MECCA AS A CENTER OF

ISLAMIC CICILIZATION
The Sanctity of Mecca Under Jeopardy

01 HAZİRAN 2023
YİLDİRİM BEYAZİT UNİVERSİTY
BY ZAKARIAH ARHIN: 225206151
POLITICS OF DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
ABSTRACT
In the middle of the seventh century, a confederation of Arab tribes emerged from the
Arabian Peninsula and conquered a wide region of territory that, in less than a century,
spanned from the Atlantic Ocean's shores to the Indian deserts. Islamic culture evolved
throughout the succeeding centuries in a dynamic process influenced by the many
civilizations it assimilated while being led by Islamic aims. Mecca, Baghdad, Medina, and
Damascus were among the cities that helped Islamic civilization advance and flourish. From
these towns, Mecca, which is now a part of Saudi Arabia on the western side, grew to
prominence as the most significant city in Islamic history in a number of ways, including
significant scientific and literary works and extensive trade routes between Europe and Asia.
Mosques and other sacred religious structures have been viewed as physical expressions of
Islam's core ideals throughout the course of Islamic history by architects, monarchs,
planners, and the general populace. The interior design has been prioritized above the visual
perspective and dimensional measurements because the mosque is a landmark in the city
rather than just a building. Unfortunately, neoliberalism has changed this dogma in many of
the major Muslim nations worldwide. This article's main goal is to demonstrate how
neoliberalism's effects on Mecca's urban expansion have put the city's sanctity in jeopardy.

KEYWORDS: Neoliberal Urban Planning, Grand Mosque, Sanctity of Mecca, Neoliberal

approaches in Islam

MECCAS AS A CENTER OF ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION: THE SANCTITY OF MECCA UNDER

JEOPADY

1 Introduction
Arab tribes united and emerged from the Arabian Peninsula in the middle of the seventh
century, capturing a vast area of land that stretched in less than a century from the coasts of
the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian deserts. Islamic civilization developed throughout the
ensuing centuries in a dynamic process guided by Islamic goals but impacted by the
numerous civilizations it assimilated. Cities like Mecca, Baghdad, Medina, and Damascus
contributed to the development and enrichment of Islamic civilization. Mecca which is now
part of Saudi Arabia at the western side rose from these cities to become the most

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important city in Islamic history in various aspects including substantial scientific and literary
works, wide commerce lines between Europe and Asia, new agricultural and technical
breakthroughs and most importantly religion with the arrival of Prophet Mohammed.
Over the last two decades, the Global South has seen an increase in the number of new
cities. Practically every one of the new city developments proposed since the end of the
1990s, for example, have been in emerging countries such as china, morocco, Indonesia,
Saudi Arabia, and a number of others (Moser & Côté‐Roy, 2021).
The Gulf War of 1990 was a turning point in the history of the contemporary Middle East,
changing both the state-society dynamics and the political economics of the area. The post-
war global economic slump and the anti-regime popular movements that had formed in
Saudi Arabia influenced how the country's ruling Al Saud dynasty handled its monopoly on
power and economic resources.
Given the shrinking range of international investment prospects, the rulers turned to land
speculation and the creation of real estate schemes in particular as new means of
generating cash. The post-war property system specifically targeted Mecca and Riyadh as
sites of urban renewal where fresh conceptions of Saudi modernity might emerge and
spread, playing a crucial role in both economic and political life. Nevertheless, in the late
twentieth century, centrally administered urban development in the country's political and
religious hubs took numerous forms. Plans for urban redevelopment in Mecca, the site of
the annual Muslim pilgrimage, called for a complete revamp of Mecca's cultural, social,
physical, and economic setting.
Taking a pilgrim to Mecca is a requirement for Muslims who are able to undertake it.
Muslims use the Qibla (direction towards Mecca) for their daily prayers (salat). Mecca has
such a large effect that many buildings in Muslim cities and towns are oriented to face the
Qibla. The volume of Muslims performing Hajj has increased substantially, prompting Saudi
authorities to expand the Masjidil Haram - the Great Mosque. However, such development
initiatives and concomitant alterations to Mecca's urban fabric may be impacted as much by
neoliberal policies on urbanization. The Saudi leadership has portrayed Mecca's remake as
necessary to improve pilgrimage infrastructure with the goal to accommodate a swelling
Muslim population in what is now a conveniently accessible city that has greater to provide
than its historical and religious material heritage. As a result, the building (and demolition)
aims to move the ecclesiastical Mecca into the modern era global city. People who can
afford five- to six-million-dollar apartments or hotel suites that cost more than four
thousand dollars for a night are not required to get near other pilgrims. These individuals
can pray in groups [jama'a] from the comfort of their own homes or hotel rooms, a practice
sanctioned in 1998 by Saudi Arabia's previous Grand Mufti Abdulaziz ibn Abdullah ibn Baz.
This disconnection undermines the pilgrimage's aim and the sense of spiritual connection it
is supposed to foster.
During Muslim pilgrims' holy days in September 2015, a dreadful catastrophe occurred in
Mecca, and it was reported by all global media that ''at least 107 people were killed and 238
more were wounded after a crane crashed over at Mecca's Grand Mosque''. The crane is

