Environ Earth Sci
DOI 10.1007/s12665-014-3914-1
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Morphometric analysis of the River Thamirabarani sub-basin
in Kanyakumari District, South west coast of Tamil Nadu, India,
using remote sensing and GIS
S. Kaliraj • N. Chandrasekar • N. S. Magesh
Received: 18 August 2013 / Accepted: 21 November 2014
Ó Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract The quantitative analysis of the drainage mor-
phometric system is vital to understand the hydrological
and environmental interaction and its processes of an area.
The present study deals with quantitative characteristics of
morphometry of steep slope and short length sub-basin of
R. Thamirabarani in Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu,
India, using geospatial technology. In this study, the digital
elevation model data product (ASTER DEM), Landsat
ETM? image and Survey of India topographical map were
used to delineate slope, relief and drainage system struc-
tures such as drainage pattern, stream order, stream net-
work and stream length of the sub-basin using ArcGIS 9.3
software. The morphometric analysis deals with hydrologic
processes such as stream frequency, bifurcation ratio, cir-
culatory ratio and length of overland flow of the sub-basin
area and their influences on the local morphologic land-
forms. The quantitative measurement of these characteris-
tics is used to explore the basin’s contribution to the
hydrological cycle and the shape, size and formation of the
local landscapes in the region. Moreover, the hypsometric
analysis and denudation rate were estimated for under-
standing the quantitative geomorphological characteristics
of the sub-basin. The relationship of the morphometric
parameters reveals that the drainage network is strongly
controlled by geological and geomorphological structures
of the area. The geometry of streams exhibits dendritic
S. Kaliraj (&)  N. Chandrasekar  N. S. Magesh
Centre for Geotechnology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar
University, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu 627012, India
e-mail: thayakaliraj@gmail.com
N. Chandrasekar
e-mail: profncsekar@gmail.com
N. S. Magesh
e-mail: mageshissivan@gmail.com
drainage pattern associated with coarse drainage texture in
primary order of streams present on hilly terrain surface
and semi-dendritic pattern in higher stream order flow on
less elevated surface with gentle slope. The drainage den-
sity of the study area ranges from 0.1 to 1.89 km/km2, and
the maximum density value was found along the higher
stream order. The mean bifurcation ratio of this area is 4.21
and the high ratio was measured between the third and
fourth order of stream segments. The morphometry of this
area is depicted by the length of the stream segment,
drainage pattern and stream flow direction, which are
influenced by relief, steep slope and local geological
structure. Furthermore, the sub-basin is found to be
strongly elongated in shape with a length of 42.78 km, and
the circularity ratio of this area is measured as 0.33 and
elongation ratio as 0.57. The textural dissection of the
landforms shows low drainage density in the high elevated
hilly terrain in the north and high level in the plain areas in
the southern part. The values of the circulatory ratio, length
of overland flow and elongation ratio are relatively close to
one another and the relationship among them shows their
influences on the process of surface runoff and sediment
deposition along the estuary landforms in the study area.
Moreover, it is observed that the hypsometric curve of this
study area is characterized by convex-up shape in nature
and represents the youth stage (inequilibrium) of land-
scapes. Consequently, the hypsometric integral value 0.49
reflects the distribution of a major volume of the landmass
(435.32 km2) at relatively low elevations (\180 m). The
morphometric parameters-induced denudation rate of this
study area is 65.14 t/km2/year and indicates the occurrence
of a wide range of denudation intensities throughout the
sub-basin, which is relatively proportional to the suspended
sediment yield that is transported in the suspension per unit
area. Based on the realistic output, it is proved that remote
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sensing and GIS are effective tools for morphometric
studies of the drainage basin.
