CONTROL ENGINEERING As perNew Syllabus of VTU For Vill Semester Mechanical Engineering Also useful for M.E, / M.Tech. of all other Universities S.B. Halesh teen. ono) more Associate Professor Department of techanical Engineering, Sir M, Visvesvaraya Institute of Technology Bengaluru-562187 J.K, XEROX Kannada Sahitya Bhavan Road "Rear VNCE., Vilayanagara ‘Mysore-570016 Mob :9141720824,9845002201Control Engineering - For Engineering Students, by S.B. Halesh and published by ‘Sapna Book House (P) Ltd., R.O. #11, 3rd Main Road, Gandhinagar, Bangalore- 560 009 Ph: 080-40114455 Engg. - 183] ISBN 978-81-280-1361-5 © Author “No part ofthis publication whichis material protected by this copyright noice may be reproduced or ‘ransmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known of hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the publisher" ‘Copying ofthe book and selling it after photocopying or reselling it as second hand book is illegl and is not allowed, under the copyright at” This bookis sold subject tothe condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be ent, resold hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior writen consent. 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Pr (089 2250 Ph (088) 2409 “+ MUBL, Lox Mal, Coen Rose ireked= eine ie eaksron ac eieaantecunecae) ‘ypeseting and Cover Design by » CSYATALINE, Bangalore -20 email: datalinkmadhw@gmai.com Printed at : Poornima Printers, Bangalore Dedicated to Wy Brothers S.8. Srinivas, $B. Ravindranath & S.B. PramodSYLLABUS : 1OMES2 Exam Hrs: 03 Exam Marks: 100 ‘Total Lecture Hrs: 52 PART- A UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION: Concept of automatic controls, Open loop and closed loopsystems, Concepts of feedback, requirements of an ideal control system. Types of controllers- Proportional, Integral Proportional Integral,Proportional integral Differential controllers. 07 Hours ‘UNIT -2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS: Transfer function models, models of mechanicalsystems, ‘models of electrical circuits, DC and AC motors in controlsystems, models of thermal systems, models of yale systems pneumatic system, Analogous systems Force voltage, Force current, fours uNIT-3 BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS: Transfer Functions definition, function, biock representation of systems elements, reduction of bockdiagrams, Signal flow graphs: Mason's gain form. 7 Hours unin -4 ; ‘TRANSIENT AND STEADY STATE RESPONSE ANALYSIS: Introduction, frst ardarand second order system response to step ramp and impulse inputs, concepsof time constant and is importance in peed of response. System sablity:Routh's Hurwitz Criterion, 6 Hours PART-B unir-5 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS: Polar plots, Nyquist Stability Criterion, Stability “Analysis, Relative stability concepts, phase and gain margin, Mand Ncirces. 6 Hours untr-6 ‘ FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS USING BODE PLOTS: Bode attenuation digrams, Stability Analysis using Bode plots, Simplified Bode Diagrams. 7 Hours uNIT-7 ROOT LOCUS PLOTS: Definition of root loci, general rules for constructing ro0t loc, Analysis using oot locus plots 7 Hours uNIT-8 SYSTEM COMPENSATION AND STATE VARIABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS: Series and feedback compensation, Introduction to sate conceptsstte equation oflinear continuous data system. Matrix representation of stateeqations, controllably ant observabiliy, Kalman and Gilberts tes. 7 Hours CONTENTS UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION 1-20 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Concept of Automatic Control 2 1.3. Terminology 2 1.4 Classification of Control Systems 3 1.5 Open Loop Control System 5 1.5.1. Advantages 5 1.5.2 Disadvantages 6 1.6 Closed Loop Control System 6 1.6.1 Advantages 6 1.6.2. Disadvantages 7 1.6.3 Application of the Closed Loop Control System 7 1.7 Concept of Feedback Control System 8 1.7.1 Effect of Feedback on the Contro! System 10 1.8 Requirement of an Ideal Control System 10 9 Controllers " 1.9.1 Types of Controllers "1 1.9.2 Proportional - Controller 12 1.9.3 Derivative Controller 13 1.9.4 Proportional Plus Derivative, Controller 14 1.9.5 Integral - Controller 15 1.9.6 Proportional Plus Integral Controller 16 1.9.7. Proportional Plus integral Plus Differential Controller 7 1.9.8 ON - OFF Controller 17 1.9.9 “Additions 18 Review Questions 19 UNIT 2 - MATHEMATICAL MODELS 21-69 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Transfer Function Mode! 21 2.3 Models of Mechanical Systems 22 2.3.1. Mechanical Translational System 222.3.2 Mechanical Rotational Systems 24 2.4 Models of Electrical System 25 2.5 DC and AC Motors in Control 26 2.5.1 Direct Current Motor 26 2.8.2. Alternating Current Motors 29 2.6 Models of Hydraulic Systems a1 2.7 Models of Pneumatic System 34 2.8 Models of Thermal System 36 2.9 Liquid Level Systems 36 2.10 Anafogous Systems 39 2.10.1. Force-Current Analogy ~ [F Analogy] 39 2.10.2 Force - Voltage Analogy - F-V Analogy 4 Review Questions UNIT 3 - BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS 70-127 70 3.1 Transfer Function 3.2 Block Diagram n 3.2.1. Basic Elements of 2 Block Diagram n 3.3. Block Diagram of a Closed Loop System 72 3.3.1. Transfer Function of Closed Loop System 72 3.4 Reduetion of Block Diagram 73 3.4.1 Block Diagram Reduction Rules 73 3.5. Signal Flow Graphs 99 3.6.1 Basic Elements of a SFG 99 3.5.2 Terms Used in SFG 100 3.5.3. Properties of SFG 101 3.8.4 Procedure to Draw SFG 101 3.6 Mason's Gain Formula 102 UNIT 4 - TRANSIENT AND STEADY STATE RESPONSE ANALYSIS 128 - 187 4.1. Introduction 128 4.2 Parts of Time Response 128 4.3 Standard Test Inputs 129 4 Order and Type of the Control System 131 131 4.4.1. Order of the System 4.4.2 Types of the System nal 4.8 Steady State Error and Error Constants 134 4.6 Effect of Standard Test Inputs on Steady State Errors or Error Constants 135 4.6.1. Unit Step Input and Positional Errors 135 4.6.2 Unit Ramp Input and Velocity Error 135 4.6.3 Unit Parabolic input and Acceleration 136 4.7 Steady-state Errors of TYPE - 0 unity feedback system 137 4.8 Steady-state Errors of TYPE 1 unit feed back system 137 4.9 Steady-state Errors of TYPE 2 unity feed back system 138 4.10 Transient Response : First order system 141 4.10.1. Unit Step Input 141 4.10.2 Unit Impulse Input 143 4.10.3 Unit Ramp Input 144 4.11 Transient Response : Second order system 144 4.12 Time Response Specification 148, 4.12.1. Expression for Peak Time (tp) 149 4.12.2 Expression for Rise Time (tr) 150 4.12.3 Expression for Maximum Overshoot (Mp) 151 4.12.4 Expression for Setting Time (ts) 152 4.13. System - Stability 167 4.13.1, Concept of Stability 167 4.13.2. Terms Used 167 4.13.3 Condition for Stability Analysis 168 4.13.4 Characteristic Equation 168 4.14 Routh's Hurwitz Criterion 169 4.14.1 Routh’s Array 169 4.14.2 Special Cases im Roviow Questions 186 UNIT 5 - FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS 188 - 234 5.1 Introduction 188 5.2 Polar ~ Plots 188 5.3. Basic Terms used 189) 5.4 Nyquist Stability Criterion 190 5.4.1. Concept of Stability Criterion 192 5.5 Cauchy's Principle of Argument 192 5.6 Generalised Nyquist Path 1935,7 Stability and Relative Stability 194 5.8 Constant Magnitude Circle - M - circle 227 5.9 N- Circle (Constant phase shift circles) 230 233 Review questions UNIT 6 - FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS USING BODE PLOTS 238 - 292 6.1 Introduction 236 6.2 Bode Plot For Open Loop Transfer Function Gl jw) Hi jw) 236 6.2.1 Contribution of Various Factors to Bode Plot 237 6.3 Frequency Response Specification 249 6.4 Advantages of Bode Plots 250 6.5 Procedure to draw the Bode Plots 251 Review Questions 291 UNIT 7 - ROOT LOCUS PLOTS 293 - 374 7.1. Introduction 293 7.1.1, The Root Locus Concept 293 7.1.2 Conditions of Root Locus 295 Magnitude Condition 296 -1.4 General Rules For Construction of Root Locus 297 Review Questions 373 UNIT 8 - SYSTEM COMPENSATION AND STATE VARIABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS. 375-401 8.1 Need for the System Compensation 375 8.2 Types of System Compensation 378 8.2.1. Series Compensated System or Series Compensation 376 8.2.2. Parallel Compensated System or Feedback Compensation 376 8.2.3 Series - Parallel compensated system 377 8.3 Types of Compensators 377 8.3.1 Lag Compensator 377 8.3.2 Characteristics of Lag Compensator 380 8.3.3 Lead Compensator 381 8.3.4 Characteristics of Lead Compensator 384 8.3.5 Lag - Lead Compensator 385 8.3.6 Characteristics of Lag - Lead Compensator 387 8.4 Introduction to State Concepts 388 8.4.1 System State and State Variable 389 8.4.2 State Vector and State Space 390 8.5 State Equations 390 8.5.1. Matrix Representation of State Equations 391 8.5.2 Output Equation 391 8.5.3. State Model 392 8.5.4 Block Diagram Representation of Linear Systems Described by State Equations 393 8.5.5 Transfer Function from the State Equation 394 8.6 Controllability and observability 396 8.7 Kalman's and Gilbert's Test 396 8.7.1. Kalman's Test of Controllability 396 8.7.2. Kalman’s Test of Observability 397 8.7.3. Gilbert's Test of Controllability and Observability 398 8.8 State Transition Matrix 399 Review Questions 401 QUESTION PAPERS. 402 - 416 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 417UNIT 1.1 INTRODUCTION Control engineering is the engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems ‘with predictable behaviors, Multi-disciplinary in nature, control systems engineering activities {focus on implementation of control systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of adiverse range. Before it emerged as a unique discipline, control engineering was practiced as apart of mechanical engineering and control theory was studied as a part of electrical engineering, since electrical circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. In the very first control relationships, a current output was represented with a voltage control input. However, not having, proper technology to implement electrical control systems, designers left with the option of less efficient and slow responding mechanical systems. A very effective mechanical controller that is siill widely used in some hydro plants isthe governor. Later on, previous to modern power electronics, process control systems for industrial applications were devised by mechanical engineers using pneumatic and hydraulic control devices, many of which are still in use today. There are two major divisions in control theory, namely, classical and modern, which have direct implications over the control engineering applications. The scope of classical contro! theory is limited to single-input and single-output (SISO) system design, The system analysisis carried out in ‘ime domain using differential equations, in complex-s domain with Laplace transform orin frequency domain by transforming from the complex-s domain, All systems are assumed to be second order and single variable, and higher-order system responses and multivariable effects are ignored. A controller designed using classical theory usually requires on-site tuning due to design approximations. Yet, due to easier physical implementation of classical controller designs as compared to systems designed using modem control theory these controllers are preferred in most industrial applications ‘The most common controllers designed using classical control theory are PID controtlers. In contrast, modem control theory is carried out strictly inthe complex-s or the frequency domain, and can deal with multi-input and multi-output (MIMO) systems. This overcomes the limitations of classical control theory in more sophisticated design problems, such as fighter aircraft control. In2__—Gontrol Engineering modern design, a system is represented as a set of first order differential equations defined using state variables, Nonlinear, multivariable, adaptive