Research Methodology Module

Research Methods for Students
MODULE FOR HAWASSA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

UNDERGRADUATE PROGRAMS
Hawassa University Institute of Technology

Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department
Ibrahim Bedane
2005 E.C
Search and Research for Reality Not Perception

Research Methods for Students, 2005- Ibrahim Bedane
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering material
and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required, and also
training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems, in the use of
statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording evidence, sorting it out
and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research
is done stems from the following considerations:
i. For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance of
knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same constitute
the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good training especially to
the new research worker and enables him to do better research. It helps him to develop
disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field objectively. Hence, those
aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of using research techniques and
must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.
ii. Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use research
results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the knowledge of
research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or industrial business
administration, community development, engineering design work activities and social work
where persons are increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.
iii. When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of acquiring a
new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and of judging every
day experience. Accordingly, it enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning
problems facing us in practical life at different points of time. Thus, the knowledge of
research methodology provides tools to look at things in life objectively.
iv. In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we can
use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods by which
they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research
results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational decisions.
Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Table of Contents
IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE ............................................................................... 2

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPT OF RESEARCH ........................................................................................... 4
Lesson 1: Introduction to Research ........................................................................................................... 4
Lesson 2: Classification of Research ...................................................................................................... 13
Lesson 3: Research Methods versus Methodology ................................................................................. 19
Lesson 4: Engineering Research ............................................................................................................. 23
Lesson 5: Major Stages in Engineering Research ................................................................................... 24
Chapter Two: Research Ethics .................................................................................................................... 30
Lesson 1: The Basics of research Ethics .................................................................................................. 30
Lesson 2: Codes and Policies of Research Ethics .................................................................................... 34
Chapter Three: Research Proposal .............................................................................................................. 38
Lesson 1: Research Planning/Proposal Stage ......................................................................................... 42
Lesson 2: Components of Research Proposal ......................................................................................... 72
Chapter Four: Process in Conducting Research .......................................................................................... 91
Lesson 1: Conducting Research .............................................................................................................. 92
Chapter Five: Reporting Research Findings ............................................................................................. 103
Lesson 1: Writing a Scientific Report ................................................................................................... 104
Lesson 2: Oral Presentation .................................................................................................................. 112

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
 Define the concept of research
 Explain the purpose and objective of research
 Describe the difference between research methodology and research methods
 Classify research into different types based on different criteria
 Explain the uses of each research type
 Explain the characteristics and criteria of good research
 Select the appropriate research approaches
Lesson 1: Introduction to Research
In this lesson the concept of research is defined and the objectives, characteristics and
significance of research are described.
1.1.MEANING OF RESEARCH
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

 re is a prefix meaning again, a new or over again
 Search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in
some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.”2 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement
from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital

instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This
inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining
the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalisation and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a
hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for
some theoretical formulation.
1.2.Research and Scientific Method
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we have already
stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of
any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or
recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than
particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the results and in their extension to more
complicated and general situations.”7 On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research
methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one science to another, is

usually given the name of scientific method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific
method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the method of all
logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material;
the man who classifies facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes
their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”8 Scientific method is
the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a
systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of
these three in varying proportions.”9 In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions
explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops
the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable
phenomena, it becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is
most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships. If any, among
variables. But the conclusions drawn on the basis of experimental data are generally criticized
for faulty assumptions, poorly designed experiments, badly executed experiments or faulty
interpretations. As such the researcher must pay all possible attention while developing the
experimental design and must state only probable inferences. The purpose of survey
investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis for
the researchers for their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated by
the demands of logic and objective procedure.”10 Accordingly, scientific method implies an
objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice, a
method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method
wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the
investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
1.3.OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research
studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.4.MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
1.5.CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:
Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as
possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
 Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of
control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set
up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the
relationship.
This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most
of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and
Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human
beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality
and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
 Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor
varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

 Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a

certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
 Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of
your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
 Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn is based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real life experiences or observations.
 Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand
critical scrutiny.
 Unbiased- This concept implies that each step you have taken must be in an unbiased
manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing
your own vested interest. (Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight
something).
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.
1.6.Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria (11)
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under: (12)
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
1.7.SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry,
and inquiry leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance
of research can well be understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.

Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.
Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of
the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the
country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic
conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small business and industry,
working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution, even the size and nature
of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is considered necessary with
regard to the allocation of nation’s resources. Another area in government, where research is
necessary, is collecting information on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such
information indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking place.
Collecting such statistical information is by no means a routine task, but it involves a variety of
research problems. These day nearly all governments maintain large staff of research technicians
or experts to carry on this work. Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to
economic policy has three distinct phases of operation, viz., (i) investigation of economic
structure through continual compilation of facts; (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and
the analysis of the forces underlying them; and (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future
developments.
Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of a market for the purpose
of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and sales. Operations research refers
to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical techniques to the solution of business
problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation or what can be termed as optimisation
problems. Motivational research of determining why people behave as they do is mainly
concerned with market characteristics.

In other words, it is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer
(market) activities. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are
responsible for taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors
has great utility in business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a
firm, or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity.
Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days. Business budgeting,
which ultimately results in a projected profit and loss account, is based mainly on sales estimates
which in turn depend on business research. Once sales forecasting is done, efficient production
and investment programmes can be set up around which are grouped the purchasing and
financing plans. Research, thus, replaces intuitive business decisions by more logical and
scientific decisions.
Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few
things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know
for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner. Research in
social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what
it can contribute to practical concerns. “This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate
in the case of social science. On the one hand, its responsibility as a science is to develop a body
of principles that make possible the understanding and prediction of the whole range of human
interactions. On the other hand, because of its social orientation, it is increasingly being looked
to for practical guidance in solving immediate problems of human relations.”6
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
a. To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
b. To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
c. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
d. To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;

e. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social problems. It is a
sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new developments in one’s field in a
better way.
Lesson 2: Classification of Research
In this lesson an attempt has been to introduce the classification of research type and approaches
of doing research.
2.1.TYPES OF RESEARCH
There are different ways of classifying type of research. It is really difficult to propose a single
classification method that fits different disciplines and is acceptable by all. For example, some
classify research as theoretical and applied research, descriptive and explanatory research, based
on research approaches as quantitative and qualitative, conceptual and empirical, and other types.
A. Based on application
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research, Applied
(action) research or fundamental (basic or pure) research
a. Applied research: Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy
formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but
is usually descriptive. It is almost always done on the basis of basic research. Applied
research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic
institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an
industrial partner interested in that program. It aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. Research aimed at certain
conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain

communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation

research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical problem.
b. Pure research: Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that
are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure
research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. This research
is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘Fundamental’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on
with a view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of
fundamental research. Basic research is directed towards finding information that has a
broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of
scientific knowledge.
B. Based on Objectives
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as descriptive, Correlational,

explanatory and exploratory
a. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition
of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
b. Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/
interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
c. Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
d. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study /
pilot study).
In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

C. Descriptive vs. Analytical
From the point of view of Investigation, there are two categories of research, descriptive research
or Analytical research
a) Descriptive research: this research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. In some research they often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher
seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or
similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even
when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive
research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
b) Analytical research: in this research the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
D. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
From the point of view of approaches, there are two broad categories of research.
a) Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
b) Qualitative research: is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association
tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective
techniques. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people
feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.

Qualitative research is especially important in the activitiesal sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human activities. Through such research we can
analyses the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing.
E. Conceptual vs. Empirical
From the point of view of Design, there are two broad categories of research they are:
a) Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used
by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
b) Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard
for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand,
at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production
of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with
a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs
which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring
forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by the experimenter’s
control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain
variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.
F. Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on
either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in
which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor research can be classified as
follows.

a) Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
b) Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
c) Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research
follows case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
d) The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory
research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested.
e) Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc.
to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
f) Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While
doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the
enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented
research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not
free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an
example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control.
2.2.RESEARCH APPROACHES
The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two basic
approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
A. Quantitative approach

Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be
further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation approaches to research.
i. Inferential approach: The purpose of this research is to form a data base from which to
infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its
characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
ii. Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on
other variables.
iii. Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the
dynamic behavior of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. The term
‘simulation’ in the context of engineering applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of
initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent
the behavior of the process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in
building models for understanding future conditions.
B. Qualitative approach
This approach is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and activities.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are
not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group
interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length
in chapters that follow.
C. Structured and Unstructured approach
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions, the following approaches are
used:

a) Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as

quantitative research. Here everything that forms the research process- objectives,
design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It
is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by
quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular problem? How many
people hold a particular attitude?
b) Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as
qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research
process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon
without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon,
situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration
of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue,
description of working condition in a particular industry.
Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.
In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example,
suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent
of their popularity.
Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails
description of the culture and cuisine
The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of
people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect
the extent of popularity.
Lesson 3: Research Methods versus Methodology
It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and
research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers

*At times, a distinction is also made between research techniques and research methods.
Research techniques refer to the activities and instruments we use in performing research
operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the
like. Research methods refer to the activities and instruments used in selecting and constructing
research technique. For instance, the difference between methods and techniques of data
collection can better be understood from the details given in the following chart—
Type Methods Techniques

1. Library (i) Analysis of historical Recording of notes, Content analysis, Tape and Film listening
Research records and analysis.
(ii) Analysis of Statistical compilations and manipulations, reference and
documents abstract guides, contents analysis.
(i) Non-participant activitiesal scales, use of score cards, etc.
direct Observational
observation
(ii) Participant Interactional recording, possible use of tape recorders, photo
observation graphic techniques.
(iii) Mass observation Recording mass activities, interview using independent
observers in public places.
(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of

2. Field
respondents.
Research
(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of sociometric

scales.
(vi) Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with open and closed
questions.
(vii) Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given experience and its
effects.
(viii) Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed simultaneously.

(ix) Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information and for discerning
opinion; may also be used as a follow up of questionnaire.
(x) Case study and life Cross sectional collection of data for intensive analysis,
history longitudinal collection of data of intensive character
3. Small group study of Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc.
Laboratory random behavior, play
Research and role analysis
From what has been stated above, we can say that methods are more general. It is the methods
that generate techniques. However, in practice, the two terms are taken as interchangeable and
when we talk of research methods we do, by implication, include research techniques within
their compass.
Research Methodology use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods
which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed
as research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at
a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have
to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods
can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of
data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to
arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the
results obtained.
Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical
tools of research.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various

steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to
develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard
deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know
which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean
and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various
techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is
necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ
from problem to problem. For example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously
evaluate the basis of his decisions, i.e., he has to evaluate why and on what basis he selects
particular size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research the scientist has to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. He has to specify very clearly and precisely
what decisions he selects and why he selects them so that they can be evaluated by others also.
From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research
methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research
methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the
methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular
method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of
being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has
been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted,
why particular technique of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions
are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or
study.

