Book Summary

Handbook of Applied Hydrology
00_Singh_FM_pi-lvi.indd 1 02/09/16 5:15 pm

Editor-in-Chief
Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., D. Eng. (Hon.), Ph.D. (Hon.), D. Sc. (Hon.), P.E., P.H., Hon.
D. WRE, Academician (GFA), is a Distinguished Professor and Caroline & William N. Lehrer
Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering in the Department of Biological and Agricultural
Engineering and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering at Texas A&M University. He holds
a B.Tech degree from U.P. University of Agriculture and Technology, a Master’s Degree from
the University of Guelph, a Ph.D. from Colorado State University, and a D.Sc. from the
University of the Witwatersrand. One of today’s leading experts in the field of hydrology, Dr.
Singh specializes in surface water hydrology, groundwater hydrology, hydraulics, irrigation
engineering, environmental quality, and water resources. He has published 25 books and has
edited over 58 books, and has published hundreds of journal articles. He has been the Editor-
in-Chief of the Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, ASCE; is currently serving as Editor-in-
Chief of Open Agriculture, and Journal of Agricultural research, and Journal of Groundwater
Research and is on the editorial boards of numerous journals. He is also serving as Editor-in-
Chief of Water Science and Technology Book Series as well as World Water Resources Book
series. He has received more than 75 national and international awards.

Handbook of Applied Hydrology
Vijay P. Singh
Editor-in-Chief
Second Edition to replace the classic 1964 edition edited by Ven Te Chow
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Dedicated to
Hydrologists and Water Scientists

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Contributors
Benjamin Abban Daniel W. Baker

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Tennessee Colorado State University
Knoxville, Tennessee Fort Collins, Colorado
Emanuele Baratti
M. C. Acreman
Department DICAM
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
University of Bologna
Crowmarsh Gifford
Bologna, Italy
Wallingford, United Kingdom
Donald E. Barbe
Lauren Adams Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Center for Watershed Sciences University of New Orleans
University of California, Davis New Orleans, Louisiana
Davis, California
Robert Bastian
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Mohammad Z. Al-Hamdan
Washington, D.C.
Universities Space Research Association
NASA/Marshall Space Flight Center Peter Bauer-Gottwein
National Space Science and Technology Center Department of Environmental Engineering
Huntsville, Alabama Technical University of Denmark
Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Douglas Alsdorf
Byrd Polar and Climate Research Center Hiroko Kato Beaudoing
The Ohio State University Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center
Columbus, Ohio University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Devendra M. Amatya Beijing Normal University
Center for Forested Wetlands Research Research and Development Centre
Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service Nippon Koei Co. Ltd.
Cordesville, South Carolina (Consulting Engineers)
Tsukuba, Japan
Daniel P. Ames Katherine Y. Bell
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Water Reuse Global Practice Leader, MWH Global
Brigham Young University Nashville, Tennessee
Provo, Utah
Joerg Uwe Belz
Michael Anderson Department of Hydrometry and Hydrological Survey Federal Institute of Hydrology
State Climatologist, California Department of Water Resources Koblenz, Germany
Sacramento, California
Lars Bengtsson
Department of Water Resources Engineering
Mazdak Arabi
Lund Institute of Technology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Lund University
Colorado State University
Lund, Sweden
Fort Collins, Colorado
Ronny Berndtsson
Mustafa M. Aral Department of Water Resources Engineering
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Center for Middle Eastern Studies
Georgia Institute of Technology Lund University
Atlanta, Georgia Lund, Sweden
Bhavna Arora Daniela Biondi

Earth Sciences Division Department of Informatics, Modelling, Electronics and Systems Engineering
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory University of Calabria
Berkeley, California Rende (CS), Italy
M. Babbar-Sebens Brian P. Bledsoe

School of Civil and Construction Engineering College of Engineering
Oregon State University University of Georgia
Corvallis, Oregon Athens, Georgia
vii
00_Singh_FM_pi-lvi.indd 7 12/6/16 12:18 PM

viii Contributors
Günter Blöschl Yang Cheng

Centre for Water Resource Systems Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Institut für Wasserbau und Ingenieurhydrologie Syracuse University
Technische Universität Wien Syracuse, New York
Wien, Austria
Nannan Cheng
Istvan Bogardi State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau
Professor, Department of Meteorology Institute of Soil and Water Conservation
Eotvos University Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources
Budapest, Hungary Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
Department of Civil Engineering Yangling, China
University of Nebraska Lincoln
Lincoln, Nebraska Ekaterina V. Chuprina
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences
John D. Bolten Moscow, Russia
Hydrological Sciences Branch
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Theodore G. Cleveland
Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering
André Bouchard Texas Tech University
Program Manager, National Hydrological Service Meteorological Service of Canada Lubbock, Texas
Environment and Climate Change Canada
Québec, Canada Walter Collischonn
Institute of Hydraulic Research
Armando Brath Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM IPH-UFRGS
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna Porto Alegre, Brazil
Bologna, Italy
Zhentao Cong
Juan Martín Bravo Department of Hydraulic Engineering
Instituto de Pesquisas Hidráulicas Tsinghua University
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul Beijing, China
IPH-UFRGS
Porto Alegre, Brazil James Connaughton
Richmond, California
Dmitry A. Burakov
Head of the Department of Environmental Engineering, Corrado Corradini
Krasnoyarsk State Agrarian University Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Krasnoyarsk, Russia University of Perugia
Perugia, Italy
Donald H. Burn
Alva Couch
Department of Computer Science
University of Waterloo
Tufts University
Waterloo, Canada
Medford, Massachusetts
Aaron R. Byrd
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory Norman H. Crawford
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center President, Hydrocomp, Inc.
Vicksburg, Mississippi Menlo Park, California
James F. Cruise
Ximing Cai
University of Alabama in Huntsville
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Huntsville, Alabama
Urbana, Illinois
Allegra K. da Silva
Darryl E. Carlyle-Moses
Water Reuse Practice Leader - Rocky Mountain Region, MWH Global
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies
Denver, Colorado
Thompson Rivers University
Kamloops, Canada Baptiste Dafflon
Earth Sciences Division
Attilio Castellarin Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM Berkeley, California
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna
Bologna, Italy Kumer Pial Das
Department of Mathematics
Serena Ceola
Lamar University
Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental and Materials Engineering - DICAM
Beaumont, Texas
Bologna, Italy Claus Davidsen
Department of Environmental Engineering
Cem P. Cetinkaya
Technical University of Denmark
Dokuz Eylül University
Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Water Resources Management Research & Application Center (SUMER)
Izmir, Turkey Rodrigo Cauduro Dias de Paiva
Maria A. Charina Institute of Hydraulic Research
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul
Moscow, Russia Porto Alegre, Brazil
Fateh Chebana Zhi-Qiang Deng

Institut national de la recherche scientifique Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Centre Eau-Terre-Environnement Louisiana State University
Québec, Canada Baton Rouge, Los Angeles
Ji Chen Georgia Destouni

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Physical Geography
The University of Hong Kong Stockholm University
Hong Kong, China Stockholm, Sweden

Contributors ix
Michael DeWeese Donald K. Frevert

National Weather Service Hydraulic Engineer and Team Leader, Retired
North Central River Forecast Center Technical Services Center
Chanhassen, Minnesota Bureau of Reclamation
Lakewood, Colorado
Daniel H. Doctor
Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center Devin L. Galloway
U.S. Geological Survey Water Mission Area
Reston, Virginia U.S. Geological Survey
Alessio Domeneghetti Indianapolis, Indiana
ALMA MATER STUDIORUM - Università di Bologna Timothy S. Gambrell
Bologna, Italy Executive Director, Mississippi River Commission U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Mississippi Valley Division
A. S. Donigian, Jr. Vicksburg, Mississippi
Principal Consultant, AQUA TERRA Consultants
Mountain View, California Christian Genest
Department of Mathematics and Statistics
Charles W. Downer
McGill University
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory
Montréal, Canada
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Timothy R. Ginn
André Dozier Washington Sate University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Pullman, Washington
Fort Collins, Colorado Jorge Gironás
Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental
Jim Dumont Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile
Water Infrastructure Specialist Santiago, Chile
Salt Spring Island, Canada
Peter H. Gleick
Dipankar Dwivedi Pacific Institute
Earth Sciences Division Oakland, California
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Berkeley, California Narendra Kumar Gontia
Principal and Dean, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Junagadh
Walter L. Ellenburg
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh
Gujarat, India
Huntsville, Alabama
Jonathan L. Goodall
A. Ercan Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Hydrologic Research Laboratory University of Virginia
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Charlottesville, Virginia
University of California
Davis, California David C. Goodrich
USDA-ARS
Alvar Escriva-Bou Southwest Watershed Research Center
Research Fellow, Water Policy Center Tucson, Arizona
Public Policy Institute of California
San Francisco, California R. S. Govindaraju
Delon and Elizabeth Hampton Hall of Civil Engineering
James S. Famiglietti
Purdue University
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
West Lafayette, Indiana
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California Robert E. Griffin
Koren Fang Atmospheric Science Department
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Earth System Science Program
The University of New South Wales University of Alabama in Huntsville
Sydney, Australia Huntsville, Alabama
Liping Fang Neil S. Grigg

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science Colorado State University
Ryerson University Fort Collins, Colorado
Toronto, Canada
Andrew D. Gronewold
Bonifacio Fernandez NOAA (Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory)
Departamento de Ingeniería Hidráulica y Ambiental University of Michigan (Civil and Environmental Engineering)
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile Ann Arbor, Michigan
Santiago, Chile
Georges Gulemvuga
Stefan Finsterle
Commission Internationale du bassin Congo-Oubangui-Sangha
Kinshasa-Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Berkeley, California
Orhan Gunduz
Faith A. Fitzpatrick Dokuz Eylul University
Research Hydrologist, U.S. Geological SurveyWisconsin Department of Environmental Engineering
Water Science Center Izmir, Turkey
Dennis C. Flanagan Hoshin V. Gupta

National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory Department of Hydrology and Water Resources
West Lafayette, Indiana University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona
Darrell Fontane
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Semyon M. Guziy
Colorado State University Engineer, Krasnoyarsk Hydroproject Institute
Fort Collins, Colorado Krasnoyarsk, Russia

x Contributors
Alan F. Hamlet Justin Huntington

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences Desert Research Institute
University of Notre Dame Division of Hydrologic Sciences
Notre Dame, Indiana Western Regional Climate Center
Reno, Nevada
Cameron Handyside
John C. Imhoff
Earth System Science Center
Senior Scientist, AQUA TERRA Consultants
Ouray, Colorado
Huntsville, Alabama
K. Ishida
Mohamed M. Hantush Hydrologic Research Laboratory
Research Hydrologist, National Risk Management Research Laboratory Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency University of California
Cincinnati, Ohio Davis, California
Sharad K. Jain
Umesh K. Haritashya
Water Resources Systems Division
Department of Geology
National Institute of Hydrology
University of Dayton
Roorkee, India
Dayton, Ohio
L. Douglas James
Bekki Ward Harjo Fairfax, Virginia
Senior Hydrologist, National Weather Service A. W. Jayawardena
Arkansas-Red Basin River Forecast Center Department of Civil Engineering
Tulsa, Oklahoma The University of Hong Kong
Hong Kong, China
Nilgun B. Harmancioglu
Research and Development Center
Dokuz Eylul University
Nippon Koei Co. Ltd. (Engineering Consultants)
Water Resources Management Research & Application Center (SUMER)
Tsukuba, Japan
Izmir, Turkey
Shanhu Jiang
Julien J. Harou Lecturer, College of Hydrology and Water Resources
School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering Hohai University
The University of Manchester Nanjing, China
Manchester, United Kingdom Kenji Jinno
Department of Urban & Environmental Engineering
Robert Hartman
Graduate School of Engineering
Hydrologist in Charge, California-Nevada River Forecast Center
Kyushu University
National Weather Service
Fukuoka, Japan
Sacramento, California
Fiona Johnson
Hongming He School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Institute of Soil and Water Conservation The University of New South Wales
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources Sydney, Australia
Yangling, China V. Jothiprakash
Department of Civil Engineering
Janet S. Herman
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences
Mumbai, India
University of Virginia
Charlottesville, Virginia Tijana Jovanovic
Keith W. Hipel The Pennsylvania State University
Department of Systems Design Engineering State College, Pennsylvania
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Canada Latif Kalin
Professor, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences
Yoshinari Hiroshiro Auburn University
Department of Urban & Environmental Engineering Auburn, Alabama
Graduate School of Engineering Jagath J. Kaluarachchi
Kyushu University Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Fukuoka, Japan College of Engineering
Utah State University
Mike Hobbins
Logan, Utah
Research Hydrologist, Earth System Research Laboratory & Cooperative Institute
for Research in Environmental Sciences William Kappel
NOAA & University of Colorado Meterorologist
Boulder, Colorado Monument, Colorado
Raghupathy Karthikeyan
Robert R. Holmes, Jr.
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
Hydrologist and National Flood Hazard Coordinator, Office of Surface Water
Texas A&M University
U.S. Geological Survey
College Station, Texas
Rolla, Missouri
Laila Kasuri
Jeffery S. Horsburgh Lead Analyst and Senior Lecturer, Centre for Water Informatics and Technology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Lahore University of Management Sciences
Utah State University Lahore, Pakistan
Logan, Utah Dmitri Kavetski
Chi Hua Huang School of Engineering
National Soil Erosion Research Laboratory University of Newcastle
West Lafayette, Indiana Callaghan, Australia
M. Levent Kavvas
Denis Arthur Hughes
Hydrologic Research Laboratory
Institute for Water Research
Rhodes University
Grahamstown, South Africa
Davis, California
Rui Hui Akira Kawamura
Center for Watershed Sciences Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of California, Davis Tokyo Metropolitan University
Davis, California Tokyo, Japan

Contributors xi
Soksamnang Keo Zbigniew W. Kundzewicz

State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau Institute of Agricultural and Forest Environment
Institute of Soil and Water Conservation Polish Academy of Sciences
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources Poznan, Poland
Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
John W. Labadie
Yangling, China
Greg Kerr Colorado State University
Office of Water Programs Fort Collins, Colorado
University of Wyoming
Laramie, Wyoming David Labat
Géosciences Environnement Toulouse
Martin Keulertz Toulouse, France
Agricultural and Biological Engineering
Purdue University Venkataraman (Venkat) Lakshmi
West Lafayetter, Indiana Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences
University of South Carolina
Jongho Keum Columbia, South Carolina
McMaster University Upmanu Lall
Hamilton, Canada Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering and
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
Asif Khan
Columbia Water Center
Department of Engineering
International Research Institute for Climate and Society
University of Cambridge
Columbia University
Cambridge, United Kingdom
New York, New York
C. Prakash Khedun
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Alain Laraque
Texas A&M University GET - UMR CNRS / IRD / UPS - UMR 5563 du CNRS, UMR234 de l'IRD
College Station, Texas Toulouse, France
Max Kigobe Magnus Larson

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Water Resources Engineering
College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology (CEDAT) Lund Institute of Technology
Makerere University Lund University
Kampala, Uganda Lund, Sweden
Thomas R. Kjeldsen Se-Yeun Lee

Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering Climate Impacts Group, College of the Environment
University of Bath University of Washington
Bath, United Kingdom Seattle, Washington
Barbara A. Kleiss Stanley A. Leake
Director, Mississippi River Science & Technology Program U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Water Mission Area
Mississippi Valley Division U.S. Geological Survey
Vicksburg, Mississippi Tucson, Arizona
Goutam Konapala Chiara Lepore
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Ocean and Climate Physics
Texas A&M University Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University
College Station, Texas Palisades, New York
Randal Koster L. Ruby Leung
Global Modeling and Assimilation Office Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Greenbelt, Maryland Richland, Washington
Andrey G. Kostianoy
Benjamin Lord
Chief Scientist, Ocean Experimental Physics Laboratory
Raleigh, North Carolina
P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology
Moscow, Russia Yajie Lu
State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Farming on the Loess Plateau
Demetris Koutsoyiannis
Institute of Soil and Water Conservation
Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Resources
School of Civil Engineering
Northwest Agriculture and Forest University
National Technical University of Athens
Yangling, China
Zographou, Greece
Peter Krahe Jay R. Lund
Contact person of subject group River Basin Modelling Department Center for Watershed Sciences
Water Balance, Forecasting and Predictions Federal Institute of Hydrology Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany University of California
Davis, California
Valentina Krysanova
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research Gil Mahe
Potsdam, Germany IRD, Laboratoire Hydro Sciences
Montpellier, France
Lev Kuchment
Laboratory of Water Cycle D. R. Mailapalli
Water Problems Institute Agricultural and Food Engineering Department
Russian Academy of Sciences Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Moscow, Russia Kharagpur, India
George Kuczera Terry Marsh
School of Engineering Centre for Ecology & Hydrology
University of Newcastle Wallingford, United Kingdom
Callaghan, Australia
Philip Marsh
Bhishm Kumar Water Science Wilfrid Laurier University
Ex Professional Staff, Isotope Hydrology Section Waterloo, Canada
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Vienna, Austria José Pedro Matos
Ex Head, Hydrological Investigations Division Laboratoire de constructions hydrauliques (LCH)
National Institute of Hydrology Ecolepolytechniquefédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
Roorkee, India Lausanne, Switzerland

xii Contributors
Larry W. Mays Dauren Mussabek

Arizona State University Department of Water Resources Engineering
Tempe, Arizona Lund University
Lund, Sweden
Richard H. McCuen
The Ben Dyer Professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering Kei Nakagawa
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department Nagasaki University
University of Maryland Graduate School of Fisheries Science and Environmental Studies
College Park, Maryland Nagasaki University
Nagasaki, Japan
Steven G. McNulty
Mohamed K. Nassar
Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center
Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service
University of California Davis
Raleigh, North Carolina
Davis, California
Alfonso Mejia Environmental Studies and Research Institute
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Sadat City
The Pennsylvania State University Sadat, Egypt
State College, Pennsylvania Grey S. Nearing
NASA/GSFC
Tarek Merabtene Hydrological Sciences Branch
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Greenbelt, Maryland
College of Engineering
University of Sharjah WaiWah Ng
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Department of Civil Engineering
Lakehead University
Venkatesh Merwade Thunder Bay, Canada
Lyles School of Civil Engineering John W. Nielsen-Gammon
Purdue University Department of Atmospheric Sciences
West Lafayette, Indiana Texas A&M University
Guziy Semyon Mikhailovich College Station, Texas
Institute “Krasnoyarskgidroproekt” Jun Niu
Krasnoyarsk State Agricultural University College of Water Resources and Civil Engineering
Krasnoyarsk branch of JSC “SibENTC” China Agricultural University
Krasnoyarsk, Russia Beijing, China
Pavol Miklanek Robert K. Niven

Institute of Hydrology School of Engineering and Information Technology
Slovak Academy of Sciences The University of New South Wales
Bratislava, Slovakia Canberra, Australia
P. E. O’Connell
Srikanta Mishra School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Institute Fellow & Chief Scientist, Energy & Environment Newcastle University
Battelle Memorial Institute Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Columbus, Ohio
Greg O’Donnell
Ashok K. Mishra School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Glenn Department of Civil Engineering Newcastle University
Clemson University Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Clemson, South Carolina Robert Occhipinti
Natalia N. Mitina United States Army Corps of Engineers, Retired
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences Fred L. Ogden
Moscow, Russia Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering and
Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources
Iliana E. Mladenova
University of Wyoming
Hydrological Sciences Branch
Laramie, Wyoming
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt, Maryland N. Ohara
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
Binayak P. Mohanty University of Wyoming
Biological and Agricultural Engineering Laramie, Wyoming
C. S. P. Ojha
Rabi H. Mohtar Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Biological and Agricultural Engineering and Roorkee, India
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering Taha B. M. J. Ouarda
iWATER Center,
Masdar Institute of Science and Technology
Kazuro Momii Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Professor, Faculty of Agriculture Hydro-Climate Modeling Lab
Kagoshima University INRS-ETE
Korimoto, Japan Quebec, Canada
Hisashi Ozawa
Alberto Montanari
Graduate School of Integrated Arts and Sciences
Hiroshima University
Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan
Bologna, Italy
Umed S. Panu
R. Morbidelli
Lakehead University
Perugia University
Thunder Bay, Canada
Perugia, Italy
Simon Michael Papalexiou
Biswajit Mukhopadhyay Department of Water Resources and Environmental Engineering
Head, Water Resources Department School of Civil Engineering
DHI (India) Water and Environment, Pvt. Ltd. National Technical University of Athens
New Delhi, India Zographou, Greece

Contributors xiii
A.N. Thanos Papanicolaou Manuel Pulido-Velazquez

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Research Institute of Water and Environmental Engineering (IIAMA)
University of Tennessee Universitat Politècnica de València
Knoxville, Tennessee Valencia, Spain
Sandra Pavlovic Narendra Singh Raghuwanshi

University Corporation for Atmospheric Research Agricultural and Food Engineering Department
Boulder, Colorado Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur, India
Pavla Pekarova
Ataur Rahman
Institute of Hydrology
Water and Environmental Engineering
Slovak Academy of Sciences
School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics
Bratislava, Slovakia
Western Sydney University
Angela Pelle Penrith, Australia
Balaji Rajagopalan
University of Alabama
Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
University of Colorado
Mauri Pelto Boulder, Colorado
Department of Environmental Science Harji D. Rank
Nichols College Professor, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering
Dudley, Massachusetts and Technology, Junagadh
Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh
Silvio J. Pereira-Cardenal
Gujarat, India
COWI A/S
Lyngby, Denmark Liliang Ren
Professor, State Key Laboratory of Hydrology, Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering
Magnus Persson
Hohai University
Department of Water Resources Engineering
Nanjing, China
Lund Institute of Technology
Lund University Ben Renard
Lund, Sweden School of Engineering
University of Newcastle
Muthiah Perumal Callaghan, Australia
Professor, Department of Hydrology
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Pedro J. Restrepo
Roorkee, India National Weather Service
North Central River Forecast Center
Jacob D. Petersen-Perlman Chanhassen, Minnesota
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon Mehdi Rezaeianzadeh
School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences
Christa D. Peters-Lidard Auburn University
Hydrological Sciences Laboratory Auburn, Alabama
Niels Riegels
Greenbelt, Maryland
DHI
Hai V. Pham Hørsholm, Denmark
Postdoctoral Fellow, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Matthew Rodell
Louisiana State University
Laboratory Chief, Hydrological Sciences Laboratory
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Mikołaj Piniewski Greenbelt, Maryland
Warsaw University of Life Sciences Renata del Giudice Rodriguez
Warsaw, Poland CAPES Foundation
Paulo Rógenes Monteiro Pontes Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasilia,
Instituto de Pesquisas Hidráulicas Distrito Federal, Brazil
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul A. Charles Rowney
IPH-UFRGS Manager, ACR, llc Longwood, Florida
Porto Alegre, Brazil
Albert I. Rugumayo
Erik C. Porse Faculty of Engineering
UCLA Institute of the Environment and Sustainability Ndejje University
Los Angeles, California Kampala, Uganda
College of Engineering, Design Art and Technology
Nawa R. Pradhan
Makerere University
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory
Kampala, Uganda
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center
Vicksburg, Mississippi Udisha Saklani
Former Research Assistant at the Institute of Water Policy,
James Prairie Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy,
Hydrologic Engineer, Upper Colorado Region
National University of Singapore,
Bureau of Reclamation
Singapore
Boulder, Colorado
Jose D. Salas
K. S. H. Prasad Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering Colorado State University
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee Fort Collins, Colorado
Roorkee, India
Samuel Sandoval-Solis
Roland K. Price University of California Davis
Emeritus Professor, UNESCO-IHE, Institute for Water Education Department of LAWR
Delft, The Netherlands Davis, California
Fernando Falco Pruski Sankar Sarkar
Agricultural Engineering Department Physics and Applied Mathematics Unit
Federal University of Viçosa Indian Statistical Institute
Viçosa, Brazil Kolkata, India

xiv Contributors
Arup K. Sarma Jery R. Stedinger

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering Dwight C. Baum Professor of Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Cornell
Guwahati, India University Ithaca
Ithaca, New York
Shinji Sato
Department of Civil Engineering R. Subbaiah
University of Tokyo Department of Soil and Water Engineering
Tokyo, Japan College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
Junagadh Agricultural University
John C. Schaake
Junagadh, India
Annapolis, Maryland
William A. Scharffenberg Caroline A. Sullivan

CEIWR-HEC School of Environment, Science and Engineering
Hydrologic Engineering Center Lismore Campus Marine Ecology Research Centre
Davis, California Southern Cross University
New South Wales, Australia
Anton J. Schleiss
Laboratoire de constructions hydrauliques (LCH) Ge Sun
Ecolepolytechniquefédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) Research Hydrologist, Eastern Forest Environmental Threat Assessment Center
LCH - ENAC - EPFL Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service
Lausanne, Switzerland Raleigh, North Carolina
Sergio E. Serrano Liqun Sun

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Temple University The University of Hong Kong
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Hong Kong, China
Yury V. Shan’ko Óli G. B. Sveinsson

Scientific Researcher, Institute of Computational Modeling SB RAS Landsvirkjun (The National Power Company of Iceland)
Krasnoyarsk, Russia Reykjavík, Iceland
Ashish Sharma David G. Tarboton

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The University of New South Wales Utah State University
Sydney, Australia Logan, Utah
Jack Sharp Gokmen Tayfur
University of Texas Department of Civil Engineering
Austin, Texas Izmir Institute of Technology
Mohsen Sherif Izmir, Turkey
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
Charles J. Taylor
College of Engineering
Water Resources Section
UAE University
Kentucky Geological Survey
United Arab Emirates
University of Kentucky
Haiyun Shi Lexington, Kentucky
State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering
Ramesh S. V. Teegavarapu
Tsinghua University
Associate Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and
Beijing, China
Geomatics Engineering
Joel S. Sholtes Florida Atlantic University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Boca Raton, Florida
Fort Collins, Colorado A. K. Thakur
Darbhanga College of Engineering
Lucas Siegfried Darbhanga, India
Ahtna Engineering Services, LLC
Marina, California Reed Thayer
Center for Watershed Sciences
Vijay P. Singh University of California
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Davis, California
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering
Texas A&M University Mark Thyer
College Station, Texas School of Engineering
University of Newcastle
Bellie Sivakumar Callaghan, Australia
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The University of New South Wales Ezio Todini
Sydney, Australia Retired Professor, Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali
Department of Land, Air and Water Resources University of Bologna
University of California Bologna, Italy
Davis, California
Glenn Tootle
Brian E. Skahill Associate Professor, The University of Alabama
Research Civil Engineer, Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering (CCEE)
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center Tuscaloosa, Alabama
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Cecilia Tortajada
Lambert K. Smedema Institute of Water Policy
Independent Irrigation/Drainage Consultant Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy
Arnhem, The Netherlands National University of Singapore
Singapore
Soroosh Sorooshian
Center for Hydrometeorology and Remote Sensing Shivam Tripathi
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
University of California Irvine Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Irvine, California Kanpur, India

Contributors xv
Frank T.-C. Tsai Ralph A. Wurbs

Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Zachry Department of Civil Engineering
Louisiana State University Texas A&M University
Baton Rouge, Los Angeles College Station, Texas
Raphael M. Tshimanga Yi Xiao

Faculty of Agronomic Sciences, Department of Natural Resources Management & Department of Systems Design Engineering
CB-HYDRONET University of Waterloo
University of Kinshasa Waterloo, Canada
Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Dawen Yang
Yeou-Koung Tung Department of Hydraulic Engineering
Chair Professor, Disaster Prevention & Water Environment Research Center Tsinghua University Beijing
National Chiao Tung University Beijing, China
Hsinchu, Taiwan
Daqing Yang
Kamshat Tussupova National Hydrology Research Center
Department of Water Resources Engineering Environment Canada
Lund University Saskatoon, Canada
Lund, Sweden
Xiaoli Yang
Julie A. Vano
Associate Professor, College of Hydrology and Water Resources
Research Applications Laboratory
Hohai University
National Center for Atmospheric Research Boulder, Colorado
Nanjing, China
Jennifer C. Veilleux
Sooyeon Yi
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
Davis, California
Daniele Veneziano
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Peter C. Young
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professor Emeritus, Systems and Control Group, Lancaster Environment Centre & Integrated
Cambridge, Massachusetts Catchment Assessment and Management Centre
Fenner School of Environment & Society
R. Vignesh Lancaster University, UK & Australian National University, Canberra, ACT
Department of Civil Engineering Australia
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Mumbai, India S. Yu
Witte Moscow University
Gabriele Villarini Moscow, Russia
IIHR-Hydroscience and Engineering
The University of Iowa Fei Yuan
Civil and Environmental Engineering Associate Professor, State Key Laboratory of Hydrology
Iowa City, Iowa Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering
Hohai University
Richard M. Vogel Nanjing, China
Tufts University Edith Zagona
Medford, Massachusetts Research Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering
University of Colorado
Haruko M. Wainwright
Boulder, Colorado
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Kaveh Zamani
Berkeley, California Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Glenn S. Warner
San Diego, California
Department of Natural Resources and the Environment
The University of Connecticut Ilya Zaslavsky
Storrs, Connecticut Spatial Information Systems Laboratory
Wallace A. Wilson San Diego Supercomputer Center
Advisor, ASFPM Foundation University of California, San Diego
Association of State Floodplain Managers, Inc. La Jolla, California
Madison, Wisconsin
Qiang Zhang
Fitsum M. Woldemeskel Department of Water Resources and Environment
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Sun Yat-sen University
The University of New South Wales Guangzhou, China
Sydney, Australia
Lan Zhang
Aaron T. Wolf Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering
Oregon State University University of Akron
Corvallis, Oregon Akron, Ohio
Ming-ko Woo Igor S. Zonn

School of Geography and Earth Sciences Director, Engineering Research Production Center for Water Management,
McMaster University Land Reclamation and Ecology “Soyuzvodproject”
Hamilton, Canada Moscow, Russia


International Advisory Board
Chair: Richard H. McCuen
The Ben Dyer Professor of Civil & Environmental
Engineering
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland
Maryland
Andras Bardossy P. E. O’Connell

Lehrstuhl für Hydrologie und Geohydrologie School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences
Institute für Wasser- und Umweltsystemmodellierung Newcastle University
Universität Stuttgart New Castle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
Stuttgart, Germany
C. S. P. Ojha
Ronny Berndtsson Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Water Resources Engineering & Center Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
for Middle Eastern Studies Roorkee, India
Lund University
Lund, Sweden Umed S. Panu
Corrado Corradini Department of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Lakehead University
University of Perugia Thunder Bay, Canada
Perugia, Italy
Fernando Falco Pruski
James F. Cruise Agricultural Engineering Department
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Federal University of Viçosa
University of Alabama Viçosa, Brazil
Huntsville, Alabama
João Pedroso de Lima Liliang Ren

Department of Civil Engineering Professor, State Key Laboratory of Hydrology, Water Resources and
University of Coimbra Hydraulic Engineering
Coimbra, Portugal Hohai University
Nanjing, China
M. Fiorentino
Department of Environmental Engineering and Physics Dan Rosbjerg
University of Basilicata Department of Environmental Engineering
Potenza, Italy Technical University of Denmark
R. S. Govindaraju Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
Delon and Elizabeth Hampton Hall of Civil Engineering
Purdue University Jose D. Salas
West Lafayette, Indiana Professor Emeritus, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Nilgun B. Harmancioglu Fort Collins, Colorado
Dokuz Eylul University
Water Resources Management Sergio E. Serrano
Research & Application Center (SUMER) Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering
Izmir, Turkey Temple University
Sharad K. Jain Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Water Resources Systems Division
National Institute of Hydrology Ashish Sharma
Roorkee, India School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
The University of New South Wales
M. Levent Kavvas Sydney, Australia
Hydrologic Research Laboratory
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Witold Strupczewski
University of California Water Resources Department
Davis, California Institute of Geophysics
Lev S. Kuchment Polish Academy of Sciences
Laboratory of Hydrological Cycle Warsaw, Poland
Water Problems Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Ezio Todini
Moscow, Russia
Retired Professor, Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali
Venkat Laxmi University of Bologna
Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences Bologna, Italy
University of South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina Dawen Yang
Department of Hydraulic Engineering
Upmanu Lall Tsinghua University
Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering and Beijing, China
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics
Columbia Water Center Qiang Zhang
International Research Institute for Climate and Society Department of Water Resources and Environment
Columbia University Sun Yat-sen University
New York, New York Guangzhou, China
xvii


