RM 2020 Notes

DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY
IGCSE (O LEVELS)
RESISTANT MATERIALS
Revision Handouts
For Syllabus 2020
Table of Contents
Part (a): Materials ........................................................................................................................... 1
i. Plastics ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Thermoplastics .......................................................................................................................... 2
Thermosetting Plastics .............................................................................................................. 4
ii. Woods ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Softwoods.................................................................................................................................. 6
Hardwoods ................................................................................................................................ 8
What is Seasoning? .................................................................................................................. 9
Why Timber* is seasoned?........................................................................................................ 9
How to care for timber during storage and construction? .......................................................... 9
Steaming and Bending of timbers ........................................................................................... 10
Adhesives ................................................................................................................................ 10
Manufactured Boards .............................................................................................................. 11
Manufactured Boards v/s Solid Wood ..................................................................................... 13
iii. Metals..................................................................................................................................... 14
Ferrous Metals ........................................................................................................................ 15
Non-Ferrous Metals................................................................................................................. 16
Changing the Structure and Properties of Metals .................................................................... 17
iv. Smart and Modern Materials .................................................................................................. 19
Smart Materials ....................................................................................................................... 19
v. Composites ............................................................................................................................. 21
Glass Reinforced Plastic/Polymer (GRP) ................................................................................ 21
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic/Polymer (CFRP) .................................................................. 22
Kevlar® (Aramid Products) ...................................................................................................... 23
Part (b): Preparation of Materials ............................................................................................... 24
Market form, Types and Sizes: ................................................................................................... 24
i. Marking ................................................................................................................................ 25
ii. Measuring ............................................................................................................................ 28
Part (c): Shaping of Materials ..................................................................................................... 30
i. Deforming Processes ........................................................................................................... 30
ii. Reforming Processes ........................................................................................................... 31
iii. Cutting Tools ........................................................................................................................ 31
a) Snips ................................................................................................................................. 31
b) Saws ................................................................................................................................. 32
c) Files .................................................................................................................................. 33
d) Planes ............................................................................................................................... 33
e) Abrasive Cutters ............................................................................................................... 34
f) Drilling ............................................................................................................................... 35
i
g) Threading .......................................................................................................................... 36
h) Chisels .............................................................................................................................. 37
iv. The Center Lathe ................................................................................................................. 38
i) Hammers .......................................................................................................................... 39
j) Driving Tools ..................................................................................................................... 40
k) Holding Tools .................................................................................................................... 42
l) Portable Power Tools........................................................................................................ 43
Part (d): Joining and Assembly .................................................................................................. 45
i. Temporary Joining ............................................................................................................... 45
a) Wood Screws .................................................................................................................... 45
b) Machine Screws................................................................................................................ 47
c) Bolts .................................................................................................................................. 48
d) Nuts .................................................................................................................................. 48
e) Washers............................................................................................................................ 49
f) Hinges............................................................................................................................... 49
g) Catches............................................................................................................................. 50
ii. Permanent Joining ............................................................................................................... 51
a) Brazing .............................................................................................................................. 51
b) Hard Soldering .................................................................................................................. 51
c) Soft Soldering ................................................................................................................... 51
d) Welding ............................................................................................................................. 51
e) Nails .................................................................................................................................. 52
f) Adhesives ......................................................................................................................... 53
g) Rivet.................................................................................................................................. 54
Type of Joints ............................................................................................................................. 55
Methods of Strengthening Joints / Extended Versions of Joints ................................................. 59
Metallic Joints ............................................................................................................................. 61
Knock Down Fittings ................................................................................................................... 61
Joints and their recommended place of usage ........................................................................... 63
Part (e): Finishing ........................................................................................................................ 64
Health and Safety ....................................................................................................................... 67
ii
Part (a): Materials
i. Plastics
1
PLASTICS
Brief Introduction:
Plastics mainly come from crude oil. Chemical engineers are able to mix several chemicals
to produce plastic materials with almost any of the characteristics that manufacturers require.
Plastics are divided into two families: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.
Thermoplastics or Thermoforming:
This is the most commonly used plastic because it can be reshaped when reheated.
Thermoplastics are heated during manufacture, and heated again to shape them, however repeated
working will damage the structure of materials.
Advantages of using thermoplastics:

• Soften when heated
• Recyclable
• Comes in a variety of colors
• Safe for children
• Relatively cheap
• Can be used in a variety of different processes e.g. vacuum forming, injection molding, blow
molding.
Thermoplastics
Where not to use/

Working Name Common Properties Where to use
Name Disadvantages
Mechanical
Low friction
Hard, tough and components such
characteristics, low
Nylon Nylon resistant to wear, Low as Bearings, gears,
water absorption,
friction (smooth texture) clothing and water
can stain quickly
proof coatings
Tough and flexible with

good chemical Detergent and
High thermal
Lower LDPE resistance. A shampoo bottle,
expansion,
Density Trade Name: Popular plastic that is toys, carrier bags
Flammable,
Polyethylene Polythene easily colored and and transparent
Difficult to bond
gives a very smooth packaging
finish.
2
Strong and stiff with
excellent chemical
resistance. Another Sensitive to Stress
High Density Crates, bowls,
HDPE popular plastic that is cracking, Highly
Polyethylene Buckets and pipes
easily colored with an flammable
excellent
finish
Hard, Stiff and stable Low water
material, Moderate Bottles for drinks, absorption, Low
Polyethylene
PET chemical Resistance, smart cards, thermal resistance,
terephthalate
mainly used in Food containers Poor solvent
transparent form resistance
Good chemical and
Pipes, guttering,
weather Resistance. Strength reduces
window frames,
Resistant to water and at High
Polyvinyl Bottles, footwear,
PVC fire (when burning it Temperature,
chloride adhesive tapes,
releases chlorine prone to easy
cable
atoms which inhibits cracking
Insulation
combustion)
Often used as a
Prone to
substitute for glass,
Tough, can be scratches, easily
shatterproof
Polymethyl Acrylic machined, but can be stained by grease
windows, skylights,
methacrylate or PMMA brittle, readily available and oil, flexible
illuminated signs,
and food safe grades are not
and aircraft
available.
canopies.
Rigid, brittle, relatively Toys, light
Poor resistance to
hard and has excellent diffusers, beakers,
UV light, Brittle,
Polystyrene PS gamma radiation cutlery, general
Low chemical
resistance, good household
resistance
electrical properties appliances
Affected by UV
Lightweight, food safe Food containers,
degradation, not
with excellent chemical string, rope,
Poly suitable for open
PP resistance. Good medical
propylene air or longer
electrical equipment,
exposure of sun,
insulator kitchenware
difficult to paint
Produces CO and
HCN which are
Kitchen Products,
Acrylonitrile High impact strength, considered to be
mobile phone
Butadiene ABS lightweight, durable toxic products, its
cases, toys and
Styrene and scratch resistant use is actually
safety helmets
limited in food
industry.
*All of above mentioned thermoforming are not biodegradable but are recyclable except Acrylic (i.e. difficult to recycle)
3
Thermosetting Plastics:
The chemical polymers that make up these types of plastics bond permanently when
heated and set hard as they cool. They cannot be reheated and are usually formed into products
by heating powder in shaped molds.
Many of these plastics are selected for their hardness and resistance to chemicals, oils and
common solvents, but they tend to be more expensive.
Thermosetting Plastics
Common Where not to use/

Working Name Properties Where to use
Name Disadvantages
Flexible and versatile, Boats, Sports cars,
Long service life, MRI scanners,
Glass Reinforced Brittleness, Limited
GRP Fire retardant, Suitable PCBs, and a Raft
Polyester shelf life
for use in grey water of building
systems, components.
More expensive
Rigid, good strength
Electrical plugs, than Urea or
Melamine and hardness; scratch
MF switches and Phenolic, not
Formaldehyde resistant and can be
socket, tableware suitable for hot dry
colored.
conditions
Low water
Rigid, brittle, good Buttons, Toilets absorption
Urea strength, Heat resistant seats, adhesive to specially at
UF
Formaldehyde and a good electrical bon pressed elevated
insulator woods temperatures and
mold shrinkage
Very good heat Only available in
Saucepan handles
Phenol resistance but very dark colors, Not
PF and cheap
Formaldehyde dark, hard and quite suitable for humid
electrical fittings
brittle environment
Become
Good chemical and Surface coatings,
pale/yellowish if
wear resistance, high adhesives
exposed to
Epoxy resins Epoxy strength when (Araldite), Glass
excessive sunlight,
reinforced, adhesive to reinforced
highly viscous
many surfaces composites
(difficult settlement)
4
Part (a): Materials
ii. Woods
5
WOODS
Brief Introduction:
The inner structure of a tree makes wood what it is—what it looks like, how it behaves, and
what we can use it for.
Natural Timber:
Wood that is used in the manufacture of an artefact (i.e. furniture or boats) is referred to as
timber. Before timber can be used, tress have to be felled and then processed. Depending upon
how you cut planks from trees, you can change the properties of the planks. This is because planks
produced from different parts will have different grain structure.
Planks that have a wood grain that is closer together are stronger and denser than those with
a wider spaced wood grain running through it.
Classification:
The classification of natural timber is by two groups: Hardwoods and Softwoods.
Importantly, these classifications have nothing to do with how hard the wood actually is, rather
these classifications are used to group timbers together that come from similar type of tress:
• Softwood comes from tress that are coniferous: ever green trees that bear cones and have
needles.
• Hardwoods come from deciduous trees: trees that shed leaves in autumn. Generally
Hardwoods grow much more slowly than softwoods.
There is one exception to this rule; Holly Tree, which is a hardwood but also evergreen.
Softwoods
Where not to use/