and robust control theories come under this division. Being fairly new, modern control theory has many areas yet tobe explored. Scholars like Rudolf E, Kalman and Alexander Lyapunoy are well-known among the people who have shaped modem control theory. Modern day control engineering is a relatively new field of study that gained a significant attention during 20° century with the advancement in technology. It can be broadly defined as practical application of control theory, Control engineering has an essential rote in a wide range of control systems, from simple household washing machines to high-performance F-16 fighter aircraft. It seeks to understand physical systems, using mathematical modeling, in terms of inputs, outputs and various components with different behaviors; use control systems design tools to develop controllers forthose systems; and implement controllers in physical systems employing available technology. A system can be mechanical, electrical, fluid, chemical, financial and even biological, and the ‘mathematical modeling, analysis and controller design uses control theory in one or many of the time, frequency and complex:s domains, depending on the nature of the design problem, 1.2 CONCEPT OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL ‘The control of an industrial process (manufacturing, production, and processing by automatic rather than manual means is often called automation. Automation is the automatic operation or control of a process, device, and steel industries, among others. The concept of automation is, central to an industrial society. Automatic machines can be used to increase the productivity of a plant and to obtain high-quality products, Automatic control of machines and processes is utilised to prodeuce a product within specified tolemces and to achieve high precision. Automatic control has played a Vital role in the advancement of engineering and science. In addition to its extreme importance in space-vehicle, missle-guidance, robotic and mechatronics systems, automatic control has become an important and integral oart of modera manufacturing and industrail processes. For example, automatic control is essential in the numerical control of machine tools in the manufacturing industries, in the design of autopilot systems in aerispace industries, and in the design of vehicles in automobile industrs. It is also essential in industrial operations that require the control of pressure, temperature, humidity, viscosity, and fluid flow. Due to the importance of ‘automatic control as a means of attaining optimal performance of dynamic systems, improving productivity and relieving the drudgery of many routine repetitive manual operations, most engineers ‘nd scientist must now have a good understanding of this field. The current revolution in computer and information technology is causing an equally momentous social change: the expansion of information gathering and information processing as computer extend the reach of the human brain, Control systems are used to achieve increased performance of a device or system. 1.3 TERMINOLOGY Following are the basic terms used in the study of control engineering: ‘© Control : The meaning control is to regulate, direct or command a system so that a desired objective is achieved, i | | | { Introduction 9 + Sytem :A system isan arangementor combination of diferent bisaton of dierent physi component ha a onecied together of related together o form an ene unto achieve n conn oecing A system canbe both psc an am abstsct one For example -A cas oom napster and an abstract system can be dynam phenome sich economies edict sal + Input: Input isthe apie siglo extra exciton signa that tapi othe eon System to geta required output + Plant; Panis ke portion ofthe sytem which tobe contol or regia + Process: Iris an operation which st eoontrlled or eulted to oban the desied ouput * Controller: 1s an cls in a contol system which generates neesay con control the plant or process. s Sessa cont action @ + Manipulate variable: i noua sina or con ston gener sina o contol ction generated bythe contra affect the value of controlled variable or output from the plant or process. 7 ‘ « Disturbane: isan insite signal which ends afer the ot ich ent atet he ouput sponse ofthe system ifsue disturbances gencrated ouside he sytem and acts addition to normal nets Kage external disturbance and ifthe disturbance generated within a system by itselfiskrownas itera ‘+ Control system : A control system is an arrangement of c -ment of components interconnected in such @ ‘ay 80 as to regulate, direct or command itself to obtain a certain objective. Reference Inpiat Controlled Plant / Process output Control system deals with cause and effect relationship between input and ou = ip iput and output for a plant or 1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS ‘Type 1 : Generally, control systems can be classified into three types. They are {Natural control system: A contol stem which eis inate incling b scald nr conol ten Ex: Haan bg ane nine lassen 2.Mademade control system : A contol sysem crewedty contol tem Ex Automobile 2.Combinationa contest sontrolsystm whichshevng combiion ofboth atu and man-made ar clled combinational cont sysem Ex Man dvi an atonobte ‘Type 2 Based oa the open coma systems can be died ino 1. Manually operated conta system 2. Automatic control system ‘ype3.; From te analysis point of view, contol sytem ean be cassie nto 1 Linear and Non-linear contra stems uman beings are called man-made ‘A control system which obeys the principle of superposition is known ali of superposition is known as liner control system. The Principle of superposition is a combination of an additive property and homogenous property4__—Controt Engineering (a) Additive Property: If x and *y’ belongs to the domain of the function ‘f° then we ean write ferry) =/O+/0) (6) Homogenous Property; For any." belongs to the domain ofthe function ‘f' and for any sealar constant &, we ean write F(x) = af) Fora linear system input/output relationships may be represented by:s near differential equation. ‘Accontal system which does not obey the principle of superposition is known as Non-Linear contol system. if function f(x) =», itis obvious that f(x-+)) = (+ y)* # G+ ODPand f (0x) ‘Therefore the function f (x) = x* is Non-linear 2. Time varying and Time invariant control systems ‘A control system in which one or mote parameters vary as a function of time in known as time varying control system. Thus, a time-variant system is a system described by a differential equation with variable coefficients and linear time variant system is described by linear differential equations with variable coefficients Its derivatives appear as linear combinations, but a coefficient or coefficients of terms may involve the independent variable. Example: A space shuitle leaving the earth as it mass reduces with time during the flight. Also, a rocket-burning fuel system is an example of time variant system since the rocket mass varies during the flight asthe fuel is burned. ‘A contol system in which all the parameters are constant with respect to time is known as tim variant control system. Thus, a time-invariant system is a system described by a differential ‘equation with constant coefficients and alinear time invariant system s described by linear differential equations with constant coefficients. ‘Example: Resistance, capacitance and inductance in an electrical network and a single degree of Freedom spring mass viscous damper system is an example ofa time-invariant system provided the ‘characteristics of all the three components do not vary with time. 3. Deterministic and Stochastic controf systems ‘A control system in which the response 10 input is predictable and repeatable is known as ot ale). deterministic control system. ‘A control system in which the response to input is unpredictable is known as stochastic control system. 4, Continuous - Time and Discrete Time control systems ‘Accontrol system in which all the system variables are defined for all the time is known asco time control systems. Example: Tacho-generator feedback used in the control of the DC motor. ‘A control system is which one or more system variables are defined only at certain discrete intervals of time, generally evenly spaced steps is known as Discrete-time control system. Example: Micro processor based systems. Introduction — 5 5. Lumped-parameter and tributed parameter control systems ‘A.control system that can be described by ordinary differential equation is known as lumped parameter control system, ‘Accontrod system that can be described by partial differential equations are known as distributed- parameter control systems. 6.Single input - Single Output [SISO] and Mu systems le Input Multiple-Output [MIMO} control A control system in which there is one input and one qutput is called single input and single output control system, ‘Acontrol system in which there are multiple input and multiple output is known as multiple input and multiple output control systems, ‘Type 4 : Based on the presence of feedback 1, Open Loop control system - A control system in which control action is independent of the Aesired output is known as open loop control system. (Feedback is absent) 2. Closed Loop-control system - A control system in which control action in dependent on the. desired output is known as closed-loop control system. (Feedback is present) 1.5 OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM -Anopen loop control system is one in which control action is independent of the desired output. It K ie ‘means the desired output is neither measured nor compared with the input, ‘The block diagram ofthe open loop control system is as shown in figure f.1 >] Conor —o| Plant or Process > Ouiput Input Fig. LL : Open Loop control system In this system, when input is applied to the controller which generates necessary control action required to control the plant or process which is to be controlled to generate desired output. The accuracy ofthese system depends entirely on the accuracy with which the input-output relationship “is designed. Ifthere are any variations in the external environment or disturbance during operation, | tron = Ctapat) Signal | fromthe [= Feedback clement : thermostat ~ Thermostat —_____] Fig. 13 : Auiomaile Elecirie Tron8 Control Engineering Figure 1.3 shows block diagram of an automatic electric Iron with temperature control. It works ‘on the principle of feedback. In an automatic electric Iron, thermostat acts as a feedback element. ‘Thermostat senses the actual temperature of iron, if temperature is beyond the particular value (desired temperature), Relay switches off the supply to iron and maintains constant temperature at the output, Thus, it isa closed loop control system. 2, Voltage Stabilizer Up ‘Variable x (f Input Yoonall Ay 5 To Ipad Voltage Down o—! Ftrereise Fixed Output Voltage N Fig. 1.4: Voliage Stabilizer Figure 1.4 shows voltage stabilizer can be treated as closed loop control system Input othe voltage stabilizer isthe variable voltage and outputis the constant voltage. Working principle of voltage stabilizer i based on the controlling the numberof secondary turns as per requirement to increase or decrease the output voltage. When input decreases, the output switch will be connected above A. On the other hand, if input increases, the output switch will be connected below A. 3. Ship Stabilization System using fin Fn { | a ‘Sea water level Sea waters, Fig, .5(a): Ship stabilization system Controller —} f= Plant —4 >| Fin Actuator >| ship Desired Roll Caproes Rol —={__ Feedback element Roll Sensor Fig, 1S(b): Ship sabilization system using fin Introduction 8 Figure 1.5(@) shows the block diagram ofa ship stabilization system using fin. In this system roll sensor acs feedback element Fin actuator acts acontolle and ship acts a plant which is 10 be controlled. The desired rll position and controlled rol (output) are compared atthe suming point to generated error or deviation (i any) based on which fin actuator initiates the necessary control action to stabilize the ship, 4. Room Heating System Controllee——~} —-|__ Plan j= Room Desired 4 t - Temperature \ectpoa Relay > switen >] Furnace — ‘Thermostat Fig. 1.6 : Room heating system ‘The block diagram of a soom heating system is as shown in figure 1.6. In this system, thermostat acts as a feedback element, its function isto sense the actual temperature and compares with the desired temperature. Based on the deviation (error) obtained controlling elements such as relay ‘and switch are activated to produce necessary signal to the plant-(furnace) so as to obtain the desired output temperature of the room, 5. Automobile speed control system — Plane Leg Desired g Eyes and - Acta .