Practitioner Advisory Board
Chair: R. D. Singh
National Institute of Hydrology
Roorkee, India
Aaron R. Byrd Mohamed M. Hantush

Research Hydraulic Engineer & Branch Chief Research Hydrologist
Hydrologic Systems Branch National Risk Management Research Laboratory
Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Engineer Research Development Center Cincinnati, Ohio
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Vicksburg, Mississippi T. Moramarco
National Research Council, Institute for Hydrogeological Protection,
Anthony S. Donigian, Jr. Perugia, Italy
Principal Consultant
AQUA TERRA Consultants John W. Mueller
Mountain View, California State Conservation Engineer
USDA-NRCS
Donald K. Frevert Temple, Texas
Hydraulic Engineer and Team Leader, Retired
Technical Services Center Biswajit Mukhopadhyay
Bureau of Reclamation National Practice Leader | Water Resources
Lakewood, Colorado North American Infrastructure
Jacobs Engineering Group, Inc.
Randall (Randy) W. Gentry Dallas, Texas
Argonne National Laboratory
Environmental Science Division J. Obeysekara
Argonne, Illinois Hydrologic & Environmental Systems Modeling
South Florida Water Management District
xix


Contents in Brief
Part 1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Part 2 Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Part 3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Part 4 Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1
Part 5 Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1
Part 6 Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1
Part 7 Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1
Part 8 Hydrology of Large Rivers and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1
Part 9 Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1
Part 10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1
xxi

For online supplements and color versions of images, please go to www.mhprofessional.com/
handbookofappliedhydrology

Contents
Foreword xlix
Preface li
Acknowledgments lv
Part 1. Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Chapter 1. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

1.1 Characteristics of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.2 Definition of Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
1.3 Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4
1.4 Components of the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1.5 Schematic Representation of the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
1.6 Scales in Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.7 Impact of Climate Change on the Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
1.8 Influence of Human Activities and Land Use Changes on Hydrologic Cycle . . . 1-6
1.9 Relation Between Hydrologic Cycle and Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles . . . . . . . . 1-7
1.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Chapter 2. Watersheds, River Basins, and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.2 Components of Watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
2.3 Delineation of a Watershed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.4 Watershed Hydrological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
2.5 Characteristics of a Watershed That Impact on Hydrological Processes . . . . . . 2-4
2.6 River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
2.7 River Basin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
2.8 Major River Basins in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2.9 Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
2.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Chapter 3. Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Hydrologic Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.3 Water on the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.4 Water Balance Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
3.5 Natural and Anthropogenic Effects on the Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
PART 2. Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Chapter 4. Hydrometeors and Quantitative Precipitation Estimation 4-3

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.2 Types of Hydrometeorological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.3 Remote Sensing of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.4 Hydrometeorological Data Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
4.5 Hydrometeorological Data Quality Assurance and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.6 Quantitative Precipitation Estimate, Data Use, Archiving, and Accessibility . . 4-6
xxiii

xxiv Contents
Chapter 5. Streamflow Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

5.1 Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.2 Types of Streamflow Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.3 Streamgage Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
5.4 Quality Assurance of Streamgage Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
5.5 Derived Streamflow Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
Chapter 6. Streamflow Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.2 Rating Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.3 Simple Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6.4 Complex Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6
6.5 Slope Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.6 Rate of Change of Stage Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.7 Dynamic-Flow Model Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.8 Index-Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.9 Shifting-Control Method for Dealing with Rating Complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11
6.10 Uncertainty in Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13
Chapter 7. Hydrologic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Hydrologic Data Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.3 Service-Oriented Architectures for Integrating Distributed Hydrologic
Data and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.4 The CUAHSI Hydrologic Information System as an Example HIS . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
7.5 HydroShare as a Next-Generation HIS Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
7.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Chapter 8. Remote Sensing Techniques and Data Assimilation for

Hydrologic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.2 Remote Sensing Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.3 Remote Sensing in Hydrological Sciences: A Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . 8-1
8.4 Remote Sensing: Methods and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.5 Data Assimilation: Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Chapter 9. Geographic Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.2 Basic Principles of GIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
9.3 Data Sources and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
9.4 Representation of Model Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
9.5 Model/GIS Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
9.6 Current Status and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
Chapter 10. Design of Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.2 Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.3 Necessity of Hydrologic Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
10.4 Impact of Hydrologic Network Density on Streamflow Estimates . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.5 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.6 Design of Hydrologic Networks: Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
Part 3. Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Chapter 11. Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.2 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3
11.3 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4
11.4 ANN Training and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4

Contents xxv
11.5 Drawbacks of ANN Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5

11.6 Shortcomings in ANN Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5
11.7 Future Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
Chapter 12. Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

12.1 Fuzzy Logic Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
12.2 Function of Fuzzy Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2
12.3 Fuzzy Rule-Based Modeling (Fuzzy Inference) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5
Chapter 13. Evolutionary Computing: Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . 13-1

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.2 Evolutionary Computing in Hydrology: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
13.3 Genetic Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2
13.4 GA Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
13.5 Conclusion and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Chapter 14. Relevance Vector Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
14.3 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2
14.4 Application of RVM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3
14.5 Examples from Hydrology and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4
14.6 Miscellaneous Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
Chapter 15. Harmonic Analysis and Wavelets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.2 The Continuous Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1
15.3 Discrete Time Wavelet Transform and Multiresolution Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.4 Signal Energy Repartition in the Wavelet Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3
15.5 Wavelet Analysis of the Time-Scale Relationship Between Two Signals . . . . . 15-4
15.6 Wavelet Cross Spectrum and Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4
15.7 Applications of Wavelet Transforms in Hydrology and Earth Sciences . . . . . . 15-5
15.8 Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5
Chapter 16. Outlier Analysis and Infilling of Missing Records

in Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1
16.2 Concepts and Methods for Outlier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2
16.3 Concepts and Methods for Handling Missing Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3
16.4 Discussion and Concluding Remarks on Methods for Outliers and Infilling
of Missing Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5
16.5 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6
Chapter 17. Linear and Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1

17.1 Linear and Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1
17.2 Measures for Goodness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4
17.3 Multiple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5
17.4 Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-9
Chapter 18. Time Series Analysis and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.2 Properties of Hydrological Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1
18.3 Time-Series Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.4 Modeling of Continuous Time Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.5 Univariate Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2
18.6 Univariate Periodic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4
18.7 Multivariate Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-6
18.8 Disaggregation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7
18.9 Nonparametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7

xxvi Contents
18.10 Stochastic Simulation, Forecasting, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8

18.11 Conceptual Stochastic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8
18.12 Final Remarks and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-9
Chapter 19. Statistical Detection of Nonstationarity: Issues

and Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1
19.2 Exploratory Methods for Detection of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
19.3 Statistical Exploration of Nonstationarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2
19.4 Effect of Nonconstant Error Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3
19.5 Effect of a Priori Filtering of Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
19.6 Distribution of a Breakpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4
19.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5
Chapter 20. Spatial Analysis and Geostatistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.2 Data Types and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.3 Spatial Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1
20.4 Heterogeneous Field Estimation and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-3
20.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-7
Chapter 21. Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1

21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.2 Discrete Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1
21.3 Classification of Continuous Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.4 Continuous Frequency Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-2
21.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-10
Chapter 22. Calibration, Parameter Estimation, Uncertainty, Data

Assimilation, Sensitivity Analysis, and Validation . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.2 Parameter Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1
22.3 Parameter Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-3
22.4 Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-5
22.5 Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-10
22.6 Validation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-15
Chapter 23. Bayesian Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1
23.2 The Bayesian Inference Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1
23.3 Computational Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-4
23.4 Diagnostics to Scrutinize Model Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-6
23.5 Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-7
23.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-9
Chapter 24. Optimization Approaches for Integrated Water Resources

Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1
24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1
24.2 Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-2
24.3 Challenges and Research Gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-4
24.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.5 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
24.6 Appendix: Literature Trend Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-5
Chapter 25. Nonparametric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1
25.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1
25.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-2
25.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-3
25.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-5

Contents xxvii
Chapter 26. Predictive Uncertainty Assessment

and Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.2 Forecasting in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.3 Motivations for Converting Deterministic to Stochastic Prediction . . . . . . . . . 26-1
26.4 Predictive Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-2
26.5 Techniques Aimed at Assessing Predictive Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4
26.6 Verification of the Estimated Predictive Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-9
26.7 Major Reasons Undermining the Operational Use of Predictive Uncertainty 26-9
26.8 Examples of Proper Use of Predictive Uncertainty to Improve Decisions . . . . 26-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-15
Chapter 27. Risk-Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1

27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1
27.2 Measures of Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1
27.3 Performance Function and Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.4 Direct Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2
27.5 First-Order Second-Moment Reliability Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-3
27.6 Time-Dependent (Dynamic) Reliability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-5
27.7 Time-to-Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-5
27.8 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-9
Chapter 28. Scaling and Fractals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1

28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1
28.2 Scale-Invariant Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1
28.3 Some Properties of H-SSSI Processes and MF Cascades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-2
28.4 Inference of Scaling for Stationary Multifractal Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4
28.5 Processes with Limited Scale Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4
28.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-5
Chapter 29. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1
29.2 Chaos Theory: A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.3 Chaos Concepts and Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-2
29.4 Issues in Chaos Identification and Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-5
29.5 Hydrologic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-7
29.6 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-8
Chapter 30. Copula Modeling in Hydrologic Frequency Analysis . . . 30-1

30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.2 Description of Copula Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1
30.3 Overview of Model Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-2
30.4 Multivariate Quantile and Return Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.5 An Illustration: The Fraser River at Hope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-5
30.6 Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-7
30.7 Resources and Further Specific References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-9
Chapter 31. Entropy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1

31.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1
31.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1
31.3 Forms of Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-2
31.4 Directional Information Transfer Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.5 Entropy under Transformation of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.6 Informational Correlation Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.7 Total Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-3
31.8 Theory of Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.9 Methodology for Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-4
31.10 Hydrologic Modeling Using Entropy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-7
31.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-8

xxviii Contents
Chapter 32. Entropy Production Extremum Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1

32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1
32.2 Background and Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1
32.3 Maximum Entropy Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4
32.4 Review of Applications in Hydrology and Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
32.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5
Chapter 33. Data-Based Mechanistic Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1

33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1
33.2 The Main Stages of DBM Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2
33.3 Linear DBM Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-3
33.4 Time Variable and State-Dependent Parameter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6
33.5 Hypothetico-Inductive DBM Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7
33.6 DBM Emulation Modeling of High-Order Simulation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-8
33.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-11
Chapter 34. Decomposition Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1

34.1 Introduction: Adomian’s Decompositions Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1
34.2 Regional Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
34.3 Propagation of Nonlinear Kinematic Flood Waves in Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2
34.4 Nonlinear Infiltration in Unsaturated Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4
34.5 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-5
Chapter 35. Network Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1

35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1
35.2 Network Theory: Concept and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-2
35.3 Network Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-3
35.4 Network Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-4
35.5 Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-6
35.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-8
Chapter 36. Hydroeconomic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

36.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1
36.2 Estimating the Economic Value of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1
36.3 Water Demand Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-2
36.4 Considerations in the Design of Hydroeconomic Analysis Studies . . . . . . . . . . 36-3
36.5 Applications and Implementation of Hydroeconomic Analysis for
Management and Decision Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-5
36.6 Discussion of Challenges, Limitations, and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-6
36.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-7
Part 4. Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1
Chapter 37. Weather and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3

37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-3
37.2 Hydrologic Engineering and Intersection with Weather and Climate . . . . . . . 37-3
37.3 Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-5
37.4 Observing Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
37.5 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-7
37.6 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-10
Chapter 38. Hydroclimatology: Global Warming and Climate Change 38-1

38.1 Introduction: The Ambiguity of Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1
38.2 Natural and Human Influences on Present-Day Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1
38.3 Impacts of Climate Change on the Hydrological Cycle in the Twentieth and
Twenty-First Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-2
38.4 Global Climate Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-3
38.5 Working with Climate Model Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-4
38.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-6

Contents xxix
Chapter 39. Spatial and Temporal Estimation and

Analysis of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.2 Estimates of Mean Areal Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1
39.3 Missing Precipitation Data Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-4
39.4 Limitations of Estimation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-5
39.5 New Methods for Missing Data Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-5
39.6 Summary of Issues for Missing Precipitation Data Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-6
39.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-8
Chapter 40. Snow Distribution and Snowpack Characteristics . . . . . 40-1

40.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1
40.2 Processes Controlling Snow Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1
40.3 Spatial Patterns of Snow at Various Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-2
40.4 Snowpack Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-2
40.5 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-4
Chapter 41. Time-Space Modeling of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1

41.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1
41.2 Stochastic Modeling of Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1
41.3 Deterministic Numerical Modeling of Time-Space Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-3
41.4 Remote Sensing for the Modeling of Time-Space Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-10
Chapter 42. Evapotranspiration and Evaporative Demand . . . . . . . . . 42-1

42.1 Introduction and History of Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1
42.2 Relevant Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-3
42.3 Outstanding Problems and Directions for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-14
Chapter 43. Rainfall Interception, Detention, and

Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1
43.1 Canopy Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1
43.2 Forest Floor Interception Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
43.3 Detention and Depression Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
43.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-3
Chapter 44. Watershed Geomorphological Characteristics . . . . . . . . . 44-1

44.1 Introduction and Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1
44.2 Watersheds and Drainage Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-2
44.3 Outstanding Problems and Directions for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-11
Chapter 45. Infiltration Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1

45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1
45.2 Basic Equations for Vertical Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1
45.3 Classical Models for Point Infiltration into Vertically Homogeneous Soils . . . 45-2
45.4 Modeling of Point Infiltration into Vertically Nonuniform Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-4
45.5 Models for Rainfall Infiltration over Heterogeneous Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-5
45.6 Soil Conservation Service Runoff Curve Number Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-6
45.7 Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-7
Chapter 46. Soil Moisture and Vadose Zone Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1

46.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1
46.2 Continuum-Scale Models for Partially Saturated Flow in the Vadose Zone . . 46-2
46.3 Numerical Vadose Zone and Land Surface Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-3
46.4 Soil Moisture across Spatial-Temporal Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-5
46.5 Inverse Modeling—Soil Hydraulic Properties at the Model Grid Scale . . . . . . 46-8
46.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-11

xxx Contents
Chapter 47. Hydrogeologic Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

47.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.2 Borehole Samples and Groundwater Monitoring Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.3 Investigation of Borehole Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1
47.4 Cone Penetrometry, Permeametry, and Electrical Conductivity Logging . . . . 47-2
47.5 Electrical Resistivity Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-2
47.6 Hydraulic Methods for in Situ Conductivity Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-2
47.7 Characterization of the Hydraulic Gradient and Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
47.8 Recharge Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
47.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-3
Chapter 48. Groundwater Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1

48.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1
48.2 Groundwater Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-1
48.3 Grid Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-2
48.4 Model Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-3
48.5 Case Study: Groundwater Modeling in Baton Rouge,
Southeastern Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-3
48.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-7
Chapter 49. Watershed Runoff, Streamflow Generation,

and Hydrologic Flow Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1
49.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-1
49.2 Dominant Runoff Generation Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-3
49.3 Infiltration Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-6
49.4 Factors Affecting Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-6
49.5 Poorly Understood Factors Affecting Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-11
Chapter 50. Snowmelt Runoff Generation and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . 50-1

50.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1
50.2 Snow Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-1
50.3 Energy Budget of Snow Pack and Snowmelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-2
50.4 Simulation of Snow Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-3
50.5 Heat and Water Transfer in Melting Snow Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-3
50.6 Spatial Variability of Snow Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-4
50.7 Constructing General Model of Snowmelt Runoff Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-4
50.8 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-9
Chapter 51. Glacial Melting and Runoff Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1

51.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.2 Remote Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.3 Application of Remote Sensing in Glacier Quantification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-1
51.4 Glaciated Versus Nonglaciated Watersheds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-3
51.5 Application in Streamflow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-3
51.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-4
Chapter 52. Reservoir and Channel Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1

52.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1
52.2 Reservoir Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-1
52.3 River Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-2
52.4 The Classical Muskingum Flood Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-3
52.5 Nash Cascade Model for River Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-4
52.6 Other Linear Storage Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-4
52.7 Linear Diffusion Analogy Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-5
52.8 Nonlinear Routing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-5
52.9 Flow Routing Using Hydraulic Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-6
52.10 Basis for the Development of Simplified Momentum Equations . . . . . . . . . . . 52-7
52.11 Simplified Hydraulic Flood Routing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-7
52.12 Kalinin–Milyukov Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-9
52.13 Variable Parameter Muskingum Stage Routing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-12