Working Name Description Where to use
Disadvantages
Strong yet easy to work Low cost furniture, Shrinking and swelling with
Scots Pine with, cheap and readily construction work. change of moisture level,
available Simple joinery problems with paintwork.
• Straight grained but prone to knots

• Pale in color
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Better quality furniture,
Hard and straight
structural carpentry Poor Insect resistance, has
grained, virtually knot-
Parana Pine that is visible such as a tendency to warp and
free, fairly strong,
windows, door and distort during drying
comparatively expensive.
staircase
• Pale yellow in color with darker

brown streaks
Indoor furniture vulnerable to insect

Spruce Not very hard wearing including bedrooms infestation, no weather
and kitchens resistance, dull shine
• Creamy white with small hard knots
Possible skin irritation

Boat building, furniture and can cause asthma
Yellow Cedar Light in weight yet rigid
and veneers Chronic lung disease
on burning.
• Very pale in color
Relatively strong, knotty,

General woodwork,
durable when treated with Prone to denting due to its
Redwood cupboards, shelves,
a suitable coating or softness
roofs
treatment, Low cost
• Heartwood color can range from

a light pinkish brown to a deep
reddish brown
7
Hardwoods
Where not to use/

Working Name Description Where to use
Disadvantages
Ash is known for being
moderately hard, heavy Poor water resistance, very
Sports equipment,
Ash and strong. Least low density and that is why
wooden ladders, tools
expensive utility it can get cracked easily.
hardwood
• A light creamy-brown color

• Open grained
Beech polishes well and Prone to warping, dense

withstands shocks and Furniture, toys, tools and may be difficult to
Beech
wear due to its high and handles work, Poor weather
hardness and toughness resistance
• White in color
• Close grained
Tough, Resists splitting, May get out of shape

Indoor and outdoor
Elm durable in water and easily, Prone to insect
furniture
outdoor settings attacks.
• Light Brown in color

• Open grained
8
Strong and Durable, Costly relatively, low &
beautiful appearance, limited production rate
Mahogany Good quality furniture
anti-carrion and insect in market as per its
repellent demand
• Rich reddish-brown color

• Interlocking grain
Its strength and beauty

Corrodes steel screws and
makes it ideal for High quality furniture
Oak fittings and react with
cabinets, furniture and and interior woodwork
certain adhesive
flooring materials
• Light Brown color

• Open grained
What is Seasoning?
Seasoning is traditionally undertaken by stacking planks of wood and allowing air to circulate
between the planks in order to dry them out. This process is now automated and is undertaken on
an industrial scale, using a kiln.
Kiln Drying: A kiln used for seasoning timber allows air to be warmed and circulated by fans to speed
up the seasoning process. As the warm air circulates around the inside kiln, it dries the timber placed
inside.
Why Timber* is seasoned?
It is important to season timber so that it remains strong and true when it is used. If it is not seasoned,
it will change its shape (often shrinking and warping**) and properties will degrade as it dries out.
*wood prepared for use in building and carpentry.
**twisting and bending caused in timber.
How to care for timber during storage and construction?

To keep seasoned timber in perfect condition, it should ideally be stored somewhere with a
controlled environment. This means that it should be kept somewhere that is at a constant
temperature and in dry conditions. It should also be laid flat to avoid warping.
9
Steaming and Bending of timbers
Thin layers of timbers are placed into a steam chamber. Steam is introduced at one end and
travels through the chamber, heating and absorbing into the timbers. As the steam cools and
condense it turns back into water allowing to enhance the moisture content inside the timber.
(Reverse process of seasoning)
After a period of time immersed in the steam, the timbers are removed and are malleable*
and flexible, allows to bend them to different shapes. They are positioned around a former and
clamped or held into a place and left to cool. Upon unclamped and cooled, they will retain this new
shape.
* Malleability is a substance's ability to deform under pressure.
Adhesives
Health and safety -
Many adhesives give off toxic fumes and should only be used in well-ventilated areas.
Working Name Used for Curing time Strength
To join acrylic and some other

types of plastics. The Can give greater tensile
24-48 hours to cure
Acrylic Cement adhesive melts the surface of shear strength
to full-strength
the plastic parts being joined ~ 12-30 MPa
and it fuses.
To join polystyrene and

Can be used to bond
fabrics. It can also be used for
Contact Adhesive 20-24 hours large areas of non-
fixing layers, or coatings, of
porous substrates.
plastics to wooden base.
The resin reaches

To join metals and plastics. It 95% of its full cure
Epoxy is extremely
is waterproof and comes in within 24 hours,
Epoxy Resin strong and has great
different parts that need to be and 100% of its
flexural strength
mixed by end user. cure within 72
hours.
Known as White German Clamping is
glue, It is use to join required for 30
PVA construction and assembly of minutes to 1 hour to
2.55-3.00 MPa
(Polyvinyl Acetate) timber products. Only some set the glue; curing
PVA adhesives are water- time is 18 to 24
resistant. hours.
To join timber where PVA is
Synthetic resins are two
not feasible. It is water
times stronger than
Synthetic Resin resistant and needs to mix 23-24 hours
concrete, seamless and
with its components prior to
waterproof.
use.
10
Manufactured Boards
Brief Introduction:
Manufactured boards are timber sheets which are produced by gluing wood layers or wood
fibers together. Manufactured boards often made use of waste wood materials.
Larger sized manufactured boards tend to be available as a maximum size of 8 ft x 4 ft.
Manufactured Boards
Where not to use/

Working Name Overlook Where to use
Disadvantages
It is more expensive than

It is very strong and the Medium Density
Plywood thinner cuts are easy to Fiberboard (MDF). Edges
work with. Easy to paint have to be finished either
with laminate or veneer.
Description:
Plywood is made from veneers of timber with the grain of each layer being at right angles to the layers
either side of it. The layer are bonded together by resin and pressure. A number of different types of
plywood are available, and these are often referred to as grades. They are manufactured differently
and designed for different purposes, including:
• Boil resistant plywood
• Flexible plywood, typically three layers thick with a very thin middle layer
• Interior plywood
• Laser plywood, non-toxic adhesive for use with laser cutters
• Marine plywood, which is moisture resistant
• Weather proof plywood
Inexpensive, Good for

Weaker, don’t have long
screwing and nailing.
durability. Shrinkage and
Blockboard The lightweight of
swelling of the board may
blockboard made it
occur.
convenient to use.
Description:
Blockboard is manufactured with a central core of softwood strips bonded together with adhesive
and covered with a sheet of plywood on either side, or then often a finishing veneer.
11
It is not as strong as
plywood and Blockboard,
Comparatively cheaper, nor does it come in
Chipboard
Pre-laminated boards thicker sheet sizes.
Cannot bear heavy
weights
Description:
Chipboard is made up of small chips of wood bonded together with resin and compressed to form
sheets. It is often used in furniture for use indoors, and it is covered in a plastic coating or veneer
for a more aesthetically appealing timber.
It is not as strong as the

Resistant to Insects.
other boards and it is
One type of hardboard, Oil
typically used in non-
tempered boards are
structural situations,
Hardboard impregnated with oil
such as the back of
making them stiffer,
cupboards. Cannot be
harder and more resistant
used outside because it
to scratches and moisture.
absorbs water.
Description:
Hardboard is made from pulped wood fibers that are pressurized until the fibers bond together to
produce a board that is smooth on one side and rough on the other.
Resistant to some Can crack or split under

insects as some extreme stress.
chemicals. MDF absorbs water
MDF It is used in many quicker than wood. So
(Medium Density
applications, indoors, MDF may swell and
Fiberboard)
and it can be easily everyone has to become
finished with veneers or conscious of using MDF.
paints.
Description:
MDF is made up from very fine wood dust and resin pressed into a board. This material can be
worked, shaped and machined easily and has considerably more strength than hardboard due to the
use of a resin as a bonding agent.
* MDF contains VOC, containing urea formaldehyde that can cause irritation to lungs and eyes. Hence dust produced
during the manufacture of MDF is very harmful to breathing.
12
Manufactured Boards v/s Solid Wood
Manufactured Boards
Advantages Disadvantages
Difficult to join in comparison with traditional

They are available in larger sizes as well as construction methods - you cannot make a
standard sizes and thicknesses dovetail joint for example.
(Lesser choice of joints)
Boards are designed for specific purposes, so Edges must be treated and covered to hide
have specific properties (Marine plywood, Oil unsightly edges and stop water getting in, a
tempered hardboard, Flexible plywood) process called concealing edges
They often use elements of waste from processing Absorbs water quicker than wood. So
timber, so are environmentally sympathetic. manufactured boards may swell
Manufactured boards are uniform with few

imperfections, so when you work with them you are Not durable as compare to solid wood, may
assured that they are not likely to fail due to break under extreme pressure and load.
unseen imperfection.
Not suitable for long term and durable

They do not split like natural timbers do.
furniture.
They are available in ready finished formats

---
(with veneers or plastic coatings pre-applied)
Manufactured boards are relatively easy to cut and Cutting and sanding some types of board
work with generates hazardous dust particles.
13
Part (a): Materials
iii. Metals
14
METALS
Brief Introduction:
Pure metals fall into one of two main categories: ferrous (those containing iron) and non-
ferrous (those that do not contain iron). However, pure metals often do not have the exact properties
that are required for specific functions, so it is necessary to combine a number of metals to give the
desired properties in a process called Alloying.
Ferrous Metals
Melting
Name Point oC Properties Where to use
(Approx.)
Casting and base metal for all

High carbon content
Cast Iron 1200 steel alloys, manhole covers,
Brittle and corrode by rusting
car brake discs
Mild carbon content.