| -o|musces &| +1 ag speed Brain |Accelerator Speed Speedometer Fig. 1.7 : Automubile speed control system Figure .7 shows a block diagram of an automobile speed contol system. inthis system, speedometer measures the actual speed of the engine and compares with the desired speed to generates the error (iF any). Based on the error controlling elements such as eyes and brain takes @ decision and leg muscle and accelerator is actuated to increase or decrease the speed of the engin. 1.7 CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM Feedback control system are the control system in which effect of disturbance is seen as an error after comparing the output and reference input before controller takes the proper corrective action. ‘Thus, in feedback control system controller initiates the proper corrective action for the difference10 _—Contol Engineering obtained between the output of the system (contvolled variable) and the reference input due to the presence of disturbance, Thus error in the control system output is recticed due to feedback. But feedback not only reduces the error but also reduces the sensitivity of the system to variation in parameter and unwanted disturbances (Internal and external). For example, consider a room heating system as shown in figure 1.8 in which temperature of room is controlled atthe desired level. This system consists of heating system as a plant which operated by valve as a controller, and a thermal sensor as a feedback element. In this system, actual temperature of the room (output from the heating system) is sensed by the thermal sensor and is compared with reference input (desired value) to generate ertor. For the error. valve mechanism is actuated to take the proper corrective action so that desired temperature level is maintained, ‘error signal . Actual Pass - Tae »{ Heating system iperare np (controlled reference“ Freedback variable) input) signal za Thermal sensor] Fig. L8 : Room heating system 1.7.1. EFFECT oF FEEDBACK ON THE ConrRoL SvsTeM 1. Feedback in control system improves the time response. 2. By proper design and application of feedback, stability ofthe system can be effectively controlled. 3. Gain of the system can be controlled by controlling feedback. 4, Feedback in control system reduces the effect of disturbance (Internal and External) on the system and reduces the sensitivity ofthe system to variation in parameter. 1.8 REQUIREMENT OF AN IDEAL CONTROL SYSTEM Various parameters are considered in the design of a control system. All the control systems are designed to perform specific objectives. To achieve the required objective, a control systems must satisfy the following requirements 1. Stability 2.Sensitivity 3. Speed 4, Accuracy 5. Disturbance or Noise 6.Bandwidth If a control system satisfy the all requirements the system is known as ideal control system, Stability : Stability in a control system implies that small changes in the system input, in initial Introduc conditions or in system parameters do not result in large changes in the system behavious. Staility is the important characteristic of the transient response of a control system. A ideal controt system is one which gives bounded output for bounded input. A ideal control system are designed to be stable. sitivity : An ideal control system should be insensitive to the variations in parameters ofthe system but it should be sensitive to the input commands. Its a important parameter that shoul’ be considered in the design of control system, Speed : Speed of the control system means how fast the output of the system approaches te the 4esired value. This is measured interms ofthe settling time and rise time. An ideal control system should have good speed, Accuracy : Accuracy of the control system means how much the output of the control system is nearer to the input or desired value. An ideal control system must be highly accurate Disturbance : All control systems are subject to some type of extraneous signals or noise during operation. External disturbance such as wind gust, thermal noise voltage are quite common, ‘Therefore, in the design of a control system, considerations should be given so thatthe system is insensitive to noise and disturbances but sensitive to input commands. Band width : Band width of the control system means for the range of input, the output of the control system should be constant. It refers fo the frequency response of the control system. An ideal control system must give satisfactory output forthe input frequency range. 1.9 CONTROLLERS lis generally known as an automatic controllers. The controller isa basic element in a control system which compares the actual value of the plant output with the reference input ot desired ‘value to determine the error or deviation and produces proper corrective action (control signal) that will reduce the error to a smaller value or to zer0. The measurement of error is possible due to feedback. The feedback allows to compare the plant output with its reference input to generate error. Thus input to the controller is the deviation of the output from its desired value known as error and output from the controller is the corrective action known as manipulated signal, The ‘manner is which the controller produces output ie., manipulated control signal is known ascontrol action, 14 A Types oF Contno.tens Based on the control action, controllers are classified as 1. On-off or two position controllers 2. Proportional controllers 3. Derivative controller 4. Integral controllers 5. Proportional plus integral controllers 6. Proportional plus differentia controllers 7. Proportional plus integral plus differential controllers.32_—Control Engineering 1.9.2 Propormionat - Conrnowuen Figure 1.9 shows a simple block diagram of the proportional controller. In this, the output of the ‘controller i.e., manipulated of actuating signal is proportional to the input of the controller ie., ‘error signal, error detector Reference 4 Spyenersisn ; > ky > — Manipulated signal or input” r() o : 0 Nar caneetir aera ~ Fino Feedback signal Fig. 19 : Proportional controller ip between output ofthe controller Fora controller with proportional control action the relations tn(e) and error signal e() is im(t) = K, e) ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get M(s) = k, Bs) M(s) E(s) ‘where k, is the proportional gain. ‘The relation between output ofthe controller m(?) and the error signal e For the unit step int is as shown in figure 110, m(p) e(t) Fig. 110 ‘ Iishows that there exists linea relation between controller output m() and the error signal e(). Fora zero error the controller outpat sould be zero otherwise the process will come to hall. Hence ‘mathematically it can be expressed as (i) = Kyeto-+m, ‘Where m,is the controller output for zero éror Introduction — 13 Cunacrensncs A control system with proportional contro! mode has the following characteristics: I. The controlier output is equal to m, when the error is zero. 2. The system is stable. 3, Improves Closed Loop Response. 4, Provides fast response. 5. Improves steady state error and Rise time. 6. But, high gain may lead to instability due o high oscillation. Disapvanraces 1. Provides heavily damped response. 2, Provides large steady state error. ‘Example: Non-inverting operational Amplifiers 1.9.3 Derwanive Conrrouien Inthis contro! mode, the output ofthe controller., manipulated signal mit) is directly proportional to the time derivative of the input to the controler ic, error signal e(). Mathematically it can be expressed as set) mit) ao a et) my = x, Taking Laploe Transform on bot sides, we get MG) = SE) _ Ms) ‘S E(s) Where K, is the derivative gain constant. The main advantage of this control mode is that it responds tothe rate of change of error and can produce necessary corrective action before the magnitude of the error becomes too large, Thus derivative controller anticipates the error and also initiates the early corrective action for the anticipated error. For example ifthe error changes at arate of 2% per minute, and the derivative time T, =3 minutes, the predicted error is 6%. Ifthe Controller Gain, K, = 0.2, then the derivative control mode will add an additional 0.2 x 6% = 1.2% to the controller output. ‘The derivative control mode gives a controller additional control action when the error changes consistently. Italso makes the loop more sable (up toa point) which allows using a higher controller gain and a faster integral (shorter integral time or higher integral gain). These have the effect of reducing the maximum deviation of process variable from set point if the process receives and external disturbance,14 _—Contol Engineering ‘e control action can never be used alone asit takes corrective action on the rate However Derivativ igerror itself. Any noise inthe error signal amplifiesand of change of actual error rather than actuatin gives an erratic behavior. Cranacrenisrics 1. Produces significant correction befo 2. Tends to increase stability of the system. 3. Adds damping to the system hence large values of used, ye magnitude of actuating error becomes too large. gain which will improve accuracy can be 1.9.4 Propormionat. PLus Derivative ConTROLLER “This isa combination of proportional and derivative controller which is used to improve the steady state behavior ofthe system. In this control mode manipulated signal consists of proportional error Signal added with the derivative error signal. Mathematically itcan be expressed as delt) (d= K,e(0+K, det’) m0) = Kye4K, TG “Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we get MG) = K,B)+K,T,SEO) The transfer function is given by M(s) © Fy 7 StS Figure 1.11 shows the block diagram of the transfer funetion of the PD controller co) ro) K+K,T,S -—> mo bo) Fig, L11 : PD controller Introduction — 15, Figure 1.12 shows response of the PD controller for the unit step input, Q i | Fig. L12 1.9.5 Inrecnat - Conrnouter ett) {eure 1.13 shows a simple block diagram ofthe integral contol: nth, ouput ofthe controler ies maniolated signal i changed ate proportional tothe input ofthe controler, ear signal. ‘error detector error signal O (Feedback signal Kk, > m(o Maniputated signal Reference Input ri Fig. 1.13 Integral controler Fora controller with integral control action the relationship between output ofthe controler mi and erro signal e() is " toler and?) ar : ke By integrating, we get m= ki fele)ae ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get ms) = (3)46 _—Contvol Engineering where fis the integral sensitivity = ‘The integral controller gives a output which is ramp the integral control action is also called reset control Integral control action is used whenever the steady state error is too large. Cranscremsncs 1, Slows down system Response. 2, Increases setting and Rise time. Ex: Integrator using operational Amplifier followed by sign inverter. 