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one of the construction instruments used to create large buildings surrounding the Kaaba. It
is also a symbol for the dominance of architectural and urban solutions that are still
problematic and should be examined. When you look t the urban panorama around the
Grand Mosque and the Kaaba, there are such vertical constructions in such a holy context.
The tall structures, however, have been deemed to be a reconfiguration of the area used in
the enlargement of Mecca's Grand Mosque, and these buildings will be built high to meet
the pilgrims' accommodation needs. In reality, they are neoliberal pretexts that have
reached the pinnacle of selfishness when they drive authorities to sacrifice spatial sanctity
for fiscal riches. The expansion of Mecca's Grand Mosque should not be used to justify
undermining the spiritual significance of the Kaaba, particularly in Saudi Arabia, which is an
oil-rich kingdom.
Throughout Islamic history, sacred religious buildings including mosques have been
considered as manifestations of Islam's fundamental values by builders, rulers, planners,
and people. This is because the mosque is a landmark in the city and not just a building, the
visual perspective and dimensional dimensions have been prioritized over the interior
design. sadly, neoliberalism has altered this orthodoxy in many of the prominent Muslim
countries around the globe.
The primary purpose of this article is to showcase the impacts of neoliberalism on the urban
development of Mecca which has resulted in the jeopardy of Mecca’s sanctity.

2 Theoretical Framework and Arguments

In many countries today, neoliberalism has been adopted in political administration ib both
developed and developing countries. In their book ‘’Neoliberalism—A critical reading,’’
Saad-Filho and Johnston (2005) declared that we are living in the age of neoliberalism.
Academically and historically, neoliberalism may be traced back to the prominent French
economist, Charles Gide, who published a paper titled "Has cooperation introduced a new
principle into economics?" in 1898 (Gide 1898), whereas the first book to employ the term
"neoliberalism" was written by Jaques Cros in 1950. Cros (1950) stated that neoliberalism
represents a political philosophy which is reminiscent of classical liberalism in World War II
(Cros 1950).
Neoliberalism is a political and economic ideology that values free markets, little
government involvement, individual liberty, and personal responsibility. It supports policies
such as deregulation, privatization, and minimizing the role of the government in economic
issues. Globalization and international trade are also promoted by neoliberalism.
The neoliberalists invoked evolutionary theory's "survival of the fittest" as a mechanism of
natural selection as a crux in neoliberalism. Neoliberal advocates believe that
competitiveness is essential for natural balance and sustenance (Peck and Tickell 1994). The
expression coined by English philosopher Herbert Spencer, whose work first discussed the
concept of the "survival of the fittest" in his Principles of Sociology and was later cited by
Charles Darwin (Gonzalez 2013), should caution us against applying the principle of

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competition to all spheres of life, particularly those that do not accept trade-offs, such as
religion and the nation's cultural heritage, particularly in the areas of architecture and urban
planning.
Nevertheless, Darwin's theory of evolution (the survival of the fittest) does not apply to the
formation of cultural and dogmatic schemes since there is an important trigger for creedal
schemes, which includes cultural, spiritual, or psychological aspect.
People often refer to religion as the "pot" in which spiritual, psychological, and ceremonial
emotions all come together. Considered a flashpoint for the effects of neoliberal policies,
ecclesiastical architecture and the urban planning of holy sites are both subject to
controversy.
I argue that the jeopardy of the sanctity of Mecca today is due to the misuse of neoliberal
theory of urban planning by Saudi Arabian regime.