Tough, ductile, malleable, good Construction material, nuts,
Mild Steel (MS)* 1600
tensile strength, poor resistance bolts, car body panels
to corrosion
Contains chromium ≥ 18%, Cutlery, Kitchen equipment,

Stainless Steel
1400 Hard, corrosion and wear Sanitary equipment, Surgical
(SS)*
resistant to a large extent. equipment
Contains a high content of

High Speed Steel tungsten, vanadium and Drill bits, lathe tools and
1400
(HSS)* chromium alloyed with iron. Very milling cutters
brittle and resistant to water.
Structural properties due to
Mild (Low) Carbon Less strong but cheap and easy ductility; Steel Frame
Steel* 1400 to shape; surface hardness can Buildings, Machinery Parts,
0.05% to 0.14% carbon be increased through carburizing. Cookware, Galvanized
Pipelines
Medium Carbon Used for large parts, Railway

Balances ductility and strength
Steel* 1400 tracks, train wheels,
and has good wear resistance
0.25% to 0.60% carbon crankshafts, and gears
Hard and tough but the increase

Cutting tools, ball bearings,
High Carbon Steel* in carbon content makes it more
1800 hand tools; screw drivers
0.60% to 0.85% carbon brittle. It can be heat treated to
hammers, chisels and saws
further enhance its properties.
15
Few definitions just of have idea of terminologies:
Brittleness, the ability to be non-flexible and shattered into multiple pieces…..

Malleability, the ability to be shaped out into a sheet....
Ductility, the ability to be stretched and shaped without breaking…..
Hardness, the ability to resist scratch and wear…..
Elasticity, the ability to return to its original shape after it has been deformed…..
Toughness, the ability to absorb energy without breaking or deforming…..
Non-Ferrous Metals
Melting
Name Point oC Properties Where to use
(Approx.)
Saucepans, Cooking foil,

Shiny silver like color. Very light
takeaway containers,
Aluminium 660 and the most abundant metal in
windows frames, ladders,
the earth surface.
bicycle frames
Widely used in aircraft

Duraluminium* 630 Very strong, hard and lightweight. constructions, boat building
and car manufacture.
A very ductile and malleable

metal. It is often red/brown in Used for plumbing, cookware,
Copper 1080 color and it goes green when it electrical fittings and roof
corrodes. Excellent conductor of covering.
heat and electricity.
Used for decorative metals
It is golden yellow in color and is work such as handles,
Brass* 925 typically a mixture of copper candlesticks, ornaments, pins
(65%) and zinc (35%). on electric plugs and musical
instruments
Deep brown/yellow in color. It

Bearings, artistic and
Bronze* 950 darkens with exposure to the
sculptural pieces, hand bells
elements
Used as a coating on screws,

By itself very weak. However it is nails, nuts and bolts. It is also
Zinc 420
highly corrosion-resistant used to weather proof steel in
a process called galvanizing.
16
Roofing, construction, casting
Very soft and malleable. It has
lead acid batteries. ( in past, it
one of the lowest melting points of
Lead 160 was used in paints and water
a metal that is solid at room
pipes, but it is toxic and no
temperature
longer used for these)
Bright silver in appearance
Very ductile and malleable. It is and often used as coating on
Tin 230 resistant to corrosion from a base metal; such as food
moisture. cans and tin foils used in
kitchen.
*Indicates that these are alloys, not pure metals
**Melting points of metals indicates their operating temperatures and strength of their intermolecular bonding
Changing the Structure and Properties of Metals

Work Hardening:
Work hardening, in metallurgy, increase in hardness of a metal induced, deliberately or
accidentally, by hammering, rolling, drawing, or other physical processes.
In structural parts, work hardening is undesirable because the part will break sudden without
any deformation but in functional parts where hardness and wear resistance is required, work
hardening is always favorable.
Annealing:
Annealing is a heat process whereby a metal is heated to a specific temperature /color and
then allowed to cool slowly. Heating and cooling changes the molecular structure of the metal. And
softens the metal which means it can be cut and shaped more easily.
Mild steel, is heated to a red heat and allowed to cool slowly. However, metals such as
Aluminium will melt if heated for too long. It requires great care and uniform heating to anneal
aluminum.
Case Hardening of Mild Steel:

Case hardening is a simple method of hardening steel. It is less complex than hardening and
tempering. This process hardens the surface of the metal only. This techniques is used for steels
with a low carbon content. Carbon is added to the outer surface of the steel, to a depth of
approximately 0.05mm.
One advantage of this method of hardening steel is that the inner core is left untouched and
so still possess properties such as flexibility and is still relatively soft. To increase the depth of
hardened surface, the process can be repeated, building up a deeper layer of material.
Initially the mild steel is heated to a red color. Following this it is removed from the heat and
plunged into a case hardening compound that is high in carbon. Once the metal has been immersed
in the case hardening compound, it is returned to the heat and again its temperature raised until it
glows red. After that it is removed from the heat and plunged into clean, cold water.
17
Hardening and Tempering of Tool Steel / High Carbon Steel:
If tool steel is hardened it becomes too brittle to be of any use, so a secondary process called
tempering needs to be used in order to make metal useable (only high carbon steel can be hardened
and tempered).
If the steel is heated until it glows red and is quenched in clean water immediately, it becomes
very hard but also brittle. This means it is likely to break or snap if put under great pressure. To
remove the brittleness (induced by hardening) but retain the strength, the tool steel must be allowed
to cool slowly, this process is called tempering. The resulting steel will be easier to cut, shape and
file as it will be relatively soft.
Just for understanding; For example a blade of a screwdriver needs to be strong and hard, yet
not brittle as it will not be able to withstand the turning force. To harden the screwdriver blade, the
tool steel is formed into desired shape and then heated until it is at temperature of around 900 oC.
Once it reaches this temperature it is plunged into clean, cold water. To remove the brittleness and
to retain the strength, the screwdriver is reheated. As the blade will gradually reheated a blue colored
line will become visible on screwdriver blade. It will indicates that the metal has reached correct
temperature. It then needs to be cooled slowly either by water or oil can also be used.
The following chart indicates the temperature and color for tempering tool steel:
18
Part (a): Materials
iv. Smart and Modern Materials
Brief Introduction:
‘Smart and Modern materials’ is an umbrella term for a wide a variety of materials whose
properties alter depending on environmental conditions, such as light, temperature or movement.
These materials are designed and manufactured through scientific discoveries to perform particular
functions.
Smart materials have properties that react to an input: they can be changed by an external
stimulus, such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, or an electric or magnetic field.
Do not confuse them with modern materials. Modern materials have been developed to do particular
jobs. They are not considered ‘smart’, as they do not react to an input.
Modern materials also include those manufactured by making changes to the structure at
molecular level such as the super strong grapheme or hydrophobic surfaces that repel water.
Smart Materials
Name Properties Where to use Example
Commonly used in
Ink/Fluid which forehead thermometer
changes the color in strips and in the food
Thermochromic Ink
response to change in industry to indicate the
temperature temperature of
packaged food product
Used in advanced
Thermochromic or These are plastics that biomedical applications.
Temperature change their physical Used in ‘Smart’
Responsive properties when heat is clothing, and even
Polymers applied to them. coffee mugs that
change color
19
Polymorph is a plastic
in granule form. Can be used to
It melts at very low prototype difficult
Polymorph temperatures i.e. 62°C. shapes, such as
It is a very versatile components, joints and
model-making handles.
material.
The most common

SMAs are used in
SMA is known as
stents, which are tubes
Nitinol. It is an alloy of
inserted into damaged
nickel and titanium.
blood vessels. They are
a) It will return to
inserted cold and
Shape Memory original shape after
expand to correct size
Alloy (SMA) being deformed, if heat
in response to the
is applied to it.
patient’s body
b) The other type of
temperature. SMAs are
SMA contracts when
also used in making of
electric current passes
spectacle frames.
through it.
A variety of polymer
Potential uses of SMPs
(plastics). Which
are valves or pumps for
deform in response to
Shape Memory liquids where
an external stimulus,
Polymer (Acrylic) mechanical
such as when an
components are not
electric voltage or
desirable.
change in temperature.
20
Part (a): Materials
v. Composites
Brief Introduction:
‘Composites’ are materials made by combining two or more natural or artificial elements (with
different physical or chemical properties) that are stronger as a team than as individual players. The
component materials don’t completely blend or lose their individual identities; they combine and
contribute their most useful traits to improve the outcome or final product. Composites are typically
designed with a particular use in mind, such as added strength, efficiency or durability.
Most composites are made from just two materials, each performing a different function within
a new materials. One is known as the matrix, which surrounds or blinds the other material, which
is the fiber, also known as the reinforcement.
Glass Reinforced Plastic/Polymer (GRP)
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) (also known as Glass fiber composite) is a composite
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with glass fibers*.
Glass Fiber is made from strands of glass, which form a flexible matrix or fiber.
Making: Variation in the thickness of layers of glass strands produces different weights and
strengths of GRP. Once assembled the strands are set into the desired shape by placing them into
mold. To set the strands in place, polyester resin is added and once the resin has cured, the process
is repeated to achieve desired thickness.
Finishing: When sufficient layers have been added, the GRP can be smoothed via sanding and, if
desired, a finish can be applied.
Application: GRP is popular composite, which is widely used in the manufacture of car bodies,
water tanks, swimming pool slides, canoes and boat hulls.
21
Advantages Disadvantages
Good corrosion and chemical resistance Very limited shelf life
Good dielectric properties i.e. Insulation Low interlaminar shear strength between
composite layers
Low thermal conductivity at room temperature Poor Long-term temperature resistance,