1 ‘Thisis a combination of proportional and integral controller which is used to improve the performance of the system. In this, the manipulated signal consists proportional error signal added with an integral of the eror signal Itis given by .6 ProporrioNaL Pius InreGrAt Contnotten md = ko) + K fle mt) koe felon Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get M(s) ky 4, Bi) + FEES) m9) 1) ay * HT) hire é, isthe proportional gain 1s the integral time. Fig. 1.14 shows Block diagram of the transfer function givenby ® }—> mt) Fig. LI: Pl controller Introduction — 17 ‘The integral time adjusts the integral control action, while change in proportional gain affects both proportional and integral action. The inverse ofthe integral time is called reset rate. The reset rate is the number of times per minute that a proportional part of the control action is duplicated, 1.9.7 Prorormonal pLus INTEGRAL PLUS DIFFERENTIAL CONTROLLER Its the combination of proportional, integral and differential control actions so as to derive the advantages of all the control action. General, itis known as PID controllers, The equation forthe PID controller is given by elt) at im be Keo felar+k,t ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, Ms FQ), 1 vets nt] where, k, isthe proportional gain Tis the integral time is the derivative or differential time Fig. 1.15 shows the block diagram of the PID controler forthe transfer function, 1) — 2 bleh, fleets pmo, ~ J(e) Fig. L1S : PID controller ‘These controllers are used extensively in industrial processes. Setting of PID gain is called as tuning however tuning should be done carefully as there are three gains. 1.9.8 ON - OFF Conrnouer ‘On OFF Controller are required to switch ON or OFF the component at appropriate time. Switches relays times unitate used forthe purposes. The main disadvantage with these ON/OFF Controller are they consume significant voltage and current during their operation hard wised electronic logic controller are also used they are cheap however they are complicated. Fluid logic systems are also available to install and maintain,18_—Control Engineering 41.9.9 Avomons Semvonecnnens «clos an acceleration every common in Fedak contol stems used contol poston velocity, sin Tait an mary applications. They afro ss eromehantsms. Aseromechan Foner tpg foedbnck contol a which he onl varie sa mechanical poston mein deat of posion sucha veloiy Or accteraion An automat aera faning Gjaes amexarps of servomectanism The strat fllows x ramp tthe died ouchdown ‘Zin noir examples thconaolystem of an instal obatin which hobo arms oced Tofliow some desired pa space Recrons — i nin which he reference input of A regulator ¢reulting syst i» feedback contol se Conan constant frag periods ine general rte nt ine era rig whe he Stem s operational. Suchen pts known asset point, The objsive af the idlesped conto SSuem is Enown asa repelatr system, Anoterexapie of fegultor contol system is the Raman balogia sytem that mains the Body temperature st approximately 286° in an cavrontent thar ual ba fleet epee i | | Inocuction—_ 19 REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Explain with an example the following (0 Open loop contot system (i) Closed foop contro sytem 2. (a) What ar the requirements ofan ideal contol system ? (b) Differentiate between opentoop and closed loop control systems. (©) What are the characteristics ofan integral controller? (@) Describe controler which will improve the transient behaviour of the system. ‘May / June 2010, 3. Explain open loop and closed loop control system with block diagrams. What ae the advantages May / June 2010 and disadvantages of a closed loop system over an open loop system ? Dec.09/ Jan.t0 4, What are the requirements of a control system ? Briefly explain. Dec.09/ Jan.t0 ‘5. Draw the block diagram of proportional integral controller and explain. -‘Dee.09/ Jan.10 6, What are the requirements of an ideal control system ? Dec.08 / Jan.09 7. Give the comparison of open loop control system with closed loop control system ? Dec-08 / Jan.09 8, Explain open loop control system and closed loop control system with an example for each, Tune / July 08 9. What is a controller ? Explain its function in a system, June / July (8 10. Explain and state the characteristic of the following controllers ( Proportional Gi) Integral ii) Proportional + Integral Sune / July 08 11, What are the requirements of an ideal control system ? Dec. 07 / Jan. 08 12, With a neat sketch, explain the working of an tank-level control system. Dec. 07/ Jan. 08 13. Write a note on proportional controller Dec. 07 / Jan. 08 14, Explain integeal controller show integral or reduce the steady state in system. Dec. 07 / Jan. 08 15, Explain the concept of feedback control system and the requirements ofan ideal control system? July 2007 16. Explain the working principle of an automatié electric iron with temperature control using block diagram. List the advantages ofthis with conventional non automatic electric iron July 2007 17. Explain proportional + integral + differential controller and their effect on stability July 2007 18, What are the requirements of an ideal control system ? Dee. 06/ Jan. 0720_—Control Engineering 19. Differentiate between open loop system and closed loop system ? Dec. 06 / Jan. 07 20, Describe an integral controller with suitable example. What are the characteristies of integral controller. Dee. 06 / Jan. 07 21, Prove that in an integral controller the steady state errOr is 2er0, Dec. 06 / Jan. 07 22, Deseribe & controller which will improve the transient behaviour of the system. Dec. 06 / Jan. 07 23, List any three major advantages ane twa disadvantages of open loop control syster. uly 2006 24. Ina liquid level control system, controller maintains liquid level in tank by comparing the actual level with the desired level and correcting any error by adjusting a pneumatic valve. The float gives the feedback of liquid level in the tank. Draw the block diagram of the Tiquid level system, July 2006 25. Give the block diagram, relationship between output of a controller u(t) and actuating error signal e(0) and the transfer function of, Proportional control action (i) Internal control aetion (ii Proportional plus Tntegal plus derivative contro action “uky 2006 26, What are the requirements ofan ideal control system ? Can they met with (3) open Toop system (ii) feed back system ? Give a comparison between the two Jan/Feb 2006 21. Distinguish between open loop system and closed loop system with examples. July / August 2006 28, Explain the requirements of a control system, ‘Jan / Feb 2006 28. Explain the terms (System, (i Disturbances (iil) Transfer function (Gv) Open loop control system (W) Block diagram fe SES ee 244 INTRODUCTION Ofter when engineers analyse a system t0 be controled or optimised, they use a mathematical model In analysis, engineers can build adesriptive model ofthe system as a hypothesis of how Ye system could work or try t0 estimate how an enforceable event could affect the system Similarly, incontrol of asystem, engineers can ry ou different contol approaches in simulations ‘A mathematical model uses matherntical language to describe «system, A mathematical mode usually describe a system by a set of variables and a set of equations that establish relationship between the variables, The variables represent some properties of the system. Generally, most of such mathematica equations ae differential equations. These differential equations describes the dynamics of system, whether the system may be mechanical, electrical, thermal, hydraulic an 0 on. Such differential equations are obtained by using physical las governing a pariclac sycem Forexample, Newtons laws forthe mechanical systems and Kichoft's las for electical system Definition : The set of mathematical equations that represents the dynamic characteristics of az system accurately or at last forty well i called mathematical model of the system ‘Thetwo most commonly used methods of modeling are transfer function mode! an state-varisble model. The transfer function mode! is valid for linear time invariant system, whereas the stte- ‘variable models ae vali for both linegr and non-linear systems 2.2 TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL In control engineering, functions called transfer functions are used to characterise the input-output relationship ofthe systems that can be described by linear differential equations. Thus, the transfer function expressed in terms of differential equation which describe the relationship between the ‘components of the system is known 2s transfer function model. Definition : The transfer function of linear, time invariant system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the outpst 10 the Laplace transform of the input when all initial conditions22_—Contol Engineering itis given by ls) RG) where Ga) isthe Laplace transform of impulse response of the system Cs) is the Laplace transform of the output RG) is the Laplace transform of the input ‘The block diagram representation of the transfer function model in as shown in figure 2.1. ‘Transfer func . Gis) = RG) oo) 2 ae) Fe Input Output Fig. 2 ‘The transfer function model of a system can be obtained as follows 1. Write the mathematical of the system based on physical laws. This results ina set of differential ‘equation that relates input and outpat 2. Apply the Laplace transform tothe differential equation. Assuming initial conditions are zero find the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input. 2.3 MODELS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS Mechanical systems ean generally classified into two types 1. Translational system 2. Rotational system ‘The difference between the two is, in translational system motion of body is along a straight line ‘where as in rotational system motion of body is about its own axis To find mathematical model ofthe system, the fundamental law governing mechanical systems is Newton’s second law of motion. 2.3.1 Mechanical Trans.anional SYSTEM ‘Translational system are related with the translation motion and basically consists of mass, spring and dash-pot. Two of them mass and spring are energy storage elements whereas dashpot is an energy absorbing element. For analysis of the translation system consider. ‘Mass : Mass represents an element having inertia. This is considered as a property of an element that stores the kinetic energy of translation motion. When a force f() is applied toa body of mass, 1M, displacement x() takes place in direction of the applied force as shown in figure 2,2. Then a reaction force f,() is generated in the body, in the direction opposite to that of applied force /() ‘The rexetion fotce is proportional to the acceleration. ic, WO L > _2(0) Displacement pO 0a 40 = Ma {24 x Friconless support Fig. 2.2 Mathematical Models — 23 According, Newton's second law of motion 0 = 40 a(t) y= a) JO = MT ‘Taking Laplace transform, assuming intial conditions are zero, we have Fis) = Ms X) Dash-pot Dash-pot is a mechanical element used to provide damping in the system, It consists of piston and. cylinder arrangement with fuid medium as shown in figure 2:3, \when a force f() is applied on piston, dashpot produces a reactive or opposing force f(t) which is proportional to the velocity. _ Piston a fot 7 <\— Fluid medium a H— Cylinder LO = BE Fig. 2.3:A dash pot ‘According Newton's second law of motion, AO =f) a ae Sin = BE ‘Taking Laplace Transform and assuming initial conditions are zero, we have, Fs) = Bs X@) Spring Spring is « mechanical element which stores the potential energy. It stores energy duri 1 potential energy. It stores energy during the variation af shape due to elastic deformation resulting ftom the application of force. Consider a spring with stiffness k fixed at one end and force is applied atthe free end as shown in figure 2.4. The displacement x() is produced due to applied force. Due to this resto ju (0 applied force. Due to this restoring force f(0) is produced which depends upon the spring stiffness k and displacement x(). ie, I = ko According Newton's second law of mation, fo 10 =£0 «(0 £0 =k x0) ed Taking Laplace Transform and assuming initial conditions ase zero, we have, FG) = kX)24 —Contvo! Engineering Mathematical models of mechanical elements Mathematica Models ~_ 25, Rotational systems are related withthe torque and angular motion. Rotational systems are similar to-translational system except that torque equations are written instead of force equations displacement, velocity and acceleration interms of angular quantity. ‘The fundamental elements of the rotational systems are mass moment of inertia (J), rotational friction coefficient of the dashpot (B) and torsional spring stffuess (k ork. ‘Mathematical models of rotational systems ae Symbol time domain frequency domain 70 woe | BE | toe | ro -st0@ s a Dash pot T= oa Tis) = Bs 6 (5) 112, ; 9B now £(010)~8,0) Equation in i A | re) = B-5-(04(0)-0,(0) fre) = as [0Ys) - a, Element Sambal rein | | vo Tt z aaa quency domain | ae ' 2 Fox 25(0 ' Mass fO= uf F(s) = Ms°X (8) Spring k TK) = k(t) Tis) = k 8 (5) Ifo F Be : be Fi = BX) TH) = k (8) — 0,0] | THs) = & (0,5) ~ 0,5) | £0 Too oy) Dash pot q beso bx Fs) = Bs 1X6) ~ X)] ‘Translation motion Rotational motion —E- 1. Mass (M) Tenia, —| | [2:Damping coetticient/frieion, Damping coefficient / faction, (B) = be FO=EXE) ftin > £0 Lee a) y 5. Spring stiffness, (&) ‘Spring stiffness, ( Spring be f Foss, (F) Torque, (7) A i ysplacement, x “Angular displacement, (0) [po FO = Ha (0 ~ x10) | FE) = HXLO- XO = - eo locity, v= 3 = & iy,o=® 6. Velocity, 2 Angular velocity, o= 2.3.2 Mechanical. Rorarionat SysTEMs. ax ~ 17. Acceleration, a= @ = a “Angular acceleration, 2.4 MODELS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Electrical systems can generaly classified into two types. 