Contents xxxi
52.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-14
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-15
Chapter 53. Waterlogging and Salinzation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1

53.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1
53.2 Salinity Features and Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-1
53.3 Irrigation Induced Rises of the Watertable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-2
53.4 Irrigation Induced Land Salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-3
53.5 Land Salinization Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-4
53.6 Salt Balance and Leaching Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-4
53.7 Monitoring and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-5
53.8 Remedial Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-5
53.9 New Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-6
53.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-7
Chapter 54. Surface Water–Groundwater Interactions:

Integrated Modeling of a Coupled System . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-1
54.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-1
54.2 Surface Water Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-2
54.3 Subsurface Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-4
54.4 Soil Plant Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-5
54.5 Coupling Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-6
54.6 Scale Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-7
54.7 Data Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-9
54.8 Integrated Models and Watershed Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-10
54.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-12
Chapter 55. Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers: Concepts,

Mitigation, and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.2 Assumptions and Approaches for Modeling Seawater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . 55-1
55.3 Mitigation of Seawater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-3
55.4 Case Study: The Nile Delta Aquifer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-3
55.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55-9
Chapter 56. Regional Land Subsidence Caused by the Compaction

of Susceptible Aquifer Systems Accompanying
Groundwater Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-1
56.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-1
56.2 Detection and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-2
56.3 Analysis and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56-9
Chapter 57. Hydraulic Fracturing and Hydrologic Impacts . . . . . . . . . 57-1

57.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-1
57.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-2
57.3 Risk of Groundwater Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-4
57.4 Potential for Induced Seismicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-6
57.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-8
Chapter 58. Catchment Classification and Regionalization . . . . . . . . . 58-1

58.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-1
58.2 Catchment Classification: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-2
58.3 Classification Based on Chaos Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-2
58.4 Classification Based on Network Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-4
58.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58-7

xxxii Contents
Chapter 59. Rainfall-Runoff Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1

59.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.2 A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.3 Computation of Runoff Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-1
59.4 Determination of Peak Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-3
59.5 Runoff Hydrograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-3
59.6 Computation of Runoff Hydrograph by Hydraulic Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-6
59.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59-8
Chapter 60. Continuous Watershed Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-1

60.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-1
60.3 Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-3
60.4 Outstanding Problems/Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-7
60.5 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-10
Chapter 61. Calibration and Evaluation of Watershed Models . . . . . . 61-1

61.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-1
61.2 Calibration and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.3 Elements of a Calibration/Evaluation Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.4 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-2
61.5 Model Calibration and Evaluation Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-3
61.6 Strategies for Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-3
61.7 Desirable Properties of a Successful Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-4
61.8 Preparation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-4
61.9 Calibration Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-8
61.10 Evaluation Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-8
61.11 Discussion and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-9
Chapter 62. Feasibility, Engineering, and Operations Models: Using

the Decision Environment to Inform the Model Design 62-1
62.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-1
62.2 The Decision Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-1
62.3 USACE Decision Environment Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-2
62.4 Precision Dimensions of Decision Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-2
62.5 Process Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-3
62.6 Information Content Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-5
62.7 Case Study: Picayune Strand-Restoration Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-5
62.8 Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-6
62.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62-7
Part 5. Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1

Chapter 63. Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.2 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.3 Water Quality Standards and Water Use Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-3
63.4 Restoration of Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-5
63.5 Sensor-Based Water Quality Monitoring Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-9
Chapter 64. Soil Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1

64.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.2 Erosion by Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.3 Erosion by Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-1
64.4 Gravity-Induced Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-2
64.5 Tillage Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.6 Snowmelt Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.7 Irrigation-Induced Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.8 Erosion by Wind-Driven Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-3
64.9 Erosion Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-4
64.10 Erosion Assessment—Field and Laboratory Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-4

Contents xxxiii
64.11 Erosion Assessment—Equations and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5

64.12 Erosion Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5
64.13 Erosion Control and Soil Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-5
64.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64-6
Chapter 65. Channel Erosion and Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1

65.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1
65.2 Sediment Production and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-1
65.3 Partitioning of Sediment Loads in Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-2
65.4 Bank Profile and Erosional Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-3
65.5 Modes of Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-5
65.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65-10
Chapter 66. Sedimentation of Floodplains, Lakes, and Reservoirs . . . . . . 66-1

66.1 Floodplain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-1
66.2 Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-1
66.3 Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-2
66.4 The Sedimentation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-5
66.5 Prediction of Sediments in Floodplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.6 Reservoir Trap Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.7 Estimation of Sediment in Lakes and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-7
66.8 Protective Measure Against Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-9
66.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-9
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66-10
Chapter 67. Pollutant Transport in Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1

67.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1
67.2 Fundamental Processes Controlling Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-1
67.3 Pollutant Transport in Rivers and Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-3
67.4 Pollutant Transport in Lakes and Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-4
67.5 Pollutant Transport in Coastal Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67-9
Chapter 68. Pollutant Transport in Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1

68.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.2 Water Potential in the Unsaturated Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.3 Governing Equation of Flow in Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-1
68.4 Deterministic Approach to Solute Transport in the Vadose Zone . . . . . . . . . . . 68-3
68.5 Codes for Numerical Solution of Vadose Zone Flow and Transport . . . . . . . . . 68-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68-6
Chapter 69. Pollutant Transport in Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-1

69.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-1
69.2 Learn from the Field Work—A Case of
Saltwater Intrusion Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-3
69.3 Reactive Solute Transport Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-3
69.4 Dispersion Processes in Groundwater
(Sato and Lwasa, 2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-5
69.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-9
Chapter 70. Salinization and Salinity Management in Watersheds . . . . 70-1

70.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-1
70.2 Salinization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-1
70.3 Salinity-Related Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-2
70.4 Salinity Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-2
70.5 Salinity Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70-4
Chapter 71. Transport of Biochemicals and Microorganisms . . . . . . . 71-1

71.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-1
71.2 Biochemicals and Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-1

xxxiv Contents
71.3 Mathematical Model Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-2

71.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71-6
Part 6. Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1
Chapter 72. Atmospheric Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-3

72.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-3
72.2 Large-Scale Circulation and Moisture Sources and Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-4
72.3 Precipitation and Flooding Associated with ARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-4
72.4 Modeling of ARs and Associated Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-5
72.5 Projection of Future Changes in ARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-6
72.6 Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-8
Chapter 73. Hydrometeorological Extremes

(Hurricanes and Typhoons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.2 Climatology of Heavy Rainfall and Flooding from Tropical Cyclones . . . . . . . . 73-1
73.3 Remote Rainfall Associated with Tropical Cyclones: Predecessor
Rain Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-2
73.4 Projected Increases in Rainfall Associated with Tropical Cyclones . . . . . . . . . . 73-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-3
Chapter 74. Extreme Rainfall: Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-1

74.1 Introduction: The Importance of Studying Extreme Rainfall and
Related Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-1
74.2 A Global Survey of Record Rainfall Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-3
74.3 Approaches in Estimating Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-7
74.4 The Concept of Probable Maximum Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-10
74.5 Probabilistic Approach to Extreme Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-12
74.6 Ombrian (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-13
74.7 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-16
Chapter 75. Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1

75.1 Introduction to Floods and Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1
75.2 Flood Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-1
75.3 Flood Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-2
75.4 Estimation of Flood Magnitudes and Design Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-5
Chapter 76. Flood Frequency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1

76.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1
76.2 Describing the Chance of Flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-1
76.3 Looking at the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-3
76.4 Fitting Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-4
76.5 Index Flood Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-5
76.6 Method of Moments, Bulletin 17B, and Bulletin 17C,
with the LP3 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-6
76.7 Uncertainty Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-6
76.8 Estimation at Ungaged Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
76.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-7
Chapter 77. Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1

77.1 Introduction: The Regional Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.2 Regional Estimation Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.3 Delineation of Homogeneous Regions and Homogeneity Testing . . . . . . . . . . 77-1
77.4 Regional Transfer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-3
77.5 One-Step Regional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-4
77.6 Nonlinear Models in Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-4
77.7 Multivariate Regional Flood Frequency Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-5

Contents xxxv
77.8 Nonstationary Regional Flood Frequency Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-5

77.9 Regional Flood Frequency Analysis Based on Seasonality Measures . . . . . . . 77-6
77.10 Combination of Local and Regional Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-6
77.11 Daily Streamflow Estimation at Ungauged Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-6
77.12 Discussion and New Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-7
Chapter 78. Risk, Reliability, and Return Periods and

Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-1
78.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-1
78.2 Probabilistic- and Risk-Based Approaches to Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . 78-2
78.3 Multivariate Probabilistic- and Risk-Based Approaches to
Hydrologic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78-9
Chapter 79. Drought Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-1

79.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-1
79.2 Drought, Aridity, and Water Scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-2
79.3 Drought Occurrences in the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-3
79.4 Drought Properties Based on Statistical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-3
79.5 Numerical Characterization of Drought Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-4
79.6 Indices for Drought Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-6
79.7 Outstanding Problems and Direction for Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79-10
Chapter 80. Low Flow and Drought Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1

80.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1
80.2 Need for Low Flow Hydrology Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-1
80.3 Factors Affecting Low Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-2
80.4 Low Flow Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-2
80.5 Methods of Low Flow Estimation in Ungaged Catchments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-4
80.6 Drought Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-4
80.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-9
Part 7. Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1
Chapter 81. Isotope Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3

81.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3
81.2 Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-3
81.3 Groundwater Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-5
81.4 Sampling Methods and Isotope Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-7
81.5 Isotope Applications in Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-12
Chapter 82. Lake Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1

82.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.2 Origin of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.3 Water Balance of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-1
82.4 Thermal Regime of Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-2
82.5 Ice Growth on Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-4
82.6 Circulation Processes in Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82-5
Chapter 83. Urban Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-1

83.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-1
83.2 The Effects of Urbanization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-2
83.3 Other Aspects of Urban Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-3
83.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-4
Chapter 84. Agricultural Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1

84.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1
84.2 Water Movement in the Root Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-1
84.3 Evaporation and Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84-4

xxxvi Contents
Chapter 85. Forest Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-1

85.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-1
85.3 Principles of Forest Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-2
85.4 Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-3
85.5 Key Findings in Forest-Stream Water Quantity and Quality Relationships . . . 85-4
85.6 Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-5
Chapter 86. Coastal Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1

86.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1
86.2 Overview of Coastal Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-1
86.3 Movement of Water and Sediment in Coastal Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-2
86.4 Mathematical Models of Water and Sediment Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-6
86.5 Summary and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-8
Chapter 87. Wetland Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1

87.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1
87.2 Importance of Hydrology on Wetland Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-1
87.3 Hydroperiod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-2
87.4 Wetland Hydrologic Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-2
87.5 Wetland Water Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-3
87.6 Wetland Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-5
87.7 Modeling Groundwater-Surface Water Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-6
87.8 Wetland Hydrology at the Watershed Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
87.9 Anthropogenic and Climate Change Impacts on Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
87.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87-8
Chapter 88. Arid Zone Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1

88.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.2 Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.3 Condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.4 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-1
88.5 Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-2
88.6 Transmission Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-3
88.7 Change in Storage (ΔS)-Groundwater Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-3
88.8 Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-4
88.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88-6
Chapter 89. Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-1

89.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-1
89.2 Investigation and Characterization of Karst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-4
89.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-10
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89-11
Chapter 90. Cryospheric Hydrology: Mountainous Environment . . . 90-1

90.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.2 Alpine Runoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.3 Monsoon Dominated Asian Mountain Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.4 Glacier Runoff as a Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-1
90.5 Glacier Melting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-4
90.6 Glacier Melt Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-5
90.7 Drainage and Storage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-5
90.8 Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in Glacier Meltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-6
90.9 Cryospheric Hydrology and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-7
90.10 Glacier Lake Outburst Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-9
90.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90-10

Contents xxxvii
Chapter 91. Hydrology of Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-1

91.1 Pathways in Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-1
91.2 Scales of Movement and Accumulation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-2
91.3 Soil and Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-3
91.4 Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-4
91.5 Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-6
Chapter 92. Large-Scale and Global Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1

92.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.2 The Distribution of Water on Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.3 The Global Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-1
92.4 Numerical Modeling and Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-2
92.5 Global Water Cycle Variability, Predictability, and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92-6
Part 8. Hydrology of Large River and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1
Chapter 93. Amazon River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3

93.1 Main Geographical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3
93.2 Amazon Hydrological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-3
93.3 Environment, Economics and Potentialities of the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-5
93.4 Impact of Anthropic Activities in the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
93.5 Amazon Basin in the Context of Its Water Footprint
and Environmental Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-6
Chapter 94. Paraná (Rio de la Plata) River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1

94.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.2 Geographical Features and Main Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.3 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-1
94.4 Hydrological Features and Water Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-2
94.5 Variability and Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-4
Chapter 95. Orinoco River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1

95.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.2 Regional Geological and Topographical Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.3 Hydroclimatic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-1
95.4 The Main Stem and Its Major Tributaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-2
95.5 Floodplains and Seasonal Sediment Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-2
95.6 Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-3
95.7 Regional Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
95.8 Human Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
95.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95-4
Chapter 96. Nile River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-1

96.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-1
96.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-3
96.3 Hydrology of the Nile Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96-9
Chapter 97. Congo River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1

97.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1
97.2 The State of Hydrological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-1
97.3 Climate Regimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-2
97.4 Catchments Characteristics and Hydrological Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-2
97.5 Hydrogeochemical Processes and Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-4
97.6 Hydrological Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-4
97.7 Climate and Land Use Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
97.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97-5

xxxviii Contents
Chapter 98. Zambezi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1

98.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.2 Physical Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.3 Main Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-1
98.4 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-3
98.5 Runoff Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-3
98.6 Past Hydrological Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-4
98.7 Hydrological Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-5
98.8 Current Concerns and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-6
Chapter 99. Euphrates and Tigris River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1

99.1 General Characteristics of the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1
99.2 Hydrology and Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-1
99.3 Water Resources Developments in the Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
99.4 Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
99.5 Climate Change Impacts on Basin Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99-4
Chapter 100. Yangtze River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-1

100.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-1
100.2 Climate and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-2
100.3 Station Network and Water Conservancy Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-4
100.4 Significant Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
100.5 Research on the Yangtze River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
100.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100-6
Chapter 101. Yellow River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-1

101.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-1
101.2 Climate and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-3
101.3 Station Network and Water Conservancy Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-4
101.4 Significant Water Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-5
101.5 Research on the Yellow River basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-5
101.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-6
Chapter 102. Mekong River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-1

102.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-1
102.2 Upper Mekong River (Langcang Jiang) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-3
102.3 Lower Mekong River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102-5
102.4 Floods and Flood Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 6
102.5 Mekong Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.6 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.7 Agriculture and Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 8
102.8 Mekong River Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
102.9 Environmental Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
102.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102- 9
Chapter 103. Yenisei River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1

103.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.2 Central and Lower Sections of the Yenisei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.3 Upper Section of the Yenisei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
103.4 Fluvial System of the Angara River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103-4
Chapter 104. Lena River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-1

104.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104-4
Chapter 105. Brahmaputra River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1

105.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1
105.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-1

Contents xxxix
105.3 Drainage Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-2

105.4 Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-4
105.5 Problems Faced, Projects Undertaken, and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105-6
Chapter 106. Ganga River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1

106.1 Ganga River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1
106.2 Ganga River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-1
106.3 Climate and Hydrology of the Ganga Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.4 Floods and Droughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.5 Groundwater Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.6 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-2
106.7 Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.8 Water Quality Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.9 Major Water Resources Development Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.10 Social and Environmental Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-3
106.11 Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106-4
Chapter 107. Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-1

107.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-1
107.2 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-2
107.3 Major Tributaries and Sub-Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-2
107.4 Climate in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-3
107.5 Soils and Land Use in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-4
107.6 Water Resources of Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-4
107.7 Major Water Resources Projects in Narmada Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-5
107.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107-6
Chapter 108. Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1

108.1 Introduction to Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1
108.2 Physiography of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-1
108.3 River Network and Principal Hydrologic Units of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . 108-1
108.4 Climate of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-2
108.5 Hydrological Characteristics of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-3
108.6 Indus Water Treaty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-5
108.7 Major Water Resources Development Projects in Indus River Basin . . . . . . . 108-5
108.8 Groundwater Resources of Indus River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-9
108.9 Climate Change in Indus River Basin and Its Hydrologic Consequences . . . 108-9
108.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108-10
Chapter 109. The Mississippi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1