Strength gradually decreases with increase in
temperature
Excellent processability, the flexible molding Insufficient in rigidity, can easily deformed
process can be selected according to the
shape,
Low cost Difficult joining (riveting)
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic/Polymer (CFRP)
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) is one of the most expensive composite
materials, but boasts the best strength-to-weight ratio of any construction material.
Making: This composite is made from high-tensile-strength carbon fibers which are woven together
and then encased in a polymer resin.
*Carbon Fiber
Application: Carbon fiber is resistant to scratching and result in a rigid material but light in weight
yet very strong. CFRP is used extensively within the aerospace industry, it has a high tolerance to
heat, and is used to replace traditional, heavier metal-based materials.
Other market applications of this versatile composite include marine, automotive, defense
and sports and leisure industries.
22
Kevlar® (Aramid Products)
Probably the best known material used in the manufacturing of bullet-proof vests. Its
matrix is made up of super stiff, heat resistant polymer created by mixing specific chemicals.
Making: on its own, Kevlar is just a fabric (not a composite) but when layers of woven fabric are
combined with resin, the result is an extremely rigid, light weight material that is 20 times the strength
of steel.
*Kevlar®
Application: A common use for this synthetically engineered material is bullet proof vests and
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), to protect people working in hazardous jobs.
23
Part (b): Preparation of Materials
Market form, Types and Sizes:
Market form describes manufactured standard shapes and sizes of material, wood or metal available
to buy commercially.
By using pre-cut material, time is saved and subsequently labor costs are reduced. Using market
forms is also better for the environment because it means there is less waste material. This
illustration shows industry standard forms, shapes and sizes for metal and wood.
*Examples of standard sectional profiles available

24
i. Marking
Marking Tools
Tool name Description Timber Metal Plastic Illustration
This is used to test

whether one surface is
Engineer’s Try square to another, and
square* ✓ ✓ ✓
to mark out lines
perpendicular i.e. at 90o
This is used to mark out

and test angles that are
other than at right
Sliding bevel angles to a datum ✓ ✓ ✓
edge**. (with the help of
protractor)

Mitre square angles of 45° and 135°. ✓ ✓ ✓

Marking gauge lines parallel to a datum
(also known as edge on timber or ✓ ✗ ✓
Cutting gauge)
plastic.
This is used to mark

double lines parallel to a
datum edge.
Mortise gauge Its main use is to mark ✓ ✗ ✗
out the thickness of
mortises and tenons.
These are used to mark

out lines parallel to a
Odd-leg datum edge on metal,
calliper ✗ ✓ ✓
and to find the center of
a round bar.
25
These are used to mark
out circles and arcs, and
Dividers to step off equal lengths ✓ ✓ ✓
along a line.
Inside calipers are used

to measure and check
the internal diameter of
Inside Leg tubes and holes.
Calliper and
Outside Leg Outside calipers are ✓ ✓ ✓
Calliper used to measure and
check the external
diameter of tubes and
round bars.
This is used to scribe a

line to be followed by a
Marking knife hand saw or chisel when
✓ ✗ ✗
making joints and other
operations.
This is used to mark

lines on metal and
plastic.
Scriber The point is made of tool ✓ ✓ ✓
steel, sharpened to
30°***.
A center square is a
steel hand tool used to
quickly and accurately
Centre Square locate the center of a ✓ ✓ ✓
round or cylindrical part.
It has a soft wax core,

China-graph lines and shade waste
pencil ✗ ✗ ✓
material on plastic and
glass.
26
A template is used when
several identical
components or positions
have to be marked out.
Template Templates are ✓ ✓ ✓
particularly useful when
complex curved shapes
have to be repeated.
Centre punch is used to

mark the centers of
holes to be drilled in
metal. It has a 90° point
Centre punch angle***.
and Dot punch ✓ ✓ ✓
Dot punch is used to
locate the centers of
circles, arcs and radii. It
has a 60° point angle.
* In general an Engineer Try Square is made to higher accuracy than a simple Try Square and both the inside edge
and outside edge are considered to be accurate. The stock of an Engineer Square is metal while the stock of a Try
Edge is usually wood.
**Datum Line, Edge or Plane: A flat face, straight edge and a plane surface from which all measurements are taken
is known as Datum Line, Datum Edge and Datum Plane respectively.
***Point angle is the angle between the edges of tool’s tip:
27
ii. Measuring
Measuring Tools
This is used to measure

Steel rule lengths and, as a straight
✓ ✓ ✓
edge, to test for flatness.

Expanding longer distances.
tape Available in 3 m, 5 m and
(also known 10 m lengths. ✓ ✓ ✓
as measuring
tape) Some expanding rules
have a digital readout.

Micrometer
with great accuracy.
(also known
as Screw It typically measures to an ✗ ✓ ✓
gauge) accuracy of 0.001mm.
The combination of jaws
enables the calipers to be
used to measure both
Vernier external and internal
calliper dimensions, plus depths. ✗ ✓ ✓
They typically measure to

an accuracy of 0.01mm.

Depth and check depths and
gauge and angles with great ✓ ✓ ✓
protractor
accuracy.
Wire and This is used to measure

sheet the thickness of wire and
✗ ✓ ✗
gauge sheet metals
28
This is used to find the
Drill gauge diameter of round rods
✗ ✓ ✗
and twist drills
Cutting or Measuring tolerance is the small variations that occur when work pieces are cut down
to the appropriate size. The cutting tolerance is usually 1.5 mm, which means how each individual
piece is trimmed can vary by up to that much. (It is important to include cutting tolerance while
marking work pieces because that is the material which is going to be waste during cutting).
29
Part (c): Shaping of Materials
i. Deforming Processes
A deforming operation is one in which the shape of a material is altered by deformation, where
deformation is induced by external compressive forces or stresses.
Process Description Materials Where to use
Strips of hardwood are heated in a steam

Steam Wooden
chamber until the wood is bendable enough to
Bending Hardwoods furniture
create a specific shape.
Wooden
Thin sheets of hardwoods are layered together
furniture,
Lamination with strong adhesive and pressed in a former Hardwoods Decorative roof
until the adhesive cures.
beams
Sheet materials are pressed between male and
Press female former until they take a new shape. Same Sheet Materials Metal vehicle
Forming materials need to be heated to become (Metals, Plastics, Panels
malleable prior to forming Wood)
Plastic sheets are heated to their elastic state,
then a former is pressed into the sheet and the Food
Vacuum Thermoforming
air below is evacuated. The external pressure Packaging/
Forming plastics
induce plastic sheet to seize specific shape of Trays
former.
Tubes of plastic are heated and fed through a Plastic Milk/
Blow Thermoforming
mould. The air is blown into the tube, forcing it to Beverage
Moulding plastics
expand out and form against mould. Bottles
30
ii. Reforming Processes
A reforming operation is one in which the shape of a material is altered by typically melting and
pouring or injecting the molten material into a mould.
Process Description Materials Where to use

Toys, Consumer
Plastic beads are heated to their plastic state
Injection Thermoforming goods such as
and injected into a mould to form a complex
Moulding plastics
mobile phone
shape.
cases
The material is heated to its plastic state and Thermoforming Pipes, tubes,
Extrusion pushed through a die to create components, as plastics and beams and rods
per the shape of die Metals
Metals are melted and poured into a mould Engine blocks,
Sand
made of special sand. Melt will adopt the shape gas and water
Casting Metals
of sand mold upon cooling down. valves
Toys, brackets
The metal is melted and forced into a hardened
Die Casting Non-Ferrous and engine
tool steel die
metals parts
iii. Cutting Tools
a) Snips
Straight To make straight cuts

snips and outside curves. ✗ ✓ ✓
Curved To make internal curved

snips cuts only. ✗ ✓ ✓
31
To make straight cuts
Universal and outside curves in
snips ✗ ✓ ✓
thicker material.
To make small and