1. R-L-C series cizcuit 2. RL-C parallel circuit, ‘To find mathematical model of the system, the fundamental laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchoff's Current Law (KCL) and Kirchoff's Voltage Law (KVL). ‘The basic clements of an electrical circuits are : Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor. Resistor : Resistor is an energy dissipative element. The relationship between the current and voltage for the circuit shown in figure 2.5 is given by= Control Engineering vu) = RAD) wR ‘Q where R = Resistance ba i) = The current through the resistor 25: Resistor wo Inductor : An inductor is an electrical element which stores energy in magnetic field. The relationship between the current and voltage forthe circuit shown in figure 2.6 is given by ai ‘The voltage across the resistor fa L wo oH ——$9 -—— 10 4 Fig, 2.6: Inductor Capacitor : A capacitor is an electrical element which stores energy in electrical form. The relationship between current and voltage for the circuit shown in figure 2.7 is given by 1 O ¢ wo go Jiat a(t) “dt Fig. 2.7 : Capacitor or 2.5 DC AND AC MOTORS IN CONTROL ‘A motors an electromechanical system in which output is some mechanical variable like postion, velocity or acceleration for a voltage input. Direct current (D.C) motors are most widely used is control system to control various variables suchas speed, displacement, acceleration etc, while alternate current (A.C) motor are more difficult tocontrol especially for position control and due to non linear output behaviour. 2.5.1 Dinect Current Moron D.C. motors are generally used in open loop and closed loop control system to control various variables like speed, torque, displacement etc, Motor with series, compound or shunt connections are used in control systems depending upon the nature of operation. Principle D.C. motor is basically a torque transducer that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. ‘The torque developed on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the field flux and armature D.C motors are used in two different control modes. They are |. Armature control mode 2. Field control mode Br Fig. 28 : Armature controlled DC motor Figure 2.8 shows a schematic diagram of armature - controlled D.C, motor. Let the speed of motor is controlled by armature supply voltage e, and field voltage e, is Kept constant. Here, input tothe system is armature supply voltage e, and output of the system is angular displacement 0, ‘The transfer function of the armature controlled D.C. motor can be found by dividing system into three parts as the Armature circuit, the D.C. motor and the Mechanical system, Hence, the differential equations are For Armature circuit Rio bat 6 eo at whee 6, Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we bave EL) = RL fs) +L, 1 (3) + b, 8.(9) E(9) = (9) [R,+L, 3+ k, 58) -o Where ¢, = back emf B= back emf constant For D.C, motor, TO) = ki, -@ where k,, =k, fyi, = motor torque constant k,_ = proportionality constant ky i, = $= airgap flux of the motor k= field constant of the motor For Mechanical system (Rotational) w+ Bd = TO From equation (2), we have J+ 36 =i,Contr Engineering a 2 Matematand8s —_20 ‘Taking Laplace transform i E,(s) = R,Ifs) + L,s (3) Js¥0(8) + Bs O(3) = k, 18) i EAs) = B+, 19) 0 =k, L(3) + (Ist + Bs) s) = 0 {For D.C. motor 2 Te) = ki, 1s? + Bs)p(3) vy @ a © % 16+ Bo = TH) Substituting value /(s) in equation (1), we get From equation (2), we have (4s? + Bs)0(s) JO+ BO = ki, Bs) = (Ras) 06) Taking Laplace tasformon both sides, we have i, Es) = Us? + Bs) (R, + L, 8) 6s) + kf, (5) Js°0(s) + Bs (3) = ky 1,68) ‘Thus, transfer function of the system is, . nk, (5) + Us? + Bs) (6) = 0 —@) 3) E,@) ky (Re + Ls)(ds? + Bs) + kgs ‘Transfer function of field - controlled D.C. motor T.. 2 8 Fig, 29 Fed controled DC motor Figure 29 shows a schematic diagram of field-contolled D.C. motor. In this ystems, the amature cuuten (or voltage) is meinained aa constant value and motor speed is controlled by varying the field eurent (voltage). The transfer function ofthe ield controlled D.C. motor canbe found by dividing system ino three pars as the Fel circuit, D.C. motor and the Mechanical sytem. Hence ditferetial equations are For Field eircit, a ef = Ril Ly Gr ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we have (4 + B5)(s) % 19) ‘Substituting value /,(s) in equation (1), we get [R, +L,s\(Js? + B(s))®(s) Bes (% ze +8(9)9(6) Thus, transfer function of the systems 64s) Fo ‘Thus, the ioput to the system is fleld supply voltage Z,(s) and output of the system is angular displacement 63). kp 25.2 Avrenunne Cunnent Motors A.C, motors re used in control system where low power is tobe controlled. Since A.C. motors are light in weight, more rugged and have no brush contact, they can deliver low power. ‘The simplest form of the A.C. motors used in the control system is two phase induction motor. Figure 2.10 shows the two phase induction motor with servo amplifier ‘Two phase induction motor consists of a rotor and a stator with two distriboted windings which are displaced electrically 90° from each other. These are known as reference winding and control windings. This 90° phase shift between the reference and control winding voltage can also be obiained by connecting a capacitor in series with the reference winding. The main field is supplied continuously to produce high torque, while the contol windings are supplied with controlling voltage ‘which is generally applied froma servo amplifier. By changing the control voltage the motor output20 voltage shaft rotation isin direction can be controlled. When the control voltage leads tothe fixed voltage while it lags the direction of rotation is reversed. The diameter of rotor is kept small to have fess, inertia and better acceleration characteristics. Control Engineering A.C. Supply wPReference voltage ' J<—Main or Reference [Resonate] | capacior | winding pina Servo Amplifier Fig. 2.10: Two phase induction motor ; ‘The transfer function of induction motor is obtained with following assumption i. The torque - speed characteristic of the motor are parallel and equally spaced for rated voltages. ‘Torque at ero speed slope m = "No toad speed , ji, The torque-control voltage characteristic for motor ae linear. ‘Torque at zero speed at rated voltage Rated voltaged E, for the fixed winding iii, The inductance L., and resistance R, of control winding in the motor are negligible. ‘Consider the simplified diagram of induction motor as shown in figure. ‘The torque equation of the motor is Balt) at where K,, is the motor torque constant and 8,(i) is the angular displacement of shaft Td) = Ke()+ m Mathematical Mogole— 91 ‘The total torque produced by the motor is utilized in rotating the motor with load and to over come motor friction Hence Q where J, and B, are moment of inertia of load with motor shaft and coefficient of viscous friction Eating etn 1) and 2 west keeliyam fall) «4,0, 5 al) dT gee ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get K, E,(3) + Ms 0,(3) = ‘The motor transfer function is S570 os) + By 8p 8) 8n(9) Ky E.(s) ~ av Substituting the value of M and ‘T- in the equation (a) we get hs ! wheres = & Hydraulic capacitance “The energy inthe liquid isthe hydraulic capacitance. To derive the expression for the hydraulic capacitance, considera figure 2.11 as shown 1 cuca mamaria ener yon em Mathematical Models — 99 Rate of accumulation = Inflow - Outflow és AG TI-% but “p= pk eo te 1 é "dt Pea A(#) - A(®) is analogous to spring stiffness (¥) Flux $6) is analogus to displacement X(s), Analogous Quantities in Force (Torque) ~ Current Analogy ‘Mechanical System Electrical System ‘Translational System Rotational System P(s) = Mstx(s) + Bsx(s) + kx(s) Fs) = X(s) (Ms? + Bs + Kk] =) 11, Force (F) ‘Torque (1) Current (C) To obtain the F-1 analogy, consier the electrical system as shown in igure 2.14, 2. Mass (t) mero Capacienos (C) Applying, Kirchoff's current law, we have : i = i +504 160 Torsional fiction ; Expressing curent interms of node voltage, 5. Friction Coefficient (8) Resistance of resistance () a : C Co Coefficient (B) R vid we get, ig 2 2+ 8 = RL 4, suttnes (&) Torsional Stiffness (k) | Reciprocal of Inductance (3) Taking Laplace transform sides, we get L e 5, Displacement =) “Angular displacement (0) | Magnetic Aux @) = ae Angular velocity To express the equation (2) similar to equation (1), consider “ ~ sey: vas (et) = > where 6 = flux J ) d w=F (0-8-0 tuking Laplace transform on both side, we get poem ee 5 vl 2.10.2 Force - Vottace Anavoay - F-V ANaLoay VG) = 5469) 0F 96) = = In this analogy voltage in the electrical system is considered as the analogus to force in mechanical system. To obtain F-V analogy, consider the electial system as shown in figure 2.15, Thus, equation (2), becomes Me) 1 t Applying Kirchoff's Voltage Law, we have 1s) = 2 + Tae cd i ai 1 ee v0 = oR LEP 4A file ‘Rearranging, we get ‘Taking Laplace transform both sides,we have 1 = sce stss -@) ny = afer +542 _— Control Engineering L 163) R = is ye ya Ve) = HOR¥LID+ TE De dq a consider, )= GE where q = chang 4 ‘Taking Laplace transform, x0 ein 16) = 50) Thus, equation (4) becomes Os) Vis) = s069R + L#O) + =F Fig. 215 Rearranging, we have ol is? + Rs+ 4] -©) Mo) = oof # +R+ 2] ‘Comparing equation (1) and (5), we get 1, Voltage, V(s) is analogous to force, Fis) 2 ndutanee, Lis analogous to mas, 3. Resistance, Ris analogous to tional coeficient or damping oeticient, B. 4. Reciprocal of capacitance, 4 is analogous to spring stiffness, 5. Charge, 0() is analogous io displacement, X) Analogous Quantities in Force (Torque) - Voltage Analogy Late Electrical System ‘Translational System Rotational System Toe Tove @ Torage 2. Mass (M) Inertia (J) Inductance (L) cr a rriction Coettcient(B) | coemetnt sistance 7 a Suites ‘Torsional Siti () | Reciprocal of Capacitance 5. Displacement (2) ‘Angular displacement (0) Charge (@) 6. voy ( Angular velocity (i-22-0) 3 Mathematical Models — 49 General Steps Involved 1. For the applied force, determine the numberof displacement variables required 2. Identify the elements which are under the influence of different displacement. 