Lesson 4: Engineering Research
Engineering research’, taking clue from the meaning of ‘research’ as outlined in the preceding
pages, may be defined as ‘systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge of
Engineering and technology. Research may also be defined as systematic fact-finding (that is, to
find what the basic advancing principle and technology improvement is the most appropriate)
and advancement of the science and application of Engineering and Technology. In a strict sense,
engineering research is understood as limited to those works which contribute to the
advancement of science and technology. This is a too narrow a view of research and we need not
adopt such a restricted definition of research. Even the fact-finding is not as easy as it may seem.
First, a researcher has to go into the different situations and the basic engineering principle and
current rules and legislation. Secondly, he may have to examine and analyze the information
which he may collect on the point in issue, and it is not an easy matter to recommend a clear-cut
technological proposition from the tangled mass of case.
To advance the science and technology, it is necessary for a researcher to go into the underlying
principles, reasons why we need and use and how we implement this technology. The enquiries
will have to be: Why a particular Technology/system/method? What led to its adoption? What
are its effects? Whether it is suited to the present conditions? How can it be improved? Whether
it needs to be replaced entirely by a new? Thus, the term ‘Engineering research’ take into its
ambit ‘a systematic finding’ or ‘Improve’ technology’ on the identified topic or in the given area
as well as ‘an inquiry’ into technology with a view to making advancement in the Engineering
science.
A quest for making advancement in the engineering science requires a engineering researcher to
systematically probe into underlying ‘principles’ of, and ‘reasons’ for, ‘Technology’. Thus,
engineering research has a very wide scope as it, in ultimate analysis, involves an inquiry into
one or the other dimension or aspect.
Engineering research is, thus, the process of identifying and retrieving information necessary to
support decision-making and problem solving. It includes in it each step of a course of action

that begins with an analysis of the facts of a problem and concludes with the application and
communication of the results of the investigation.
2.1.Nature and Scope of Engineering Research
2.2.Importance (Purpose) of Engineering Research
Lesson 5: Major Stages in Engineering Research
This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. The research process is similar to undertaking a
journey. For a research journey there are two important decisions to make-
1) What you want to find out about or what research questions (problems) you want to find
answers to;
2) How to go about finding their answers.
There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find
answers to your research questions. The path to finding answers to your research questions
constitutes research methodology. At each operational step in the research process you are
required to choose from a multiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research
methodology which will help you to best achieve your objectives.
Invariably every research begins with a question or a problem of some sort. The aim of research
is to know ‘something more’ about ‘something’ or to discover answers to meaningful questions
through the application of scientific procedures. Engineering research is not an exception to this
general precept of research. However, undertaking and accomplishing Engineering research, as a
systematic inquiry, is a complex process. It involves a three-stage process. Each one of them

warrants skill. The processes are research planning (proposal Preparation), research conducting,
and presenting of research findings.
Research planning requires the necessary sub-skills for: fact observation, problem area
knowledge, problem identification and analysis, further literature collection, identification of
research areas, identification of relevant research source materials, location of the source
materials and generation of research objectives and methods. Research implementation
(conducting Research), as the second-stage processes, involves the skills pertaining to:
identification of problems for evolution, collecting of data from identified sources, effective
analysis of the source data and information, analysis of research findings, application of findings
to the identified problem(s), and identification of further problem(s). While the third-stage
process, i.e. presentation of research findings, requires the skills necessary for: identification of
the (research) recipients’ needs, selection of appropriate format or framework, use of clear and
succinct language, and use of appropriate language-style (informatory, advisory,
recommendatory, or demanding). A cumulative reading of these three-stage processes of
engineering research and of their components leads to the following major processes that, like
any other research, involve in engineering research. They may be presented in a flowchart as
under:
The chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as
shown. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If
subsequent procedures have not been taken into account in the early stages, serious difficulties
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the
various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive; nor are they separate and
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to
be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent
steps. However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process: Steps in Research Process:

1.Formulating the Research Problem
I. Planning or proposal
2.Literature Review
preparation stage
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Collecting the Data
II. Conducting Stage
6. Analysis of Data
7. Interpretation of Data
III. Presenting Stage

8. Research Report
These stages are not mutually exclusive. They overlap continuously rather than following the
prescribed sequence strictly. The order sketched above is meant to provide a procedural
guideline for research.
A brief description of each one of the steps is necessary and discussed in accordance with their
stage in Chapter 3 research planning (research proposal), chapter 4 conducting research and
chapter 5 reporting stage of the research.

Chapter Summary

Questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process.

2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.
3. Distinguish between Research methods and Research methodology.
4. Describe the different types of research, clearly pointing out the difference between an
experiment and a survey.
5. Write short notes on:
a) Design of the research project;

b) Ex post facto research;
c) Motivation in research;
d) Objectives of research;
e) Criteria of good research;
f) Research and scientific method.
6. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation.” Do you
agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer.

References
1. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Oxford, 1952, p. 1069.

2. L.V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory, The Romance of Research, 1923, p.10.
3. The Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX, MacMillan, 1930.
4. Bernard Ostle and Richard W. Mensing, Statistics in Research, p. 2
5. Karl Pearson, The Grammar of Science, Part I, pp. 10–12.
6. Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social
Relations, p. 4.
7. Ostle and Mensing: op. cit., p. 2.
8. Robert C. Meir, William T. Newell and Harold L. Dazier, Simulation in Business and
Economics, p. 1.

Chapter Two: Research Ethics
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will:
• be sensitized about research ethics and be able to decipher the basic principles of research
ethics, duties and responsibilities as a researcher towards study participants;
• have increased awareness about research ethics and thereby respect the rights of study
participants and uphold research ethical standards while conducting research;
• have enhanced awareness of the existence of relevant standards of ethics in research; and
• Have enhanced competence in research ethics so that you adhere to ethical principles and
rules by following existing ethical clearance standard operating procedures in Ethiopia.
Lesson 1: The Basics of research Ethics
This unit of the module entitled research ethics aims at introducing you to the concept of ethnics in
research in general and basic principles of research ethics in particular. It is intended to sensitize you
about research ethics and provide a context for discussion of ethical issues and ethical dilemmas in
research and enhance your awareness about basic ethical principles and procedures for safeguarding
research participants’ interests.
Ethics is one of the most crucial areas of research, with deception, misconduct and abuses in
research increasingly becoming a crucial area of discussion, for instance, between technologist,
Engineers, psychologists, philosophers, ethical groups, health professionals and researchers
engaged in various fields of research.
The history and development of international research ethics guidance is, for example, strongly
reflective of abuses and mistakes made especially in research. Today it is widely acknowledged
that researchers without training and awareness of principles of research ethics are at risk of
perpetrating abuses or making mistakes of real consequences. Thus, there is a growing
recognition that any researcher conducting research, particularly on/with human participants,
should undergo formal research ethics training.

Research ethics deals primarily with the interaction between researchers and the people they
study (and in recent decades, on laboratory animals as well); while professional ethics deals,
among others, with additional issues such as collaborative relationships among researchers,
mentoring relationships, intellectual property, fabrication of data and plagiarism.
Agreed-upon standards for research ethics help ensure that as researchers we explicitly consider
the needs and concerns of the people we study, that appropriate oversight for the conduct of
research takes place, and that a basis for trust is established between researchers and study
participants.
Ethics in research are very important when you're going to undertake a research (perform an
experiment, conduct an interview, participant observation, etc.). They apply when you are
planning, conducting and evaluating research. Whenever we conduct research on/with people,
the well-being of research participants must be our top priority. The research question is always
of secondary importance. This means that if a choice must be made between doing harm to a
participant and doing harm to the research, it is the research that is sacrificed.
1.1. What is ethics in research?
The word ethics comes from a Greek word ‘ethos’ (character). Ethics is a systematic study of
value concepts, ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’ and the general principles that justify applying
these concepts. It is not considering the poor hapless participant at the expense of science and
society. It is to learn how to make research “work” for all concerned.
When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between
right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto
you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a
religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or wise aphorisms like the
sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": ethics are norms for
conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in religious institutions, or in other social
settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral

development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as
they mature. Ethical norms are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as
simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then
why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in many societies? One plausible explanation
of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but different
individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own
values and life experiences.
Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader
and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral
standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts. An action may be legal but unethical
or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate,
propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citizens to
disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil
disobedience is, for instance, an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.
Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such
as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is
someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. Finally, one may also define ethics as a
method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex
problems and issues. For instance, in a complex issue like global warming, one may take an
economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might
examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental
ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake in the issue.
Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for behavior that suit their
particular aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate their
actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms
govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or
goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative
activities, and there is a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.
1.2. Why is research ethics important?

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First,
some of these norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of
error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data
promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of
cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, many of these ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example,
many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting
policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect
intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive
credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the
public. For instance if the research is sponsored by public, cases on research misconduct, on
conflicts of interest, on the human study participant’s protections, and on animal care and use are
necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held
accountable to the public.
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research. Finally,
many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social values,
such as social responsibility, human rights and animal welfare, compliance with the law, and
health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may
harm or even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety of staff and students.

Lesson 2: Codes and Policies of Research Ethics
2.1 Underlying principles of ethics codes
Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that
many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted
specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Other influential research ethics
policies include, for example, the Uniform Requirements (International Committee of Medical
Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics
(American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists
(American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility
(American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American
Association of University Professors), The Nuremberg Code and The Declaration of Helsinki
(World Medical Association). The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical
principles that various codes address:
 Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
 Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and
other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize
bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
 Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.
 Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as
data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
 Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
 Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without

permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for
all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
 Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
 Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
 Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their
welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
 Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
 Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
 Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of
sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and
integrity.
 Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a
whole.
 Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies. If
others cannot believe the words you utter, cannot trust the numbers you publish and
cannot depend on the integrity of your work … then who will be there to call you a
scientist.
 Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research.
Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
 Human study participants’ protection: When conducting research on human study
participants minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity,
privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations;
There are many other activities that a government may not define as "misconduct" but which are
still regarded by most researchers as unethical. These are sometimes called "other deviations"
from acceptable research practices. Some of these might include:
 Publishing the same paper in two different journals without telling the editors

 Submitting the same paper to different journals without telling the editors
 Not informing a collaborator of your intent to file a patent in order to make sure that you
are the sole inventor
 Including a colleague as an author on a paper in return for a favor even though the
colleague did not make a serious contribution to the paper
 Discussing with your colleagues data from a paper that you are reviewing for a journal
 Trimming outliers from a data set without discussing your reasons in paper
 Using an inappropriate statistical technique in order to enhance the significance of your
research
 Bypassing the peer review process and announcing your results through a press conference
without giving peers adequate information to review your work
 Conducting a review of the literature that fails to acknowledge the contributions of other
people in the field or relevant prior work
 Stretching the truth on a grant application in order to convince reviewers that your project
will make a significant contribution to the field
 Stretching the truth on a job application or curriculum vita
 Giving the same research project to two graduate students in order to see who can do it the
fastest
 Overworking, neglecting, or exploiting graduate or post-doctoral students Even the
smallest of dishonest acts are unacceptable.
 Keeping original data at home or taking it with you when you move
 Failing to maintain research data for a reasonable period of time
 Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author's submission
 Promising a student a better grade for sexual favors
 Using a racist epithet in the laboratory
 Making significant deviations from the research protocol approved by your institution's
Animal Care and Use Committee or Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects
Research without telling the committee or the board
 Not reporting an adverse event in a human research experiment
 Wasting animals in research

 Exposing students and staff to biological risks in violation of your institution's biosafety
rules
 Rejecting a manuscript for publication without even reading it
 Sabotaging someone's work
 Stealing supplies, books, or data
 Rigging an experiment so you know how it will turn out
 Making unauthorized copies of data, papers, or computer programs
 Owning in stock or having some other form of benefit in a company that sponsors your
research and not disclosing this financial interest
 Deliberately overestimating the clinical significance of a new drug in order to obtain
economic benefits
Many of these actions would be regarded as highly unethical and some might even be illegal
depending on the society in question. Most of these would also violate different professional
ethics codes or institutional policies. However, they might not fall into the narrow category of
actions that a government classifies as research misconduct. Indeed, there has been considerable
debate about the definition of "research misconduct" and many researchers and policy makers are
not satisfied with a government's narrow definition that focuses on "fabrication, falsification, or
plagiarism". However, given the huge list of potential offenses that might fall into the category
"other deviations," and the practical problems with defining and policing these other deviations,
it is understandable why government officials might choose to limit their focus.
Finally, situations frequently arise in research in which different people disagree about the proper
course of action and there is no broad consensus about what should be done. In these situations,
there may be good arguments on both sides of the issue and different ethical principles may
conflict.

Chapter Three: Research Proposal
Objectives
The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate the various steps involved in the development of a
research proposal. After completing this chapter you should be able to:
 Know the contents of a research proposal

 Describe how to identify a research topic
 Identify a research problem and formulate a research question/hypothesis
 Set the objectives/aims
 Develop a research design and methods
 Prepare a review of the literature related to the topic
 Cite references
 Prepare work plan
 Identify resources required and prepare a budget
 Produce a complete research proposal
Lesson 1: Research Proposal
1.1 Introduction
Before an attempt is made to start with a research project, a research proposal should be
compiled. For the beginner researcher, this is usually among the most difficult parts. It is,
however, the most important aspect of the research project and should be considered carefully by
the researcher. This does not only require subject knowledge, but also insight into the problem
that is going to be investigated, so as to give logic and structure to the research envisaged. This
Chapter of the research methodology module is a guide to write a research proposal. Use the
guidelines as a point of departure for discussions with your advisor/instructor. They may serve as
a straw-man against which to build your understanding of both your study and of proposal
writing.