Jeweller’s intricate cuts.
snips ✗ ✓ ✓
Available in side,
diagonal and end cutting
forms. Snips should not
Wire cutters be used to cut wire ✗ ✓ ✗
because the cutting
edges will be damaged.
b) Saws
A rip saw is a wood saw

that is specially designed
Rip Saw for making a rip cut, a cut
or Panel Saw made parallel to the ✓ ✗ ✗
direction of the wood
grain
Tenon Saw A tenon saw can be used

for cutting straight lines
or Dovetail ✓ ✗ ✗
Saw when working with wood
32
A coping saw can be
used for cutting interior
Coping Saw parts or for cutting curved
or Bow Saw ✓ ✗ ✓
line when working with
wood or plastics
Hacksaw A hacksaw can be used

or Junior
on metals and plastics for
Hacksaw
✗ ✓ ✓
(Smaller cutting straight lines
Version)
Piercing A piercing saw can cut

Saw curved lines into metal
✗ ✓ ✓
or Abrafile saw and plastic
c) Files
It has rows of individual

coarse teeth and is used
Rasp for rough shaping of
✓ ✗ ✗
timber and other soft
materials.
General-purpose files
that can be used on
Milled Tooth almost any material.
File ✓ ✓ ✓
Available in two forms:
straight and curved tooth.
d) Planes
33
Smoothing Used for cleaning up
Plane timber prior to sanding
(Jack Plane; and straightening end ✓ ✗ ✗
but having a
longer tail)
grain
A spokeshave is a tool
used to shape and
smooth woods in
Spokeshave woodworking jobs such
✓ ✗ ✗
as making wheel cart
wheel spokes and chair
legs.
e) Abrasive Cutters
Abrasive cutting (Grinding) is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.
Grinding is an abrasive
Abrasive machining process that
Disc uses a grinding wheel as ✓ ✓ ✗
the cutting tool.
Abrasive mops allow you

to quickly clean up your
Abrasive carvings and simplify the
Mop ✓ ✓ ✗
entire sanding process
from start to finish.
A full line of abrasive

belts for use in sanding,
Abrasive grinding, deburring,
Belts ✓ ✓ ✗
blending, finishing and
polishing applications
Sandpaper is made of
abrasive minerals like
Abrasive aluminum oxide or garnet
Papers that are glued onto a
✓ ✓ ✓
(Sand Paper) paper backing. These
minerals have sharp
points or edges.
34
Drilling
Few definitions just of have idea of terminologies:
Pilot Hole: a small hole drilled ahead of a full-sized hole as a guide.
Clearance Hole: A hole through an object which is large enough to enable threads of a screw or
bolt to pass through but not the head of the screw or bolt.
Tapped Hole: A tapped hole is a hole drilled prior to a machine screw being inserted. A tapped hole
is similar to a pilot hole, except that it is usually larger, and has threads cut into the inside surface
of the hole. Tapped holes are used in metals where a nut and bolt cannot be used
Countersunk hole: A countersink produces a conical hole matching the angle of the screw so that
when the screw is fully engaged the head will sit flush or slightly below the surface.
Counterbored hole: A counterbored produces a cylindrical flat-bottomed hole matching the

angle of the screw so that when the screw is fully engaged the head will sit flush or slightly below
the surface.
f) Drilling
Used to drill round holes in

most materials, either in
Twist drill bit hand or powered drilling ✓ ✓ ✓
machines.
Used to start holes when

drilling on a lathe when
Centre Drill center punching is not
Bit possible, and for drilling ✗ ✓ ✗
holes into which lathe
centers are to be placed
The edge of the bit has a

Centre Drill sharpened spur to cut the
Bit fibers of the wood. This is
✓ ✗ ✗
(for wood) ideal for a bit for a hand
tool.
35
Used to bore deep holes in
timber. Has a parallel
Jennings shank that removes
pattern bit shavings from the hole and ✓ ✗ ✓
helps keep the hole
straight.
Used to bore flat-bottomed

Forstner bit holes in timber and plastic. ✓ ✗ ✓
Used to bore fast and

accurate holes in timber.
Should be used at a high
Flat bit speed. It is important to
✓ ✗ ✗
wait for the drilling machine
to stop before withdrawing
the bit from the hole
Used to bore fast and

Hole saw accurate large diameter
✓ ✗ ✗
holes in timber.
Used to drill countersink

Countersink holes to make countersunk
(or Rose head woodscrews flush ✓ ✓ ✓
Countersink)
with or below the surface
These bits have a central

point plus cutting edges
Lip & Spur angled in the opposite
Wood Bits direction to universal twist ✓ ✗ ✗
drills. They stay centered
in wood,
g) Threading
A matching combination of a tap and die is required to cut internal and external threads in metal, and in hard plastic
such as acrylic.
36
Used to cut or deepen the
internal threads.
Tap Tap wrench: Used to hold a tap
✗ ✓ ✓
when cutting a thread
Used to cut or deepen the

external threads.
Die
Die Stock: Used to hold a die ✗ ✓ ✓
when cutting an external thread.
h) Chisels
A general-purpose chisel
Firmer with a square edge. Strong
Chisel enough to withstand light ✓ ✗ ✗
mallet blows.
The blade corners are

beveled to allow it to get
Bevel Edge into corners. It is especially
Chisel ✓ ✗ ✗
useful when cutting
dovetails
Specifically designed for

cutting mortises. The blade
Mortise is thicker in order to
Chisel withstand heavy mallet ✓ ✗ ✗
blows and prevent twisting
in the mortise
Gouges gave a curved
blade, and are designed
Gouges
Chisel
for carving and paring. ✓ ✗ ✗
In-cannel gouge and Out-cannel
gouge
37
Cold chisels are used to
cut, shear and chip cold
metal
Cold Chisel There are four standard ✗ ✗ ✓
point shapes: flat, cross-
cut, diamond and round.
iv. The Center Lathe
The Centre Lathe is used to manufacture cylindrical shapes from a range of materials including;
steels and plastics. Many of the components that go together to make an engine work have been
manufactured using lathes. These may be lathes operated directly by people (manual lathes) or
computer controlled lathes (CNC machines) that have been programmed to carry out a particular
task.
A basic manual center lathe is shown below:
Woodturning lathe is a bit simpler

version of the center lathe, it helps in
crafting on wood with hand-held tools
to cut a shape that is symmetrical
around the axis of rotation.
38
i) Hammers
The Ball Pein hammer is

used mainly by engineers.
Ball Pein It is a general hammer,
Hammer but has certain specific ✓ ✓ ✗
uses. One such use is
cold riveting.
Cross Pein hammers are

used where space is a
little restricted, such as
Cross Pein working in a corner.
Hammer ✓ ✓ ✗
Another possible use, is
when a nail is held in the
hand, between fingers.
It serves the same

Straight Pein purpose and function as
Hammer cross pein hammer but in ✓ ✓ ✗
different orientation
A Pin Hammer is a light-

weight hammer, with a
‘thin head’, ideal for
Pin Hammer ✓ ✓ ✗
hammering panel pins in
place.
Ideal for hammering nails,

Claw with the claw being
Hammer designed to remove nails ✓ ✓ ✗
from wood.
39
A Smith’s hammer is used
during the forging of
metal. In trained hands, it
Smith’s is capable for forming red
Hammer ✗ ✓ ✗
hot steel and wrought
iron, into numerous
shapes and forms.
It is used in demolition
work and in the
construction industry. It is
Club
Hammer ideal for providing the
(Lump force required to ‘drive’ a ✓ ✓ ✗
Hammer) cold chisel, through
resistant construction
materials.
j) Driving Tools
Used to drive headless

nails and panel pins below
the surface to prevent
them causing scratches,
Nail punch and so that the hole can ✓ ✗ ✗
be filled to match the
timber. It has a hollow tip
into which the head of the
nail fits
Used to remove small
nails. The rounded jaws
are used as a lever to
Pincers provide extra force: place
a piece of scrap timber ✓ ✗ ✗
beneath the jaw to protect
timber when using them
Used to drill holes up to

8mm diameter using a
Hand drill
twist drill. It has a three- ✓ ✗ ✗
jaw, self-centring chuck.
Used to bore holes in

timber using square
Carpenter’s
shank bits. It has a two-
brace ✓ ✗ ✗
vee-shaped jaw self-
centring chuck.
40
Used to tighten and
loosen nuts and bolts.
They are available as
Spanners
open ended, ring and ✓ ✓ ✗
adjustable, and in both
imperial and metric sizes
Used to grip and turn

round bar and pipes. The
force exerted on the
handle increases the grip
Wrench of the jaws. They should
(Pipe Monkey not be used to undo or ✗ ✓ ✗
Wrench)
tighten nuts and bolts,
because they tend to
round off the hexagonal
heads.
Used to tighten and

loosen Allen screws. The
Allen key
hexagonal key fits into the ✗ ✓ ✗
head of the screw
Used to drive woodscrews

in. Woodscrews fall into
Screwdrivers
two broad groups – slot ✓ ✓ ✗
head and cross head
41
k) Holding Tools
Used to hold timber

frames and carcases
together while glue sets.
Sash clamp Can also be used to hold ✓ ✗ ✗
metal frames square while
they are being brazed or
welded
The name comes from its