3. Using Nodsl analysis, represent each displacement by a separate node Note : Total numbers of node is equal to total number of displacements 4, Show all the elements in parallel under the respective node which are under the influence of respective displacements. 5. Show all the elements causing same displacement in parallel in between the respective node. 6.Complete he equivalent mechanical system and write the equation of equilibrium using Newton's law of motion. 7. For F-V analogy (loop Analysis}, simulate equation of equilibrium using following analogous quantities. Foavinestipagst biases ti 8, ForF-Ianalogy (Node Analysis), simulate equation of equilibrium using following analogous quantities. 1 ko Tix ei id avore the equivalent electrical analogous network of the equivalent mechanical system,44 —Controt Engineering WORKED EXAMPLES Example : 1 Obtain the differential equation of equilibrium for the mechanical system shown in figure 2.16 and draw the equivalent mechanical system, atso draw the analogous electrical network based on (@ Force - Voltage analogy ; ) Force - Current analogy Ullé 4, i, Yao Tro Fie 216 yao Solution = Due to applied force,f(@) mass, m, willbe displaced by x(*) and due toB, and , the mass, will be displaced by x,(. Hence equivalent mechanical system is as shown figure 2.16(a) k Fig. 216(a) Hence differential equations are Far Node mi, + (x, -%)* BR) = LO. raga 1 FV Analogy | PV; MOL BOR b> _ Mathematical Models — _4s ais EG Sal Bib) ane Fel Analogy : F+1;M—+C;B—> are ; OBE Slums For Node x, : mia + Bois thn + hima) + (iy -) = 0 BV Analogy: F3 ViMoL BR: bse gyi si girta diy LT Rint fica ‘Ge flare Ri = drags: P31: 86:85 birt ia vosd ae So ote dst ual fey m7 wee El -1) <0 Analogous Electrical network are as shown in figure 2.16(b) and 2.16¢¢) F-V analogy Here element in parafef under node are connected in seties L, eC R, wa) Fie, 2.1606) FA Analogy ‘ Fig. 216)48 —Control Engineering Example + 2 For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.17 @) Draw the mechanical network i) Write the differential equation of the system Fig.27 Solution : _ Due to applied force f(t), mass m, willbe displaced by x, Now due to B,, the mass m, is displaced by x, and due to B,, the mass ms displaced by x,. where as £, is under displacement x, and x, Bis under displacement x, and x, fis under displacement x, and x, 3B, is under diplacement x, nd x, 4s under displacement x, B, is under displacement x, 1 Heenee equivalent mechanical system is as shown in figure 2.17(a) Fig. 2.17(a) Mathematical Models ~ 47 ‘The differential equation of equilibrium are For Node x,: md. + BCs, —%)+h(—n) = £0 For Node x,! mk + Bibi i) +ha(xq—%4) = 0 For Node x,: Bi(ij- 2) 4h (3%) = 0 For Node x, : 1h + By + byXy + By( ig ~ i) +b, (4, Example + 3 For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.18 @ draw mechanical equivalent network Gi) obtain the equation of equilibria (il) draw analogous electrical network based on FV analogy 4 3 k, 4,80 0 ky FO 0) Fig. 2.18 Solution : Due to force is applied atthe spring, it will absorb some energ theta kee ee aie sng y and is under displacement, Now by x, and due tok, the mass m, is displaced by x,48 _—Contiol Engineering Hence equivalent mechanical network is as shown in figure 2.18(8) FO! qi k 5, Fig. 2.18(a) Hence equation of equilibrium are For Node kh @-x) =f 1 P-V Analogy : F>ViM>L;BAR:k> Git ait Fi elena =) For Node x, ims ht — x) thal 9) + Bila = a pot FAV Analogy : PF VjM-» L:B>R3k> Git 943 idee a flee) Reh) =O For Node x, gy + hy + Bis + B35 — 2) #0 — screenees anise Analogous electrical network : vo einem Fig. 2.18( "Analogy Example : 4 For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.19 @ Draw the equivalent mechanical network i) Obtain the differential equation of equilibrium i) Draw the analogous electrical network based on F-V analogy. Cl, ___ Solution : Fig 2.19 Due to force /() is applied atthe spring, it will absorb some energy and is under displacement x, ‘where as m, is under displacement x, and my is under displacement x, and fis between x, and x, 5, is between x, and x, is under displacement x, Bis under displacement x, Hence, equivalent mechanical network is as shown in figure 2.19(a) E k By AWW K 0 ci 3 Fig 2.190)'50__—Contol Engineering ‘The differential equation of equilibrium are For Node 3, Ka =s0 1 FeV Analogy FVM L:B Rsk bixoas 88 1 aJe-aa = For Node 3 amiiy + By (a — ia) + (a —%) PV amg: Fs ViMoabibo Riko Lie vad di, wa + R(iy-4)+ aJl ihe ° For Node x, 5s + Byig + gx + By(s a) 1 ane FLV Analogy : F> Vi M9 LiBO Rik Gix aid i seen et Lee Ris + Z fides R(b-i) = 0 ‘Hence analogous electrical netwouk is as shown i figure 2.19(b) e Fig. 2.1966): F-V Analogy Example : $ For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.20 draw the (i) mechanical equivalent system Gi) analogous electrical network Also, obtain the differential equation of equilibrium, Mathematical Models —_ 51 £0 Fig. 2.20( fechanical equivalent sytem ‘Analogous Electrical network : It is as shown in figure 2.20(b) EV analogy : FV; M1589 R:k-> Liq: i R, 4, c Fig. 2.2006) The differential equations of equilibrium are52_—Conrol Engineering For Node x, ~ Matematica Models _ 53 mi + By, + kx, + By(% —%)+ B(%-%) = FO al fee 1 rf a ee ee 4 1 diy thee nao fue 8 =) Hi) +R li,-t For Node x; my + By (i ~ Hy) + Bul —) = 0 PAV Analogy: FV; MLB > Rsk bjx oq: k 4 2s myly-i)#Rlis-4) For Node x, mks + B,( iy — 2) + Bulg) = 0 FeV Analogy : FV; ML;BIR;k9 Giz qik ot LG + Rally) #Rlo~i) = 0 Example : 6 Obtain the differentiat equations for the torsional system shown in figure 2.21 also draw the equivalent mechanical system and analogous electrical network. Fig. 221 Solution: ‘As the torque T(0 is applied 1 J, $0 J, and B, under the angular displacement @, ; k and B, tewveen and @, Sirarly J, and B, under dhe angular displacement 0, and Bs between, and 6, Finally J, 8, and, are under, Since here are three angular displacement, 3 nodes are wed ithe equivalent mechanical system as showin igure 221(a) 6 od, : Hence differential equation are | Ror Node 1: 4, + 8,8, + B,(6,~8,) + &,(0, -0,) TV Analogy: T- V;J4L:B3R;k >t é ne reaming 7-9 fis-9cs-+ Este it For Node 2 J + 0, + B,(8, ~0,) +88, -6,)+4@-0,) <0 TY Analogy: To V;J 91; B9R:k> 20g: § 9154 _—Contl Engineering For Node 3 J8,+80,+8,(0,-0,) +0, = 0 1 TV- Analogy : 13 ViJ 9 LiB Rik G09 93691 is. Rig + Rll) +> [igtt = 0 1,94 Ris + Blly~i) Jide Torque - voltage Analogy : ‘Analogous Quantities are L SR ko G09 q:b 7! Tov JL BARRO G04 Here element in parallel under node are connected in series LR, ee do a ») f ‘Torque-current Analogy: Analogous quantities are : f rds TI JAC Bg ik 7109058 na Mathematical Modals —_ 55 Example :7 For the electro mechanical system shown in figure 2.22 find the transfer functi —>Magnet Fig. 222 Solution : This electromechanical system consists of wo pars (i) Electrical (ii) Mechanical In this system, voltage, e() isthe input to the system and displacement, (isthe output from the system, The flow of current in the coil due to the applied voltage, e(0) produces @ magnetic fieke Which produces a force, @) proportional to the current, i) inthe coil AO =i, $0) =k i, (given) ‘where &, isthe proportionality constant depends on the number of turns inthe coil and strength of the maghetic field ‘The equivalent electrical and mechanical systems are as shown in figure 2.2%(a) and 2.22(b) FO=k, 0 Fig, 222(6): Mechanical Sytem Fig, 222(a) + Electrical System56 —Control Engineering Considering electrical system For loop 1 co = Ride Zflale)-a(O “Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get is) = mG) 216) Z 50) Aa (r+ Lhe 2()+ 18) 5 Mathematica! Models — 57 ) #3) __ A) 19) Tees)” CRCE=) t o- ((cc) z() co al Genes |) Rese) YC) t : +4,9Y(s) (c¢8? +1)(Res+1)-1 - (eae, i) ged sent) 0 = [[ece +ifixce+1)—I] 469) Bice + Co eRCe+ DEMO) . 1s) = fi -o ft +s eo = eelacer tld) 2t9] For loop 2 a I-(Ler+i(Rcs+i)] = Eftuen-atppes ee Substituting vale of 6) nthe equation 3), we get ‘Taking Laplace transform on bth sides, we get tease 24 cron + Beem eiiRcs+ o= En ()- Lube tn ()ern() -2) ) Considering mechanical system Bh, CP RES + 1) Mo) —K, Hts) Co= W) [s? + Bok] [1+ (LCs + )(RCS-+ I) f= mi+B)+(t) ‘Thus, Transfer function, Since fi) = ki,Ct Ye) | kgs Lilo = m+ B50) Bl)” [a eae fia cer RCo Dom K CRC) “Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get K, 19) = Ys) (Ms! + Bs 8) -® Substituting the value of J, (s) in equation (2), we get 1 Ans o- 0 aarte) i j 2) ea ae +e58_—Conto Engineering A thermometer is dipped in a vessel containing liquid at a constant temperate of 90. The Solution : ‘Thermometer Fig. 223 The rate of heat flow into thermometer is given by aq _ A{t)~2,(¢) a Rise in indicated temperature is given by de, Lda dt at 0, _ 1 (0)(*)-0,(4)) die Camean ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get H[0.0)-0,6)) (+ zp 400 ‘Transfer function of system, 0,6) Mathoratical Models — 59 Example : 9 Obtain the transfer fun ion for the hydraulic system shown in fj Os) where q~ flow rate C— Hydraulic capacitance R= Hydraulic resistance h-Mead June/July 08 (10 M> —— Tank ls, kz tH _ Tank? h Solution : le 224 ‘The differential equations of the hydraulic system are given by For Tank 1 ah, RC, TE hy = Ria ‘Taking Laplace transform, we get R,C,sH,() +H, (3) = R, Os) Qs) a)2_— Control Engingering ‘or Tank 2 act aay Coking Laplace transform, we get R,C,5H,() +H, (9) = R,Q9) +h, > Raid Ry os 0) HO = Rey Buc R= 2 4 ore 28 Lows His) -3) ** (3) - Alo R, = 2 % (3) = &= 06) = HY) = R019) “@ Substituting equation (3) and (4) in equation (2), we get Ay 2.0 = Reeth Simplifying and substituting value of H,(s) from equation (1), we get 1 ty RO) O89 = Reset)” (RCs +) ‘Transfer fonction of the system is 2(s) Ans O() > (RGeFIKRE e+) Mathematical Models —_ 61 Example : 10 a jon E25) ‘ 5 Obtain the transfer function 77> of the electrical crsit shown in igure 2.25 R R july 2006 (10 Wp r July 2006 (1 1) Fig 225 Solution : bs Rewriting the given elecical network we have Toop Woop Toop For Loop 1: Diffecential equation is 00 = Ry 00% LIlG(~410) & “aking Laplace transform on both sides Ly 21) = 1+ TAH()-LO) Cs, i Rs+D 1) 16) =) For loop 2 : Differential equation is 0 Rie 4 falar ‘Taking Laplace transform on both sides o=R,o+tt a hor En) 143] 0 GH9)+ [CRC + GJS) @62_—Contol Engineering For foop 3 Differetial equation is i eto = Gfulee Taking Laplace transform on both sides La EDT Sls) 18) = Cs B(8) Substituting the value of £5) in equation (1), we get CEs) = (C\Rs+D 16) 8i(5)+ C585) (Gae+t) -@) 1) = ‘Also, substituting the value J) in equation 2), we get 0 = -Gh()+(CCRS+C + ICSE) 19) = [GGRes+G#G),(5) a) Egquating equation (3) and (4), we have C6 (s)+ GsE,(s) (CRs) CORs+C,+C)E,(s) [68+ +GKGRs+1)-C] E66) =C, 0) Transfer function of system is Eels) _ cq Es) Gariaarsaea)-q “™ Example : Obtain the transfer function of the mechnical system shown in figure, writing the physical Dec’ 2011 (8 M) . be Le s(oupu \ HH, Lore. hws fhe Teh vcore mens aise wenn = nO Mathematica Models ~ 63 Solution The Equivalent mechanical system is as shown in figure Fig. 2.26(@) The differential equation of equilibrium are For Node x, : m4 Sidr thay + Fi ~3) 48-2) =0 ‘Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we get mE K+ hs Kil) +b (5) 4 F 6X (o)~f2X(0) 4k Xy(s)-¥X (=O (mits hers seh +8) X= (Fs2Ox() (rs+8)x(6) Se eacnicnen —(@ For Node x: msi he + Simi) Hama) = Fd) ‘Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we get mas X()+ fee X()*F 5X) fsXi(s)k X(s)-k X (0) F(s) (mst fees s+k)X() ~ (F548) Xs) =F (0) Substituting value of X,(s), we get (ms? + iss fs+k, +8) (mat fase Fok) [rue fsnfeeky ek) (Fone ANS64 _=Contol Engineering Example : 12 Write the differential equations governing the behaviour of the mechanical system shown in figure 2.27. Also obtain the analogous electrical cireuit based on force voltage analogy and loop equations Dec'2011 (12 M), Dee'2013/Jan.2014(8M) Fig, 227 Solution = ‘The Equivalent mechanical system is as shown in figure OB, Fig. 227 (a) ‘The differential equation of equilibrium are For Node x, = $00, = mig + Bok, + BH — ip) 1 FLV Analogy : F ViM > L:BORiE> Gixoagik oi ai v= Gy t ait Rl ia) Mathematical Models ~ 65, For Node x,: 0 = mi, + Bilis ~%) +b PvAmbgy:F->Vsit- LB Rt-> Exot 4 Fig. 22706) Example : 13 Relate liquid outflow of the second tank with the liquid in flow of the first tank for the hydraulic system shown in figure 2.28 Dec'2013/Jan.2014 (6M) 1 Tank 1 A, % Fig, 22868 _—Control Engineoring Solution + Relation between inflow and out low is given by For Tank 1 aRcih = oF ROG For Tank? a = arRc, a= arene, ay rap = & Eq (1) become 4 = 4+ RCPg, = a #RCP) 4 4 = Gage) Bq (2) become 4 = 9+ RCFa, Equating Eqs.