Students are advised to read the module beforehand so that they can benefit, as much as possible,
from the presentations and group work. It may be extremely useful for the students to (re)read
the module after the presentation and group work as well.
1.2 Identifying a research topic
Defining the problem is the first step and one of the most difficult in research undertaking. There
is a tendency for the beginner in research to ask questions that are usually diffuse or vague. Each
topic that is proposed for research has to be judged according to certain guidelines or criteria.
There may be several ideas to choose from. Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed
topic must be compared with all other options. The guidelines or criteria discussed on the
following can help in this process:
Criteria for selecting a research topic:
• Relevance/Significance
• Avoidance of duplication
• Urgency of data needed (timeliness)
• Feasibility of study
• Applicability of results
• Interest to the researcher
• Ethical acceptability
1.3 What is a research proposal?
After proper and complete planning of a research, the plan should be written down. The research
proposal is the detailed plan of study. The term "research proposal" indicates that a specific
course of action will be followed. It is a document which sets out your ideas in an easily
accessible way. The intent of the written research proposal is to present a focused and scholarly
presentation of a research problem and plan. The early presentation of a research plan in the post
graduate training of students is intended to promote critical and analytical thinking, focused
research effort, and extensive interaction with their thesis advisor throughout the research. The
objective in writing a proposal is to describe what you will do, why it should be done, how you

will do it and what you expect will result. Being clear about these things from the beginning will
help you complete your research in a timely fashion. A vague, weak or fuzzy proposal can lead
to a long, painful, and often unsuccessful research writing exercise. A clean, well thought-out,
proposal forms the backbone for the research itself. A good research proposal hinges on a good
idea. Getting a good idea hinges on familiarity with the topic. This assumes a longer preparatory
period of reading, observation, discussion, and incubation. Read everything that you can in your
area of interest. Figure out what are the important and missing parts of our understanding. Figure
out how to build/discover those pieces. Live and breath the topic. Talk about it with anyone who
is interested. Then just write the important parts as the proposal.
The written proposal:
• forces the students to clarify their thoughts and to think about all aspects of the study;
• is a necessary guide if a team is working on the research;
• is essential if the study involves research on human subjects or on experimental animals,
in order to get the institution’s ethical approval;
• is an essential component submitted for funding.
From the process of the development of the research proposal, students benefit from the advice
of their supervisor(s), experts and colleagues in referring to their plan. But once a proposal for a
study has been developed and approved, and the study has started and progressed, it should be
adhered to strictly and should not be changed. Violations of the proposal can discredit the whole
study.
A well-thought out and well-written proposal can be judged according to three main criteria.
• Is it adequate to answer the research question(s), and achieve the study objective?
• Is it feasible in the particular set-up for the study?
• Does it provide enough detail that can allow another investigator to do the study and
arrive at comparable results?

Issues to remember: Know your area of expertise: what are your strengths and what are your
weaknesses? Play to your strengths, not to your weaknesses. Do not assume that, because you do
not understand an area, no one understands it or that there has been no previous research
conducted in the area. If you want to get into a new area of research, learn something about the
area before you write a proposal. Research previous work. Be a scholar. Before you start work
on your research proposal, find out whether you’re required to produce the proposal in a
specific format. Most graduate programs at Addis Ababa University have a general outline and
a guide as to how many pages to produce.

Lesson 2: Research Proposal Processes
2.1.Formulating the research problem:
It is the first and most crucial step in the research process
 Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.

 The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows.
Sources of research problems
Research in engineering revolves around five Ms:
 Man:- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to group of

individuals, people, Workers, customers and society at large ; to ascertain attitude of a
group of people towards an issue
 Machine:- analysis of current machine and technology used and analysis its problem to
ward its function and level of performance to design effective and modern machine
 Material and Equipment:- examine effective and efficiency of this tools and design
modified one
 Methods and condition: - evaluate the effectiveness of an existing working methods and
conditions and intervention of programs and situations to design effective Method of
doing things in the right way.
 Money:- asses the investment and benefit obtained from it.
In practice every research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps. Study
Population and Place or area of study.
1. Study population/ area- People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities (they

provide you with the information or you collect information about them)
2. Subject area-
 Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles

 Program: content, structure, outcomes, attributes satisfactions, consumers, Service

providers, etc.
 Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself
(Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)
You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the five Ms in order to
identify anything that looks interesting.
Considerations in selecting a research problem:
These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and
possibly unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the
required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time
and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific
and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you
are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current
gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical
problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating
stage.
Steps in formulation of a research problem:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject
area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly
and adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.
Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.

Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4 Raise research questions.
Step 5 Formulate objectives.
Step 6 Assess your objectives.
Step 7 Double check.
So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study in
Engineering has a second element, the study area from whom the required information to find
answers to your research questions is obtained.
As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who
constitutes your study area, in order to select the appropriate respondents.
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out
the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the
feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating
the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the
help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.

Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it
down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental
organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with whom the
researcher can discuss as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are
involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies made
earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context. After this the
researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as
specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of
greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care
must; however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of the background facts concerning
the problem. Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that the statement of the objective is of
basic importance because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of
the data which are relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be
used in these explorations and the form of the final report. If there are certain pertinent terms, the
same should be clearly defined along with the task of formulating the problem. In fact,
formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of formulations
are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one phrased in more
analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and resources.
2.2.Literature Survey
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory
for a research worker writing a thesis for any degree program to write an outline of the topic and
submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research advisors for approval. At this juncture the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this

purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books
etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be
remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the
researcher at this stage.
In short reviewing the literature:
 Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of
knowledge in your area of interest.
 Is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every
operational step.
 Can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its functions are:
a) Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

b) Improve your methodology;
c) Broaden your knowledge;
d) Contextualize your findings.
a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem; the process of reviewing the literature helps
you to understand the subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualize your research
problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between your
research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.
b. Improve your methodology: A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and
methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have
worked well for them, and what problems they have faced with them. Thus you will be better
positioned to select a methodology that is capable of providing valid answer to your research
questions.
c. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area: It ensures you to read widely around the
subject area in which you intend to conduct your research study. As you are expected to be

an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It also helps you to understand
how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.
d. Contextualize your findings: How do answers to your research questions compare with what
others have found? What contribution have you been able to make in to the existing body of
knowledge? How are your findings different from those of others? For you to be able to
answer these questions, you need to go back to your literature review. It is important to place
your findings in the context of what is already known in your field of enquiry.
Procedure for reviewing the literature:
i. search for existing literature in your area of study;

ii. Review the literature selected;
iii. Develop a theoretical framework;
iv. Develop a conceptual framework.
1. Search for existing literature:
 To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you
have in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to
investigate, in order to set parameters for your search.
 Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:
1. Books
2. journals
BOOKS
Books comprise a central part of any bibliography.
Advantage-material published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with
other research to form a coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the
completion of a work and publication in the form of a book. Search for books in your area of

interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or borrow from other sources.
Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your topic, delete it from your
reading list.
JOURNALS
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap of two to
three years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal. As with
books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your study. This
can be done as follows:
 locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
 use the internet
 Look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the
articles.
Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for
your review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see if there is an
article of relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you,
read its abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record
it for reference for later use.
2. Review the literature selected:
After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to
pull together themes and issues that are associated. If you do not have a theoretical framework of
themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into
that framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read
further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far
developed. You may need to add more themes as you go. Read critically with particular
reference to the following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond
doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted and the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations.
• Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.
3. Develop a theoretical framework:
As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation
to some main themes pertinent to your research topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that
have a direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for
developing your theoretical framework. Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a
theoretical framework and until you have developed a theoretical framework, you cannot
effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
 universal;
 more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)
In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually
narrowing down to the specific.
4. Writing up the literature reviewed:
In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide theoretical
background to your study:
 List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.

 Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of

the theme in question, and follow a logical progression.
 Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in
question, highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and
identify gaps and issues.
In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualizing the
findings of your study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those
made by others. Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or
add to them. It places your findings in the context of what others have found out. This
function is undertaken when writing about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data.
THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources that were used
while preparing the report.
It is an alphabetical list as per the author’s surname.
1. For a Book
Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from title page-underlined or in italics,
Edition (if more than one), volume if more than one, place of publication, publishers, date on
title page or copyright date.
e.g. Kothari, C.R., Research Methods-Methods and Techniques,1989,New Delhi: Wiley

Eastern Limited,4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006.
2.3. Development Of Objectives And Hypotheses
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
or hypotheses.
2.3.1. The formulation of objectives

The objectives of a research delineate the ends or aim which the inquirer seeks to bring about as
a result of completing the research undertaken. An objective may be thought of as either a
solution to a problem or a step along the way toward achieving a solution; an end state to be
achieved in relation to the problem. The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be
achieved by the study. In short:
 Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
 They inform a reader what you want to attain through the study.
 It is extremely important to word them clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings:
a) Main objectives (aims);

b) Sub-objectives.
 The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement of
the main associations and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.
 The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the
main framework of your study.
 They should be numerically listed.

 Wording should clearly, completely and specifically
 Communicate to your readers your intention.
 Each objective should contain only one aspect of the Study.
 Use action oriented words or verbs when writing objectives.
The objectives should start with words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to find out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to
measure’, ‘to explore’ etc. The wording of objectives determines the type of research
(descriptive, correlational and experimental) and the type of research design you need to
adopt to achieve them. e.g.
Descriptive studies:
 To describe the types of industrial wastes causes environmental pollution.

 To find out the opinion of the customers about our product.
Correlational studies:
 To ascertain the impact of this technology on working condition and productivity.

 To compare the effectiveness of our products with competitors.
Hypothesis –testing studies:
 To ascertain if an increase in working hours will increase the productivity of workers

 To demonstrate that the provision of company accommodation to employees in
Factories will reduce staff turnover.
In a research study it is important that the concepts used should be operationalized in measurable
terms so that the extent of variations in respondents’ understanding is reduced if not eliminated.
Techniques about how to operationalize concepts, and knowledge about variables, play an
important role in reducing this variability. Their knowledge, therefore is important in ‘fine
tuning’ your research problem.
When people express these feelings or preferences, they do so on the basis of certain criteria in
their minds. Their judgement is based upon indicators that lead them to conclude and express
that opinion. These are judgements that require a sound basis on which to proclaim. This
warrants then use of a measuring mechanism and it is in the process of measurement that
knowledge about variables plays an important role.
The definition of a variable: An image, perception or concept that can be measured – hence
capable of taking on different values- is called a variable.
The difference between a concept and a variable: Concepts are mental images or perceptions
and therefore their meaning varies markedly from individual to individual. A concept cannot be
measured whereas a variable can be subjected to measurement by crude/refined or
subjective/objective units of measurement. It is therefore important for the concept to be
converted into variables.

Concept Variable
-Subjective impression - Measurable though the
-No uniformity as to its Understanding degree of precision varies from scale to scale
among Different people and variable to variable.
As such cannot be measured.
e.g. e.g.
• Excellent  gender (male/female)
• High achiever  age (x years y months)
• Rich  -weight ( --kg)
• Satisfaction  height ( -- cms)
• Domestic violence  religion (Catholic, Hindu)
 Income ( Rs ---per year)
Concepts, indicators and variables:
If you are using a concept in your study, you need to consider its operationalization- that is, how
it will be measured. For this, you need to identify indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the
concept which can then be converted into variables. The choice of indicators for a concept might
vary with researchers, but those selected must have a logical link with the concept.
Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables
Concept Indicators Variables Working definition

Capital Initial investment Micro, small, medium and
Company
Worker No of worker large industry
product No & type No. produced/ day Diff. in before and after levels
Effectiveness
Quality & rating No. of excellent Excellent, good, V. good …

Types of measurement scales:
Measurement is central to any enquiry. The greater the refinement in the unit of measurement
of a variable, the greater the confidence, other things being equal, one can place in the
findings. S.S.Stevens has classified the different types of into four categories:
• Nominal or classificatory scale