"F" shape. The F-clamp is
similar to a C-clamp in
F Clamp ✓ ✓ ✗
use, but has a wider
opening capacity (throat).
Can be used to hold small

pieces of material in place
G clamp while glue sets. G clamps
(C Clamp) come in a range of ✓ ✗ ✗
different sizes: 50–
350mm.
Used to hold parts,

usually metal, together
Toolmaker’s
while they are being ✓ ✗ ✗
clamp
marked out and worked
on.
Used to hold small,

especially irregular, parts
and pieces of material
Hand vice
while drilling, riveting etc. ✓ ✓ ✗
Particularly useful when
drilling sheet metal.
Used to clamp pieces of

material together while
drilling, welding, riveting
Mole wrench etc. Often used instead of ✓ ✓ ✗
more traditional
toolmaker’s clamp and
hand vice
42
Used to hold timber
steady when sawing. Also
helps to prevent timber
splitting, by supporting it
Bench hook as the final few cuts are ✓ ✓ ✗
made. Usually held in a
carpenter’s vice to
increase stability while
sawing
Used to cut timber square

o
and at 45 . Usually held in
Mitre box a carpenter’s vice to ✓ ✓ ✗
increase stability while
sawing.
l) Portable Power Tools
Used to make straight

cuts in timber. Has a
revolving blade. Can be
Circular saw fitted with either a cross- ✓ ✗ ✗
cut or ripsaw blade for
sawing with or across the
grain.
Used to make curved cuts

and remove material
isolated from the edge of
Jigsaw a sheet. Has a short ✓ ✗ ✗
reciprocating blade, which
can be changed to cut
timber, metal or plastic
Used to prepare large

areas of timber for
finishing. Has a revolving
Belt sander
abrasive belt, which ✓ ✗ ✗
should always be used
with the grain
Used to prepare timber for

finishing. Has a revolving
circular abrasive disc,
which can be used to
Disc sander
access awkwardly ✓ ✗ ✗
shaped areas, Very
difficult to produce a good
finish
43
Used to prepare small
areas of timber for
finishing. Has a flat sheet
of abrasive paper, which
Orbital
oscillates in a circular
sander ✓ ✗ ✗
motion. Produces a good-
quality finish, which
requires minimal finishing
by hand
Used to cut and prepare

metal for finishing and
Angle
joining by brazing or ✗ ✓ ✗
grinder
welding. Has a revolving
circular abrasive disc
Used to cut grooves and

shape the edges of
timber. A revolving cutter
removes material as the
Router machine is pushed along ✓ ✗ ✗
the work piece. The profile
of the slot or edge is
determined by the shape
of the cutter used
Used to cut slots in timber

to enable it to be joined
together either at right
Biscuit angles or edge to edge.
jointer An oval piece of timber ✓ ✗ ✗
(biscuit) fits into the slots
created, forming a precise
joint
Used to reduce timber to

size and prepare for
finishing by removing thin
shavings. The blade is
Planer mounted on a circular ✓ ✗ ✗
block, which revolves and
removes material as it is
pushed over the work
piece.
44
Part (d): Joining and Assembly
i. Temporary Joining
The joints which can be disassembled without damaging the material. Temporary joining of materials
can be achieved using components that have a screw thread. Typical examples include; screws,
nuts and bolts, set screws and knock-down fittings.
a) Wood Screws
They are used to join metal or plastic components to wood, or to join two pieces of wood to make a strong joint
Name Description Timber Metal Plastic Illustration
This can be used for general ✓ ✓ ✓

woodworking for example
Countersunk fitting hinges to doors. Because
(Slot Head) the screw is countersunk it can
be tightened 'flush' to the
surface of the material.
Used with special screw drivers

which will not slip when
Countersunk
pressure is applied. This is
(Pozidriv Head) ideal when using screws in
corners or confined spaces.
✓ ✓ ✓
45
✓ ✓ ✓
Raised Used to fit door handle plates

countersunk and decorative features that
(or Raised Head must look good.
Screw)
✓ ✓ ✓
Usually japanned steel, and
used to fix metal fittings
outdoors. Round head screws
Round Head Screw can look quite decorative
especially if they are made of
brass
Can be used for fitting fixtures

such as mirrors. The 'cap',
which is the dome shape is
usually chromed or made from
brass and this can be a good
Dome Head Screw
✓ ✓ ✓
feature. It also makes the head
of the screw safe as the doom
has no sharp edges to catch
and cut hands/fingers.
The thread on this type of

screw extends all the way
Chipboard Screws
along the length. It is best used ✓ ✗ ✓
with chipboard
Joining Materials using Wood Screws
1. Mark the position of the screw on the top of the

wood.
2. Drill a clearance hole through the top piece - the
same diameter as the shank.
3. Countersink the hole if using a countersunk screw.
4. Put the two pieces of material together and drill a
smaller diameter hole in the second piece of
material
5. Place the screw in the top first hole and tighten
carefully with a screwdriver.
46
b) Machine Screws
They are used for joining metal (mainly) components. Holes have to be pre-drilled into the component. They must have
the correct internal thread.
Description Illustration
• Machine screws are also known as set

screws
• Machine screws are available in a range of
diameters, lengths, heads, materials and
threads.
• Steel and brass are the most common
materials used in making of machine screws
Joining Materials using Machine Screws
• Drill a tapping size hole equal to the thread

root diameter in the inner sheet.
• Use a taper tap to cut a thread in the pilot

hole. If threading a blind hole, use a
bottoming tap to cut the thread to the bottom
of the pilot hole,
• Drill a clearance hole in the outer sheet

slightly larger than the external diameter.
47
c) Bolts
Nuts and bolts are used to clamp two pieces of material, usually metal, together. They provide a mechanically strong
method of joining materials.
Steel nuts and bolts can be coated with zinc or chrome to increase resistance to corrosion and improve their
appearance.
Bolts are available with hexagonal and square heads;

however, hexagonal is the most common.
Coach bolts are designed for use in timber. They have a

shallow domed head with a square underneath, which is
designed to bite into the wood to prevent the bolt from
turning.
Studding is a long length of headless threaded bar.
d) Nuts
Nuts are screwed onto bolts and provide the clamping force.
They are available most commonly as

hexagonal but are also available as square,
wing and locking.
Wing nuts are designed to be tightened and

undone by hand.
Locking nuts are used to prevent the nut

becoming loose due to vibration.
48
e) Washers
Washers are used to spread the load and protect the surface
when the nut is tightened.
Spring or lock washers are used to help prevent nuts

becoming loosened by vibration.
f) Hinges
Hinges are movable joints that pivot. They are available in brass, nylon or steel, which can be coated to prevent
corrosion and improve appearance.
Furthermore, brass hinges are more expensive than steel ones and they give a quality look to the completed product.
Below are some of the more popular hinges that are available.
Name Description Illustration
Butt hinges are used for a wide range of

Butt Hinge jobs, from small box lids through to
hanging doors.
This is often used on light-weight doors

Butterfly Hinge and different shapes and patterns are
available. They are generally easy to fit.
This type of hinge does not require a

recess to be cut. They are not as strong
Flush Hinge as butt hinges but can be used for light-
weight doors and small box
construction.
This comes in two parts. The threaded

part of the hinge is screwed into a pre-
Barrel Hinge
drilled hole. They are easy to fit and the
hinge can be dismantled.
49
They are used in heavy-duty situations
such as shed doors and gates. The long
Tee Hinge flap spreads the load over the pivoting
leaf, and the short flap is secured to the
static frame.
These normally come in two sizes

(25mm and 36mm. The hinge is
Concealed Hinge
adjustable once fitted and is designed
with chipboard and MDF in mind.
This is a hinge that comes in different

lengths and can be bought in brass or
steel. It is ideal where a long hinge is
Piano Hinge
required such as a desk top or a
(Continuous Hinge)
cupboard door. Small countersink
screws are normally used to fix it in
position.
g) Catches
Catches provide a means of keeping doors closed without locking them. They are available in brass, nylon or steel,
which can be coated to prevent corrosion and improve appearance.
The magnet catch consists of a moulding
holding the magnet and a metal striker plate.
Magnetic catch The moulding is fitted to the side of the
cupboard while the striker plate is fitted to the
back of the door so that the two parts line up.
The Ball catch has a spring loaded ball held

within a cylinder attached to a flange.
Ball Catch
The catch is recessed into the edge of the
(or Bale Catch)
door while the striker plate is recessed into
the jamb.
50
A sprung roller consists of a roller assembly
Sprung Roller Catch with two rollers which open up as the clip is
pushed into it as the door is closed.
Unlike the other catches, which all fit behind

the door and work without special attention,
Turn Handle Catch
the turn handle catch fits to the front of the
door and works by 'twisting and pulling'.
A catcher/lock of antique look used for

Latch Hook Hinge decorative purposes on boxes and small
doors
ii. Permanent Joining

Permanent joints are intended to stay put throughout the product’s lifecycle. They may be assembled
using adhesives, nails, rivets, or one of the heat processes of brazing, soldering or welding.
Metals joints are made by brazing, soldering, welding or rivets.