109.1 Mississippi River Basin Physiography and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1
109.2 Mississippi River Basin Climatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-1
109.3 Anthropogenic Changes in the River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-2
109.4 Future Critical Challenges in the Mississippi River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109-5
Chapter 110. Colorado River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1

110.1 Introduction and Basin Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1
110.2 History of Water Resources Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-1
110.3 Reservoirs and Other Water Management Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-2
110.4 Development and Use of the Colorado River Simulation System . . . . . . . . . . 110-3
110.5 Hydrologic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-3
110.6 Generating Projected Future Flow Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
110.7 Future Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110-4
Chapter 111. Columbia River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1

111.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1
111.2 Basin History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-1
111.3 River Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-2

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111.4 Current and Future Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-4

111.5 Future Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-5
Chapter 112. St. Lawrence River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1

112.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1
112.2 Characteristics of the St. Lawrence River and Its Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-1
112.3 Hydrological Characteristics of the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112-5
Chapter 113. River Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1

113.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1
113.2 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-1
113.3 Water Balance in the Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-4
113.4 Long-Term Variability of Hydrometeorological Variables in
the Rhine Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-4
113.5 Discharge Characteristics in Longitudinal Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-5
113.6 The Runoff Regime of the Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-6
113.7 Changes in the Runoff Characteristics of the Rhine Since the Beginning
of the Twentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-9
113.8 Changes in the Runoff Regime of the Upper Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.9 Changes in the Runoff Regime of the Middle and Lower Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.10 Development in Extreme Runoff Situations: Flood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
113.11 Development in Extreme Runoff Situations: Low Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113-10
Chapter 114. Danube River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1

114.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1
114.2 History of the River System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-1
114.3 Climate, Drainage Characteristics, and Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-2
114.4 Problem Faced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-3
114.5 Scope of Future Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114-5
Chapter 115. Ob River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1

115.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.2 Ob River Basin and Discharge Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.3 Streamflow Characteristics and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-1
115.4 Water Temperature and Thermal Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115-5
Chapter 116. Po River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-1

116.1 River Basin Morphology and Geology, Geometry of the River Network . . . . 116-1
116.2 Climate and Meteorology. Genesis of Extreme Events and Droughts . . . . . . 116-1
116.3 Monitoring Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.4 Hydrological Balance in the Po River Basin: Exploitation
of Water Resources and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.5 The River Regime: Variability, Seasonality, Long-Term Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.6 History of Po River Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-3
116.7 Flood Hazard Mitigation Along the Course of the Po River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
116.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116-4
Chapter 117. River Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1

117.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.2 The Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.3 Hydrometric Measurement in the Thames Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-1
117.4 Droughts and Alleviation Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117- 2
117.5 Floods and Flood Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117- 3
117.6 Research and Forecasting Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4
117.7 Trends in Runoff Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4
117.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-4

Contents xli
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-6
Useful Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117-6
Chapter 118. Managing Water in an Arid Land: The Murray

Darling Basin, Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-1
118.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-1
118.2 The Murray Darling Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-2
118.3 The Changing Hydrology of the Murray Darling Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-3
118.4 Potential for Ecosystem Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-5
118.5 The Policy Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-5
118.6 What Future Do We Want for the Basin Anyway? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-6
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-7
Useful Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118-9
Chapter 119. The Great Lakes System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-1

119.1 Introduction to the Great Lakes Hydrological System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-1
119.2 The Great Lakes Water Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-2
119.3 Great Lakes Water levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119-5
Chapter 120. The East African Great Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120.1

120.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 1
120.2 Lake Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 1
120.3 Lake Tanganyika . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 3
120.4 Lake Malawi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 4
120.5 Lake Albert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 5
120.6 Lake Turkana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 6
120.7 Lake Kivu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 7
120.8 Lake Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120. 9
Chapter 121. Aral Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-1

121.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-1
121.2 Subsurface Flux Changes and Interactions with the Shrinking Sea . . . . . . . . 121-1
121.3 Surface Flux Changes and Interactions with Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-2
121.4 Opportunities and Challenges for Water Quantity and
Quality Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-3
121.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121-4
Chapter 122. Baltic Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1

122.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1
122.2 Physiography and Hydroclimatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-1
122.3 Hydrology and Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-4
122.4 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-6
122.5 Future Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-8
122.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122-9
Chapter 123. Black Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1

123.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
123.2 Geographical Location and Basic Morphometric Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
123.3 Hydrological Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123-5
Chapter 124. The Caspian Sea Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1

124.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.2 The Caspian Sea Watershed Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.3 The Volga River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-1
124.4 Physicogeographical Conditions of the Caspian Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.5 Hydrometeorology and Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.6 Physical Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-3
124.7 Sea Level Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-4

xlii Contents
124.8 Marine Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-4

124.9 Marine Biology and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-5
124.10 Ecological Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-5
124.11 Oil Pollution of the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-6
124.12 Seismic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
124.13 Desertification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
124.14 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124-7
PART 9. Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1
Chapter 125. Design Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-3

125.1 Purpose of Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-3
125.2 Constructing Databases of Rainfall to Derive Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-4
125.3 AMS Versus PDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-5
125.4 Appropriate Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-5
125.5 Regionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-6
125.6 Deriving Sub-Daily and Sub-Hourly IDF Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-7
125.7 Scaling Relationships in Design Rainfalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-7
125.8 Developing Design Rainfall Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.9 Uncertainty in Design Rainfall Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.10 Design Temporal Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-8
125.11 Design Spatial Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-9
125.12 Implications of Temperature Linked Non-Stationarity on the Design Rain . 125-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-11
Chapter 126. Probable Maximum Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1

126.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1
126.2 Deterministic Method of Estimation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-1
126.3 Probabilistic Method of Estimation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-10
126.4 Generalized Versus Basin-Specific PMP Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.5 All-Season Versus Seasonal PMP Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.6 Orographic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.7 Spatial Variation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-13
126.8 Temporal Distribution of PMP—Development of PMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-14
126.9 Seasonal Variation of PMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-16
126.10 Cautionary Notes on the Procedures for Estimation of New Set of PMP . . . . 126-16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126-17
Chapter 127. Runoff Prediction in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1

127.1 The Prediction in Ungauged Basins Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1
127.2 Best Practice Recommendations for Predicting Runoff in
Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-1
127.3 Prediction of Floods in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-2
127.4 Prediction of Low Flows in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-3
127.5 Prediction of Runoff Hydrographs in Ungauged Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-4
127.6 Where to Go from Here . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127-7
Chapter 128. Stochastic Streamflow Simulation and Forecasting . . . 128.1

128.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 1
128.2 Stochastic Simulation of Streamflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 1
128.3 Nonparametric Time Series Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 2
128.4 Multisite Streamflow Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 3
128.5 Nonstationary Streamflow Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 3
128.6 Streamflow Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 4
128.7 Stochastic Weather Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 4
128.8 Software and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128. 5

Contents xliii
Chapter 129. Flood Forecasting and Flash Flood Forecasting—

Special Considerations in Hydrologic Modeling for
the Expressed Purpose of Flood and Flash
Flood Forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-1
129.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-1
129.2 Real-Time Data Requirements and Forecasts and Data Quality Control . . . . 129-1
129.3 Computational Efficiency and Latency Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.4 Data Assimilation and/or Adjusting Model Inputs, States, and Outcomes . 129-3
129.5 Use of Future Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.6 Requirements for Regulation Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-3
129.7 Flood-Control and Water-Supply Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.8 Reliability and Stability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.9 Understanding and Conveying Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.10 Lead Time Considerations and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.11 Temporal (Time Step) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.12 Dissemination and Coordination with Customers, Partners, and the
General Public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.13 Applications Related to Flash Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.14 Special Temporal (Time Step) Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-4
129.15 Automated Data-Analysis Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.16 Automated Data Assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.17 Ungaged Watershed Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
129.18 Identification of Highly Vulnerable/at Risk Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129-5
Chapter 130. Reservoir Operation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1

130.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1
130.2 Reservoir Planning and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-1
130.3 Reservoir Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-3
130.4 Future Trends in Reservoir Operation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-6
130.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-7
Chapter 131. Floodplain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-1

131.1 Responses to Flood Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-1
131.2 Evolution of Floodplain Management Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-2
131.3 Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-2
131.4 Certification in Floodplain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3
131.5 Summary of Issues and Needed Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131-3
Chapter 132. Storm Water Management, Best Management

Practices, and Low-Impact Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-1
132.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-1
132.2 The Need for Stormwater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-2
132.3 Specific BMPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-3
132.4 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
132.5 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132-4
Chapter 133. Flood Proofing and Infrastructure Development . . . . . 133-1

133.1 Introduction to Flood Proofing and Infrastructure Development . . . . . . . . . 133-1
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133-9
Chapter 134. Environmental Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-1

134.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-1
134.2 Evolution of Environmental Flow Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.3 Trade-offs in Development and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.4 Estimation of Environmental Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-2
134.5 Methodologies for Assessment of Environmental Flow Requirement . . . . . 134-3
134.6 Implementation of EF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-6
134.7 Environmental Flows in IWRM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7
134.8 Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134-7

xliv Contents
Chapter 135. Drainage and Culvert Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1

135.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1
135.2 Fundamentals of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-1
135.3 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-4
135.4 Potential Impact of Climate Change on Culvert Design and Operation . . . . 135-6
135.5 Sustainable Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135-6
Chapter 136. Wetland and River Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1

136.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1
136.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-1
136.3 The Restoration Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-2
136.4 Approaches to Wetland and River Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-3
136.5 Advancing the Science and Practice of Stream and Wetland
Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-6
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136-7
Chapter 137. Institutional Framework for Water Management . . . . . 137-1

137.1 Sustainable Integrated Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.2 Water Management in Texas: An Illustrative Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.3 Water Management Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-1
137.4 Federal Agency Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-3
137.5 State Water Resources Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-4
137.6 Water Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-4
137.7 Environmental Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-5
137.8 Flood Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-6
137.9 Institutional Aspects of Computer Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-6
137.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137-7
Chapter 138. Peak Water, Virtual Water, and Water Footprints:

New Definitions and Tools for Water Research
and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-1
138.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-1
138.2 Peak Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-2
138.3 Comparison of Peak Production in Oil and Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-3
138.4 Water Transfers and the Concept of Virtual Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-4
138.5 Water Footprints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-6
138.6 Soft Water Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-7
138.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138-8
Chapter 139. Transboundary Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1

139.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1
139.2 Water Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-1
139.3 Sources of Water Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.4 International Water Conflicts Versus National Water Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.5 Resolving Water Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-2
139.6 The Importance of Institutional Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.7 Hydro-Hegemony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.8 International Water Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.9 Third Party Involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-3
139.10 Future Directions and Ways to Address New Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
139.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-4
Chapter 140. Integrated River Basin Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-1

140.1 Integrated River Basin Management: A Framework and Process . . . . . . . . . . 140-1
140.2 Elements of IRBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-1
140.3 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-2
140.4 Institutional Arrangements for IRBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-2
140.5 Technical Concepts and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-4
140.6 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-5
140.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140-7

Contents xlv
Chapter 141. Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1

141.1 Conflict Exists Everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.2 Game Theoretic Models for Conflict Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.3 Graph Model for Conflict Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-1
141.4 Fair Water Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-2
141.5 Compliance Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-4
141.6 Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
141.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141-5
Chapter 142. Long-distance Water Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1

142.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1
142.2 Transfers Among Basins, Regions and
Countries—Achievements and Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-1
Further Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142-6
Chapter 143. The Indian River-Linking Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1

143.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1
143.2 India’s Water Resources and the River-Linking Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-1
143.3 Prognosis and Implication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-5
143.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143-8
Chapter 144. Irrigation Scheduling and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-1

144.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-1
144.2 Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-2
144.3 On-Farm Irrigation Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-2
144.4 Canal Irrigation Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-7
144.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
144.6 Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144-8
Chapter 145. Rainwater Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge . . . 145-1

145.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-1
145.2 Ancient Methods of Water Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-1
145.3 Watershed Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-2
145.4 Rainwater-Harvesting Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-3
145.5 Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Using Remote Sensing and GIS . . . . . 145-7
145.6 Rainwater Harvesting Studies a Global Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145-9
Chapter 146. Reuse-Reclaimed Water in Managed

Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.2 Treatment Mechanisms in Natural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-1
146.3 Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-2
146.4 Water Quality Considerations for Managed Aquifer Recharge . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-3
146.5 Surface Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-3
146.6 Injection Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-4
146.7 Recovery of Reclaimed Water through Aquifer Storage and Recovery . . . . . 146-5
146.8 Subsurface Geochemical Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
146.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146-6
Chapter 147. River Bank Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1

147.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1
147.2 River Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-1
147.3 Potential of River Bank Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-2
147.4 Simulating RBF Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-3
147.5 Optimizing Distance of Well from the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-6
147.6 River Bank Filtration Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-6
147.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147-7

xlvi Contents
Chapter 148. Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on

Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.2 Climate Change Observations and Model-Based Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-1
148.3 Observations and Projections of Climate Change Impact on Water
Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-2
148.4 Aim of Modeling of Climate Change Impact on Freshwater Resources . . . . 148-3
148.5 Methodology of Modeling Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources . . 148-3
148.6 Hydrological Models for Climate Change Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-4
148.7 Model Selection, Calibration, and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-6
148.8 Examples of Applications of Hydrological Models for Climate
Change Impact Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-7
148.9 Propagation of Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-7
148.10 Gaps and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148-10
Chapter 149. Human Impacts on Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-1

149.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-1
149.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-2
149.3 Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-4
149.4 Future Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-7
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149-8
Chapter 150. Climate Change and Its Impacts on

Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.1 Climate Change: What Does It Mean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.2 Causes of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-1
150.3 Measure of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.4 Impacts of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.5 Impacts of Climate Change on
The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-3
150.6 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150-7
Part 10. Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1
Chapter 151. Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3

151.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3
151.2 Evolution of Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-3
151.3 Methods for Modeling Human-Hydrology Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-4
151.4 Applications of Human-Hydrology Systems Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-6
151.5 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-9
151.6 Future Directions and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-11
Chapter 152. Variability of Hydrological Processes and

Systems in a Changing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.1 Climate Change and the Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.2 Human Activities and the Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-1
152.3 Intensification of the Hydrological Cycle in a Changing Environment . . . . . 152-2
152.4 Sustainability, Hydrologic Risk, and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-3
152.5 Tracking Hydrologic Change: Trend and Predictability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152-4

Contents xlvii
Chapter 153. Extraterrestrial Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1

153.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.2 The Origin of the Earth’s Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.3 Water in Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-1
153.4 Water Beyond Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-3
153.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153-4
Chapter 154. Water Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1

154.1 Availability of Freshwater Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1
154.2 Current State of Water Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-1
154.3 Water Security—the Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-3
154.4 Global Availability of Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-3
154.5 Water Security as Part of Economic Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.6 Managing Water in a Changing World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.7 Meeting the Water Gap: Unlocking the Potential of Green Water . . . . . . . . . . 154-4
154.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154-5
Chapter 155. Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-1

155.1
Water and Human Beings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-1
155.2
What is Social Hydrology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-3
155.3
Great Hydraulic Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-4
155.4
Nature’s Talk Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-4
155.5
Evolution of Social Hydrology
as a New Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-6
155.6 Challenges ahead in Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-7
155.7 Recent Trends and Developments
in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-8
155.8 Climate Change and Future Issues
in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-8
155.9 Future Direction in Social Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-10
Chapter 156. Grand Challenges Facing the Hydrologic Sciences . . . . 156-1

156.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-1
156.2 Quality-Differentiated Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-1
156.3 Conversion Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-2
156.4 Scoping the Greater Hydrologic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-2
156.5 Scoping Water Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-3
156.6 Emerging Infrastructure Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-3
156.7 Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-4
156.8 Prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-4
156.9 Selected Priority Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-5
156.10 From Research to Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
156.11 Summary and Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156-6
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1