3 Relationship between Islam and Neoliberalism

Islam and neoliberalism as a link is a complicated and varied subject. Some academics
contend that there are conflicts between some features of Islam and certain neoliberal
concepts. Islam prioritizes social justice, income redistribution, and communal well-being
while neoliberalism lays a strong emphasis on individualism, self-interest, and profit
maximization. Disagreements and confrontations over issues like economic policies, social
welfare, and wealth inequality can result from these conflicting principles. It is also
important to note that some Muslims support the fusion of market-based policies with
Islamic beliefs. They contend that when controlled to promote fairness, social responsibility,
and moral behavior, entrepreneurship, private property, and free commerce can be
reconciled with Islamic principles.
The orientalists often claim that Islam and capitalism are incompatible(Hassan et al., 2016).
Neoliberal policies have been adopted without undermining Islamic ideals, from Erdogan,
the Turkish Prime Minister, to Mahathir Mohamad, the Prime Minister of Malaysia.
Islam also encourages social cohesion, which ensures the longevity of neoliberal policies
without jeopardizing the ability of the lower classes to live well. However, due to state
abuse of power, a lack of popular and parliamentary supervision, and shallow
implementation, neoliberal policies can occasionally act against the Islamic tendency.
Therefore, it is not necessary that the neoliberal approaches in this setting be wholly
consistent with Islam because Islam is a trustworthy standard that encompasses a set of
rigid guidelines governing Muslims' behaviors as opposed to neoliberalism, which may
change its mechanism in response to the political or economic conditions of the state or any
other emerging factors. As a result, government may disparage one of the economic sectors,
as it recently did with its neoliberal approaches on the pilgrimage ritual. Unwillingly, the
Saudi administrations permitted private institutions to interfere with the planning of the

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Hajj to the Holy Grand Mosque in Mecca. sadly, some private businesses have benefited
politically from the Hajj ceremonies by using their connections to the royal family.

Islamophobia, the impacts of post-colonialism, or the current rulers' desire to maintain their
power and influence over the populace have all contributed to the improper application of
Islamic principles throughout the majority of the Islamic world today, despite Islam's
support for devolution of authority. Thus, the neoliberal policies would unquestionably be
applied inappropriately as long as the Islamic laws have been violated.

4 Urban Planning in Mecca-global city fantasy

Deregulation is a key component of neoliberal planning because it entails the removal
and/or relaxation of planning restrictions in order to support markets (e.g., (Ferm et al.,
2021); (Roy, 2009); (Tarazona Vento, 2017)). Deregulation is referred to as the "principal
thrust of neoliberalism" (Gleeson & Low, 2000). However, it is important to understand that
"neoliberal deregulation" requires more than just eliminating regulations or doing away
with them altogether ((Charney, 2017); (Ferreri & Sanyal, 2018);(Olesen & Carter, 2018)). It
also involves promoting new planning strategies that support deregulated market-oriented
growth. Aalbers (Aalbers, n.d.) emphasizes that this might be referred to as "regulated
deregulation,"
Historically the primary focus on the urbanization development in Mecca was initially based
on the prioritizing the pilgrims which encompasses their spiritual, social and physical
necessities. but the direction was changed after Saudi Arabia oil business expanded in great
manner leading to the picture of the Grand Mosque of Mecca and neoliberalism into play.
The Kaaba (House of God) is regarded as the city's most important center. The Holy Mosque
has become surrounded by urbanization that embraces the Kaaba. The expansion was built
quite low. Since the discovery of the Zamzam well, the provision of services has emerged as
the city's primary characteristic, necessitating the employment of convoys with specially
designed routes for the transportation of drinking water. The city's first transportation links
were thus created, putting it on the map of urbanization ever since. But the significance of
the city hasn't persisted as much as it has done till today when Islam arrived, it is required of
every Muslim on Earth to make the journey there. A steady stream of visitors has begun to
pour into the city each year, and some of them have made permanent residences there,
causing an ongoing urban urban expansion.
Neoliberalism, however, has infiltrated this area’s spirituality and sense of saintliness.
Because of the surrounding high-rise structures, the Ka'ba cannot be seen from a distance.
The Ka'ba appears to have lost some of its volumetric size in comparison to the high-rise
structures, and the embellished contemporary structures are more eye-catching than the
Ka'ba. The hotels near the Grand Mosque will be reserved for wealthy individuals who want
to take advantage of the Ka'ba's iconic bird's-eye view. The main goal of the pilgrimage,

5
which is togetherness and harmony, would be illusive due to neoliberalism as this area will
be almost exclusively for a particular income strata of foreign Muslims in addition to VIPs.
Numerous Saudi academics and urban planners have expressed their disapproval of the
entire course that Saudi officials have chosen for the future of Mecca. The most outspoken
academic is Prof. Samy Al Angawi, who called the events surrounding the Ka'ba a crime
against humanity and the soul. All these went to futile as the Saudi regime ignored their
critical views.