a) Brazing
Brazing is a way of bonding materials by melting a filler metal or alloy between the components.
The filler metals used in brazing must have a lower melting point than that of the material being
joined. Brazing forms very strong, permanent joints.
b) Hard Soldering
Soldering is a type of brazing which works at lower temperatures. Silver soldering or hard
soldering is a method of joining metal with a melted solder called silver solder. By using a range
of solders with progressively lower melting points it is possible to make several joints in
sequential stages.
c) Soft Soldering
Soft soldering is a quick and easy method of joining copper, brass and tinplate. It is also used to
connect electronic components to printed circuit boards. Soft solder is an alloy of lead, tin and
antimony. The joining process relies on alloying: the tin alloys with the surface of the metal being
joined.
d) Welding
Welding works when two pieces of metal are melted along the joints, the metals fuse together
as they cool.
The different types of welding are:
1. Oxyacetylene gas (also known as Gas Welding)
2. MIG (metal inert gas) Welding
51
3. TIG (tungsten electrode inert gas) Welding: particularly suited to welding aluminium and
stainless steel.
4. Spot Welding: a form of resistance welding, and is used for joining thin sheet steel together.
e) Nails
Using nails is an effective way of fixing or joining pieces of softwood together. Hardwoods can be difficult to join with
nails as they tend to bend under the impact of the hammer.
However, if used on their own, nails produce very weak joints, which only become slightly stronger as the nail rusts
inside the timber.
Name Description Illustration
This is used for general work. It is not

Round Wire Nail attractive in shape and it can split
wood when hammered in position
They have oval shanks and a narrow

Oval Wire Nail head, which is driven below the
surface to provide a flush finish.
This is ideal if it is necessary to hide

the head of the nail as a punch can be
Lost Head Nail
used to hammer the head beneath the
surface level.
A very popular way of joining woods

Panel Pin although glue is usually included as
part of the join.
Can be used for fixing textile materials

Tack to wood for example, fixing upholstery
to furniture.
This no head and is generally used for

Sprig
fixing glass to glass in wood frames.
They have ridged rings along their

length that bite into the wood, making
them very difficult to pull out.
Annular Ring Nail
They have greater holding power than
other types of nail.
52
They have a hard square shank,
which can penetrate hardboard
Hardboard Pin without bending.
The diamond shaped head is hidden
when used in materials like hardboard
These are used throughout the
construction industry, to firmly attach
Spiral Shank Nail
wood frames (such as shelves) to
concrete and masonry.
Typical Use of Nailing
Dovetail Nailing: In order to increase the

strength of a joint, the nails should be inserted at
angles towards each other
Staggered nailing: In order to avoid splitting the

wood when putting in more than one nail, they
should be staggered.
f) Adhesives
Already have studied on Page no. 10
Here the table below will show which adhesives should be used with which material.
Timber Metal Plastic Fiber
Timber PVA or Synthetic Resin Contact Adhesive Contact Adhesive PVA
Metal Contact Adhesive Epoxy Resin Contact Adhesive Contact Adhesive
Plastic Contact Adhesive Epoxy Resin Acrylic Cement Contact Adhesive
Latex*
Fiber PVA Contact Adhesive Contact Adhesive Sort of glue, used to bond
paper, card and fabrics.
53
g) Rivet
Rivets are predominantly used to make permanent joints in sheet metal, but the process can also be used to join
acrylic, plywood and other soft materials together and to each other.
Solid Riveting Blind or Pop Riveting

Solid rivets are made of either soft mild steel, Pop riveting is a technique that is used to join thin
aluminum or copper. They are available with pieces of metal and it can also be used to join plastic
countersunk, flat, or round heads. sheet. The rivet has two parts; the pin and the rivet.
This technique is used where the metal or plastic is

thin and where the joint does not have to be very
strong. It is ideal for joining aluminum or even thin
sheet plastic.
Steps Involved:
Steps Involved:
1. Drill holes in both pieces of material the same
1. The two pieces of plastic or aluminum are drilled
diameter as the shank of the rivet, and de-burr.
to a size slightly larger than the rivet
2. Countersink the outer surface of both pieces of
2. The pop rivet is passed through both holes in the
material to the depth of the rivet head.
sheet plastic / aluminum
3. Cut the rivet so that an amount equivalent to the
3. The rivet pliers are pushed on to the pin of the rivet
diameter is sticking up.
and the handles are pulled together.
4. Assemble the joint and place on a metal block.
4. As this happens the pin head is pulled into the rivet
5. Swell the rivet in the hole by striking with the flat
and the end of the rivet is expanded.
face of a ball pein hammer.
5. Eventually the pin will break off leaving the rivet
6. Use the ball pein to hammer the rivet into the
permanently fixed in position holding the two
countersink.
pieces of plastic / aluminium together.
7. File smooth.
54
Type of Joints
Color Coding: Green (Stronger Joints), Yellow (Weaker Joints), Purple (Mediocre Joints)
Name and Use Illustration
Cross Halving Joint
They are used whenever it is

necessary to join two pieces
of wood that cross over each
other. Sometimes these joints
can be seen on the
strengthening rails of tables
and chairs.
Tee Halving Joint
It is an interjection joint,
where first bar/block is
required to join perpendicular
at the edge of second bar.
Tee halving joints can be
used where great strength is
not required.
Dovetail Halving Joint
A joint such as Dovetail

Halving Joint is very difficult
to pull apart because of the
dovetail shape of one of the
pieces. However, marking out
and cutting the dovetail
halving joint is much more
difficult than a simple tee
halving.
Half Lap Joint
It is a corner joint, where two

bar/blocks need to be join
perpendicular to each other.
Half lap joints can be used
where great strength is not
required.
55
Bridle/Plain Bridle Joint
A corner joint, These two

‘BRIDLE JOINTS’ are used
when a light frame is needed
and strength is not the main
requirement.
Angled Bridle Joint
An interjection joint, The

angled bridle joint can be
used a substitute for a
mortise and tenon joint, again
if strength is not important.
Mortise and Tenon Joint
One of the most common

joints used for joining the rails
and legs of tables, chairs and
other type of furniture.
If a good glue such as PVA is
used, the joint would be very
unlikely to break apart.
Dowelled Mortise and

Tenon Joints
A piece of dowel rod is drilled
through the mortise and the
tenon. This helps keep the
joint together. If a joint of this
type is cut accurately, glue
often is not needed to hold
the parts together.
Double Mortise and

Tenon Joint
A modified version of Mortise

and Tenon to induce more
strength in joint.
PVA is recommended for
making this joint permanent.
56
Twin Mortise and Tenon
Joint
This is a very strong mortise

and tenon because the two
tenons give a greater gluing
area than a single tenon. It is
used where great strength is
required at a joint..
Dovetail Joint
It is very strong corner joint
The pins and tails makes it
difficult to pull the joint apart
and virtually impossible when
glue is added. This type of
joint is used in box
constructions such as draws,
jewellery boxes, cabinets and
other pieces of furniture
where strength is required.
Lapped Dovetail Joint
This type of dovetail joint is
often used for drawers where
the joint can only be seen
from one side. The joint is
very strong as are all dovetail
joints. This type of joint is
sometimes used as the joint
for book cases and cabinets
Finger Joint
It is ideal for box

constructions and is suitable
for use with natural woods.
Finger joints are difficult to
make but easier than dovetail
joints.
Shoulder / Rebate /
Lapped Joint
The shoulder or lapped joint

is very common and is used
for furniture and box
constructions such as
jewellery boxes.
57
Butt Joint
They are made when the end

of one piece of wood butts up
to the edge of the other to
make the join. Butt Joints
tend to be weak, but quick
and robust enough for many
applications.
Mitre Joint
A Mitre joint is a type of Butt

Joint, except they are joint at
an angle across the grain.
The angle of the cut is usually
45o to make 90o corner
Tongue and Groove

Joint
These are joints that are

designed to hold boards or
planks together side by side.
They are typically used for
flooring or cladding
Housing Joint
An interjection joint, joining

two blocks at 90o.This is just
a simple slot cut into one
piece of wood to increase the
glue area. This is often done
with a router and works very
well in MDF.
Dowel Joint
Dowel Joint is suitable for

both corner and tee joints.
It is a particularly useful joint
when working with chipboard
and MDF.
58
Biscuit Joint
Biscuit joint is used to join

manmade boards. A biscuit
jointer cuts slots in both
halves to be joined, into
which an elliptical-shaped
biscuit is inserted to make a
mechanical connection.
Methods of Strengthening Joints / Extended Versions of Joints
Screwed Butt Joint
Feather splined Miter Joint
Wedged Mortise and Tenon Joint
59
60
Metallic Joints
Sheet Metal Joints Frame Metal Joints
*Many of the frame joints are same
joints as those used when working with
timber are used.
Knock Down Fittings
Knock-down fittings are those that can be put together easily, normally using only a screw driver,
a drill, a mallet/hammer and other basic tools.
Knock-down (KD) fittings are used extensively in the manufacture of flat-pack furniture. KD fitting
is the key feature of self-assembled products. They reduce the space needed to store completed
pieces in the warehouse. The number of items per load can be increased when transporting.
Customers can fit larger items in their cars and assemble them at home.
The most commonly used KD fittings are:
a) Scan Fitting
(also known as frame connectors)
• They provide a very strong join between

the side and end frames without the need
to cut joints.
• The bolt has a countersunk head with an
Allen key socket.
• The barrel has a threaded hole through it,
and a screwdriver slot with which to align it
with the bolt.
b) Cam Lock Fitting
• The collar of the shaft is passed through the

hole in the second slot in the disk. When
the disk rotates the shaft is locked in
position. This keeps both sides of the
cabinet locked together.
61
• The disk fits into a recess in the first side of
the cabinet. It rotates by inserting a
screwdriver into the slot in its side. The
shaft is screwed into the second side of the
cabinet.
c) Connector Block Fitting
• Connector block fittings are injection-

moulded plastic blocks that provide a
simple way to construct carcasses.
• They are available as one-piece and two-
piece systems.
One Piece Connector Block Fitting
• The two-piece system enables carcasses to

be dismantled without the need to remove
all the screws.
Two Piece Connector Block Fitting

d) Corner plate fittings
(or also known as Leg Fastening and Table Plate)
• Corner plate fittings are used to make leg

and rail connections on items of furniture
such as tables and beds
• A traditional table is fixed permanently
together using mortise and tenon joints.
These joints are strong but have a
disadvantage - they cannot be used for
modern ‘knockdown furniture’
• As the wing nut is tightened, the leg and
rails are brought together.
• The ‘table plate’ fitting is ideal for this type
of furniture because it can be set up quite
easily with the use of a spanner and a
screw driver.
62
Joints and their recommended place of usage
a) Box Joints
Box joints are used to construct carcasses. Carcass constructions include cupboards, drawers and bookcases.
Examples of box joints include:
• Butt Joint (A, B, C, D)