Foreword
Looking back when Ven Te Chow published his Handbook of Applied Hydrology in 1964, it was
without any doubt a landmark event for the water sector. Using his personal status as one of
the world’s leading water experts, he successfully managed to convince leading world authori-
ties on different aspects of water to contribute chapters in their areas of expertise. After the
book was published, it was universally acknowledged to be the most definitive and authorita-
tive text available on water resources management for well over a decade. This mammoth book
at 1,467 pages summarized and elaborated all the latest thinking and developments in different
areas of water.
It was a tribute to Chow’s encyclopaedic knowledge and versatility that he wrote several
chapters on very different topics himself. Later on, he confided to me that a few of the chapters
did not meet his high standards and thus he had to substantially rewrite them. Looked from
any direction, the depth and quality of the Handbook was a major contribution which ensured
that almost a generation of professionals used the text whenever they needed reliable informa-
tion on any aspect of water.
The Handbook was directly responsible for forging a lifelong friendship between Chow and
myself. When the book was published, I was starting my career at the University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, as a lecturer. One of the British water journals requested me to write a review of all
the water texts available and suggest 3 to 4 that I considered the best and most useful. In the
mid-sixties, it was possible to read all the texts on water that were available since the number
was rather limited.
After I published my assessment in late 1964, I received a letter from a somewhat annoyed
Chow since this list did not include his latest tome Handbook of Applied Hydrology. I explained
to him that I did not omit the book deliberately. I fact, I knew the book was published and
available in the United States. Thus, I had written to McGraw-Hill asking if I could get a copy
of the book for my assessment purposes. McGraw-Hill responded by saying that the book was
indeed available in the United States but it would not be available in the United Kingdom for
another six months.
Chow, being the gentleman he was, immediately apologized for his letter. Shortly thereafter,
I moved to Canada. In the sixties, when I was a Director in the Government of Canada, Chow
invited me to come to the University of Illinois and give a talk during a meeting of the hydrol-
ogy professors in Urbana.
In early 1970, when Chow was considering the possibility of creating an interdisciplinary
and multisectoral professional water association, the International Water Resources
Association, he contacted me and requested me if I could be a founding member and help him
to establish a Canadian chapter of the new Association. We remained very good friends until
his untimely death.
There have been exponential scientific and technological developments in all water-related
areas, especially during the post-1980 period. Thus, advances in knowledge had made the
Handbook obsolete by the early 1980s. It is indeed a tribute to Chow’s genius that the book had
remained useful for such a long period.
xlix

l Foreword
I am delighted that Prof. Vijay P. Singh, Distinguished Professor and Caroline and William
N. Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas, is completely rewriting and updating Chow’s Handbook. Prof. Singh is a prominent
international authority in hydrologic sciences, and, in my view, he is easily within the top 0.1%
of all global water-related researchers. Only a person of Prof. Singh’s stature can undertake
such a Herculean task.
Following Chow’s footsteps mean these are big shoes to fill. From the manuscript, it is obvi-
ous to me that Prof. Singh has not only filled the big shoes completely but he has achieved
almost the impossible with panache and style.
Even with knowledge advancing at a significantly higher rate at present, compared to when
Chow first published the book in 1964, I have no doubt that the new and updated version of
this Handbook will remain the authoritative text for at least a decade. The new text is a fitting
memory and tribute to Chow’s enduring legacy, and also a fitting confirmation of Prof. Singh’s
global stature.
Singapore
October 18, 2015
Asit K. Biswas
Distinguished Visiting Professor
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy
National University of Singapore

Preface
The original Handbook of Applied Hydrology, edited by V.T. Chow, was published in 1964.
The Handbook has had a major influence on hydrology. Since then it has been widely used as
a reference book and has inspired numerous hydrologists by its depth and breadth of coverage.
During the intervening period of over 50 years hydrology has witnessed phenomenal develop-
ment in both depth and breadth, with the result that it has become a full-fledged geophysical
science while still serving as a basis for engineering applications. The development has
occurred along four main lines. First, the 1960s witnessed the birth of a digital revolution and
the computing prowess has since expanded exponentially. Now-a-days portable laptops are
manyfold more powerful than a large computer that then filled an entire room. The enormous
computing capability permitted the birth of digital or numerical hydrology. Beginning with
the development of the Stanford Watershed Model in 1966, a large number of watershed mod-
els, simulating virtually the entire hydrologic cycle, were developed. One can easily count in
the world over one hundred watershed hydrology models in use these days. The development
of watershed models is still continuing, encompassing simulation of other aspects that are
associated with hydrology, such as atmospheric or hydrometeorological processes, hydraulics,
climate change, ecosystems, geo-biochemistry, and human interactions. Another area has been
the solution of hydrodynamic equations, be those of surface water, subsurface water, ground-
water, or water quality. Because of computers, it is now possible to simulate any component of
the hydrologic cycle in great detail and do inverse modeling as well.
Second, a tremendous growth in the development of new methods of solution, both deter-
ministic and stochastic, has occurred. On the deterministic side, new transform techniques,
optimization techniques, artificial intelligence methods, data mining, and numerical schemes
were developed. On the stochastic side, developments have been even greater. Examples are
copula theory, entropy theory, chaos theory, network theory, fractals, scaling theory, Monte
Carlo simulation, and so on.
Third, techniques for novel data collection, processing, storage, archiving, retrieval, and
sharing have reached unprecedented heights. Remote sensing methods, such as radar and
satellite technologies are now providing spatial data that were not even imagined prior to 1964.
Information technology is providing means for dissemination of information in seconds, per-
mitting hydrology to get closer to people as for example is happening in applications at farm-
ing scale. Another example is social hydrology, an emerging area that is gaining wide
recognition these days.
Fourth, new theories and new concepts have been developed, facilitated greatly by the afore-
mentioned three areas. We have witnessed the evolution of new concepts in geomorphology
and, more importantly, application of these concepts in watershed hydrology, hydrogeological
characterization, hydrometeorology, cryosphere, glaciology, geo-bio-chemical transport, land
use change, climate change, ecosystems science, medical hydrology, and the list goes on. In
some areas, developments have been so large that together they have given rise to new branch-
es of hydrology that were not even heard of prior to 1964.
It is, therefore, now appropriate to pause and take a stock of where we were, where we have
been and where the multiple disciplines that make hydrology should be going. This philosophy
served as the motivation for preparing the layout for the second version of the Handbook of
Applied Hydrology. The word “Applied” is important here. The emphasis in this version has
been on the application at the expense of deep science and mathematics. With these consider-
ations in mind, the subject matter of the handbook is divided into ten parts each containing a
li

lii Preface
number of chapters. The First Part is on fundamentals and contains three chapters that deal
with the hydrologic cycle, watersheds, river basins, land use, and water balance. This part
attempts to set the context for the handbook. For the science and engineering of hydrology to
progress, data and their collection and accessibility are the foundation. Therefore, the Second
Part of this handbook deals with data collection and processing. It comprises seven chapters
that discuss hydrometeorological data, streamflow data, rating curves, hydrologic information
systems, remote sensing and geographical information systems. This part is concluded with a
discussion on design of hydrologic networks.
Hydrologic analyses and syntheses entail tools from mathematics, statistics, physics, biolo-
gy, chemistry, information science, and social-economic science. Like hydrology, these areas
have witnessed enormous developments. Fortunately, hydrologists have been quite savvy and
open minded to borrow techniques from other disciplines and apply them in hydrology. Thus,
Part Three spans twenty six chapters and presents these methods. These chapters deal with
artificial neural networks; fuzzy logic; evolutionary computing; relevance vector machines;
harmonic analysis and wavelets; outlier analysis; infilling of missing records; regression analy-
sis; time series analysis; change detection and nonstationarity; spatial analysis and geostatisti-
cal methods; frequency distributions; model calibration and validation; sensitivity analysis;
Bayesian methods; optimization methods; nonparametric methods; uncertainty analysis and
decision making; risk-reliability assessment; scaling and fractals; nonlinear dynamics and
chaos; copula modeling; entropy theory; entropy production extremum principles; data-based
mechanistic modeling; decomposition methods; network theory; and hydroeconomic analysis.
Experimental and field data and a variety of methods to analyze them have helped uncover
hydrologic mysteries and better understand and model hydrologic processes. Therefore, Part
Four containing twenty six chapters is focused on hydrologic processes and modeling.
Beginning with a discussion of weather and climate, these chapters go on to discuss hydrocli-
matology; spatial and temporal analysis of precipitation; snowpack characteristics; precipita-
tion modeling; evapotranspiration; interception; detention and depression storage;
geomorphological characteristics; infiltration; soil moisture and the vadose zone; hydrogeo-
logic characterization; groundwater modeling; watershed runoff; streamflow generation;
snowmelt runoff generation; glacial melting; reservoir and channel routing; water logging and
salinization; surface water-groundwater interaction; saltwater intrusion; land subsidence;
hydraulic fracturing; catchment classification; rainfall-runoff modeling; continuous watershed
modeling; and calibration and evaluation of watershed models. The concluding chapter deals
with feasibility, engineering, and process models.
With growing awareness of the environment, water, air and soil quality started to receive
increasing attention in the 1970s and onwards. To that end, sediment and pollutant transport
are dealt with in Part Five that comprises nine chapters. Beginning with a discussion of water
quality, the chapters go on to discuss soil erosion; channel erosion and sediment transport;
sedimentation of floodplains, lakes and reservoirs; pollutant transport in surface water, vadose
zone and ground water; and salinization and salinity management in watersheds. The con-
cluding chapter discusses transport of biochemicals and microorganisms.
The availability of data and appropriate statistical methods facilitated analysis of extremes.
Part Six, therefore, includes nine chapters that discuss hydrometeorological and hydrologic
extremes. The subject matter includes atmospheric rivers; hurricanes and typhoons; extreme
rainfall; floods; flood frequency analysis; regional hydrological modeling and regional fre-
quency analysis; risk, reliability, return periods and hydrologic design; drought characteristics;
and analysis of low flow and drought.
In hydrology, many schools of thought are applied. One school emphasizes systems
approach where intrinsic system details are not considered in detail. This school of thought
was pervasive in the 1950s through the 1970s but the subject is still of great importance.
Therefore, systems hydrology constitutes the theme of Part Seven which contains twelve chap-
ters. These chapters discuss isotope hydrology; lake hydrology; urban hydrology; agricultural
hydrology; forest hydrology; coastal hydrology; wetland hydrology; arid zone hydrology; karst
hydrology; cryospheric hydrology; hydrology for transportation systems; and large-scale and
global hydrology.

Preface liii
Part Eight deals with the hydrology of large river basins and basins of lakes and seas span-
ning thirty-two chapters. The large river basins included are those of the Amazon River;
Parana (Rio de la Plata) River; Orinoco River; Nile River; Congo River; Zambezi River;
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers; Yangtze River; Yellow River; Mekong River; Yenisei River; Lena
River; Brahmaputra River; Ganga River; Narmada River; Indus River; Mississippi River;
Colorado River; Columbia River; St. Lawrence River; Rhine River; Danube River; Ob River;
Po River; Thames River; and Murray Darling River. The basins of the Great Lakes System and
the African Great Lakes are described in two chapters. The last four chapters on the basins of
the Aral Sea; the Baltic Sea; the Black Sea; and the Caspian Sea conclude this part.
Because the Handbook emphasizes application, Part Nine comprising twenty six chapters is
devoted to applications and design. Beginning with a discussion of design rainfall, the chapters
go on to discuss probable maximum precipitation; prediction in ungaged basins; stochastic
streamflow simulation and forecasting; flood forecasting and flash and real-time flood fore-
casting; reservoir design, regulation and operation; floodplain management; stormwater
management and low impact development; flood proofing and infrastructure development;
environmental flows; drainage and culvert design; wetland and river restoration; institutional
framework for water management; virtual water, water footprint, and peak water; transbound-
ary water management; integrated river basin management; conflict resolution; long distance
water transfer; the Indian river linking program; irrigation scheduling and management;
rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge; reuse-reclaimed water in managed aquifer
recharge; and river bank filtration. This part is concluded with a discussion on the assessment
of climate change impacts and water resources.
Where the multiple disciplines of hydrology progress to is partly conjectured in the con-
cluding Part Ten that deals with the future in six chapters. These chapters discuss human
impacts on hydrology, climate change and its impact on the hydrologic cycle, human-hydrol-
ogy systems modeling, variability of hydrological processes and systems in a changing envi-
ronment, extraterrestrial water, and water security. This part is concluded with a discussion of
grand challenges.
It is hoped that the Handbook will become useful to college faculty, graduate students,
and researchers as well as practitioners in hydrology, water science and engineering, water
resources management, urban development, hydrometeorology, geosciences, environmental
and ecological sciences, and agricultural and forest sciences.
Vijay P. Singh


Acknowledgments
This Handbook is a result of the collective effort of the authors who have contributed the
chapters. It has been my privilege and honor to have known most of the authors for a long
time. They have long been at the forefront of hydrologic research and teaching or practice and
their rich experience and knowledge are hopefully reflected in the chapters they have written.
Their contribution symbolizes their love of labor and their desire to contribute to advancing
hydrology, for their time and effort are ad honorem. I am much grateful to the authors for
accepting my invitation to write the chapters and their cooperation during the preparation of
the Handbook. Without them, this Handbook would not have come to fruition, and it clearly
belongs to them.
I would like to express my deep gratitude to the members of two advisory boards: aca-
demic and practitioners. When the Handbook was being conceptualized, I often turned to
them for their advice on the chapter layout and identifying potential chapter authors. They
were more than willing to help and responded to my request promptly.
The chapters were peer reviewed and finding three or more reviewers for each of 156 chap-
ters was a challenge. They are too numerous to mention here, but I am grateful for the review-
ers’ constructive reviews.
I would like to acknowledge my family (wife Anita, son Vinay, daughter Arti, and grandsons
Ronin, Kayden and Davin) for their support and affection while I worked on this handbook
project. Without them, my task of completing the handbook would have been much more
difficult.
Finally, I want to express my gratitude to the McGraw-Hill staff, particularly Lauren
Poplawski, who were always willing to help and provide advice and suggestions.
lv


PART 1
FUNDAMENTALS
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01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 2 8/22/16 10:25 AM