• Ordinal or ranking scale
• Interval scale
• Ratio scale
a) The nominal or classificatory scale: A nominal scale enables the classification of

individuals, objects or responses into subgroups based on a common/shared property or
characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more
subcategories depending upon the extent of variation. For example, ’water’ or ‘tree’ have
only one subgroup, whereas the variable “gender” can be classified into two sub-categories:
male and female. ‘Industry’ can be classified into process and manufacturing and production
can be sub-categories as job shop, batch and continuous. The sequence in which subgroups
are listed makes no difference as there is no relationship among subgroups.
b) The ordinal or ranking scale: Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a
property into subgroups on the basis of common characteristic, it ranks the subgroups in a
certain order. They are arranged either in ascending or descending order according to the
extent a subcategory reflects the magnitude of variation in the variable. For example,
‘income’ can be measured either quantitatively (in birr) or qualitatively using subcategories
‘above average’, ‘average’ and ‘below average’. The ‘distance’ between these subcategories
are not equal as there is no quantitative unit of measurement. ‘Socioeconomic status’ and
‘attitude’ are other variables that can be measured on ordinal scale.
c) The interval scale: An interval scale has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale. In
addition, it uses a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating points. For
example, Celsius scale: 0*C to 100*C, Attitudinal scales: 10-20, 21-30, 31-40 and etc

d) The ratio scale: A ratio scale has all the properties of nominal, ordinal and interval scales
plus its own property: the zero point of a ratio scale is fixed, which means it has a fixed
starting point. Since the difference between intervals is always measured from a zero point,
this scale can be used for mathematical operations. The measurement of variables like
income, age, height and weight are examples of this scale. A person who is 40 year old is
twice as old as one who is 20 year old.
2.3.2. Constructing hypotheses:
As a researcher you do not know about a phenomenon, but you do have a hunch to form the basis
of certain assumption or guesses. You test these by collecting information that will enable you to
conclude if your hunch was right.
Hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon,

relationship or situation, the reality or truth of which you do not know. A researcher calls these
assumptions/ hunches hypotheses and they become the basis of an enquiry. In most studies it will
be done based on your own or someone else’s observation. Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity
and focus to a research problem, but are not essential for a study. You can conduct a valid
investigation without constructing formal hypotheses.
The verification process can have one of the three outcomes. Your hunch may prove to be:
right; partially right; or wrong. Without this process of verification, you cannot conclude
anything about the validity of your assumption.
Hence, working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the
manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data
which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working
hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. Some functions of hypotheses are:

 The formulation of hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what specific
aspects of a research problem to investigate.
 A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus
to the study.
 As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
 A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of a theory. It enables you to
specifically conclude what is true or what is false.
The role of the hypothesis
 To guide researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
 To sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
 To indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
Working hypotheses development approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem. Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about
the subject, examination of the available data and material including related studies and the
counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms. It may as
well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or formulate researches which do not
aim at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses in
another basic step of the research process in most research problems.

2.4. Preparing The Research Design
The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required
to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research
design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation. A flexible research design which provides opportunity
for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of
the research study is that of exploration. But when the purpose happens to be an accurate
description of a situation or of an association between variables, the suitable design will be one
that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and analyzed.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without
control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as
completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and
complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information
will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the
purpose.

Research design is the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
The preparation of research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following:
1. Objectives of the research study.

2. Method of Data Collection to be adopted
3. Source of information—Sample Design
4. Tool for Data collection
5. Data Analysis-- qualitative and quantitative
1. Objectives of the Research Study: Objectives identified to answer the research questions
have to be listed making sure that they are:
a) Numbered, and
b) Statement begins with an action verb.
2. Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data
 Primary Data— collected for the first time

 Secondary Data—those which have already been collected and analysed by someone
else.
2.4.1. Methods of Primary Data Collection
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
a) Observation Method:

This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s own observation,
without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently
happening and is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes of
respondents. Or It is the gathering of primary data by investigator’s own direct observation of
relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent.
Example: an investor evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of competing
companies, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions.
Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide.
e.g. Observing numerous work stations storing unfinished products, the stored items indicates
that work is not done appropriately.
Types of Observation:
1. Structured – for descriptive research

2. Unstructured—for exploratory research
3. Participant Observation
4. Non- participant observation
5. Disguised observation
Limitations:
This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information provided by this method is
also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are
concerned. Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement observation with survey
research.
b) Survey Method
Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.
 Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same way.

 Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview
according to their answers.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
 Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about activities and thoughts. e.g.
how many product you need to produce?
 Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people buy your products?”
From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer purchases their
product. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.
ADVANTAGES:
 -can be used to collect many different kinds of information

 -Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method.
LIMITATIONS:
 -Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about

things they consider private.
 -Busy people may not want to take the time
 -may try to help by giving pleasant answers
 -unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought to what
they do and why
 -may answer in order to look smart or well informed.
c) Contact Methods:
Information may be collected by Mail, Telephone, or Personal interview
i. By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with
each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents
with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in

various economic and business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study
for testing the questionnaire is conducted this reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the
questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may
prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
Advantages:
 -can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
 -respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail
questionnaire
 -no interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
 -convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time
 good way to reach people who often travel
Limitations:
 -not flexible
 -take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
 -response rate is often very low
 Researcher has no control over who answers.
ii. Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has
to be accomplished in a very limited time.
Advantage
 quick method
 more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
 depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
 allows greater sample control
 response rate tends to be higher than mail

Drawbacks:
 -Cost per respondent higher

 -Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
 -Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
 -Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
 -under time pressure ,data may be entered without actually interviewing
iii. Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting
data is usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the
interviewer to a large extent.
It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information. Trained interviewers
are can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult questions. They can
guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires.
Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.
Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record
their reactions and activities. This takes two forms-
 Individual- Intercept interviewing

 Group - Focus Group Interviewing
Intercept interviewing:
Widely used in tourism research.
 -allows researcher to reach known people in a short period of time.

 only method of reaching people whose names and addresses are unknown
 -involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or in shopping malls.
 -interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation
 -time involved may range from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys
compensation may be offered)

 --involves the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom
to “intercept”, such as 25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60
Drawbacks:
 -Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to
correctly judge age, race etc.
 -Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age groups.
Focus Group Interviewing:
It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tool to understand people’s thoughts and
feelings. It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a few hours with a
trained moderator to talk about a product, service or organization. The meeting is held in a
pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment.
The moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some understanding
of group and consumer activities. The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to
more specific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and
thoughts. At the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group
interviewing.
-often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be asked in a later,
large-scale, structured-direct interview Comments are recorded through note taking or
videotaped and studied later to understand consumer’ buying process. This method is
especially suited for managers of hotels and restaurants, who have easy access to their
customers.
e.g. Some company managers often invite a group of guests from a particular market segment
to have a free talk with them. Managers get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what
they like about the company and what the company could do to make them more satisfied.
The guests appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information. Company
managers use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over again.

Drawbacks:
 -Cost: may cost more than telephone survey

 -Sampling: group interview studies keep small sample size to keep time and cost
down, therefore it may be difficult to generalize from the results.
 Interviewer bias.
d) Experimental Method
Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment.
Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. It is characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under
study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.
In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively go about
doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
 -Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
 Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
 -He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
2.4.2. Determining Sample Design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A
complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and
highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of
bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases.

Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey
or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For
instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few
items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is
technically called a sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of a
city’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.
The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking into consideration the
nature of the inquiry and other related factors.
Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample A Sample is a
segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole. Ideally, the sample
should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and
activities of the larger population. Designing the sample calls for three decisions and the needs of
the research project will determine which method is most effective. They are:
 Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)-The researcher must determine what type of
information is needed and who is most likely to have it.
 How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)- Large samples give more reliable results
than small samples. However it is not necessary to sample the entire target population.
 How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
 Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire domain ( probability sample)
 The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from (
nonprobability sample)
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability samples
each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-probability

samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability samples are those
based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area
sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement
sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief mention of the important sample designs is as
follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability

sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular units
of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he
may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at these stations.
This would be an example of convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a
procedure may give very biased results particularly when the population is not homogeneous.
On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researcher’s judgement is used for selecting
items which he considers as representative of the population. For example, a judgement
sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens
to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or
probability sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of
inclusion in the sample and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has
the same probability of being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300
items from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the
15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the random number tables is
another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is assigned a number
from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do
this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the
column to the bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right.
When a number exceeds the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is

simply passed over and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random fashion, the resulting
sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal probability of being selected. In
case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the
same probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii)Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every
15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type
is known as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this
kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This
procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design
the selection process starts by picking some random point in the list and then every nth
element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute
a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a
representative sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-
overlapping subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the
items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling the entire procedure,
first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from
different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s
judgement. This is called quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an
important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples generally happen to be
judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose
some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of
15,000 card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three
clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be

larger than the simple random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster
sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is usually accentuated.
The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier and
increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of personal interviews.
(vii) Area sampling: it is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when the
total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide
the total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical
clusters, then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these
small areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not
have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
(viii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like
an entire country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is
described as multi-stage random sampling.
(ix) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of
the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on
the basis of information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under
acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.
In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may well be used in the same
study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out here that normally
one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling error can be
estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to be small
and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under
which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like
convenience and low costs.
2.4.3. Tool For Data Collection

The construction of a research instrument or tool for data collection is the most important aspect
of a research project because anything you say by way of findings or conclusions is based upon
the type of information you collect, and the data you collect is entirely dependent upon the
questions that you ask of your respondents. The famous saying about computers- “garbage in
garbage out”- is also applicable for data collection. The research tool provides the input into a
study and therefore the quality and validity of the output (findings), are solely dependent on it.
The underlying principle behind the guidelines suggested below to construct a Research Tool is
to ensure the validity of instrument by making sure that your questions relate to the objectives of
your study. Steps are:
1. Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives or search Questions for study.
2. For each objective or research questions, list all the associated questions you want to answer
through your study.
3. Take each research question listed in step II and list the information required to answer it.
4. Formulate question(s) to obtain this information.
Structured surveys/ interviews employ the use of a questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a

set of questions presented to a respondent for answers. The respondents read the questions,
interpret what is expected and then write down the answers themselves. It is called an Interview
Schedule when the researcher asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records
the respondent’s reply on the interview schedule. Because there are many ways to ask questions,
the questionnaire is very flexible. Questionnaire should be developed and tested carefully before
being used on a large scale.
There are three basic types of questionnaire. They are Closed –ended, Open-ended and
Combination of both
1. Closed –ended Questionnaire: Closed ended questions include all possible

answers/prewritten response categories, and respondents are asked to choose among them.
e.g. multiple choice questions, scale questions. This Type of questions used to generate
statistics in quantitative research and follow a set format, and most responses can be entered
easily into a computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be distributed.

2. Open-ended Questionnaire: Open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own

words. Questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick but instead leaves a blank section for the
response to write in an answer. Whereas closed –ended questionnaires might be used to find
out how many people use a open-ended questionnaires might be used to find out what people
think about a service. As there are no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is
more complex and it is opinions which are sought rather than numbers, fewer questionnaires
need to be distributed.
3. Combination of both: This way it is possible to find out how many people use a service and
what they think of the service in the same form. Begins with a series of closed –ended
questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with a section of open-ended
questions or more detailed response.
To construct questionnaires we must follow do the following activities
a. Deciding which questionnaire to use-
 closed or open ended,

 self or interviewer administered
b. Wording and structure of questions
 Questions should be kept short and simple--avoid double barreled i.e. two questions in
one –ask two Qs rather than one.
 Avoid negative questions which have not in them as it is confusing for respondent to
agree or disagree.
 Question should not contain Prestige Bias – causing embarrassment or forcing the
respondent to give false answer in order to look good. Questions about educational
qualification or income might elicit this type of response
 Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- in indirect questions respondents can relate
their answer to other people .
 Using closed- ended questions- try to make sure that all possible answers are covered so
that respondents are not constrained in their answer. “Don’t Know” category also needs
to be added.

