CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to
Automatic Control Systems

1.1 Introduction
The automatic control is considered as an essential basic of the advanced
modern manufacturing and industrial processes that the use of the natural
sources, the natural powers and the sources of energy as useful uses are required
a kind of controlling and enforcing kinds.
The primary equipments and machines are basically characterized by
manual operation and required the human watching and interference to perform
the measurements and the improvements from instances to another to achieve
the required performance "manual control".
In 1769 James Watt has been apple to control the speed of a steam engine
by using centrifugal governor controller. This is considered as the first
significant work in automatic control, which uses automatic control feedback
controller for industrial purpose.
The significant improvements of most works in the field of automatic
control of radar equipments, rockets and airplane are considered in the interval
before the second world ware. The requirements of manufacturing of modern
advanced firings of submarines, airplanes and as same has lead to improve the
automatic control systems before and after the second world ware.
About 1960, the available of digital computers enables the engineers to
design complicated control systems by using these computers in controlling their
performance.
Lastly, the armament race and plants age has pushed the engineering
automatic control to significant improvements.

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1.2 Technical Terminology
Physical System
A physical system is a component (device) or a collection of components
(devices) in the natural world, acting together to perform a specific desired
performance (objective).

The physical systems can be divided to:

(1) dynamically systems: in which, although the Inputs are constant, the outputs

change with significant rate.

(2) Statically system: in which, the outputs remain constant and changes only

when the inputs change.

A Control System
Is a system which provides a desired performance (system response)
according to a wanted objective called the system input, as in Fig. (1).
Disturbances

Input System Output

Cause Effect
Objective Result
Action Response
Reference input Desired Performance

Fig. (1) A Control System

A control system consists of:

(1) Input
Is defined as, the prepared action which is enforced on the control system
from external source to perform a required performance.

(2) System or Plant

Any physical system wanted to be controlled is called a plant.
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(3) Output
Is defined as the real system performance according to the enforced input,
which may be equal or not equal to the desired performance of the system.

(4) Disturbances
Is an undesired action (signal) that tends to affect the output adversely. It
is called internal if it is generated within the system, or external if it is input to
the system from outside.
The system may be has one input and one output, this system is defined as
single input single output system SISO. If the system has more than one input
and more than one output, in this case the system is defined as multi-inputs,
multi-outputs system MIMO.

1.3 Types of Control Systems

There are two main types of the control systems:
1.3.1 Open-Loop Control Systems
Is a control system, in which the output has no effect upon the control
action, so the actuating signal is the input, as in Fig. (2).

Control
reference action output
input Controller System
controlled
variable

Fig. (2) Open-Loop Control System

Main Parts:
- Controller "as, amplifier".
- Controlled system "Plant".

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 That is, in the open-loop control system, the output is neither measured
nor fed back for comparison with the input. So, the open-loop control systems
must be carefully calibrated.
Open-loop control system can be used in practice only if the relation
between the input and the output is known, and if there are neither internal nor
external disturbances.
Examples:
Fan – Heater – Furnace – Washing machine – Electric lamp – Traffic signal ..

1.3.2 Closed-Loop Control Systems

A closed-loop control system is one in which the output signal has a direct
effect upon the control action, where the difference between the input signal and
the feed back signal (which may be the output signal, in the case of unity feed
back, or function of the output, in the case of feedback element) "the actuating
or error signal", is fed to the controller to extract the control action, which
enforced on the system in order to reduce the system error and adjust the output
to the desired value, as in Fig. (3).

The main purpose of the closed-loop system is to ensure that the output
follow in some way the set point "reference input" signal and rejects the
influence of the unwanted disturbance signal, which corrupts the system output.

Error Control
detector action
Controller System output
Reference controlled
Error variable
input signal

Feedback
element

Fig. (3) Closed-Loop System

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 So, closed-loop control system is that, in which the controlled variable is
measured and fed back to compare with the reference input "desired", and the
resulting error signal must actuate the control element to change the output, so
as to minimize the error. Any system which incorporate thermostat to control
temperature is a closed-loop system as:
Iron – Refrigerator – Air conditioner – Heater - ………etc
The performance of the closed-loop control system can be divided to:
Servo
In which, the main purpose is to maintain the controlled variable follow in
some way the reference input.
Regulator
Whose running function is to maintain the controlled variable essentially
constant at a given level.

1.4 Feedback Systems

Feed back is a property of closed-loop control systems, where the output
"or any variable of the system which wanted to be controlled" is compared with
the system input to consist the actuating signal which act on the controlling unit
to consist an appropriate control action, which enforce the plant, as in Fig.(4).