Chapter 1
The Hydrologic Cycle
BY
VIJAY P. SINGH
ABSTRACT of hydronium ions that are highly mobile and can wreak havoc. A positively
charged water molecule is a hydronium ion.
Hydrology can be called as the study of the hydrologic cycle. There are sev-
If we look at the structure of the water molecule, then it is found that the
eral biogeochemical cycles in nature that are interactive, but the dominant
hydrogen atoms are tied to the oxygen atom in a V-shaped arrangement at an
among these cycles is probably the hydrologic cycle. This chapter discusses
angle of 105° resulting in an asymmetrical configuration. This also means that
the hydrologic cycle and its association with carbon and nitrogen cycles. It
the shared electrons are closer to oxygen than to hydrogen and the charges are
also discusses the impact of climate change on the hydrologic cycle. Before
not evenly divided. This phenomenon is characterized as polarity. Thus, there
discussing the hydrologic cycle, it will be useful to discuss the characteristics
are two sides of the configuration, one side on which hydrogen atoms are
of water at a more fundamental level that impact the behavior of water at
located and the other opposite side. The hydrogen side tends to be electro-
large scales.
positive and the opposite side electronegative. When water changes from liq-
uid to solid or vapor or vice versa, the water molecules arrange themselves in
1.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
distinctly different patterns during the phase change. When water becomes ice,
Water is the most common substance on earth and covers more than 70% of the molecular arrangement of ice results in an increase in volume and a
its surface. It is vital for life on earth and for that matter anywhere in the decrease in density. The pattern of molecules is highly organized and is in a
universe. Water is a simple compound where each water molecule is com- rigid geometric form. When water freezes to ice, there occurs an expansion of
posed of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. This atomic molecules, causing ice to float on water. In the case of liquid water, water mol-
structure causes the water molecules to have unique electrochemical proper- ecules organize themselves in small groups of joint particles. It is this property
ties. Each hydrogen atom shares its single electron with the oxygen atom, and that permits water to move and flow. The molecules of water vapor tend not to
thus these atoms are bonded together as H-O-H. If we consider two water form bonds among themselves and are in a state of high energy, causing mol-
molecules, then it is seen that there occurs an attraction between a hydrogen ecules to be moving.
atom of one water molecule and the oxygen atom of another molecule. The The polarity characteristic is the cause for the attraction of water molecules
bonding between these molecules has low energy and is often referred to as to electrostatically charged ions and colloidal surfaces. This is how hydration
hydrogen bonding (Brady and Weil, 2008). This bonding is responsible for occurs. For example, cations, such as Na+, K+, and Ca2+, get hydrated because
polymerization of water as well as water’s high boiling point, specific heat, and of their attraction to the negative or oxygen end of water molecules. Likewise,
viscosity in comparison with other hydrogen-containing compounds. It is the negatively charged clay surfaces attract water through the positive or hydro-
structure of water molecule that determines its ability to influence soil pro- gen end of molecules. Salt gets dissolved in water because its ionic compo-
cesses as well as its existence as a liquid at temperatures observed on Earth, nents have more attraction for water molecules than for each other.
and makes it a powerful solvent. The bulk water, what is usually discussed in Water is found to have three phases: solid (as snow and ice), liquid, and
hydrology, is the collection of water molecules. The arrangement of these vapor. It is found in the liquid phase and the solid phase on the land surface
molecules, that constitutes the bulk water, is still being debated. and beneath, in the liquid phase only in the oceans and seas, and in the vapor
The retention and movement of water in soils are partly caused by two phase in the atmosphere. Recently, another phase, which is beyond these
forces: cohesion and adhesion. Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules three phases, has been discovered (Pollack, 2013). This is the fourth phase
for each other, and adhesion is the attraction of water molecules for solid and is referred to the “exclusion zone” (EZ).
surfaces. In soil water, adhesion is also called adsorption. In the soil, the water The EZ forms next to the many submerged materials and is unexpectedly a
molecules are attached to solid surfaces by virtue of adhesion. These water large zone of water. It derives its name from the fact that it excludes practically
molecules are attached to other water molecules by virtue of cohesion, and everything. It contains a lot of charge and its characteristics are different from
these are attached to other molecules farther away from the solids, and so on. those of the bulk water. There are many water-related mysteries or phenomena
Thus, through forces of cohesion and adhesion, the water is retained and it in nature that we observe but we do not understand them well, because they
moves through the soil. The forces of cohesion and adhesion are also respon- comprise the EZ that we do not quite understand. In his masterpiece book,
sible for another property of water, called surface tension, commonly Pollack (2013) details such phenomena and the social behavior of water.
observed at the liquid-air interfaces. Surface tension together with adhesion Examples of such mysteries include water serving as a glue when building sand
causes capillarity (the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the castles from wet sand, tsunami waves traveling very long distances before
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity). petering out, slipperiness of ice, swelling upon bruising or breakage, freezing
It is known that electrons and protons are the elementary units of charge warm water, flow of water upward from plant roots through narrow columns,
and they have opposite charges, that is, one has a positive charge, while the cracking of concrete by upwelling tree roots, spreading of droplets on surfaces,
other has a negative charge. Electrons and protons play a central role in deter- walking on water, formation of isolated clouds, floating of ice, consistency of
mining how water behaves. Since the oxygen atom has a charge of –2 and each yogurt, migration of microspheres away from the center in a beaker of water,
hydrogen atom has a plus charge, the water molecule is reduced to have no the bridge made up of water, and floating water droplets, among others. These
charge or is neutral, since the negative and positive units of charge cancel each phenomena entail crowds of water molecules, not water at the molecular level.
other. When protons latch on to water molecules, the result is the formation Nevertheless, they defy easy explanation and show that we know little about
1-3
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1-4 The Hydrologic Cycle
the interaction of water molecules with other water molecules or water’s social 1.3 HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
behavior. Surprisingly, we understand little about Earth’s most common sub-
There are two systems through and between which the water moves: Earth
stance—water. Water has some unique properties that no other liquid on Earth
and atmosphere. Earth can be divided into oceans and seas, and the land part.
seems to enjoy. It has high specific heat, conducts heat more easily, has a neural
Oceans and seas form what is called the hydrosphere. The land part, also
pH, is a universal solvent, has high surface tension, exists in all three phases,
called land sphere, is divided into the land surface part and subsurface part
occupies larger volume upon freezing, and has maximum density at 4°C.
that includes unsaturated (soils) and saturated parts (geologic formations).
The land surface also includes water bodies, such as lakes and reservoirs,
1.2 DEFINITION OF HYDROLOGY
wetlands, canals and rivers, channels, and lagoons. The unsaturated part is
referred to as pedosphere and the saturated part as lithosphere. The charac-
Hydrology deals with bulk water primarily in liquid, gaseous, and solid teristics of water movement, distribution, occurrence, and storage are differ-
phases. This means that hydrology incorporates the study of snow and gla- ent in these spheres, and to understand these characteristics, this partitioning
ciers. It deals with both quality and quantity that vary in space and time, so is essential. The interconnectivity of these spheres is essential for water mov-
hydrology deals with how water is distributed. Water occurs over the land ing through the hydrologic cycle.
surface, in soil, and in geological formations. Water is dynamic, so hydrology On the continents, the water evaporates from the hydrosphere, pedo-
deals with the movement of water (surface and subsurface). Water can be sphere, and lithosphere, and is transpired by vegetation and plants into the
stored in lakes and reservoirs as well as in subterranean environment, so atmosphere. The water vapor moves in the atmosphere, and under suitable
hydrology deals with the storage of water. The occurrence, distribution, conditions, it condenses and precipitates over the land surface and over
movement, and storage of water quality and quantity are not always entirely oceans and seas. The liquid part of the precipitated water (or melted snow
deterministic, so hydrology encompasses their statistical characteristics. and ice) runs off in part over the land surface and in part into the pedosphere
Thus, hydrology can be defined as the science that deals with the space, time from where water either transpires/evaporates back to the atmosphere or
and frequency characteristics of the occurrence, distribution, movement, and percolates to groundwater (or lithosphere). Evaporation takes place from
storage of the quantity and quality of the waters of the Earth. open surfaces (rivers, lakes, wetlands, etc.) as well. The water that is not
Frequently, hydrology is partitioned into surface-water hydrology, vadose reevaporated back to the atmosphere continues to the oceans, where a net
zone hydrology, groundwater hydrology, and snow and glacier hydrology. In evaporation takes place. Conversely, a net precipitation occurs over the con-
all of these partitions, both water quantity and quality are dealt with. To tinents. This endless circulation of water from the hydrosphere and land
emphasize quality aspects, water quality hydrology is sometimes considered a sphere to the atmosphere and back is called the hydrologic cycle. It has no
separate branch. Likewise, other partitions of hydrology are agricultural beginning and no end.
hydrology, forest hydrology, wetland hydrology, environmental hydrology, The hydrologic cycle can be viewed as a natural machine, a constantly run-
ecosystems hydrology, atmospheric hydrology, arid lands hydrology, coastal ning, distillation and pumping system. The primary source of energy for the
hydrology, urban hydrology, and geohydrology. These partitions point to the operation of this machine is the Sun that supplies heat energy. In Fig. 1.1, the
broad scope and the interdisciplinary nature of hydrology. Also, these branch- spatial and temporal averages of these energy components are illustrated. Of
es are not entirely insulated from each other. Hydrology should be viewed in particular importance for hydrology is the loss of heat energy from the Earth’s
a broader context, for water is sometimes on the surface and at other times, it surface. The 29% share of heat loss can be further subdivided into 22% loss as
is below the surface but then again it reappears on the surface. latent heat and 7% loss as sensible heat. It should be emphasized that there are
Depending upon the methods of analysis and synthesis, hydrology is also huge variations from the average picture both in time (diurnal, seasonal, and
divided into different branches, such as mathematical hydrology, numerical yearly) and in space. Together with the force of gravity, this energy keeps the
hydrology, digital hydrology, systems hydrology, parametric hydrology, water moving as evaporation and transpiration from the earth to the atmo-
empirical hydrology, statistical hydrology, and stochastic hydrology. Based on sphere, as condensation and precipitation from the atmosphere to the earth,
the emphasis of scientific concepts, hydrology can be divided into physical and as streamflow and groundwater from the Earth to the oceans. Thus, the
hydrology, chemical hydrology, and biological hydrology. hydrologic cycle encompasses three major systems with the hydrosphere as
Space Shortwave solar radiation Longwave radiation and heat transfer
30% reflected
and scattered 70% radiated
(342 W/m2)
100%
26% reflected
and scattered 65% radiated
109% absorbed
96% radiated
26% absorbed 5% lost back down
Earth’s
to space
atmosphere
29% lost
as latent
4% reflected Greenhouse and
effect sensible
heat
Back
radiation
Earth’s
surface 47% absorbed
Figure 1.1 The global energy balance.
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 4 9/26/16 1:45 PM

Schematic Representation of the Hydrologic Cycle 1-5
Storage in Moisture over land

ice and snow
Condensation
Precipitation
on land
Surface Evaporation from land
runoff Precipitation
Evapotranspiration on ocean
Freshwater
storage Evaporation
Lake Sub
Infiltration sur
fac
e flow Evaporation from ocean
Lake
Surface outflow
Groundwater flow
Groundwater outflow
Ocean
Groundwater
storage
Ocean
storage
Figure 1.2 The hydrologic cycle [Source: http://water.usgs.gov].
the major source of water, the atmosphere as the deliverer of water, and the land surface, replenishing soil moisture, and percolating down to recharge
land sphere as user of water. groundwater. Part of the infiltrated water includes subsurface runoff or inter-
It may be noted that water is transported, temporarily stored, and may flow, and groundwater runoff or baseflow. Part of rainfall and snowmelt runs
change state in each sphere. Consider, for example, the atmosphere where off over the land surface, joins streamflow, and eventually joins the sea.
water occurs as vapor flow, stored as vapor storage in the atmosphere, and Streamflow includes surface runoff as well as subsurface runoff. It may be
condenses and precipitates under change of state from vapor to either that of noted that these different components have different time scales and their
liquid or solid. Much more water stays in storage for longer periods of time significance is different at different scales.
than in movement through the hydrologic cycle.
1.5 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE
1.4 COMPONENTS OF THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The major components of the hydrologic cycle are precipitation, evaporation, The hydrologic cycle can be illustrated as shown in Fig. 1.2, depicting the
infiltration, groundwater, and streamflow. Precipitation includes all forms of various components and their principal directions of flow. This, however, does
water that falls from the atmosphere, including rainfall, snowfall, hail, sleet, not provide any information on the relative significance of these components
drizzle, dew, and fog. Rainfall and snowfall constitute the main forms of pre- which varies with the space (watershed, land system, and global) and time
cipitation. Snow is a form of stored water that remains where it falls until scales. The cycle is truly an endless circulation at the global scale, but not
melting occurs. Each year, approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 mi3) of water necessarily so at smaller scales. At the global scale, the atmosphere, the hydro-
falls as precipitation of which about 78% [approximately 398,000 km3 (95,000 sphere, and the land sphere are connected and interactive, as shown in Fig. 1.3.
mi3)] falls over the oceans. The precipitation falling as rain is about 107,000 The major components of the cycle at this spatial scale are precipitation,
km3 (26,000 mi3) and as snow is about 1000 km3 (240 mi3). Precipitation is evaporation and transpiration, and streamflow. The time scale is also much
partitioned into four parts: (1) interception, (2) evaporation, (3) infiltration, larger and hence more transient components, such as infiltration, surface
and (3) runoff. Part of precipitation is intercepted by trees, buildings, and other runoff, interception, etc., become embedded in other components. The global
abstract objects. Most of this portion is evaporated to the atmosphere. A small scale hydrologic cycle is a closed system and it is normally neither modeled
portion of snow also evaporates. Oceans contribute about 86% of global nor used for water resources planning and management at this scale. The
evaporation that reduces oceanic temperature through evaporative cooling. general circulation models are, however, employed for climate impact studies.
Part of rainfall fills surficial depressions, forming small ponds, where some Of greater significance is the hydrologic cycle at the watershed scale which
water infiltrates and some evaporates. Another part of rainfall infiltrates the can be quite small or very large. At this spatial scale, all components of the
Precipitation
Precipitation River flow

Atmospheric
system Earth system Tidal flow, sea Ocean system
ET
rise, GW
Evaporation
Figure 1.3 A global schematic of the hydrologic cycle [Source: Singh, 1992].
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 5 9/26/16 1:46 PM

Precipitation Global
Global Global
ET weather CO2
systems variations
10,000 Km
Development
Land system Surface of major
runoff river rasins
Soil
1000 Km formation
Runoff
Exfiltration Infiltration cycle
Space
Mesoscale Drainage
100 Km weather Mesoscale network
systems soil Soil formation
Subsurface (floods) moisture erosion
Subsurface system variation Shallow
runoff 10 Km
ground
Stream Nutrient water
flow cycles circulation
Upward
Percolation 1 Km Thunder
moisture
(recharge) storm
movement
Time Log/
Local
Ground water 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 second
Aquifer system runoff
Second Minute Day Year Century One million One billion
years years
Figure 1.4 A schematic of the hydrologic cycle of the earth system [Source: Singh, 1992].
Figure 1.5 Spatial and temporal scales of hydrologic processes and cycle
[Source: National Researach Council, 1991].
hydrologic cycle play their role, but the significance of their role depends on
the time scale. For example, at small time scales, evapotranspiration may not
be significant, but infiltration plays a dominant role. The reverse happens at The spatial and temporal scales of some hydrologic processes and cycles are
the large time scale. If the watershed is forested or highly urbanized, then shown in Fig. 1.5.
interception may be significant. At a large watershed scale, the hydrologic
cycle is illustrated in Fig. 1.4. 1.6.2 Spatial Scales
Spatial scales that are important for hydrologic investigations are hillslope,
catchment, basin, regional, continental, and global. At the global scale, the
1.6 SCALES IN HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the land and lithosphere are strongly con-
The significance of the components of the hydrologic cycle is closely connected through the processes of precipitation, evaporation, and runoff. Global
nected with their space and time scales. Further, mathematical relationships fluxes and circulation patterns are investigated at this scale and are important
describing the different components depend on the scale. Therefore, these for assessing the impact of climate change on the hydrologic cycle. Figure 1.2
scales play a critical role when simulating the cycle or the components shows a global view of the hydrologic cycle.
thereof. The catchment scale has a very broad range, ranging from a few square
kilometers to tens of thousands of kilometers. For small catchments, the pro-
1.6.1 Time Scales cesses of precipitation, runoff, infiltration, soil moisture, and runoff are most
The components of the hydrologic cycle have vastly different time scales of important. As catchment becomes large, groundwater in most cases also plays
movement and residence times. The residence time of a reservoir is the an important role.
average time the water will spend in the reservoir (i.e., the storage divided
by the flux through the reservoir), and thus is also a measure of the age of
1.7 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE
water of that reservoir. For example, the rate at which surface runoff moves HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
is very high as compared with that of groundwater. Likewise, the residence
time of surface water is a small fraction of that of groundwater. Groundwater It is now widely accepted that as a result of anthropogenic influences, there is
may reside for over 10,000 years below the earth’s surface before leaving, global warming and the climate is changing. The increased emission of green-
whereas water spends about 2–6 months in rivers, about 1–2 months in the house gases is considered to be the principal cause of increase in Earth’s tem-
soil, and only a little over a week in the atmosphere. These times play a perature. This is supported by measured temperature data series as well as
critical role in numerical simulation of the hydrologic cycle. The time step paleoclimatological records. The implications of climatic change for the hydro-
should be sufficiently small so that the variations in the component pro- logic cycle are many. The increase in temperature would cause higher evapo-
cesses are captured in sufficient detail without putting undue burden on transpiration; changes in patterns, timing, intensity, and distribution of
data collection and computational efforts. Shiklomanov (1999) has pre- precipitation; melting of polar ice caps and recession of glaciers; more fre-
sented the estimated periods of renewal of water resources on the earth, as quently occurring droughts; increased frequency of flooding; higher melting
shown in Table 1.1. of polar ice and glaciers; sea water level rise; inundation of islands of low eleva-
tions as well as cities adjacent to seas; changes in vegetation dynamics; ecosys-
tem health; and so on. These changes are already being witnessed. Nevertheless,
Table 1.1 Periods of Water Resources Renewal on the Earth it is not understood with acceptable degree of certainty as to what, where, and
how much changes are or will occur. On the other hand, an increase in tem-
Water of hydrosphere and land sphere Period of renewal
perature may mean greater precipitation, some of which may occur in the form
World Ocean 2,500 years of snow at the poles, leading to an additional accumulation of ice.
Groundwater 1,400 years
Since the three spheres constitute a continuum, changes in the land sphere
and lithosphere would cause a change in the climate. For example, changes in
Polar ice 9,700 years vegetation mean changes in evapotranspiration, soil moisture, albedo and
Mountain glaciers 1,600 years radiation balance; burning of fossil fuels; increased use of water day-to-day
Ground ice of the permafrost zone 10,000 years
needs; increased irrigation; increased industrial activities; and large-scale
water transfer between basins would contribute to climate change. Climate
Lakes 17 years change manifests itself in changed patterns of spatial and temporal variability
Bogs 5 years in the components of the hydrologic cycle.
Soil moisture 1 year
Channel network 16 days 1.8 INFLUENCE OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND LAND USE
CHANGES ON HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Atmospheric moisture 8 days
There are a multitude of changes, minor or major, caused in watersheds by
Biological water Several hours
human activities. These changes influence virtually all components of the
[Source: Shiklomanov, 1999] hydrologic cycle. The watershed changes can be either point or nonpoint
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 6 8/22/16 10:25 AM