 Avoiding Leading Question: Don’t lead the respondent to answer in a certain way. e.g.
“How often do you wash your car?” assumes that respondent has a car and he washes his
car. Instead, ask a filter question to find if he has a car, and then, ‘If you wash your car,
how many times a year?’
c. Length and ordering of the Questions:
 Keep the questionnaire as short as possible

 Ask easy Qs. Which respondents will enjoy answering
 If combined questionnaire, keep open ended Qs for the end.
 Make Qs as interesting as possible and easy to follow by varying type and length of
question
 Group the qs. Into specific topic as this it makes it easier to understand and follow.
 Layout and spacing is important as cluttered Questionnaire is less likely to be answered.
d. Piloting the Questionnaire
Once you have constructed your questionnaire, you must pilot it. This means that you must test it
out to see if it is obtaining the result you require. This is done by asking people to read it through
and see if there are any ambiguities which you have not noticed.
They should also be asked to comment about the length, structure and wording of the
questionnaire Alter the questions accordingly

Lesson 3: Components of Research Proposal
The basic components of a research proposal are the same in many fields. However, how they
are phrased and staged may vary by discipline. The following components can be regarded as
steps in the writing of the research proposal. They are important and should be followed for the
actual composition of the proposal. The organization of the contents of a proposal may vary
somewhat with the nature of the activity proposed. Generally, the basic components of a
proposal are described in this unit in the order in which they most logically appear in a proposal.
However, when it comes to related research, the inquirer may find it useful, even necessary, to
incorporate some parts of the discussion into other sections of the proposal.
Issues to remember: It is important to remember the components will not always appear in all
postgraduate programs at AAU, as separate sections, or in the order listed here. Once you've
learned the basic rules for research proposal, you can apply them to any research discipline.
Components of a research proposal:
1. Title page
2. Summary/Abstract
3. Introduction/Background
4. Statement of the problem
5. Literature review
6. Hypotheses /Questions
7. Conceptual framework
8. Objective/Aim of the study
9. Research methods, materials and procedures
 Study area
 Study design
 Study subjects
 Eligibility Criteria (if any)
 Sample size
 Sampling methods

 Method of data collection

 Description of variables
 Data quality assurance
 Operational definitions
 Plan of data analysis
10. Work plan
11. Budget
12. References
13. Appendices/Annexes
3.1. Title page
A title ought to be well studied, and to give, so far as its limits permit, a definite and concise
indication of what is to come. The title of your research proposal should state your topic exactly
in the smallest possible number of words. Put your name, the name of your
department/faculty/college, the name of your advisor(s) and date of delivery under the title.
All words in the title should be chosen with great care, and association with one another must be
carefully managed. The title page identifies the proposal and provides the endorsement of
appropriate body (advisor). A good title is defined as the fewest possible words that adequately
describe the contents of the study. Title is a label: it is not a sentence. Titles should almost never
contain abbreviations. The title page has no page number and it is not counted in any page
numbering.
3.2.Summary/Abstract
The abstract is a one page brief summary of the thesis proposal. It needs to show a reasonably
informed reader why a particular topic is important to address and how you will do it. To that
end, it needs to show how your work fits into what is already known about the topic and what
new contribution your work will make. Specify the question that your research will answer,
establish why it is a significant question; show how you are going to answer the question. Do not
put information in the abstract that is not in the main text of your research proposal. Do not put
references, figures, or tables in the abstract.

Issues to remember: The abstract is a concise summary of the material presented in the
proposal. Though it appears at the front of the proposal, it is written last. A well-prepared
summary enables the reader to
• Identify the basic content of a document quickly and accurately,

• Determine its relevance to their interests, and
• Decide whether they need to read the document in its entirely
3.3. Introduction/background
The introduction is the part of the proposal that provides readers with the background
information for the research proposal. Its purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so
that readers can understand how it is related to other research. Be sure to include a hook at the
beginning of the introduction. This is a statement of something sufficiently interesting to
motivate your reader to read the rest of the proposal, it is an important/interesting scientific
problem that your study either solves or addresses. The introduction should cite those who had
the idea or ideas first, and should also cite those who have done the most recent and relevant
work. You should then go on to explain why more work is necessary (your work, of course.)
The introduction also should address the following points:
 Sufficient background information to allow the reader to understand the context and
significance of the question you are trying to address.
 Proper acknowledgement of the previous work on which you are building.
 Sufficient references such that a reader could, by going to the library, achieve a
sophisticated understanding of the context and significance of the question.
 The introduction should be focused on the research questions.
 All cited work should be directly relevant to the goals of the research.
 Explain the scope of your work, what will not be included.
 A verbal “road map” or verbal “ table of contents” guiding the reader to what lies ahjead.
 Is it obvious where introductory material (“old staff”) ends and your planned contribution
(“new stuff”) begin?

Issue to remember: in summary, the Introduction/background section should contain a rationale

for your research. Why are you undertaking the project? Why is the research needed? This
rationale should be placed within the context of existing research or within your own experience
and/or observation. You need to demonstrate that you know what you’re talking about and that
you have knowledge of the literature surrounding this topic. If you’re unable to find any other
research that deals specifically with your proposed project, you need to say so, illustrating how
your proposed research will fill this gap. If there is other work that has covered this area, you
need to show how your work will build on and add to the existing knowledge. Basically, you have
to convince people that you know what you’re talking about and that the research is important.
3.4.Statement Problem
Most research proposals may be considered as responses to a problem. A problem might be

defined as the issue that exists in the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for the
study. The prospective researcher should think on what caused the need to do the research
(problem identification). The question that he/she should ask him/herself is: Are there questions
about this problem to which answers have not been found up to the present? The research
problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the
researcher with the aim of possibly concluding solutions to the stated problem. The problem
statement describes the context for the study and it also identifies the general analysis approach.
It is important in a proposal that the problem stand out—that the reader can easily recognize it.
Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be
conducted.” If a researcher is unable to answer this question clearly and succinctly, and without
resorting to hyper-speak, then the statement of the problem will come off as ambiguous and
diffuse. The most frequent dilemma among graduate students is their seemingly aimless search
for a problem significant enough to pursue and discrete enough to handle. A well-articulated
statement of the problem establishes the foundation for everything to follow in the proposal and
will render less problematic most of the conceptual, rhetorical and methodological obstacles
typically encountered during the process of proposal development. This means that, in
subsequent sections of the proposal, there should be no surprises, such as categories, questions,
variables or data sources that come out of nowhere: if it can't be found in the problem statement

section, at least at the implicit level, then it either does not belong in the study or the problem
statement needs to be re-written.
3.5. Literature Review
To conduct research regarding a topic, by implication, means that the researcher has obtained
sound knowledge with regard to the research topic. It is therefore imperative that the researcher,
at the time of the submission of the research proposal, clearly indicates what theoretical
knowledge he possesses about the prospective research. Therefore he has to write organized
literature
There are a number of ways of organizing a literature review. Here is one suggestion:
A. Introduction: define the topic, together with your reason for selecting the topic. You
could also point out overall trends, gaps, particular themes that emerge, etc.
B. Body: this is where you discuss your sources. Here are some ways in which you could
organize your discussion:
 Chronologically: for example, if writers' views have tended to change over time.
There is little point in doing the review by order of publication unless this shows a
clear trend;
 Thematically: take particular themes in the literature;
 Methodologically: here, the focus is on the methods of the researcher, for
example, qualitative versus quantitative approaches.
C. Conclusion: summarize the major contributions, evaluating the current position, and
pointing out flaws in methodology, gaps in the research, contradictions, and areas for
further study.
Issues to remember: A literature review must do the following things:
• be organized around and related directly to the research question you are developing
• synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known

• identify areas of controversy in the literature

• formulate questions that need further research
Ask yourself the following type of questions:
• What is the specific research question that my literature review helps to define?
• What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory?
methodology? policy? quantitative research? qualitative research ?
• What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using?
What discipline am I working in?
• How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure
I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant
material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper?
• Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts
and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them?
Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them, discussing strengths
and weaknesses?
• Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
• Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?
3.6.Questions and/or Hypotheses
Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative proposition of the problem statement, can
be inferred from the overall conceptual framework of a study, and are of critical importance to
data analysis and interpretation. In research studies, the term hypotheses implies a derivation,
within a hypothetic-deductive theoretical system, of a particular assertion or prediction. The
hypothesis is subject to test, i.e., to confirmation or rejection on empirical grounds. The term
question implies an interrogative statement that can be answered by data, which is logically
related to the same conceptual framework, but which does not necessarily stem from that
framework through logical deduction.
Questions are most often used in qualitative inquiry, although their use in quantitative inquiry is
becoming more prominent. Hypotheses are relevant to theoretical research and are typically used

only in quantitative inquiry. A research question poses a relationship between two or more
variables but phrases the relationship as a question; a hypothesis represents a declarative
statement of the relations between two or more variables. Deciding whether to use questions or
hypotheses depends on factors such as the purpose of the study, the nature of the design and
methodology of the research. Make a clear and careful distinction between the dependent and
independent variables and be certain they are clear to the reader. Hypotheses are thus tentative
statements that should either be acknowledged or rejected by means of research.
Because hypotheses give structure and direction to research, the following aspects should be kept
in mind when formulating a hypothesis:
• Hypotheses can only be formulated after the researcher has gained enough knowledge
regarding the nature, extent and intensity of the problem.
• Hypotheses should figure throughout the research process in order to give structure to the
research.
• Hypotheses are tentative statements/solutions or explanations of the formulated problem.
Care should be taken not to over-simplify and generalize the formulation of hypotheses.
• The research problem does not have to consist of one hypothesis only. The type of problem
area investigated, the scope of the research field are the determinate factors on how many
hypotheses will be included in the research proposal.
Issues to remember: A research hypothesis is usually stated in an explanatory form, because it

indicates the expected reference of the difference between two variables. In other words it
verifies the reference that the researcher expects by means of incorporating selected research
procedures. The research hypothesis may be stated in a directional or non-directional form. A
directional hypothesis statement indicates the expected direction of results, while a non-
directional one indicates no difference or no relationship.
3.7.Conceptual framework
Every research activity is conceptualized and will be carried out within some contextual
framework. This contextual framework is in part conceptual, in part valuational, and in part
practical (or operational), and all of these factors must typically be considered.

A conceptual framework is described as a set of broad ideas and principles taken from relevant
fields of enquiry and used to structure a subsequent presentation. When clearly articulated, a
conceptual framework has potential usefulness as a tool to scaffold research and, therefore, to
assist a researcher to make meaning of subsequent findings. Such a framework should be
intended as a starting point for reflection about the research and its context. The framework is a
research tool intended to assist a researcher to develop awareness and understanding of the
situation under scrutiny and to communicate this.
3.8.Objective/aim of the study
Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. After statement of the
primary objective, secondary objectives may be mentioned.
Objectives should be
• simple (not complex),

• specific (not vague),
• stated in advance (not after the research is done), and
• stated using “action verbs” that are specific enough to be measured.
Commonly, research objectives are classified into general objectives and specific objectives.
The general and specific objectives are logically connected to each other and the specific
objectives are commonly considered as smaller portions of the general objectives. It is important
to ascertain that the general objective is closely related to the statement of the problem.
• General objective
 What exactly will be studied?

 General statements specifying the desired outcomes of the proposed project
• Specific objectives
 Specific statements summarizing the proposed activities and including description

of the outcomes and their assessment in measurable terms

 It identifies in greater detail the specific aims of the research project, often
breaking down what is to be accomplished into smaller logical components
 Specific objectives should systematically address the various aspects of the
problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ and the key factors that are
assumed to influence or cause the problem. They should specify what you will do
in your study, where and for what purpose
Why should research objectives be developed?
The formulation of objectives will help you to:
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);

• Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and
solving the problem you have identified; and
• Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
Properly formulated objectives will facilitate the development of your research methodology and
will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.
Issues to remember: Keep in mind that when a proposal is evaluated, the anticipated results
will be compared to the objectives. If the objectives have not been spelled out clearly, the
proposal cannot be evaluated.
Take care that the objectives of your study:
• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent
way and in a logical sequence;
• Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly what you are going to
do, where, and for what purpose;
• Are feasible;
• Are realistic considering local conditions;
• Are phrased to clearly meet the purpose of the study; and
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.

3.9.Methods, Material And Procedures
The methods or procedures section is really the heart of the research proposal. You must decide
exactly how you are going to achieve your stated objectives: i.e., what new data you need in
order to shed light on the problem you have selected and how you are going to collect and
process this data. The activities should be described with as much detail as possible, and the
continuity between them should be apparent. Indicate the methodological steps you will take to
answer every question, to test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/Hypotheses section or
address the objectives you set. Methods/procedures shows how you will achieve the objectives,
answer the questions.
What belongs in the "methods" section of a research proposal?
• Information to allow the reader to assess the believability of your approach.

