement have its respective truth value. The truth value of
these statements satisfy the following properties:
1. Negation
“If 𝑝 is true, then ~𝑝 is false; if 𝑝 is false then ~𝑝 is true”
𝑝 ∼𝑝
T F
F T

2. Conjunction
“If p is true and q is true, then 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true, otherwise, 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is false.”
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∧𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

3. Disjunction
“If 𝑝 is true or 𝑞 is true or both 𝑝 and 𝑞 are true, then 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is true, otherwise, 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is false.”
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

4. Conditional
“The conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 is true unless p is true and q is false.”
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝→𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. Biconditional
“If 𝑝 and 𝑞 have the same truth value, then 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true if 𝑝 and 𝑞 have opposite truth values, then 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is
false.”
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝↔𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Compound Sentence and Grouping Symbol

The grouping symbols such as parenthesis, bracket and braces play a significant role in symbolic form of a
compound statement.
1. Parenthesis
The parenthesis is used whenever the word “both” goes with “and”, and “either” goes with “or”. The
representations of the following phrases are:
• Both 𝑝 or 𝑞 and 𝑟: (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟
• p or both q and r: 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟)
• Either 𝑝 and 𝑞 or 𝑟: (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟
• 𝑝 and either q or r: 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
2. Since “neither 𝑝 nor 𝑞” is the same as “not either 𝑝 or 𝑞”, then it is denoted by ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞). This is also expressed by
the phrase “both P and Q are not”.
3. The order of the words “both” and “not” should also be taken into consideration. Thus the representations of the
following phrases are:
• 𝑝 and 𝑞 are not both: ∼ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
• 𝑝 and 𝑞 are both not: ∼ 𝑝 ∧∼∼ 𝑞
4. The parentheses, brackets and braces are used in symbolic logic in the same manner as in mathematical
expressions.
5. If a compound statement is written as an English sentence, then a coma is used to indicate which simple
statements are grouped together.
• If 𝑝, then 𝑞 and 𝑠: 𝑝 → (𝑞 ∧ 𝑠)
• 𝑝 and not 𝑞, if and only if 𝑟: (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) ↔ 𝑟
• 𝑟 and not 𝑝, if and only if 𝑝 or 𝑞: (𝑟 ∧∼ 𝑝) ↔ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟)

Illustration:

1. The statement “It is impossible that if he is sick and you are there, then he will instantly get well or he will at least
feel secure” can be symbolized as
∼ [(𝑠 ∧ 𝑦) → (𝑤 ∨ 𝑓)]
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2. Consider the following simple statement.
𝑝: Koko prepares well for his thesis.
𝑞: Koko passes the defense.
𝑟: Koko will finish his college

The statement “If Koko prepares well for his thesis and passes the defense, then Koko will finish his
college” can be expressed in symbolic form as
(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑟
Using the same example, the expression ∼ 𝑟 ↔ (∼ 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑞) in English sentence is
“Koko will not finish his college, if and only if Koko did not prepare well for his thesis or Koko did not pass the
defense.”

Quantifiers
In a statement, the word some and phrases there exists and at least one are called existential quantifiers.
These are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.
In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The quantifiers none and no
deny the existence of something while all and every are used to assert that every element of a given set satisfies some
condition.

Truth Tables and Tautologies

A proposition, denoted by 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, …, is a Boolean polynomial in the statement 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, and so on. A simple and
concise way to show the relationship between the truth value of a proposition 𝑃(𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, … ) and the truth values of its
statements 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, … is through truth table. A truth table is a table that shows the value of a compound statement for all the
possible truth values of its simple statements.

Constructing a Truth Table

1. If the given proposition has 𝑛 simple statements, then starts with a standard form that has 2! rows. Enter the truth
values for each simple statement.
2. Use the truth values for each simple statement and their negations to enter the truth values for each connective
within a pair of grouping symbols.
3. The truth values that are entered into the column under the connective for which truth values are assigned last
from the truth table for the given statement.

In the earlier part of this unit, the truth tables for negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and biconditional
statement were illustrated.

Example:
The truth table for the proposition ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) is constructed as follows:
𝑝 𝑞 ∼𝑞 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞 ∼ (𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T
Note that the previous proposition contains T in the 1 , 3 and 4 rows and F in the 2nd row. Thus the given
st rd th

proposition is called contingency.