Error Control
Input detector action output
e(t) Controller Plant
r(t) C(t)
Error
signal

Measurement
Feed back path

Fig. (4) Feedback System

The output of the comparator e(t)is called error signal, where:

e t   r t   C t 

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Some practical feedback systems are:

1.4.1 Practical Systems

(1) Human System
Human system is the most complicated and sophisticated feed back
control system in existence. The human control system to reach to a book on a
table as shown in Fig.(5) can be described as:

Command to
reach to the
Error Signal book

Brain

Hand position

Eyes
Hand

Objective
Book position

Fig. (5) Human Control System

- An input order to reach to the book on the disk, and this is coming from the
brain (internal) or from an external source.
- The brain sends out a signal to the arm to reach to the book (input).
- The eyes serve as a sensing device which decide exactly the book position, and
decide the distance between the arm and the book (error), and fed back a
signal to the brain called the error signal, i.e. work as error detector.
- The brain received the error signal and send a signal to the heart to pump more
blood to the arm musk (amplifier), to move the arm (power actuator) in the
direction of the book to reach the arm to the book position (output).
- The process for the sensing to detect the error between the arm position
(output) and the book position (input) is continue, and more blood is pumping
to the musk to actuating the arm to minimize the error to zero.

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 The human control system to reach to a book on a table can be
representing by a block diagram that describe the process series and is shown in
Fig. (6).

Error
detector Control
(eye) action Controlled
Input Sensing Power actuator output
(Brain) (Arms)
commandError
signal

Hand position Feedback path

measurement
(eye)

Fig. (6) Block Diagram of Human System to Reach to a Book

(2) Position Control System

Fig. (7) Position Control System

A position control system as shown in fig. (7) can be described as:

- A pair of potentiometers is used as error detector to detect the error between
the desired position" reference input" and the actual position "output" of the
load.
- The error volt e(t) at the potentiometer terminals is amplified by the amplifier.
- The amplified volt causes the motor to rotate in the direction of the desired
position of the load to reduce the error.

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- Due to the inertia of mechanical and electrical parts, the load doesn't response
instantaneously, but it moves gradually towered the desired position direction.
- The speed of response, which is measured by the time taken by the system to
reach to the final desired position, is considered as an important parameter of
the control systems.
- The speed of response can be increased by increasing the gain of the amplifier
(k), which causes the load to oscillate about the desired position before
reaching to its final steady state position as shown in Fig. (8).
- If the gain is too higher "to improve the system's speed of response", the
system may be over bound the input and the output oscillate without bound
around the reference input, which lead to instability of the system or the
system becomes unstable “unbounded output”.

Fig. (8) System Response with Different Amplifier Gains (k)

- Also, due to the friction and the features of the feed back systems, generally
the actual position "output" doesn’t exactly equal the desired position "input",
which lead to an steady state error ess(t) for the system. e ss(t) measures the
system accuracy and the system is considered more accurate for small e ss(t).

The required from any control system:

1- Accuracy. 2- Stability 3- Speed of response.
The design of the feedback control systems essentially to find a
compromise between two contradictory factors, accuracy and stability .

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(3) Radar System "Tracking Control System"
The tracking control system of firing an airplane as shown in fig. (8) can
be described as:

Fig. (8) Tracking Control System

- The radar antenna detects the position and velocity of the target airplane.
- The computer circuits uses this information and determines the correct firing
angle for the gun "desired position", where the lead angle ensures the meeting
of the projectile with the airplane after certain time, which is the time required
for reaching the projectile.
- The output signal from the computer circuits is fed to an amplifier, which
provides power for the gun's drive motor.
- The motor then aims the gun at the necessary firing angle, and a feed back
signal of the gun's firing angle is fed to the computer circuits.
- The order of firing signal to gun is getting when the correct position is ensured
by the computer circuits.
Anti-Firing aircraft radar control system can be represented by block
diagram as shown in fig. (9).
Target position desired
actuating control actual
position
and velocity Radar Computer signal action position
Amplifier Gun motor
system circuit

feed back signal

Fig. (9) Anti- Firing Aircraft Radar Control System Block Diagram

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(4) Temperature Control System
A heating system to maintain the tank temperature at constant level
is shown in fig. (10), and can be described as:

Fig. (10) Tank Temperature Control System

- The desired tank temperature comm is calibrated by the transducer
"potentiometer" to the voltage r.
- The actual temperature  is measured by means of thermocouple impressed in
the tank, which produced the voltage ein proportional to .
- The voltage ein is amplified to produce a voltage b, which is the feedback
quantity.
- The difference e = r - b is the actuating signal and is amplified to produce the
solenoid voltage e1.
- A proportional solenoid force Fs controls the valve position x, which in turn
controls the hot steam flow q into the heating coil.
- The tank temperature  is proportional to q.
The block diagram of the tank temperature control system is shown in fig. (11).
comm r e ei x q heating

potentiometer amplifier solenoid valve
coil
+
-

b ein
amplifier thermocouple

Fig. (11) Temperature Control System Block Diagram

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(5) Speed Control System for Steam Engine "Watt's Governor"
Fig.(12) shows the speed control system of steam engine by using a
governor, and can be described as:

Fig. (12) Steam Engine Speed Control System

- The amount of steam admitted to the engine is adjusted according to the
difference between the desired and the actual engine speed.
- The reference input "set point" is set according to the speed desired.
- The speed variation is detected by a sensor of a centrifugal type "centrifugal
governor".
- The sleeve of the governor actuates the lever, which in turn actuates the valve.
- If the actual speed drops below the desired value, then the decrease in the
centrifugal force of the speed governor cause the sleeve to move downward
causing the lever to increase the open of the steam valve gradually, which in
turn supplying more steam, and the speed of the engine increase until the
desired value is reached.
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- On the other hand, If the speed is increased above the desired value, then the
increase in the centrifugal force of the governor cause the sleeve to move
upward causing the lever to close the steam valve gradually, which in turn
reduce the supply of steam to the engine and the speed of the engine decrease
until the desired value is reached.

(6) Vibratory Control System

Vibratory control system is a means by which the vibration problem will
be alleviated with having to alter the original system. Fig. (13) shows a single
degree of freedom spring mass system, which is acted upon by the out of
balance force. The vibratory control system can be described as:

Fig. (13) Vibratory Control System

- The mass is under vibration motion due to the harmonic excited force of the
unbalance mass.
- The accelerometer works as a transducer which covert the vibration motion
into an electrical signal of frequency and amplitude proportional to that of the
peak vibratory acceleration of the mass.
- Analyzer/microcomputer/ generator receives this signal and supplies the
shaker a signal which will be converted into a second harmonic force acting
on the mass, of the same magnitude as the force causing the vibration but
1800 out of phase with it.

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- The vibration is eliminated or controlled by means of the application of
secondary forcing to the system, which is called active vibration control.

1.4.2 The general Rules of the Automatic Control System

From the previous examples of the practical control systems, it is clear
that, there is general rules that all the systems are agree to complete the
automatic control process "automation", where in which the machines replace
the human factor. These rules can be abbreviated as:
1- The variable or the output which wanted to be controlled, must be applicable
to control by a method or by another. Examples, change position of the load
by changing the applied voltage to the motor as in position control system or
change the temperature by increasing the amount of steam interring from the
valve as in temperature control. [i.e. The controlled variable must be
applicable to control]
2- The output must be measured by transducer, which is a device that can
convert the actual output value to a value applicable to fed back. Examples,
the tachometer that can measure the velocity, the potentiometer that can
measure the position and the thermocouple that can measure the temperature.
[i.e. The output must be measured]
3- Compare the actual output value with the desired value "reference input" by a
comparator to extract the difference or the error signal "actuating signal",
which work in changing the actual output value to near to the desired value.
[i.e. The actual output value must be compared with the desired value to
extract the actuating signal]
4- Electric circuits must be designed after that to convert the actuating signal to
an applicable value to complete the control process of the output, that is by
using electric devices and equipments as, potentiometer or amplifier or
servomotor. [i.e. The controller must be designed]

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1.4.3 The General Components of the Feedback Control Systems
Disturbane
Error signal
or
Actuatting indirect
Reference
signal Controller Control Plant Direct controlled controlled
Reference input Indirct
Command action variable
or or variable
input control
Controlling control
elements + unit system
system
-

Feed back signal Feed back

elements

Fig. (14) General Feed Back Control System

Fig. (14) represents block diagram of a general feedback system, from
which we can define the following:
1- Command
It represents the input, which may be change by input element ‘as,
transducer” to be applicable to compared with the feedback "as, the position or
the temperature convert to volt".
2- Reference Input
It is the out from the input element and can be compared with the
feedback.
3- Comparator
It is the device which is used to compare the reference input signal with
the feedback signal to give the error signal or the actuating signal, and sometime
called the summing point or error detector.
4- Control Element
It is always called the controller or the controlling unit and it represent in
most cases the electric circuits which is needed to condition-ate the actuating
signal in order to complete the control process "as the amplifier".
5- Controlled System
It is the physical system which is wanted to control its output variable,
and can be expressed by a group of algebraic and differential equations, which

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represent the relation between the variables within the system, and sometimes
called a plant.
6- Controlled Variable
It is the output and it represents the direct variable which is wanted to
control it.
7- Disturbance
It is a group of variable which happened to the controlled system due to
reasons out of the control process itself, but its effect reflects to the control
process in changing the output value, and may be internal or external.
8- Indirect Controlled system
It represents the uncontrolled system.
9- Feedback Elements
It represents the measurement equipments which needed to convert the
controlled output to an applicable signal for feedback.
10- Indirect Controlled Variable
It represents the uncontrolled variable due to its measurement difficulty in
most cases, or due to simple measurement of another.