• Information needed by another researcher to replicate your experiment.
• Description of your materials, procedure, theory.
• Calculations, technique, procedure, equipment, and calibration plots.
• Limitations, assumptions, and range of validity.
• Description of your analytical methods, including reference to any specialized
statistical software.
The proposal should describe in detail the general research plan. (may not necessarily be true for
all types of research)
• Description of study area

• Description of study design
• Description of study participants
• Eligibility criteria (if any)
• Determination of sample size (if any)
• Description of selection process (sampling method)
• Methods of data collection
• Description of the expected outcome and explanatory variables… (if any)
• How data quality is ensured

• Operational definition
• Presentation of the data analysis methods
Issues to remember: Be aware of possible sources of error to which your design exposes you.
You will not produce a perfect, error free design (no one can). However, you should anticipate
possible sources of error and attempt to overcome them or take them into account in your
analysis.
3.10. Work plan
Work plan is a schedule, chart or graph that summarizes the different components of a research
proposal and how they will be implemented in a coherent way within a specific time-span. The
work plan is the timeline that shows when specific tasks will have been accomplished.
A work plan informs the reader how long it will take to achieve the objectives/answer the
questions.
It may include:
• The tasks to be performed;

• When and where the tasks will be performed;
• Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will spend on them;
• It describes the plan of assessing the ongoing progress toward achieving the research
objectives;
• The plan specifies how each project activity is to be measured in terms of completion,
the time line for its completion;
• A good work time plan enables both the investigators and the advisors to monitor project
progress and provide timely feedback for research modification or adjustments.
Issues to remember: In the work plan:
• Different components/phases/stages of the study should be stated

• Description of activities in each phase
• Time required to accomplish the various aspects of the study should also be indicated

The GANTT Chart
A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts graphically the order in which various tasks must
be completed and the duration of each activity.
The GANTT chart indicates:
• the tasks to be performed;

• who is responsible for each task; and
• the time each task is expected to take.
The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the number of days, weeks or months
the task is expected to take.
3.11. Budget and funding
Most often than not, you will require to secure funds from a funding organization to cover the
cost of conducting a research project. The items to consider when drawing up a budget
requirement are outlined below. In addition, it is important to remember that the funding agency
will invariably also read through the whole proposal (not just the budget requirement).
Therefore, it is critical that the entire proposal document is well thought out and written to
effectively communicate the aim of the research and how you plan to achieve it.
Budget items need to be explicitly stated
• Cost for every budget item should be quantitatively shown

• Their might be a need for budget justification of certain costs whose requirement is
not obvious
Typically, a proposal budget reflects direct and indirect costs.
Direct costs:
 Personnel: Salaries and wages of all participants of the study Principal investigator;
supervisor; data collector; drivers; guards; data entry clerks, data analysis, writing, etc

 Consumable supplies: office supplies (stationeries), computers, chemicals, and

educational materials
 Equipment: properties which are expensive
 Travel: cost of projected-related travel
 Communications: postage, telephone, telegram, fax, e-mail charges associated with a
project
 Publication: the cost incurred of preparing and publishing the results of the research. It
includes: technical reports, manuscripts, illustrations, graphics, photography, slides, and
overheads
 Other direct costs: costs of all items that do not fit into any of the above direct costs
Indirect costs:
• Those costs incurred in support and management of the proposed activities that can not be
readily determined by direct measurement. Examples include;
 Overhead costs for institutions or associations

 General administrative cost
 Operational and maintenance
 Depreciation and use allowance
Budget justification
It is not sufficient to present a budget without explanation. The budget justification follows the
budget as an explanatory note justifying briefly, in the context of the proposal, why the various
items in the budget are required. Make sure you give clear explanations concerning why items
that may seem questionable or that are particularly costly are needed and discuss how
complicated expenses have been calculated. If a strong budget justification is presented, it is less
likely that essential items will be cut during proposal review.
Obtaining funding for research projects

To conduct research, it is usually necessary to obtain funding for the research project. Such
funding may be available from local, national or international agencies. In addition, to preparing
a good research proposal, the following strategies are useful for researchers to increase the
chances of securing adequate funds:
A. Familiarize yourself with the policies and priorities of funding agencies. Such policies
and priorities may be:
 Implicit, i.e. known to officials in the agency and to other local researchers who have
previously been funded by that agency. Obtain the names of such persons and make
direct contact with them.
 Explicit, i.e. available from policy documents issued by the agency. The funding
policies of many agencies may emphasize:
a priority given to research aimed at strengthening a particular program

institution building (i.e. building the capacity of an institution to do research)
targeted to a specific thematic area of research (for example, health, family
planning, etc.)
B. Identify the procedures, deadlines and formats that are relevant to each agency.
C. Obtain written approval and support from relevant local and national authorities and
submit together with our proposal.
D. If you are a beginning researcher, associate yourself with an established
researcher/advisor. Host agencies scrutinize the ‘credibility’ of the researcher to whom
funds are allocated. Such credibility is based on previous projects that were successfully
completed.
E. Build up your own list of successfully completed projects (i.e. your own reports,
publications, etc.)
3.12. References
You must give references to all the information that you obtain from books, papers in journals,
and other sources. References may be made in the main text using index numbers in brackets

(Vancouver style) or authors name (Harvard style). You will also need to place a list of
references, numbered as in the main text (or alphabetically ordered), at the end of your research
proposal. The exact format for depicting references within the body of the text and as well as the
end of the proposal varies from one discipline to another. It is best that you consult with someone
who is familiar with the format in your particular area of research.
The information you give in the reference list must be enough for readers to find the books and
papers in a library or a database. It also demonstrates to those interested in your proposal how
well versed you are on the particular area of research.
As a general guideline, there are certain items that must be included from each source reference.
As mentioned above, the exact format applicable to your particular area of study will be left for
you to find out.
For a journal paper give:
• the names of the authors,

• the year of publication,
• the title of the paper,
• the title of the journal,
• the volume number of the journal,
• the first and last page numbers of the paper.
For a book give:
• the author,
• the year of publication,
• the title, and the edition number if there is one,
• the name of the publisher,
• the page numbers for your reference.
For an internet reference give:
• the author of the web page,

• the title of the item on the web page,

• the date the item was posted on the web page
• the date the item was accessed from the web page
• the complete and exact URL.
Particularly with references obtained from websites, it is important to establish the reputability
and reliability of the website you are making reference to.
Every reference in your main text must appear in the list at the end of your proposal, and every
reference in the list must be mentioned in your main text.
3.13. Appendices/Annexes
Include in the appendices of your proposal any additional information you think might be helpful
to a proposal reviewer. For example, include:
• Questionnaire & other collection forms

• Dummy tables
• Biographical data on the principal investigator
• The consent form (if any)

Summary
Scientific research commences with the writing of a research proposal which is a detailed plan
that the researcher intends to follow and which will give an adjudicator or evaluator a clear idea
of what the researcher plans to do and how he or she intends to complete the research. The
research proposal contains a description of the research topic and the literature survey,
motivation for the research, a statement of the problem, a hypothesis, the research methodology
to be used, clarification of terms, and the sources consulted to demarcate the research problem
Quality writing is critical in all good proposals. It should be clear, concise, and free of jargon.
There should be no spelling or grammatical errors, and the proposal should be easy to read.
Sloppy proposals and proposals laden with jargon do not provide a positive image to the reader,
nor do they lend confidence that solid research will follow. Proposals that are well-written and
attractive are a pleasure to read, and they make a good impression with readers/reviewers.

References

Exercise
1. Identify your own research topic.

2. Write the introduction section of the topic you identified.
3. Write the statement of the problem for your topic.
4. Review literature for your identified topic
5. Formulate your own research question and hypothesis (relevant to your topic)
6. Develop a conceptual framework (if needed)
7. Define clearly your general and specific objectives
8. Write clearly the research design/methods for the identified topic
9. Develop your work plan
10. Prepare estimated budget of your research
11. Choose one method of citing references and write all the references you used.

Chapter Four: Process in Conducting Research
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you would have obtained a solid grasp of the key process required to
conduct a successful research. You must remember that some processes are more appropriate to
a specific field; various fields employ specific methods to conduct research, here, attempt is
made to highlight

Lesson 1: The Research Processes
There are a number of stages in the research process, although their number and description
tends to vary between authors. One simplified view would see these as five stages which include
conceptualization, contextualization, data collection and / or generation, data analysis and
reporting conclusions. Brief descriptions of the five stages are given below.
Conceptualization: Defining the 'problem'; establishing the research questions; identifying the
aims; specifying the testable hypotheses; deciding on the research approach; identifying the most
appropriate way of undertaking the data collection and/or generation. This stage is the most
difficult one for novice researchers. Linking the problem and objective/aim of the research with
appropriate data collection method often requires careful thinking and advice from senior
researchers.
Contextualization: Putting the research in the context of similar research that has been done in
the past. If there is similar research was done elsewhere, looking carefully the methodology used
and the way data collected and the limitation of the work may help.
Data Analysis: Method to collect data and the following data analysis technique should match;
occasionally problem may emerge as one start to do data analysis.
Reporting Conclusions: Writing up and /or further dissemination.
Conceptualization and contextualization have already been covered in Unit 3; and data reporting
will be covered in Unit 6. The mechanics of data analysis will covered in the sister module on
“Quantitative methods and computational”. In this Unit, we will cover the following:
Data collection and /or generation: applying the chosen method(s).
Although organized in a systematic stage-by-stage approach, in practice it is to be noted that the

nature of the research process is intrinsically iterative. You may need to move forwards and
backwards between these stages as the circumstances determine. The availability of data, for
example, located only during the data gathering exercise, may influence a modification of the
specified aims. In certain circumstances it may become apparent that the data required to answer

a research question is not available. This can result in a rethink of the initial stages and a
modification of the research design. Thus, researchers need to think carefully about the likely
accessibility of data during the design phase. They must also be prepared to be flexible and
adaptable during the research.
Regardless, it is still important that all available information be used to properly design the
experiment. Moreover, it is also prudent to make back-up plans to accommodate necessary
changes as mentioned above. And if unforeseen circumstances arise, well, then as the primary
research, you must devise ways by which to salvage as much of your research project as
possible. Utilizing a more appropriate analytical method can rectify faulty data analysis. But a
faulty experimental design will require re-doing the experiment
Lesson 2: Conducting Research
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.
2.1.COLLECTING DATA
Having formulated the research problem, developed a study design, constructed a research
instrument and selected a sample, you then collect the data from which you will draw inferences
and conclusions for your study.
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence,
it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at
the disposal of the researcher. Depending upon your Proposal, you might commence interviews,
mail out a questionnaire, conduct experiments and/or make observations.
Collecting data through any of the methods may involve some ethical issues in relation to the
participants and the researcher:
 Those from whom information is collected or those who are studied by a researcher
become participants of the study.

 Anyone who collects information for a specific purpose, adhering to the accepted code of
conduct, is a researcher.
a) Ethical issues concerning research participants: There are many ethical issues in relation to
participants of a research activity.
i. Collecting information: Your request for information may put pressure or create anxiety on
a respondent. Is it ethical? Research is required to improve conditions. Provided any piece
of research is likely to help society directly or indirectly, it is acceptable to ask questions, if
you first obtain the respondents’ informed consent. If you cannot justify the relevance of
the research you are conducting, you are wasting your respondents’ time, which is
unethical.
ii. Seeking consent: In every discipline it is considered unethical to collect information
without the knowledge of the participant, and their expressed willingness and informed
consent. Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of
information you want from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will
be put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or
indirectly affect them. It is important that the consent should be voluntary and without
pressure of any kind.
iii. Providing incentives: Most people do not participate in a study because of incentives, but
because they realize the importance of the study. Is it ethical to provide incentives to
respondents to share information with you because they are giving their time? Giving a
present before data collection is unethical.
iv. Seeking sensitive information: Certain types of information can be regarded as sensitive or
confidential by some people and thus an invasion to their privacy, asking for such
information may upset or embarrass a respondent. For most people, questions on drug use,
pilferage, income, age, marital status etc are intrusive. In collecting data you need to be
careful about the sensitivities of your respondents. It is not unethical to ask such questions
provided that you tell your respondents the type of information you are going to ask clearly
and frankly, and give them sufficient time to decide if they want to participate, without any
major inducement.

v. The possibility of causing harm to participant: When you collect data from respondents or
involve subjects in an experiment, you need to examine carefully whether their
involvement is likely to harm them in any way. Harm includes l research that might
include hazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanizing procedures. If it is likely to, you must make sure that the risk
is minimal i.e. the extent of harm or discomfort is not greater that ordinarily encountered in
daily life. If the way information is sought creates anxiety or harassment, you need to take
steps to prevent this.
vi. Maintaining confidentiality: Sharing information about a respondent with others for
purposes other than research is unethical. Sometimes you need to identify your study
population to put your findings into context. In such a situation you need to make sure that
at least the information provided by respondents is kept anonymous. It is unethical to
identify an individual’s responses. Therefore you need to ensure that after the information
has been collected, the source cannot be known.
b) Ethical issues relating to the researcher:
i. Avoiding bias: Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical. Bias is a deliberate attempt to
either to hide what you have found in your study, or highlight something disproportionately
to its true existence.
ii. Provision or deprivation of a treatment: Both the provision and deprivation of a treatment/
intervention may pose an ethical dilemma for you as a researcher. Is it ethical to provide a
study population with an intervention/ treatment that has not yet been conclusively proven
effective or beneficial? But if you do not test, how can you prove or disprove its
effectiveness or benefits? There are no simple answers to these dilemmas. Ensuring
informed consent, ‘minimum risk’ and frank discussion as to the implications of
participation in the study will help to resolve ethical issues.
iii. Using inappropriate research methodology: It is unethical to use a method or procedure you
know to be inappropriate e.g. selecting a highly biased sample, using an invalid instrument
or drawing wrong conclusions.
iv. Incorrect reporting: To report the findings in a way that changes or slants them to serve
your own or someone else’s interest, is unethical.