In case that the last column of the truth table contains only T, it means that they are true for any truth values of its
variables (simple statements). Such proposition is called tautology.
Similarly, a proposition is called contradiction if the last column contains only F in the last column of its truth table.

Illustration:
The proposition 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 is a tautology while the proposition 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝 is contradiction.
𝑝 ∼𝑝 𝑝 ∨∼ 𝑝 𝑝 ∼𝑝 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝
T F T T F F
F T T F T F

Practice:
Construct truth table for each of the following statement and verify the proposition.
a. (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) (contingency)
b. 𝑝 ∧ (∼ 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) (contradiction)
c. (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (∼ 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞) (tautology)

Logical Equivalence
Two propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are said to be logically equivalent if their truth tables are identical. We denote the
logical equivalence of 𝑃 and 𝑄 by 𝑃 ≡ 𝑄.

Illustration:
The propositions 𝑃 = (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is logical equivalent to 𝑄 = 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞. This means that (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) ≡
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞. This can be showed using truth table.
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𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞 𝑞 → 𝑝 (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
Notice that the last two columns have the same entries, thus, logical equivalent. Further, the proposition (𝑝 →
𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) can be expressed as 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 and vice versa.

Symbolic Arguments

Symbolic logic is mainly a study of arguments and since argument is made up of propositions, there is a need to
determine the truthfulness or falsity of these propositions in order to know the validity or invalidity of an argument.
An argument is a collection of propositions where it is claimed that one of the propositions called conclusion
follows from the other propositions called the premises of the argument and is denoted by 𝑃" , 𝑃# , … , 𝑃! /∴ 𝑄.

Illustration:
If a man is bachelor, then he is unhappy. ---- Premise 1 (𝑃" )
If he is unhappy, then he dies young. ---- Premise 2 (𝑃# )
So, bachelor dies young. ---- Conclusion (/∴ 𝑄)

An argument is valid if the conclusion is true whenever all the premises are assumed to be true. Otherwise, an
argument is invalid if at least one of the conclusions is false. It can be written in symbolic form to construct the truth table
and its validity can be verified using truth table.

Steps in Determining the Validity of an Argument

1. Write the argument in symbolic form.
2. Construct a truth table showing the truth value of the premises and the truth value of the conclusion.
3. If the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are true, then the argument is
valid.
4. If the conclusion is false in any row in which all the premises are true, then the argument is invalid.

Example:
If a man is bachelor, then he is unhappy. If he is unhappy, then he dies young. So, bachelor dies young.

Let 𝑏 = “Man is bachelor.”

𝑢 = “Man is unhappy.”
𝑦 = “Man dies young.”
The given argument can be expressed as
If a man is bachelor, then he is unhappy. -- 𝑏→𝑢 (𝑃" )
If he is unhappy, then he dies young. -- 𝑢→𝑦 (𝑃# )
So, bachelor dies young. --/∴ 𝑏 → 𝑦 (𝑄)

𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐 Q
𝑏 𝑢 𝑦
𝑏→𝑢 𝑢→𝑦 𝑏→𝑦
T T T T T T
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T F
F T T T T T
F T F T F T
F F T T T T
F F F T T T
Since the conclusion is true in every row of the truth table in which all the premises are true, then the argument is valid.

Practice:
Directions: Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

1. If the power goes off, then the computer will not operate. The computer is operating. Therefore, the power is not
off. (Your answer must be valid.)

2. If the show is interesting, then they will not go home early. The show is not interesting. Therefore, they will go
home early. (Your answer must be invalid.)

Additional: You may verify your answer in the Setting Up part of this unit.
Standard Form of Valid Arguments (Rules of Inference)

Any arguments having the following symbolic forms are considered valid arguments.
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Arguments and Euler Diagram

Many verbal statements particularly those with quantifiers can be translated into equivalent statements using sets,
which can then be described by diagrams. Hence, Euler diagram is one of the ways to determine the validity of an
argument. This diagram shows the existing relationship between quantities.

Illustration:
The following are Euler diagrams that illustrate possible relationships that can exist between two sets.