(4) and (5), we get 4 r CREP) = Vt RPS, ‘Thus, relation between inflow and out flow is i, at Re, & sre, Fh #4 =RoRC, SE = wo e a o Example : 14 For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.29 write down the differential equ: ematical mode and Dec'2013/2014(6M) Fe x(outpus) ts f, ___Mathematical Models —_ 67 Solution: ‘The equivalent mechanical system is as shown in figure 2,29 (a) Fig. 2.29 (a) The differential equation of equilibrium are For Node x, : mB + Chi ha, (3 ~ 8) +h) =0 Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we get ms? Xy(5) + Cys Xi(s)+X4(9) + G 5X (8) ~C, sXa(5)+ 6 Xa(9) 6X43) =0 (rms? + C54 Cy 54 hy + 4) X(9) = (G.s4h)Xa(s) (Gh) fs) X(s) = (ns. G 54 G44, +h) mo For Node x, : m* + Ci — i) +(e ~m)= F(t) ‘Taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we get Im Xal)+ C8 X48) — Cys Xi(5)s hy Xals)~ ky Xs) = F(s) (ms + Gos, )¥260) ~ (C548) Xi(5}= B(s) Substituting value of X0), we get or Xe (ms? +654 Gs +4) FO” (iss cro by nate Oae Gave )a Answer38_—Contol Engineering REVIEW QUESTIONS |. Forthe mechanical system shown in figure 2.30, Draw the mechanical equivalect andthe differential 2quation of equilibrium. Also draw the analogous eletrical nework using F-V Analogy. i eS Ede 1 KS fo Zh 5 I 2, Show thatthe two systems shown in figure 2.31 (a) and (b) are analogous system by comparing thir eansfefonstion, 4 | k ¥, : Fig, 231 () 3. For the mechanical system shown in figure 2.28. Was 5 ¥ aty 1 3 Fig. 232 Draw the equivalent mechanical network and differential equation of motion. Alsodraw the electrical analogy network based on the F-1 and F-V analogy. Mathematical Models —_ 69 ee Matomatical Modis — X,(3) bea ro Pn 8 . Fig. 233 5. Obtain the electrical analogous network forthe mechanical system shown in figure 2.34 based nodal analysis and loop analysis, 4 k By Yas By I + ¥x, fo ig. 2.4 6. Derive the expression for the electrical analogy considering suitable example based on F-V analogy and F-I analogy. 7. Derive the transfer function of a simple liquid level system. 8. Write a note on the model of thermal system, models of hydraulic and pneumatic system. 9. What is a mathematical model ? Explain with an example, 410. Obtain the governing differential equation for a D.C, motor (Armature controlled) Dec.08 / Jan.09 (08 M) I Derive the transfer function of an armature controlled DC motor, where output parameter is ‘the angle tumed by the motor sheft and input is the applied voltage to the armature circuit ‘Dee.07 / Jan.08 (10M) 12, Derive the TF for an armature controlled DC motor: The field current is maintained constant produces a torque T'= f,/ on the rotor. k, and k, are the back emf constant and motor torque constant respectively. Dec.06/Jan.07 (10M)3.1 TRANSFER FUNCTION Any physical system is mathematically described by a set of linear differential equations which are ‘known as system equations. These equations are simplified by using Laplace transformations and ‘aking the system inital conditions to be zero. Initial conditions are taken to be zero, asin actual analysis or design of control system, the system is assumed 1o be initially a esti. initially they have no energy stored in their elements. These simplified system equations are manipulated to determine the ratio of Laplace transform of system output to the Laplace transform of the system input to investigate the system properties. This ratio is known as transfer function of the system. ‘The complete transfer function of the system is obtained by the determining the transfer function of -vatious components in the system and then combining them according to their connections, Definition : The transfer function of a linear time invariant system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the system output to the Laplace transform of the system input with all initial condition assumed to be zero. Consider a control system represented in time - domain as shown in figure 3.1 i) ——>) of) Fig. 3. In Laplace domain as shown in figure 3.2 (s-plane) Ry——>| Gs) -— co) Fig. 32 1F G(s) be the transfer function of system, mathematically Laplace tansform of output! GS) = “Teplace transform of inp | Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graghs— 74 a G0) = gy 8 the transfer function ofthe system. 3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM ‘A Control system can be simple or complicated, but it consists of number of components. Each components performs some specific functions. One ofthe easy and convenient Way of representing ‘the fonction of each component is by the unidirectional blocks. All the blocks are interconnected by lines with arrows indicating flow of signals from output of one block to the input of ancther. Suc block diagram gives an overall idea ofthe inter relationship that exist among various components ‘Thus, block diagram is a pictorial representation of the given control system. 9.2.1 Basic ELewents oF « BLock Diacram ‘Generally, any block diagram bas following five basic elements associated with it {) Block - Its a rectangular box, ofa symbol that explain the mathematical operation on the input to produce the corresponding output. The flow of information is unidirectional. 4i) Transfer function - The mathematical function of each block is shown by inserting corresponding transfer function of the element inside the block. iif) Summing points - Itis 2 symbol that shows the algebraic summation of two or more signal. ‘Theplus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates wether that signa ito be added ar subtracted, iv) Take off point - It is a point from which the signal is taken for the feedback purpose or distribution tothe other blocks, ¥) Arrows - These are the symbols that indicates the direction of flow of signal from one block to the another, ‘Transfer function R(s) eo cs) Od eS ome Input Output Arrows Biock RO), RG) a) __ RO BO) Summing point Take off point Fig. 33 : Base element of Block diagram72_—Contral Engineering 3.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ACLOSED LOOP SYSTEM ‘A block diagram in which forward path contain only one block, feedback path contains only one block, one summing point and one take off point is known as closed loop system or simple or canonical form of a closed loop system, For example, consider the block diagram ofa closed loop system in Laplace domain as shown in. figure3.4 7 > a a > Cs) FBO) He) ke Fig, 34: Block diggram of a closed loop system Where, R(s) = Reference Input C{s) = Controlled variable (output signal) B(s) = Feedback signal E(s) = Actuating signal (error signal) G(s) = Forward path transfer function Hs) = Feedback path transfer function 3.3.1 Transren FuncTion oF Ctoseo Loop System “The mathematical function relating C(s) to R(s) called the transfer Function of closed loop system. In figure (4, C(s) - controlled variable (output signal) and R(s) - reference input are related follows: Cle) = EG) Where Els) = ROS) ¥ BOS) but Bis) = Cts) * E(s) = RG) = CHS) ‘Thus G(s) = ERG) = C(IMOIGS) Cs) = RWG) ¥ CHING) C{s) F Ch) HI)GIB)._ = R(SIG) CG) [1 £ HGS] = REGIS) [2 nese sem ee eae wwhce rate ltr mpi eck Negative (~) sign is for positive feedback, Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — 73 The closed loop TF. can be represented as in figure 3.5 RG) a a TEG@HO ) Tiga 3.4 REDUCTION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM ‘The transfer function of a block diagram can be obtained easily when it is represented in its simple closed loop form in which forward path consists of one block, feedback path consists of one block, ‘one summing point and one take off point. But, block diagram of control system, generally consists ‘number of blocks, interconnected to each other. These are brought to the simple closed loop form by the reduction of block diagram, this is achieved by the use ofthe block diagram reduction rules. 3.4.1 Bock Discrau Repucrion RULES: Rulel: Combining blocks in cascade (series) ‘The transfer function of the blocks which are in cascade get multiplied with each other RG) 9 ) 6 © ce Loo LS . cago LY ‘Hint: If there is a summing point or take off point in between the blocks, the blocks ‘cannot be said to be in cascade (series). Rule 2: Combining blocks in parallel The transfer function of blocks which are in parallel get added algebraically. 1 6a te Re o9 ‘ e Ot Go QO = & | G9) ~ Gis) + 6, LE 1 oo Rule 3: Moving a summing point after a block sac Rs ao fA = 20.1 x COs) = REG) + GO CG) = RG) +9 GIS) Cis) = (RIS) +) GES) Gs)_ fox74 Control Engineering _ ‘Hint: The output must remain same, while moving the summing point Rule 4: Moving a summing point before a block a2 o | Rs) 4 sures | C) 04) = RNG +« | ' evn [RO + eye] Ce) = RIGS) + x Rule 5: Moving take off point after a block 4 Re A, >| Ge) an = “3c C13) <_ RS CGS) = RESIGLS) 7 roLG_| Row Hint: After moving take off, value of the signal taken off must remain same Rule 6: Moving take off point before a block ros = FO, as) > cs) _ <-f Gis 1 R(s)G(s) R(s)G(s) Rule 7: Eliminating a feedback loop 04 ce) no {a6 9 ee TAAL aw 3) |e Caxtysz Caxtety Rule 9: Splitting a summing point A 2 Caytits Carthee General Procedure The General steps involved in the reduction of block diagram are 1) Combine all he blocks in cascade 2)Comibine al the blocks in prale! 3) limite al minor feedback loops 4) Shift Summing points and takeoff points if necessary 5) Repeat steps 1 to 4 until canonical form has been obtained $9 Using sander ante: ston of simple cheep steno closed op TF ofthe overall system, Hint: As for as possible try to shift take off points towards right and summing points te the left.= Control Engineering WORKED EXAMPLES ample: 1 educe the block diagram shown is figure 3.6 to its simplest possible form and find its sed loop transfer function, Dec.09/Fan.10 (106) 1 3 Ps Ci OY G, Fig. 36 lution tep 1: Move the take off point (4) after the block G, a 7.0) Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graph Step 2: Move the summing point (3) before the block G, 6 8) [seperate the path, Step 3: Inter change the summing point 2 and 3 ‘Combine the parallel blocks aa ants G, combine the cascade blocks ‘Separate the path along the dotted tine and H, Also G, and G, Minor feedback loop Step 4: Eliminate minor feedback an¢ Conte te arts ant 2rol Engineering 6 —GGs _ GE TGGHh cs) Minor feed ‘back loop Combine the cascade blocks GGx a THGGA)G, ~ U+GGt) ‘Eliminating the minor feedack loop (G(G:G,+6)) Uaraem ) —___G(66,+6)__ i G.8Th) * (GGA) HCG, +ENG+ A) Tha, rp os) R)—> Gan )HG Closed loop TF Example : 2 Obtain the over all transfer function of the block diagram shown, technique. G6,6,+ 66 FGG,G,+ GG, +6, figure 3.7 by reduction Jan/Feb 2005 (10M) Eas Solution : Step L : Combine the two summing points 2) and (3) Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs ~_79 > CIs) RG) a > Cs) > Cs) ‘Step 4 : Combine the cascade blocks + RO) > C(3)0 —Control Engineering Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — a1 Step 2: Separate the paths along the dotted line step 5 : Eliminate the minor feedback loop -— 4 (G+G)G, roa 2 By * GH) +G)GH, cw EG) gen, O“GUNDHG +) G | . ne 7, RO) G ets) TO GHG GG ao Berio ais Step 3: Move the summing point (4) before block , and inter change summing points (3) and (@) cw) GG, +6,6, RG)” HGH +GG,H, + GG Example : 3 a pu ew) Reduce the block diagram shown in figure 3.8 to its canonical form and determine its y control ratio RR 4k ie ] Step 4 : Move the take off point (1) after the block G, and Combine the minor feedback loop Step 1 : Move the take off point (4) before summing point (3) RG) z ea 7 ! HLH,82 —Con Engineering ‘Step 5 : Combine the cascade blocks Split the summing point (2) “pr Parallel <_< “Minor feedback lop \ ! \ 1 A T Ti 1+6,H, Lot, 6G.