5 Religious Locations: 5.1 Perspectives

Religious sites are extremely important to people and communities all around the world.
Religious institutions give believers a calm, holy environment where they can connect with
their faith, receive comfort, and deepen their spiritual experiences. These locations
frequently provide a sense of calm, quiet, and a place for worship, meditation, or prayers.
Numerous places of worship have a rich architectural and historical legacy that has been
used to preserve local culture and traditions for many years. They frequently operate as
landmarks and markers of identity, drawing tourists and other visitors who want to learn
more about the local history, culture, and art.
Since the beginning of time, religious structures have received special consideration for their
architecture and planning. While the ordinary houses of ancient Egypt were made of mud,
the pharaonic temples, for instance, were erected with stones.
A religious structure is the fourth-millennium Ziggurats that were constructed in Western
Asia. Archaeologists discovered that the Ziggurats are constructed as platforms built on top
of one another gradually to the sky, despite the fact that these structures have crumbled
due to environmental and historical circumstances. Hindu and Buddhist temples represent
the reverence of the location over time by government and Asian inhabitants alike, from
Western Asia to Eastern Asia.
When it comes to Christianity, the St. Peter's Basilica is the most recognizable building in
Vatican City and represents the religion's core values. It is the largest church in the world
and a masterpiece of Renaissance architecture, known for its majesty. Michelangelo created
a stunning dome for the basilica. Also we we examine the cathedrals, the Plazas that may
have existed in the vicinity of cathedrals, the initial designs for flying buttresses, the towers
of the cathedrals, and the height restrictions for the nearby buildings all indicate how much
attention religious structures receive.
Muslims regard mosques to be hallowed places of worship and social gathering, hence they
are of utmost significance to them. The mosque's architectural design is always striking and

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alluring to passersby on the outside, and it also appeals to worshipers on the inside. For
instance, the Aschrafiyya Mosque in Taiz, Yemen, stands out as an organic urban pattern
mass. All around the Islamic world, mosques are still standing, while non-Islamic countries
still maintain their churches, cathedrals, and temples. The mosque can be seen from a
distance thanks to the market or plaza, and the distances between mosques and
neighboring homes can help the mosque's mass resist dwarfism brought on by neighboring
structures rising over the mosque. Since the use of human voice to summon Muslims to
prayer has decreased, the tall minarets have served as a landmark. The visual and spiritual
appeal of the House of God is improved by these minarets. To preserve cultural, spiritual,
and heritage gains, certain Islamic countries have restricted development regulations to cap
the heights of buildings encircling the old mosques.
Neoliberal policies in the majority of liberal democracies were unable to profit from
religious structures, particularly historical religious architecture. For instance, cathedrals,
which are common throughout Europe, have been studied from an architectural and spatial
perspective. In several Asian nations that have a tendency toward neoliberalism, such as the
Republic of Korea, Japan, and China, the Buddhist temples received the same amount of
attention. Islamic regimes that are pursuing neoliberal policies, however, have not imposed
any restrictions to stop neoliberal forces from negatively impacting Islamic religious assets.
Under the guise of helping the Hajjis and expanding the mosque's capacity, the Grand
Mosque in Mecca has been negatively impacted by economic liberal policies.

5. 2 Belief in Hajj Spirituality

Despite the diversity among Muslims, the Hajj fosters a sense of fraternity and unanimity in
their worship of the one God. The Nobel goal of that pillar has been impacted by neoliberal
systems and the fast pace of life, nevertheless. Some manifestations of these impacts can be
seen; we'll briefly expound some of these instances.
To start with, it has been noticed that many Muslims are interested in taking selfies or
making videos with their smartphones and sharing these materials on social media sites like
Facebook and Twitter because the spiritual significance of the Hajj is waning, which has
caused some pilgrims to concentrate on recording the rituals' moments rather than enjoying
the worship itself. The spiritual atmosphere of Hajj has been hampered by these actions.
Thus, Muslims are unable to distinguish between holy sites designated for intense worship,
such as pil grimage, and other sites designated for traditional tourism as a result of
neoliberal tactics already being used in religiously significant locations.
Also, Hajj season has changed to become a time when pilgrims can be exploited for profit.
During the Hajj, costs for residential, commercial, and transportation infrastructures
skyrocket. Employees in the Saudi tourism industry financially extort pilgrims. The
merchants were able to overcharge the Pilgrim due to neoliberal policies that enabled for
the official or public control of services provided to Hajjis to be abandoned. As a result, the