Relation between Hydrologic cycle and Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles 1-7
changes. Examples of point changes are structural changes, such as dam con- peak of outflow from the reservoir and the volume of flow downstream may
struction, channel improvement, and detention storage, and these changes be considerably reduced if the reservoir water is diverted elsewhere. Channel
affect watershed response in terms of evaporation, seepage, residence time, improvements include straightening of the channel, removal of vegetation,
etc. Examples of nonpoint land use changes, that affect catchment response, lining of the channel, maintenance of bends, or increasing slope. These
include forestry, agriculture, mining, and urbanization. The seriousness of changes may translate into decreased channel roughness increasing flow
hydrologic consequences depends on the magnitude of watershed changes. velocity and hence peak discharge. Depending upon the bed material, infiltra-
There is growing need to quantify the impact of man-made changes on the tion through the bed and banks also modifies flow characteristics.
hydrologic cycle in order to anticipate and minimize the potential environ-
mental detriment and to satisfy water resources requirements of the society. 1.9 RELATION BETWEEN HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND
Agricultural operations exercise a significant influence on the hydrologic CARBON AND NITROGEN CYCLES
response of watersheds. Agriculture alters land cover, influencing evapotrans-
piration; changes upper soil layers, altering infiltration, soil moisture, leach- The hydrologic cycle is a biogeochemical cycle. The movement of water over
ing and evaporation; irrigating land, causing recharge and changing water and below the Earth is fundamental to the cycling of biogeochemicals. This
table; applying fertilizers, causing soil and water pollution; and tilling the soil, suggests that the hydrologic cycle not only impacts other biogeochemical
causing soil erosion by wind and water. These changes lead to changes in cycles, such as the carbon cycle and the nitrogen cycle, but is also impacted
evapotranspiration, overland flow, channel flow, and infiltration. by them in a feedback system. Consider, for example, runoff and streamflow.
Urbanization transforms forested and agricultural land into urban areas Eroded sediment and phosphorus are carried by surface runoff to streams
where houses, roads, schools, buildings, shopping malls, parks, parking lots, and rivers and further on to water bodies. Phosphorus, applied to agricul-
sewers, etc., are constructed. Urbanized lands are dominated by paved or tural lands through fertilizer in excess of what plants consume, is carried by
impervious surfaces that reduce infiltration and evapotranspiration and surface runoff to lakes and reservoirs, and that causes eutrophication.
increase storm water. The hydrologic effects of urbanization include increases Likewise, nitrogen is transported by surface runoff and groundwater and
in the volume and peak of direct runoff for a given rainfall; reduction in time streamflow to water bodies. As an example, the water has become hypoxic in
of travel resulting in lower lag time and lower time of concentration; diminu- the Gulf of Mexico as a result of nitrates from fertilizer being transported by
tion of baseflow; reduction in infiltration; increase in the withdrawal of runoff from agricultural lands to rivers and then by the Mississippi. Transport
groundwater; increase in pollution of rivers and aquifers; endangering the of eroded sediment and dissolved salts causes salinity of the oceans and seas.
ecology; and increase in temperature of urban areas, causing a change in
1.9.1 Carbon Cycle
microclimate.
The principal forest activities are afforestation (planting trees), deforesta- Carbon is ubiquitous in all living things as well as is part of nonliving things,
tion (cutting trees), and management. Forest management includes road con- such as ocean, air, and earth. Fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, are made of
struction, erosion control and water management, electrification, and chemical carbon. By joining oxygen, it forms carbon dioxide that is present in the
sprays. The immediate effect of these activities is the change in vegetal cover. atmosphere. The movement of carbon back and forth among biosphere,
Deforestation virtually eliminates the interception of precipitation. Forest litter atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere defines the carbon cycle, as shown
removal changes infiltration capacity of the soil and has a pronounced effect in Fig. 1.6. It is one of the biogeochemical cycles and consists of various
on raindrop impact and the resulting soil erosion. With the loss of vegetative sinks and stores of carbon and processes by which sources and sinks
cover, evapotranspiration decreases. These changes increase direct runoff, exchange carbon.
reduce surface roughness, and decrease recharge to groundwater. The carbon cycle is a closed system, suggesting a fixed amount of carbon in
Typical structural changes include a dam, a weir, levees, spurs, dykes, dredg- the world. The processes in the carbon cycle are interactive. Fossil fuel burn-
ing, channel improvement works, etc. A dam reservoir, in general, reduces the ing and land use change are two of the important processes impacting the
Sunlight
Auto and
factory
CO2 cycle emissions
Photosynthesis
Plant
respiration
Animal
respiration
Organic carbon
Root
Decay
respiration
organisms Dead organisms
and waste products
Ocean
Fossils and fossil fuels uptake
Figure 1.6 Carbon cycle [Source: https://eo.ucar.edu].
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 7 9/26/16 1:46 PM

Figure 1.7 Nitrogen cycle [Source: http://cnx.org and USGS].
balance of carbon. Oceans contain the greatest amount of actively cycled nitrogen into compounds, such as nitrate or ammonia, which can be used by
carbon in the world. Only the lithosphere stores more carbon than oceans. plants. This “fixed” nitrogen (or reactive nitrogen) is a limiting factor for plant
The geologic component of the carbon cycle operates more slowly than other growth in both managed and wild environments.
parts of the global carbon cycle. Carbon leaves the geosphere in several ways, The nitrogen cycle, as shown in Fig. 1.7, is the process by which nitrogen is
for example, during the metamorphosis of carbonate rocks. transformed to various chemical forms through biological and physical pro-
In the atmosphere, carbon exists primarily in gaseous form as carbon diox- cesses. Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonifi-
ide (CO2) and methane. Both these gases absorb and retain heat in the atmo- cation, nitrification, and denitrification. The nitrogen cycle constitutes an
sphere, and are partly responsible for the greenhouse effect. In comparison important component of the ecosystem. The nitrogen cycle has hydrologic
with carbon dioxide, methane produces a large greenhouse effect per volume, significance because the availability of nitrogen affects the rate of key ecosys-
but it exists in much lower concentration and is more short-lived. This tem processes, including primary production and decomposition. When
explains why carbon dioxide is a more important greenhouse gas than meth- plant and animal wastes decompose, they add nitrogen to the soil. Bacteria in
ane. Carbon dioxide traps heat in the atmosphere, and were it not for it and the soil convert those forms of nitrogen into forms that plants can use. Plants
other greenhouse gases, the earth would be a frozen planet. Because of so use the nitrogen in the soil to grow. People and animals eat plants; then ani-
much more emission of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, we are experienc- mal and plant residues return nitrogen to the soil again, completing the cycle.
ing global warming. Human activities, such as fossil fuel combustion, use of artificial nitrogen
Plants employ carbon dioxide and sunlight to make their own food fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater, significantly impact the
through the process of photosynthesis, and carbon becomes part of plants. On global nitrogen cycle.
burning fossil fuels, most of the carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon Nitrogen enters the nitrogen cycle from different sources: (1) air through
dioxide. Living beings release CO2 back to the atmosphere during respiration. several unique types of microorganisms that can convert N2 gas to inorganic
Large exchange of CO2 also takes place between the hydrosphere and the forms usable by plants; (2) manure and decaying of plant materials; (3) appli-
atmosphere. The dissolved CO2 in the oceans is used by marine biota for cation of commercial nitrogen fertilizers; and (4) as inorganic nitrogen from
photosynthesis, thus carbon dioxide is entering the oceanic biosphere as well. the atmosphere and factories. It leaves the cycle in four ways: (1) denitrification,
Also, from the atmosphere carbon dioxide directly dissolves into water bodies (2) bacteria change nitrate in the soil to atmospheric nitrogen, (3) volatilization,
(oceans, lakes, reservoirs, etc.) as well as dissolves in precipitation as rain- and (4) turning urea fertilizers and manures on the soil surface into gases.
drops. When dissolved in water, it reacts with water molecules and forms Nitrogen reenters the cycle through one of the aforementioned processes or
carbonic acid that contributes to the ocean acidity. Carbon leaves the terres- through other processes. As shown in Fig. 1.7, nitrogen changes from organic
trial biosphere in different ways and at different time scales. For example, matter in the soil, to bacteria, to plants, and back to the organic matter.
combustion releases organic carbon rapidly into the atmosphere. Carbon Nitrogen is present in the environment in a variety of chemical forms:
stored in soil can remain there for up to thousands of years before being organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH4+), nitrite (NO2−), nitrate (NO3−), nitrous
washed into rivers by erosion or released into the atmosphere through soil oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), or inorganic nitrogen gas (N2). Figure 1.7
respiration. shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.
The main component of the nitrogen cycle starts with the element nitrogen
1.9.2 Nitrogen Cycle in the air. Upon interaction with oxygen, several compounds, such as nitric
Nitrogen (N2) is a colorless, odorless, nontoxic gas, and is essential for all oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are formed. Eventually nitrogen
known forms of life on Earth. Being close to 78%, it is the largest constituent dioxide may react with water in rain to form nitric acid (HNO3), which may
of the atmosphere, but this form is relatively nonreactive and unusable by be utilized by plants as a nutrient. Nitrogen in the air becomes part of the
plants. Nitrogen in plants is used in chlorophyll molecules, which are essential biological matter through bacterial action and algae through a process called
for photosynthesis and plant growth. Natural fixation converts gaseous nitrogen fixation. Legume plants, such as clover, alfalfa, and soybeans, form
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 8 9/26/16 1:46 PM

REFERENCES 1-9
nodules on the roots, where nitrogen-fixing bacteria take nitrogen from the 1.10 CONCLUSION
air and convert it into ammonia (NH3). The main source of nitrogen in soils
The hydrologic cycle is receiving a lot of attention these days from various
is from organic matter, which largely arises from plant and animal residues.
quarters of the society, partly because of climate change; frequently occurring
The conversion of ammonia to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living
natural disasters, such as floods and droughts; increasing demand for water;
bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. Onsite sewage facilities, such as septic
and the growing recognition of water-energy-food nexus. Even laymen are
tanks, release large amounts of nitrogen into the environment by discharging
now talking about the specter of climate change and the hydrologic cycle.
through drain fields into the ground.
Fortunately, in primary and junior high schools, the hydrologic cycle is being
Ammonia (NH3) is highly toxic to fish, and the level of ammonia discharged
taught and this is causing an interest in water issues and climate change at the
from wastewater-treatment facilities must be closely monitored. Nitrogen and
grass root level. The hydrologic cycle is fundamental to other cycles and it is
hydrogen react under great pressure and temperature in the presence of a
important that the cycle is managed properly. The fate of human civilization
catalyst to make ammonia. The reaction of ammonia and nitric acid produces
and economic prosperity will depend on how well water is managed. Ancient
ammonium nitrate, which may be used as a fertilizer. Animal wastes when
civilizations understood this dependence well. It is now time to learn from
decomposed also return to the Earth as nitrates. Nitrate is a concern for water
them and begin a concerted effort to respect nature and its fundamental ele-
quality when it is converted to the nitrate (NO3–) form because nitrate is very
ments, especially air, water, and soil.
mobile and easily moves with water in the soil. High levels of nitrates can be
toxic to newborns, causing anoxia or internal suffocation.
REFERENCES
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into the largely inert N2 gas,
completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by some bacterial Brady, N. C. and R. R. Weil, The Nature and Properties of Soils, Pearson/
species in anaerobic conditions. Nitrous oxide gas (N2O) is a side product of Prentice Hall, Columbus, OH, 2008.
this reaction. It is also produced as a result of agricultural fertilization, bio- PhysicalGeography.net, Introduction to the Hydrosphere, http:www.
mass burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources. Nitrous oxide is also physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8n.html. Accessed on April 20, 2015.
a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global National Research Council. Opportunities in the Hydrologic Sciences,
warming, after carbon dioxide and methane. Although not as abundant in the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.,
atmosphere as carbon dioxide, for an equivalent mass, it is nearly 300 times 1991.
more potent in its ability to warm the planet. Pollack, G. H., The Fourth Phase of Water: Beyond Solid, Liquid and Vapor,
In the atmosphere, ammonia (NH3) acts as an aerosol, decreases air quality Ebner & Sons Publishers, Seattle, Washington, D.C., 2013, p. 357.
and clings to water droplets, eventually resulting in nitric acid (HNO3) that Shiklomanov, I. A., World Water Resources: Modern Assessment and
produces acid rain. Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric Outlook for the 21st Century (Prepared in the framework of IHP, UNESCO),
chemistry. They are precursors of tropospheric ozone production, which con- State Hydrology Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia, 1999.
tributes to smog and acid rain, damages plants, and increases nitrogen inputs Singh, V. P., Elementary Hydrology, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
to ecosystems. New Jersey, 1992.
01_Singh_ch01_p1.1-1.10.indd 9 8/22/16 10:25 AM

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Handbook of Applied Hydrology

00_Singh_FM_pi-lvi.indd 1 02/09/16 5:15 pm

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New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

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Benjamin Abban Daniel W. Baker

Bhavna Arora Daniela Biondi

M. Babbar-Sebens Brian P. Bledsoe

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Günter Blöschl Yang Cheng

Fateh Chebana Zhi-Qiang Deng

Ji Chen Georgia Destouni

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Michael DeWeese Donald K. Frevert

Liping Fang Neil S. Grigg

Dennis C. Flanagan Hoshin V. Gupta

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Alan F. Hamlet Justin Huntington

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Soksamnang Keo Zbigniew W. Kundzewicz

Max Kigobe Magnus Larson

Thomas R. Kjeldsen Se-Yeun Lee

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Larry W. Mays Dauren Mussabek

Pavol Miklanek Robert K. Niven

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A.N. Thanos Papanicolaou Manuel Pulido-Velazquez

Sandra Pavlovic Narendra Singh Raghuwanshi

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Arup K. Sarma Jery R. Stedinger

William A. Scharffenberg Caroline A. Sullivan

Sergio E. Serrano Liqun Sun

Yury V. Shan’ko Óli G. B. Sveinsson

Ashish Sharma David G. Tarboton

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Frank T.-C. Tsai Ralph A. Wurbs

Raphael M. Tshimanga Yi Xiao

Ming-ko Woo Igor S. Zonn

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Andras Bardossy P. E. O’Connell

João Pedroso de Lima Liliang Ren

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00_Singh_FM_pi-lvi.indd 18 02/09/16 5:15 pm

Aaron R. Byrd Mohamed M. Hantush

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Part 1 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Part 2 Data Collection and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Part 3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

Part 4 Hydrologic Processes and Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1

Part 5 Sediment and Pollutant Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-1

Part 6 Hydrometeorologic and Hydrologic Extremes . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-1

Part 7 Systems Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81-1

Part 8 Hydrology of Large Rivers and Lake Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93-1

Part 9 Applications and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-1

Part 10 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151-1

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Part 1. Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Chapter 1. The Hydrologic Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

Chapter 2. Watersheds, River Basins, and Land Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Chapter 8. Remote Sensing Techniques and Data Assimilation for

Chapter 16. Outlier Analysis and Infilling of Missing Records

Chapter 19. Statistical Detection of Nonstationarity: Issues

Chapter 22. Calibration, Parameter Estimation, Uncertainty, Data

Chapter 24. Optimization Approaches for Integrated Water Resources

Chapter 26. Predictive Uncertainty Assessment

Chapter 39. Spatial and Temporal Estimation and

Chapter 43. Rainfall Interception, Detention, and

Chapter 49. Watershed Runoff, Streamflow Generation,

Chapter 54. Surface Water–Groundwater Interactions:

Chapter 55. Seawater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers: Concepts,

Chapter 56. Regional Land Subsidence Caused by the Compaction