1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Systems

1.5.1 Advantages of Closed-Loop System
And the inverse of themselves considered as the disadvantages of the
open-loop control systems.
1- More accurate.
2- High speed of response.
3- Less sensitive to internal variation.
4- Reduce the disturbance and extract it.
5- Does not need calibration.

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1.5.2 Disadvantages of Closed-Loop System
And the inverse of themselves considered as the advantages of the open-
loop control systems.
1- Complex and hard to maintenance.
2- High expensive and less economical.
3- There is stability problem.

1.6 The Methods of Studying the Control Systems

There are two methods to study and design the control system:
1.6.1 Empirical Method
In which the response and the system characteristics are determined
experimentally by applying various excitations to the system and measure their
response, if the performance is not satisfy, we adjust some system parameters
(as c, k, m in mechanical systems) to improve the system's performance
(stability, accuracy, speed of respond), and so it is proceed by cut and try. The
empirical method although of it's simplicity and important it may not be apple to
use in several cases as:
1- If the control system is very complicated, so it's so difficult to experiment
it.
2- If the control system is too expensive to experiment it.
3- If the control system is more dangerous to experiment it, as nuclear and
chemical systems.

1.6.2 Analytical Method

It consists of four stages:
1- Physical Modeling
In which, the physical system is simplified to a system which can be
mathematically modeling by applying various physical natural low. According
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to the purpose of study we have different models for the physical system "as the
airplane may be considered as a particle in studying its motion and is considered
as a rigid body in studying the stresses"
In physical modeling the system components or parameters must be
identified and their physical properties "as dynamical properties" are generally
determined by experimental means.

2- Mathematically Modeling
In which, a development model of mathematical equations which describe
the physical model "which is getting previously" can be obtained by applying
various physical laws "as Newton laws ,energy laws ,heat laws" to the system.

Also as physical modeling, the system may have different mathematical

models according to the range of work (linear – nonlinear).

3- Analysis
It may be quantitative or qualitative.

A- Quantitative Analysis
It is interested to determine the system response due to certain
excitation.

B- Qualitative Analysis
It is interested in the general system properties such as natural
frequency, damping ratio, settling time. This analysis is very important,
because the design techniques depend on it.

4- Design
In which, the system performance can be improved or optimized by
introducing the required adjustments of the system parameters.

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1.7 The required studies for control systems
The different studies of the control systems are:
1- Analysis
In which, the system response is determined when the excitation
and the system characteristics are known.
2- Deduction
In which, the excitation can be determined when the system
characteristics and the system response are known.
3- Synthesis
In which, the system characteristics can be determined when the
excitation and the system response are known.

1.8 Scope of the course

The studying of the automatic control subject considered two theories:

1.8.1 Classical "Conventional Control Theory

Is the control theory which uses the s-plane method "or the frequency-
domain techniques", and particularly the root-locus approach, leads to systems
that are stable and satisfy a set of more less arbitrary performance requirements.
Classical control theory is applicable only for linear SiSo systems.

1.8.2 Modern Control Theory

Is the control theory which is concerned with systems of the self-
organizing, adaptive, learning and optimum qualities. Modern control theory
solved the most difficulties concerned with the classical control theories as the
complexity, the nonlinearity and the multi-variables

Our studying for the first course of automatic control systems uses the
classical control theory, where the steps are:
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- Laplace transformations.
- Mathematical modeling of dynamical systems.
- System representation & block diagram reduction.
- The dynamical performance "transient response".
- Stability of linear system.
- Routh-Hurwitz criterion
- Root locus method
- Frequency response – Stability from frequency response.

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1.9 Problems
(1) For any control systems; define the following with drawing:
(a) Reference input (b) Comparator (c) Controller
(d) System (e) Feedback element (f) Disturbance
(g) Controlled variable

(3) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the closed-loop control
system; mention only four daily used

(4) Draw a block diagram of the Humen Control System for A Care Steering, i.e.
control of wheel direction, and explaine in detail the system components and how
it work.

(5) Many systems operate under computer control. The figure shows an example of a
CNC machine tool control system. Draw the block diagram of the process
sequance with an explination.

(6) A ship autopilot is designed to maintain a vessel on a set heading while being
subjected to a series of distubances such as wind, waves and current as shown in
the figure. This method of control is referred to as course-keeping. The main

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 elements of the autopilot system are shown in the figure. Descibe the control
process with the aid of its block giagram.

(7) Many machines, such as lathes, milling machines, and grinders, are povided with
tracers to reproduce the contour of templates. The figure is a schematic diagram of
a hydraulic tracing system in which the tool duplicates the shape of the template
on the workpice. Explane the operation of the system, and draw its block diagrame

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