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Hajj rituals have suffered as pilgrims' perceptions of the quality of the services have declined
relative to the money they spent for them.
The authorities have set aside a quota for each nation in order to efficiently handle the Hajj
procedure due to the steadily rising number of Muslims who wish to make pilgrimage in
Saudi Arabia. One thousand out of one million persons are thought to be performing the
Hajj. However, with the presence of administrative and formal corruption, this quota has
turned into a source of profiteering for some governments. On the basis of this visa, private
institutions have built a significant business. As a result, the visa required for the Hajj has
increased in price, and additional costs like transportation, lodging, and necessary ritual
payments like animal sacrifices and meals must be paid later. Many Muslims who wanted to
perform the Hajj would be prevented by the permissive visa policies, making the journey
only available to the wealthy. This outcome runs counter to the Hajj's main goal, which
encourages Muslim interaction regardless of external factors.
Catastrophes have resulted from the neoliberal policies used to plan the Hajj, particularly in
Saudi Arabia. According to Fig. 1, hundreds of pilgrims perished in the 2015 season as a
result of congestion and stampede. The terror at the Hajj occurs every season, despite Saudi
officials' use of 100,000 police and a significant number of stewards to assure safety and
assist people who become lost. The neoliberal changes in the Hajj are more responsible for
the reason than the security upgrades. For instance, several companies help pilgrims
perform the Hajj by offering them services. The contractors created their arbitrages based
on the anticipated annual influx of pilgrims, according to the Hajjis. Yet, fewer people made
the pilgrimage during the most recent season (the Hajj year of 2015) as a result of
unpredictable political conditions in neighboring nations like Syria, Egypt, Yemen, Iraq, and
Libya; as a result, some contractors excused themselves from managing the affairs of the
pilgrims. To address the decline in pilgrimage, some of them reduced the amenities
provided to Hajjis, while others combined some groups. Pushing of pilgrims during Hajj
ceremonies in 2015 was one of several issues brought on by substantial lack of organization.

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Fig. 1 hundreds of pilgrims perished in the 2015 Muslim’s pilgrimage as a result of
congestion and stampede

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6 Conclusion
Due to the deregulation of bureaucracy on economic plans, neoliberalism invariably
supports economic progress. Neoliberal practices would, however, have a negative impact
on the economy in some nations lacking in democracy, openness, and judicial and public
oversight. The linked vulnerabilities with such countries' neoliberal policies include
monopoly, commercial greed, and altering the quality of client services. Therefore, the
political environment of any state as well as citizen awareness are related to the probable
outcomes of neoliberal policies.
It is unethical to manipulate sacred and historic sites using any methods and justifications.
The cultural and spiritual benefits that can be attained from traveling to revered and
important locations cannot be compensated for or compared to monetary gains.
Additionally, if the historic and holy location could not touch the pilgrims' hearts, the
number of visitors would decline, which might lead to a decline in religious tourism.
Neoliberal policies incorporated into contemporary Mecca architecture have been
promoted as a success of religious tourism. In actuality, rather than offering amenities to pil
grims, the tall modern structures surrounding the Ka'ba, such as hotels, flats, marketplaces,
and retail stores, are designed to maximize commercial profit. Elite people who can afford
to pay more will live in the opulent complex adjacent to the Kaaba and enjoy the panoramic
views. It is hardly surprising that several Saudi princes possess apartments in the clock
tower, notwithstanding the possibility that they are only seldom occupied during the Hajj
season.
The massive new projects currently under development inside the Grand Mosque show off
the worst effects of neoliberalism on society and architecture. The center of worship for
one-third of the world's population has been replaced by a commercial enterprise. The
Ka'ba's visual representation and the pilgrims' experience of it have both been badly
influenced by the development that ignored the Ka'ba's geographical dimensions. All this
demonstrate how neoliberal urban planning has affected the image of mecca as a holy
place.
In this regards, if the Saudi state becomes more flexible in its governance and adopts more
participatory policies, the people will have the opportunity to participate in the building of
the city and will prevent Mecca to lose its significance as one of the world ancient cities and
maintain its sacredness.

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