v. Inappropriate use of the information: The use of information in a way that directly or
indirectly adversely affects the respondents is unethical. If so, the study population needs to
be protected. Sometimes it is possible to harm individuals in the process of achieving
benefits for the organizations. An example would be a study to examine the feasibility of
restructuring an organization. Restructuring may be beneficial to the organization as a
whole but may be harmful to some individuals. Should you ask respondents for information
that is likely to be used against them? It is ethical to ask questions provided you tell
respondents of the potential use of the information, including the possibility of it being
used against some of them, and you let them decide if they want to participate.
Execution of the project is a very important task in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the
survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-
processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data
are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and
training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals
which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be
made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the
survey is under statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-
defined standard of accuracy. If some of the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable
methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One method of dealing with the non-
response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them,
and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
2.2. PROCESSING AND ANALYSING DATA
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of processing and analyzing
them. Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely related operations which are

performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and organizing these in a manner
that they answer the research questions (objectives).
In Data Processing operations, the unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few
manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data
into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage
through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and
counted.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure
wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use
of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affecting a problem simultaneously.
Classification is a process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common

characteristics. Depending on the nature of phenomenon involved it can be:
a) Classification according to attributes: here data is analyzed on the basis of common

characteristics which can either be
 Descriptive such as literacy, sex, religion etc. or

 Numerical such as weight, height, income etc.
Such classification can be either:
Simple classification: where we consider only one attribute, and divide the universe into two
classes—one class consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class
consisting of items which do not possess the given attribute. For example Employees with BSc
Degree
Yes No Total
BSc Degree 12 4 16

Manifold classification: Here we consider two or more attributes simultaneously, and divide the
data into a number of classes.
Male Female Total

BSc Degree 12 4 16
MSc 1 2 3
PhD 0 0 1
b) Classification according to class –intervals: is done with data relating to income, age, weight,
tariff, production, occupancy etc. Such quantitative data are known as the statistics of variables
and are classified on the basis of class –intervals.
The number of items which fall in a given class is known as the frequency of the given class.
Service Time Interval (Sec) Frequency Of service time Probability Cumulative Probability
Below 100 18 0.06 0.06
101-110 12 0.04 0.10
111-120 24 0.08 0.18
121-130 10 0.03 0.21
131-140 27 0.09 0.30
141-150 47 0.16 0.46
151-160 26 0.09 0.55
161-170 38 0.13 0.67
171-180 39 0.13 0.80
181-190 34 0.11 0.92
191-200 25 0.08 1.00
300 1.00

Tabulation-Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in
compact form for further analysis. It is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. The
mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. Tabulation is essential because:
a) It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum.

b) It facilitates the process of comparison.
c) It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
d) It provides the basis for various statistical computations.
Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex tabulation. Simple tabulation generally
results in one-way tables which supply answers to questions about one characteristic of data
only. Complex tabulation usually results on two-way tables (which give information about two
inter-related characteristics of data), three –way tables or still higher order tables, also known as
manifold tables. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers.
Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables
affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion(s). For instance, if there are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn
from factories in different parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our
problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a
matter of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference
is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real, the
inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due
to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Similarly,
the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of
seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. In brief, the researcher
can analyze the collected data with the help of various measures qualitative and/or quantitatively.

Qualitative Data Analysis:
Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this
purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called Content Analysis.
Content Analysis means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main
themes that emerge from the responses given by the respondents’ .This process involves a
number of steps:
1.Identify the main themes. The researcher needs to carefully go through the descriptive
responses given by respondents to each question in order to understand the meaning they
communicate. From these responses the researcher develop broad themes that reflect these
meanings People use different words and language to express themselves. It is important that
researcher select wording of the theme in a way that accurately represents the meaning of the
responses categorized under a theme. These themes become the basis for analyzing the text of
unstructured interviews.
2.Assign codes to the main themes: If the researcher wants to count the number of times a theme
has occurred in an interview, he/she needs to select a few responses to an open- ended question
and identify the main themes. He/she continues to identify these themes from the same
question till a saturation point is reached. Write these themes and assign a code to each of
them, using numbers or keywords.
3.Classify responses under the main themes: Having identified the themes Next step is to go
through the transcripts of all the interviews and classify the responses under the different
themes.
4.Integrate themes and responses into the text of your report: Having identified responses that
fall within different themes, the next step is to integrate into the text of your report. While
discussing the main themes that emerged from their study, some researchers use verbatim
responses to keep the feel of the response. There are others who count how frequently a theme
has occurred, and then provide a sample of the responses. It entirely depends upon the way the
researcher wants to communicate the findings to the readers.
Quantitative Data Analysis:

This method is most suitable for large well designed and well administered surveys using
properly constructed and worded questionnaire. Data can be analyzed either manually or with the
help of a computer.
Manual Data Analysis: This can be done if the number of respondents is reasonably small, and
there are not many variables to analyze. However, this is useful only for calculating frequencies
and for simple cross tabulations.
Manual data analysis is extremely time consuming. The easiest way to do this is to code it
directly onto large graph paper in columns. Detailed headings can be used or question numbers
can be written on each column to code information about the question.
To manually analyze data (frequency distribution), count various codes in a column and then
decode them. In addition, if you want to carry out statistical tests, they have to be calculated
manually. However, the use of statistics depends on your expertise and the desire/need to
communicate the findings in a certain way.
Data Analysis Using a Computer: If you want to analyze data using computer, you should be
familiar with the appropriate program. In this area, knowledge of computer and statistics plays an
important role. The most common software is SPSS for windows. However, data input can be
long and laborious process, and if data is entered incorrectly, it will influence the final results.
1.3. Generalizations and interpretation
After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be
contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various
tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose.
The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the
nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
researches in times to come.

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive
at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its
ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he
might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The
process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. How to write
report is discussed in the following chapter:

Chapter Five: Reporting Research Findings
Objective
After completing this chapter you will have acquired the skills necessary to effectively
communicate your research findings using both a written and oral medium.
 to prepare a scientific presentation

 to identify your audience
 to organize your presentation to be informative
 stylistic issues to make your presentation interesting
 avoiding common errors

Lesson 1: Writing a Scientific Report
Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions
you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language
should be formal and not journalistic.
The researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be
done with great care keeping in view the following:
(a) The layout of the report (Written Research Project Report Format) should be organized as
shown below
(b) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
(c) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
(d) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
1.1.Written Research Project Report Format
The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and
(iii) the end matter.
I. Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs
and charts, if any, given in the report.
a) Cover Page
Cover Page of a research paper must contain the following information’s.

 Title of the Research Project,

 Name of the researcher/ Student Name
 Name of Institute
 Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements of bachelor of science with Electro mechanical Engineering from
Hawassa University ”
 Date of Publication/ Year of Submission
b) Acknowledgements
The acknowledgement is non-contentious in most respects. Generally, those persons who have
professionally contributed to the work be it in kind or in ideas must be acknowledged. This is a
professional courtesy that not only is a show of gratitude, but also truthfully indicates to the
reader who has played a part in project.
Next, you also need to acknowledge the institutions that have provided funding, research space,
manpower, etc towards your research project. This is particularly important since most of these
institutions extend their resources with the express intent to have their names mentioned in
publications. Not including institutional sponsors will likely result in these institutions being
reluctant in future collaborations.
Finally, you may want to mention those individuals who have provided personal support and
assistance that is separate from professional help. However, do not overdo it. It is not necessary
to mention your entire extended family and their spouses.
A point of note: avoid using the publication from making political or religious declarations. Your
scientific report is the result of a scientific endeavor; it is best to keep it that way. Mentioning
God as the Almighty that made this work possible is not an appropriate acknowledgement. Or
thanking a political party that has created the political system that enabled you to conduct your
research is unseemly.
Be courteous at all times. There is no need to mention those individuals that hampered or
somehow made your work more difficult. This is an absolute no-no. The scientific report is not

the place to settle scores or air grievances … whether they be personal, professional or
institutional.
c) Preface/ Abstract
Abstracts are brief statements of the contents of research articles published in periodicals and/or
anthologies, without appraisal. Abstracts provide a simplified key to find relevant studies from
the vast literature on the subject.
Even though, the abstract immediately follows the title page, it is usually best to write it after
you have written the entire paper. Next to the title, the abstract is the next thing that an enticed
reader will peruse. The abstract is a summary of the information in the paper. It enables the
readers to identify the basic content of the document quickly and accurately. Therefore, in less
than 250 words (may extend to 500 words, see specific guidelines), an abstract should include
(1) the principal objective and scope of the investigation; (2) describe the methodology
employed; (3) summarize the results; and (4) state the principal conclusion.
If you think this is easy to do, you will be mistaken. It is much harder to summarize an entire
body of work in a few hundred words than it is to write the entire paper. To appreciate the
enormity of this task, try and summarize the most interesting work you have read into an
abstract.
If the title is the bait that lures the reader, the abstract is the hook that captures his/her attention
to continue reading.
d) Table of Contents
In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or with in subheadings
e.g.
Contents Page No
Chapter I Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Chapter I Theoretical Framework and Review of Related Literature---------------- 3
Chapter II Research Design----------------------------------------------------------------30
Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation-------------------------------------------- 35
Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion---------------------------------------------------- 70
Suggestions for Further Research--------------------------------------------------------- 75
References/ Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees
Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers
e) List Of Tables, Graphs And Charts
List of Tables includes title and page number of all tables e.g.
Table No. Title Page No.
1 Income levels of Respondents----------------------------- 31
2 Age distribution of Respondents------------------------- 35
List of Figures contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc. e.g.
Figure No. Title Page No
1. Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents------------------------- 33
2. Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items------------------------------- 37
II. Main Body of the Report

The main text of the report should have the following parts:
1. Introduction:
It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the
methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
2. Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature
In this section is included all your background research which may be obtained from the
literature review. You must indicate from where all the information has come, so remember to
keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of
plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or
journal article, use the Harvard system.
3. Method, Material And Conditions
By now your reader is fully aware of the basic scientific work that has led to your research work,
and what problem your research is attempting to address. In the current component, you will
describe in detail on how and with what means you accomplished your project.
The materials and methods section answers the question: “how did you study the problem?”. The
contents of this component are discipline specific. In the social sciences, you may not have
laboratory equipment, but you may list the questionnaire you used. It is also important to
describe the experimental design used, and how the data was analyzed (the statistical tools
employed – which is covered in the sister preparatory module “Quantitative and computational
methods”). This will allow the reader to assess whether you have properly planned and executed
the research project.
The information provided should be as detailed as possible. Remember you are not writing the
scientific report to gather dust on some shelf. It is likely that another researcher with similar
interests might want to replicate your experiments or employ your material and methods to
conduct another experiment in a similar line.