• Corner Rebate Joint (A)
• Finger Or Comb Joint (A)
• Dovetail Joint (A)
• Dowel Joint (A, B, C, D)
• Biscuit Joint (A, B, C, D)
• Housing Joint (A, B, C, D)
b) Frame Joints
Flat frame joints are used to construct picture frames, door frames and window frames.
Joints used in the manufacture of flat

frames include:
• Butt Joint (A, B, C)

• Mitre Joint (D)
• Halving Joint (A, B, C)
• Bridle Joint (A, B )
• Mortise And Tenon Joint (A, B, C)
• Dowel Joint (A, B, C).
c) Stool Joints
Or also known as Three-dimensional frame joints, they are used to construct tables, chairs, beds and buildings where
three or more pieces of timber meet.
Joints used in the manufacture of three-

dimensional frames include:
• Halving Joints (C)

• Bridle Joints (C)
• Mortise And Tenon Joints (A, B, C)
• Dowel Joints (A, B, C).
63
Part (e): Finishing
Why Finishing is required?
• A quality finish will lift the perceived value of the product.

• Preservation of the wood is another reason for applying a finish, lengthening the lifespan
of the piece of furniture / product. This is especially important if the product is to be for
external use, such as garden furniture.
• A dye applied as a finish, will change the ‘color’ of the wood, giving the illusion that
‘cheap’ pine is actually more expensive mahogany.
*Filling is always required before applying any type of finish
Starting with Timber Finishing Starting with Metal Finishing
Step 1: Cleaning up Step 1: Cleaning up
Use a smoothing plane to remove pencil marks This is done with a smooth file. Hold the file in
and clean the surfaces. both hands, with the hands close to the work,
and move the file backwards and forwards.
Step 2: Preparation Use progressively finer grades of emery cloth or

wet and dry paper to remove any marks left
Use abrasives to create a smooth surface.
Always rub in the same direction as the grain. Wrap the abrasive sheet around the file to
achieve a flat finish.
Before applying paint to timber, any knots must
first be sealed to prevent any resin seeping out, Step 2: Preparation
and a coat of primer must be applied.
To clean and degrease the metal use
methylated spirit or degreaser to clean badly
affected parts.
A solution of caustic soda or detergent will be

sufficient to remove light oil and dirt.
Non-ferrous metals can be cleaned and

degreased by dipping in a weak acid pickle (one
part sulphuric acid to ten parts water).
64
Step 3: Application of the finish
Liquid finishes should be applied in a warm, dust-free environment.
Liquid finishes should be applied in three or more thin coats, rubbing down lightly between each
to build up a deep smooth surface.
When applying a liquid finish with a brush, brush out well and finish with long brushstrokes in the
same direction as the grain.
When applying a finish to unassembled components do not apply any to surfaces that are to be
glued.
Name Description Timber Metal Plastic
Paint is used to change the colour and protect timber.

When it has been applied, the natural colour and
grain pattern are completely obscured.
Painting Paint can be applied by brush or spray, and gives a ✓ ✓ ✗
very durable, hard, waterproof, high-gloss finish.
Paint is suitable for indoor and outdoor carpentry and
furniture. It offers some resistance to heat.
Varnish is a solution of natural resins in oil or spirit.
Varnish is applied by brush, spray or cloth and gives
a durable, hard, waterproof, high-gloss finish that
shows off the natural color and grain of the timber.
Varnishing Varnish is used for indoor and outdoor carpentry and ✓ ✗ ✗
furniture.
It is not heat resistant. But Synthetic Varnish does
resist the heat.
Timber: The polish is applied by cloth, and then
buffed to give a dull gloss finish that shows off the
natural color and grain of the timber.
Polishing ✓ ✓ ✓
Metal: Polishes contain a very fine abrasive that cuts
away the top surface of the metal to create a bright
sheen. It can be done by hand or by machine.
Stain is used to change the shade or colour of timber.

It is a decorative finish that does not protect the
Staining timber; protection is provided by the application of ✓ ✗ ✗
clear varnish when the stain has dried.
Stain can be applied by brush, spray or cloth.
It can be used on indoor and outdoor furniture, but

requires regular re-application in order to maintain
Oil protection.
✓ ✓ ✗
It is applied using a cloth, by rubbing it well into the
grain and allowing up to a week between coats.
65
Lacquer is usually applied to
non-ferrous metals after the final polishing and
degreasing has been completed.
Lacquer is similar to varnish, and can be applied by
Lacquering ✗ ✓ ✗
spraying or brush.
The protective coat prevents the metal from coming
into contact with air and oxidizing, thereby preserving
its polished finish.
Etching is a decorative finish that produces patterns

or designs on the surface of the metal.
Etching ✗ ✓ ✗
The work can be lacquered to protect it against
oxidization.
Anodizing is the most common finishing process used

on aluminium.
It is used to produce a durable, corrosion-resistant
Anodizing finish, to provide a key for painting and for decoration.
✗ ✓ ✗
Anodizing is an electrolytic process that thickens the
oxide film present on the surface of the metal.
Colour can be added to the bath to tint the aluminium.
Electroplating is used to produce an attractive,

durable, corrosion-resistant finish.
Electroplating Chrome, silver and nickel are some of the most ✗ ✓ ✗
commonly used plating metals.
Electroplating is the depositing of one metal onto
another by means of an electric current.
Galvanizing is carried out by dipping the finished
product into a bath of molten zinc.
Galvanizing Galvanizing is used to produce a durable, corrosion- ✗ ✓ ✗
resistant finish on steel products that are to be used
outside.
Plastic dip coating is used to produce a durable,
corrosion-resistant finish on steel products.
The finished product can be black, white or brightly
coloured, depending on the tint added to the powder
Dip coating
being used.
✗ ✓ ✗
Polythene is the most commonly used plastic
because of its low cost; nylon and PVC can also be
used.
Self-Finishing
Many products are manufactured with their final finish. Injection moulded products are formed in
a mould which is either textured or highly polished - this finish is imparted to each product
produced by the mould. Most plastics are manufactured with a very good surface finish.
66
Health and Safety
What colors and shapes should be used on safety signboards?
Red for prohibition

Yellow for caution, hazard, possible danger
Green for safe condition, positive action, no danger,
Blue for mandatory actions, information
Discs (Round Shape) for prohibitions and instructions
Triangles for warnings
Squares and rectangles for emergency and information signs
67
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71

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DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

Advantages of using thermoplastics:

Where not to use/

Tough and flexible with

Common Where not to use/

Where not to use/

• Straight grained but prone to knots

• Pale yellow in color with darker

Indoor furniture vulnerable to insect

• Creamy white with small hard knots

Possible skin irritation

• Very pale in color

Relatively strong, knotty,

• Heartwood color can range from

Where not to use/

• A light creamy-brown color

Beech polishes well and Prone to warping, dense

Tough, Resists splitting, May get out of shape

• Light Brown in color

• Rich reddish-brown color

Its strength and beauty

• Light Brown color

How to care for timber during storage and construction?

To join acrylic and some other

To join polystyrene and

The resin reaches

Where not to use/

It is more expensive than

Inexpensive, Good for

It is not as strong as the

Resistant to some Can crack or split under

Difficult to join in comparison with traditional

Manufactured boards are uniform with few

Not suitable for long term and durable

They are available in ready finished formats

Casting and base metal for all

Mild carbon content.

Contains chromium ≥ 18%, Cutlery, Kitchen equipment,

Contains a high content of

Medium Carbon Used for large parts, Railway

Hard and tough but the increase

Brittleness, the ability to be non-flexible and shattered into multiple pieces…..

Saucepans, Cooking foil,

Widely used in aircraft

A very ductile and malleable

Deep brown/yellow in color. It

Used as a coating on screws,

Changing the Structure and Properties of Metals

Case Hardening of Mild Steel:

Name Properties Where to use Example

The most common

Good corrosion and chemical resistance Very limited shelf life

Low thermal conductivity at room temperature Poor Long-term temperature resistance,

Low cost Difficult joining (riveting)

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic/Polymer (CFRP)

Market form, Types and Sizes:

*Examples of standard sectional profiles available

Tool name Description Timber Metal Plastic Illustration

This is used to test

This is used to mark out

This is used to mark out

This is used to mark out

This is used to mark

These are used to mark