+G, GG, Rs) GG.+G, GG, Step 7 : Comibine the cascade blocks G, (6G,+6) (56,8) * (GH, GH) Block Diagrams and Signal How Graphs — 83 GG,+6, | cw (4+G.H,\l+ GH) “HA, Step 8 : Eliminate the minor feedback loop Ga+e (FGHNGH) (GG, +) GGG) * (FGA \I+G,H,)-(6,0,4 6) mi, Ore (ie ayaa) MM) RG) |__ (GG, +G,) | as), = (1+ GH, I+ GH) (GG, +6), ~ _Blnint moe edb op OG I+ GH) (GG +G NH, te GGG) (HGH UG A)-(G.G, +6,)HH, (GG. +6.) Hy) ~ (GG, +G,) HH, + (GG, + Ganj 4°.) Taman24 _—Contol Engineering Control ratio is given by ow |_____ Ci ee RG) ~ 1G, + GH, + GG, Mill, ~G,GH Hy ~ GH Hy + GGH, + Gull as) GG, +6. RQ) “1G, GH, - GH, + GGT, +GH, “"* Example + 4 Reduce the given block diagram shown in figure 3.9 and then obtain the transfer funetion of the system if G, and H,= H,= 1, H, July 2007 (10M) cy 5 a 3 Fi, Solution = Step 1: Split the summing point (3) and separate the peth’s G, RO), Step 2: Eliminate the minor feedback loop = 7, G 7 ‘Move the summing point (3) before block G, and interchange the summing point (2) and (3) Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs ~ 85 Cascade oo), a GtGG, ) _ - GH, 2 [> 1+GyHy GG, (G.+6,G,)G, Step 5: Combine the cascade blocks = 75 ey ga 2 " ide blocks = 13 GH, + GG\H26 _~Controt Engineering (GsG6,)o,_ a TG, + GG a Ht |e Step 6: Eliminate the minor feed back loop (G,+G,G.)Gs u (G.+GG,)6, hGH, +O GH, + 6,G,H, +G,G.GH, RG) (GA GGG, ce OF) FGM FOG + GCM +GGGR, ‘Transfer function of the system is, is) | (G+ G,G.)G, RW) ~ 1+G,H, +GGH, +G,G,H, +6,G,GH, 1G,=6,=1 2: and H, = Hy=1, =? Then os) 6 Rom AN Example : 5 Reduce the given block diagram and write the overall transfer function of the system shown in figure 3.10 July-August 2005 (8 M) 7, 4 . Co 5 Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs —_ 87 Solution Step 1: Move the take off point (5) to before block G, and interchange point (4) and (5) 1 2 RE + as GIS i, Step 2: Combines the cascade blocks = H,6, G Eliminate the minor feedback loop = 2 Sem aalEG a G ecw) Step 3:88 _—Contral Engineering Rosy T & ots) s C GG, Step 4: Combine the eascade blocks = Tae SG, Eliminate the minor feed back oop GG, 1+G,G,H, +6, GG, Me GG og GG + Git, +EGH, 156,61, +6,H, GG, cw, —_ 9G |), 1¥G,G,H, +G,, +6,G,H, & Step 5: Combine the cascade blocks RG GG.6, cw, Sl EGR GH GG)” ‘Transfer funtion ofthe system CW) | __GGG, agg RO j,G,H, + GH, + GG, H, ae eee Example : 6 a Obtain C° ofthe system in figure 3.11 by lock diagram simplification, July 2006 (10 M) Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — a9 Hi, Solution : Step fove the take off point (4) after block G, and interchange point (4) and S Step 2 : Combine the cascade blocks = G,G, GG,_ ‘Eliminate the minor feed back loop = 1+G,G,H, RG) HIG, ‘Minor feedback loop Step 3 Combine the cascade blocks = 22%, ep 3 : Combin looks = Eliminate the minor feed back loop >Cls)90_—Contol engineering TGGth GG GGG Hh ~ E.G GGA, T+ G,G,Hh,* G, Step 4 : Eliminating unity feedback loop x1 GG.H,+ 6,6, RG) GGG, %)- 156,G,H, -GGM, peeeeene Gye 1-G.G,H, +6,G,H, +G,6,G, Rs) __ G66, | 1 GiGi, + 6G, #GG,G, co) _ Gi eC Cee Ri) ~ 1-G.G,H, +G,G,1, +,6,G, Example : 7 ion © Reduce the block diagram, shown in figure 3.12 and find the overall transfer function =. Dec. 07/Jan.08 (10 M) RS) Block Diagrams and Signa’ Fow Graghs ~ 91 Solution = Step 1: Combine the parallel blocks G, and G,= G, + G, cs, Step 2 : Combine the eascade blocks = G(G, + G)G, Separate the paths along the dotted ines 6) 6,046, + GF ~—rersy GH, Hy Step 3: Splitthe summing point cis) ‘Step 4 : Combine the parallel block = I- GH Eliminate the minor feedback loop GG(G, +65) 1+G,G(G,+G)-H) iGu(Ga + Gs) . a sa} a Cos) Step + Combine the cascade block RS) GGG, +6)92_—Control Engineering ‘Overall transfer function is, CQ) _ (I Gslt,)G,G,(G, + G,) Ro) = 1-G,G,HH,(G, +6) Example: 8 Reduce the block diagram shown in figure 3.13 to canonical form and determine transfer fon £® function 2, , G,= Hy June/July 08. RG) 1 2 = . RQZ 7 6 cy) G i - : 3 7, #, ks RO) Step 2 : Combine the cascade blocks = G,G, GG, Eliminate the minor feed back 0” = 7 G.G 7, Block Diagrams and Signal Fiow Graphs —_ 93 > C3) Cascade & Step 4: Combine the cascade Block = TG. HG ~iminaing the minor feedback oop 66.6, GGG, GGG, XH, GH +G,GH+G.G.GH, ps)94_—Contol Engineering Brock Diagrams and Signal Flow Graghe—~ 95 ‘Transfer function is, ok Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — 98 Step 2: Eliminate the minor Feecback foop 2 GGG, RO) ~ 14G,H,+6,6,4,+G.G,G4, =) (54 1(6+2)(0? 1) +4542) 1x2x3 - T42x242x3x341%2x3x1 Example : 9 For the system shown in figure 3.14 Determine Closed loop transfer function fi) Characteristic equation ‘System type “ iv) System differential equation L + T T + T R(s) — s) > sea os z >cts) 1 = Step 3 : Combine the cascade blocks = yp ez P Snianmatummmneisl oa Kata) e4sr0 Eliminate the minor feedback loop 1 2 . (646+ 2 I eais+2) a i Grier Ie ease? Solution : ‘Step 1: Combine'the cascade block x( +25) 1 Eliminate the unity feed back loop 2s irae 2ee 25 Splitthe summing point 1 Os) > Gea Ry 1 6 442 (3) cs) S43P HIS SS Closed Transfer function is, oe \ R(s) s+ 39 +257 43516 _—Conteob Engineering Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — 97 Srample : 10 , Step: Eliminate minor eed back oop = 5 ine the overall transfer function of the black diagram shown in figure Determine the overall transfer f ar Seu wom B : : c k x _ep—fa-$ ; Step 4: liminate minor fed back loop ie. overall ‘Transfer function a GG6, ‘ 19G.GH,+GR, NS. Ts Solution: Step 1: (@) Combine blocks G, and G, = 6,6, (b) After combining move ie takeoff point 1 ahead of GG, R EE i (©) Rearrange the system | aGRram -—— a i GG, >C e {G, +O, | Example + 11 = Reduce given block diagram into canonical form and determine closed loop transfer function. Also represent in open loop form. Dee? 2013/2014 (10M) x toop «21 se 2) Eliminate minor eed back oop : Siep2+ (Bint oem - Go,6, (©) After eliminating combine with +G.GH, GGG, TGGt, > Fig38_—Contiol Engineering 28_—Contol Engineering Step 1: (a) Eliminating unity feedback path = $7 1 (b) Combining blocks in parallel = 24 2 04s) 1 1 25? +8543) +09) uy stl] |s+2| s(s+3) 2 Fig Step 2: (2) Combining the blocks in Cascade (Series) 1o(2s? +8543) © S(s4I)(s+2)(5+3) 5) 10(2s? +85-+3) 10) a(t Iyer 2)(o+3) Step3 (0) Eliminating feedback path toast s8s+3) Geese _ wos +83) Set Nes 2\e+3) WoQt+843) © S(o4)(e+2)(0+3)+ 2028 +85+3) Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs — 99 1o(2s8 +8643) 8° 465 +4957 + 1625-466 £- opentoop form is 102" +8543) 6) —— eee S657 +495? $1625 4 66 +——> 8, «s) ‘Thus, Transfer function is (3) 20s! 480543 544659 +495? +1625 +66 () 3.5 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS A signal flow graph is an another way of representing a linear control systems, when any control system is described by a set of linear algebraic equations having the form a= Soy Where i212, n ‘The signal flow graph (SFG) was developed by S.J. Mason for the control system described by aa algebraic equations to represent the cause and effect relationship among the various variables of the system, Thus signal flow graph can be defined as The diagramatic or graphical representation of the variables of a set of linear algebraic ‘equations representing the linear control system is called signal flow graph (SFG). 3.5.1 Basic Evewents oF a SFG Im SFG, variable plays a vital role, these are represented first. Thus variables ofthe set of equations representing the control system are considered as the first basic element and are represented by the small circles called nodes in SFG. The control system consists of number o° Variables, which are both dependent and independent in nature. Each (dependent and independent) variables are presented by separated node. The nodes are connected by directee line segments called branches, according tothe cause and effect equations. The branch is associated with the transfer function and an arrow. The transfer function represents (branch gain) mathematical “ operation on one variable to produce the other variable. The direction of the atrow indicates the flow of signal For instance, consider that a linear system is represented by the simple algebraic equation100_—Contol Engineering ‘where x, isthe input, x, is the output and a1, is the gain between the two variables. 9.5.2 Tenus useo iv SFG In addition tothe nodes and branches defined earlier, the following terms are useful forthe analysis of SEG ‘Consicera signal flow graph shown in the figure 3.15 Pig. 315 i) Node : Nodes are the variables of the system represented by small circles. ii) Input Node : The node that has only outgoing branches is known, as Input or source node, Example : x, is Input node. i) Output Node: The node that has only incoming branches is known as output or sink node Example x, in output node. iv) Mixed Node : The node that having both incoming and outgoing branches is known as mixed ‘or chain node. Example : x5.) Xp %, and X, '¥) Beanch : Directed line segment joining two nodes is known as branch. vi) Path : It isa traversal from one néde to-anothex node in the direction of te branch arrow, such that no node traverse more than once. vii) Branch gain : The gain between nodes is kno\ are expressed in terms of transfer functions. viii) Forward path : The path that stats from an input node and ends at an output node and along hich no node is traversed more than once is known as forward path. yn as branch gain or transmittance, such gains Example: BTN BOAT HOHOE ix) Path Gain ; The product ofthe branch gains encountere« pati is known as path gain or forward path gain. 1d while going through the a forward Block Diagrams and Signal Flow Graphs 103 Example : Consider a forward path 13 4X yg X gg XI x) Feedback loop : A path which starts from a particular node and ends at the same node, travelling through atleast one other node, and along which no node is traversed more than once is known as feedback loop or closed loop. Example: %,-x,-x,-x, xi) Self loop : A path which stats from 2 particular néde and ends atthe same node. Example : x,—, Hint : A self loop should not be considered while defining the forward path, i) Non - touching loop : If there is no node common between the two Or more loops, such loops are said to be non - touching loops. . xiii) Loop Gain : The product of all the gains ofthe branches forming loop is known as loop gain. 4 ts path gain is 3.5.3 \PRopennes oF SFG {) The SFG can be applied only to linear systems. ii) The equations for which SFG is drawn must be a linear algebraic equations in the form of cause and effect, il) Nodes ate used fo represent variables and line connecting between nodes in represented by branches. iv) The signals along the branches represented by arrow. ‘v) The signal traveling along branch is multiplied by the gain of the branch. vi) The branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal'on another. vii) At each node all the signals of in coming branches added and transmitted to the out going branches, Hint : The value of variable at each node is an algebraic sum ofall the signals of incoming branches. vii) A mixed node may be treated as an outputnode by adding an outgoing branch with unit branch ain 3.54 Proceoune 10 Draw SFG Case I: From block diagram 1 Replace all the summing points by nodes, 2. Replace all the take off points by nodes. 3, Replace all the blocks by branches, indicating block 4, IFthe branch connecting a summing point and take off point has unity gain, then summing and take off point can be combined and represented by a single node.