If the conclusion of an argument must necessarily follow from all the conditions shown by the premises, then the
arguments is valid. However, if the conclusion of an argument does not necessarily follow from all the conditions shown
by the premises, then the argument is invalid.

Example:
Babies are irrational.
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.
Irrational people are despised.
Therefore, babies cannot manage a crocodile.

Consider the above example.

§ By first premise, the set of babies is a subset of irrational people.
§ By third premise, the set of irrational people is contained in the set of despised people.
§ By second premise, the set of despised people and the set of people who can manage crocodile are disjoint Note
that the set of babies and the set of people who can manage crocodiles are disjoint.
§ In other words,words,“Babies cannot manage crocodiles” is a consequence of the first, second, and third
premises, and represent a valid argument.

References

Commision on Higher Education (CHED). (2016). TEACHING GUIDE FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL: General
Mathematics (Core Subject)

Nocon, R. and Nocon, E. (2018). Essential Mathematics for the Modern World. C & E. Publishing House.

Ibanez, E. D. (n.d). Learning Materials in Set Theory and Logic. Central Luzon State University. Science City of Munoz,
Nueva Ecija
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Assessing Learning (Unit 10-A)

Name: _______________________________________________________Score: ______________________________

Course/Year/Section: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________________

Directions: Answer the following items. Write your answer in the space and/or on the blank provided in each item.

1. Let 𝑝 be “It is cold” and let 𝑞 be “It is raining”. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following
statement.

a. 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑞
Answer: ______________________________________________________________
b. 𝑞 →∼ 𝑝
Answer: ______________________________________________________________
c. 𝑝 ↔ (𝑞 ∨∼ 𝑝)
Answer: ______________________________________________________________

2. Determine the truth value of each of the following statements.

a. If 5 < 3, then −3 < −5. ______________

b. It is not true that 2 + 2 = 4 or 3 + 5 = 6. ______________
c. It is true that 2 + 2 ≠ 4 and 3 + 3 = 6. ______________
d. 3 < 5 if and only if −3 < −5. ______________

3. Construct the truth table of each proposition.

a. (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∨ ~(𝑝 ↔ ~𝑞)

b. [𝑝 → (~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)] ∧ ~[𝑞 ∨ (𝑝 ↔ ~𝑞)]

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4. Verify: 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ≡ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟).

5. Simplify the following statements.

a. It is not true that it is cold or raining.

Answer: _____________________________________________________________________
b. It is not true that he is short and handsome.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________________
c. It is that true that if roses are red then sampaguitas are white.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________________
d. It is not true that, sampaguitas are white if and only if roses are red.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________________
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Assessing Learning (Unit 10-B)

Name: _______________________________________________________Score: ______________________________

Course/Year/Section: ___________________________________________ Date: _______________________________

Directions: Solve the following items regarding symbolic arguments and Euler diagram. Write your answer in the space
provided.

1. Verify the validity/invalidity of the following argument using truth table.

a. 𝑝 → ~𝑞
𝑟→𝑞
𝑟_______
∴ ~𝑝

b. 𝑎 → 𝑏
𝑐→𝑑
𝑏 ∨ 𝑐__
∴𝑎↔𝑑

2. Determine whether the following arguments are valid or invalid.

a. Kakay will order lasagna or spaghetti for lunch. Kakay did not order spaghetti for lunch. Therefore, Kakay
ordered lasagna.

b. If there will be public transportion going to Baguio City, Kokoy will be going for vacation. There was no public
transportation. Therefore, Kokoy did go to Baguio City for vacation.
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3. For each set of premises, construct the diagram and find a conclusion such that the argument is valid and such
that each premise is necessary for the conclusion.

a. 𝑃" : No student is lazy.

𝑃# : John is an artist.
𝑃& : All artists are lazy.
𝑄:

b. 𝑃" : All lawyers are wealthy.

𝑃# : Poets are temperamental.
𝑃& : Gian is a lawyer.
𝑃' : No temperamental person is wealthy.
𝑄:

4. Evaluate the validity of the arguments using Euler Diagram.

a. Math instructors are good-looking. Some guys are math instructors. Therefore, some guys are good-looking.

b. All cats learn slowly. Keki learns fast. Therefore, Keki is a dog.