4. Data Analysis and Interpretation:
If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research this section
may be descriptive prose. The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence
and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
5. Summary and Conclusion:
In this section you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to
other research or literature.
6. Recommendations
If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this section
could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations which have been
developed from the research is included- sometimes this section is included at the beginning of
the report.
7. Suggestion for Further Research
It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section which shows
how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the
research has thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed. It is useful to
include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not
trying to cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.
III. At The End Of The Report,
At this stage appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list
of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be
given specially in a published research report.
1. List of References /Bibliography

 List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
 A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are relevant to the
subject.(larger dissertations or thesis)
 Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all the literature
to which you have referred in your report. The popular referencing system Harvard
System lists books and periodicals in the following manner:
For Books
1. Authors surname ( alphabetically), followed by their initials,

2. Date of publication
3. Title of book in italics
4. Place of publication, Publisher.
E.g. Philip, T.E.; 1986, Modern Cookery for Teaching and Trade, Mumbai, Orient Longman.
For Journal Article:
The title of the article appears in inverted commas and name of the journal comes in italics,
followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g.
Philip, T.E.; “Influence of British Raj on Indian Cuisine”; Journal of Hospitality Education;
5:5-11
2. Appendices:
If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview schedule for your research, it may be useful
to include them in your report as an appendix.
Appendices do not count towards your total number of pages/words. It is a useful way of
including relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by
reading it.
3. Certification Page:

CERTIFICATE
Certified that this research project titled---------------------------------------------------------------
-------------- is the bona fide record of work carried out by------------------------- for final year
B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering.
------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------
Technical Guide Research Coordinator Principal
Place---------------- Date--------------
1.2.Typing and Binding of Research Project Report:

- Paper: Bond Paper (need not be executive bond)
- Size: 8.5inches X 11 inches
- Margin: Left- 1.5 inch
o Top- 1 inch
o Bottom 1 inch
o Right 1 inch
- Font: Times New Roman
- Font Size: 12
- Spacing: Double
- Binding: Black Rexin
- Gold Embossing on Cover:

Lesson 2: Presenting Research Findings
At the end of the last lesson, we covered how to properly communicate research findings through
written reports. Most often than not, you will be called upon to present the same findings as an
oral presentation and an accompanying written report. And at times, you may also be asked to
review literature and present your finding as an oral presentation.
An oral presentation, unlike written presentations, is a direct communication between presenter

and audience. If writing a scientific report for the first time is viewed as challenging cerebral
exercise analogous to mountain climbing, then oral presentation is even more exigent when you
embark on it for the first time. If you approach it methodically however, it is not too difficult to
undertake.
In this section, we will cover some basic guidelines that will help you prepare and execute both
oral and written presentations effectively. Effectiveness, in this case, does not imply
overwhelming your audience with mountains of indecipherable data thus leaving them
wondering whether to admire your ability to actually understand the material or to be irritated
that there time was wasted with no gain of information.
Presentation, particularly oral presentation, requires a lot of practice before you can master the
art of gauging your presentation to your audience in a clear, interesting and informative manner.
The content of this lesson will help you overcome some of the shortcomings commonly observed
in a novice presenter --- typically post-graduate students.
2.1 Oral Presentation
Just over a decade ago, most public scientific oral presentations were supported with slides.
Thanks to the ubiquity of computers and LCD projectors, the chore of having to take pictures of
notes, charts and figures has now been supplanted by a presentation software (the most
commonly used being PowerPoint™).
The presentation software makes the task of preparing, editing and displaying slides much more
facile and user friendly. However, it goes without saying that one should be computer literate

and possess the basic skills in using presentation software. It is beyond the scope of this module
to delve into the mechanics of using presentation software such as Microsoft’s PowerPoint™.
However, this material will be covered by the sister preparatory module on “Computational and
quantitative methods”. The discussion henceforth focuses on the style and substance of making
an oral presentation and not on the techniques required to make PowerPoint slides.
2.1.1 Preparing an oral presentation
Stylistic Issues: The Slide
Despite the fact that it is commonly called “oral presentation” An oral presentation is equally
visual as it is an auditory medium. Therefore emphasis should also be given to the way the slides
are designed and presented.
The slide should be clearly visible and legible to the audience members sitting at the very back
of the room. Therefore there are certain points to consider:
1. Layout: The background color of the slide and the color of the text should have a sharp
contrast. If the background of the slide is dark then the text should be light in color and
provide ample contrast (“light” does not necessarily mean “bright”). For example, if the
background is midnight blue, then the text could be white or bright yellow. At times even
different hues of color do not provide sufficient contrast. For example, using orange on
black background is tiring to the eye and not sufficient contrast is available. If unsure about
what color combination to use for the text and background, the safest choice is to use black
text on white background.
2. Background: After you have chosen an appropriate background for your slides. Stick to
your choice and use the same background throughout the presentation. Also, particularly
for scientific presentations, a plain background is preferred (a gradient of the shades of the
same color is also acceptable). If you are inclined to add graphic, picture, etc. in your
background, make sure that it is subject appropriate and does not draw attention away from
the text and figures that you are attempting to communicate. Party balloons, a motorcycle
flying off a cliff, etc are not deemed appropriate.

3. Font: ‘Small’ case letters are easier to read than ‘CAPITALIZED’ letters. If you feel you
need to use CAPITAL letters, use them sparingly. The type and size of the font are equally
important. Do not use script fonts; they may seem fancy on an invitation card, but are
unsuitable for professional/ scientific presentations. Select a font type that is easily legible
and has sufficient spacing between letters (do not use condensed fonts, where one letter
appears to overlap with the next). As to the font size, a good starting point is twenty-four,
however, you may need to adjust the font size particularly for titles, graph legends, etc.
There is also a strong inclination to use bold font types throughout. This is not necessary:
limit the use of bold fonts for titles, headers and words you want to emphasize.
The best way to assess whether your slides are clear and legible is to view them projected on a
white wall or screen and yourselves seated a fair distance away (if opportunity allows, you
should preview your slides in the same auditorium or conference room where the actual
presentation is scheduled to take place). In this pre-presentation screening, view all your slides
critically. If you need to make adjustments to enhance the view-ability of your text, figures, etc.
then this is the best time to do it. This will help you avoid making apologies during the actual
presentation for incompatible colors, fonts that are too small, etc.
As stated earlier, the oral presentation is a visual as well as an auditory medium. Most of your
slides should contain figures (whether images, graphs or tables) whenever possible. You should
limit the use of text only to state the problem, frame the problem in the appropriate context,
summarize results and state major conclusions.
Even in cases where you need to use text, a slide with more than a few lines of text will bore
your audience. State key concepts in bulleted phrases or short declarative statements and cover
the details verbally.
One of the most common errors committed by graduate students is to write every single word on
their slides in full sentences to help them remember what they want to say. This usually leads to
the penchant of reading the text from the slide verbatim. It is safe to assume that the audience is
literate and can read for themselves, making the presenter a redundant actor that does not add
value to the presentation.

Moreover, crowding each slide with a dense thicket of text is mind-numbing. The same applies
to tables that are overcrowded. Simplify the tables so that you only have a few columns. If need
be, breakdown your table into bite-sized snippets that the audience can absorb and digest.
Minor errors such as misspelled words, grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, etc. convey to
the audience that you have not put in enough attention to the work that you planned to present in
public. The corollary from these types of errors is the audience will be skeptical about the
soundness of the work you are presenting. If you did not pay attention to the material displayed
in public, can you really be trusted to pay due diligence during the actual conduct of the
research? Errors that you could have easily corrected in a few minutes will taint the entire body
of your work. Avoid such errors at all costs! If your spelling and grammar is not up to par, you
can always make use of the built-in spelling and grammar checker in the presentation software,
or even better consult a friend or an advisor.
The Presenter
Even though a work being presented in an oral presentation may be a collaborative effort, it is
customary that only one person takes up the role of a presenter. Particularly at the postgraduate
level, you are most likely to be the sole candidate to prepare and present an oral presentation.
An oral presentation is not only a presentation of the body of your work, but you are also
presenting yourself as the person who conducted the research project. So you should pay
attention to your own present-ability as you do your work. Oral presentations, such as seminars
and defenses are venues that provide you with an opportunity to impress your colleagues, and
fellow scientists. Who knows, perhaps your future prospective employer may be in the audience!
There are accepted norms that a presenter should generally follow. Primary among these is
physical appearance. Try and dress appropriately. There is no defined dress code, but there are
certain “don’ts” that you should always follow.
 Do not dress shabbily

 Do not come with unkempt hair
 Do not wear slippers

 Do not wear jeans and T-shirt, or other extremely casual attire

The audience has taken the time and effort to attend your presentation; proper attire returns that
show of respect. Further, shabby dress unnecessarily draws the attention of the audience away
from the slides and the core ideas you are trying to communicate.
Aside of your clothing and grooming, certain mannerisms may be magnified and in full display
when standing in front of an audience. You may already have these mannerisms, or they may be
the symptoms of standing nervously in front of an unfamiliar crowd. Regardless, you are not
alone, anxiety over public appearances are all too common in persons who have little or no
experience in public speaking. The mannerisms could be manifested in many ways, for example,
gestures such scratching your nose or behind the ear, straightening your eyebrows, vigorously
rubbing the palms, etc.; or they could be vocal such as clearing your throat frequently, pausing
with “umms”, mumbling, etc.; or they could be motions, such as pacing back and forth, swaying
on your heals, etc.
You, as the presenters, may not be aware of these symptoms of anxiety. It usually takes another
person to point them out to you. But once you are made aware of the peculiarities, you should
consciously try to suppress them while rehearsing your presentation. In time, as your exposure
and experience in public speaking grows, you will gain confidence and will overcome the
anxiety and the symptoms that go along with it.
Organization
A Well-organized oral presentation is smooth and effectively communicates the core concepts of
the presentation to the audience. The presentation could be a graduate seminar, thesis/dissertation
defense, a scientific meeting talk, etc. Regardless the venue for the presentation, there are some
basic organizational principles that are common to all.
The entire presentation should be related to the topic thesis, hypothesis, objective or question you
are addressing. Side issues usually distract the audience from the core idea(s) you are trying to
impart.

Reference
1. Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS Publishers’
Distributors,
2. Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley
Eastern Limited.
3. Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, (2nd.ed),
Singapore, Pearson Education.

Hawassa Institute of Technology
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Research paper on
Project Title (Design of Solar Power Plant Material)
Sub Title (“Case study on -----------------“)
Submitted to Dr. Tasama Tolosa
Done by: Tesema tolosa

Id No. Tec/6547/03
Year and semester 3/ II
Date of submit DD/MM/YYYY

1. PROCEDURE
As the research is a big project, it is divided into the following ten activities in order to make the it work easily manageable. And the
estimated completion time of each activity is indicated by the Gant chart in Weeks.
September October November December January February March April May

No. Activity 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 12 3 4
1 Proposal Finalizing
2 Literature Review
3 Selection of area for study
4 Data Collection
5 Data analysis
6 Opportunities development
7 Draft report presentation
8 Draft report Submission
9 Final report preparation
10 Final report submission
 Draft submission date- April 25th

 Final report submission date- May 27th

2. BUDGET/ COST OF THE RESEARCH
The estimated direct and indirect costs required for accomplishing the research considering the
budget allowed by the university, is shown in the table below.
No Item Unit QTY Unit cost Total
(in birr) cost(birr)
1 Photo copy & print service
Coping Related journals, books, records Page 500 0.35 175
Printing Related journals, books page 200 1 200
Sub total 375
2 Transportation related costs 70 100 7000
3 Perdime day 50 140 7000
4 Stationeries
A. Duplicating papers Ream 2 80 160
B. Pens Pieces 10 5 50
C. Tape Recorder Pieces 1 500 500
D. Flash Disk 4 GB 1 300 300
E. Scientific calculator Pieces 1 150 150
F. CD MB 5 6 30
CD-RW MB 10 18 180
G. Local software & other stationary materials 550
Sub total 1920
5 To buy related books & journals for reference Pieces 1500
6 Communication services like telephone 650
7 Binding
A. paper (4 copies final submitted) Pieces 4 100 400
B. Proposal Pieces 3 5 15
Sub total 415
8 Miscellaneous expenses (10% of the above total of subtotals)
1886
Grand Total 20,746


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Research Methods for Students

MODULE FOR HAWASSA UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Hawassa University Institute of Technology

Search and Research for Reality Not Perception

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING HOW RESEARCH IS DONE ............................................................................... 2

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

CHAPTER ONE: CONCEPT OF RESEARCH

Lesson 1: Introduction to Research

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

1.2.Research and Scientific Method

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

1. It relies on empirical evidence;

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions.

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

 Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a

1.6.Criteria of Good Research

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Lesson 2: Classification of Research

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation

From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as descriptive, Correlational,

a. Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem,

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

C. Descriptive vs. Analytical

a) Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

C. Structured and Unstructured approach

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

a) Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as

Lesson 3: Research Methods versus Methodology

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Type Methods Techniques

(iv) Mail questionnaire Identification of social and economic background of

(v) Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective techniques, use of sociometric

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Lesson 4: Engineering Research

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

2.1.Nature and Scope of Engineering Research

2.2.Importance (Purpose) of Engineering Research

Lesson 5: Major Stages in Engineering Research

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

Search and Research for Reality, Not for Perception

1.Formulating the Research Problem

3. Developing the objectives

4. Preparing the Research Design

5. Collecting the Data

II. Conducting Stage

III. Presenting Stage