Keywords Drainage morphometry  Hypsometric
analysis  Landscape change  Remote sensing and GIS 
Thamirabarani sub-basin  Kanyakumari  South India
Introduction
Morphometry is the measurement of the configuration such
as shape and dimensions of the hydrological system on the
earth’s surface using mathematical equations (Clarke
1966). Horton (1932) postulated that the stream length ratio
is the ratio of mean length of stream segments of an order
to mean length of stream segments of the next lower order
that tends to be constant throughout the successive orders
of a watershed. Majumdar (1982) has stated that most
drainage networks show a linear relationship with mini-
mum deviation in the straight-line resultant by plotting the
logarithm of the number of streams against order. Strahler
(1964) reported that morphometric analysis provides a
quantitative description of the basin geometry to under-
stand the initial slope or inequalities in rock hardness,
structural controls, recent diastrophism, and geological and
geomorphic history of the drainage basin. Eze and Joel
(2010) have reported that the dynamic nature of runoff is
controlled by the geomorphologic structure of the catch-
ment area; they have also expressed that the runoff is very
sensitive to the nature of morphometric characteristics of
the contributing area. Nautiyal (1994) has pointed out that
the morphometric analysis of the watershed can be carried
out based on measurement of linear features, gradient of
channel network and contributing ground slope to evaluate
the hydrological system characteristics of the basin area.
The morphometric analysis can be performed through
measurement of linear, aerial and relief parameters of the
basin (Nag and Chakraborty 2003; Magesh et al. 2011).
The National Institute of Hydrology (1993) has carried
out hydro-geomorphological studies of various basins in
India. The detailed analyses were made on linear, areal and
relief aspects of morphometric characteristics of the basin
using different mathematical equations and methods. The
basin or catchment area measured with less bifurcation
ratio indicates that the drainage system is highly controlled
by geological structures, whereas the high value of mean
bifurcation ratio of the drainage system denotes the runoff
and other external forces that contribute in drainage net-
work formation (Chopra et al. 2005) However, the rela-
tionship between stream number and stream order has a
lower logarithm value with minimum deviation of straight
line in the plot, indicating the occurrence of regional up-
liftment along the study area (Javed et al. 2009; Sreedevi
123
Environ Earth Sci
et al. 2009; Pankaj and Kumar 2009). The morphometric
characteristics such as drainage pattern, stream order,
bifurcation ratio drainage density and other linear and area-
based parameters are studied using satellite image and
topographical map (Mesa 2006). The stream flow intensity
and the amount of surface runoff can be calculated by the
analysis of morphological parameters and the associated
geographical feature. In the hard rock watershed, the
quantitative measurement of morphometry shows that
lower-order streams mostly dominate in contributing to the
discharge in the basin (Gregory and Walling 1973; Tejas-
wini et al. 2011). The morphometry of drainage network
influences the surface runoff, soil erosion and flood flow in
the catchment area (Ozdemir and Bird 2009). The drainage
density values of the basin is between 1.55 and 2.16 km/
Km2; such values represent the presence of a coarse
drainage texture (Srinivasa et al. 2004).
Over the past two decades, the Indian geospatial data
requirements have been satisfied by the national and
international spatial data sources accessible through Inter-
net. To measure the morphometric characteristics of the
drainage basin, a lot of information such as slope, stream
network, drainage pattern and location of drainage is nee-
ded. All these information can be derived from DEM and
digital topographical maps and satellite images with reli-
able accuracy (Moore et al. 1991; Martz and Garbrechet
1992). Satellite image and aerial photographs provide a
very good input source for the preparation of thematic
layers for morphometric analysis. Remote sensed images
have synoptic view of large area with distinct land form
features. These features can be extracted as thematic layer
using digital image classification techniques in image
processing software (Kaliraj et al. 2012). The linear, areal
and relief aspects of morphometric parameters can be
derived from DEM datasets using automated GIS opera-
tions which is faster, less subjective and provides more
reproducible measurements than traditional manual tech-
niques (Tribe 1992). The GIS technique is a precise, fast
and inexpensive way forof conducting a morphometric
analysis (Sarangi et al. 2003; Grohmann et al. 2007). Many
researchers have carried out morphometric studies to
evaluate basin morphometry using remote sensing and GIS
techniques (Kale et al. 1990; Malur and Nagendra 1994;
Srivastava 1997; Nag 1998; Chopra et al. 2005; Magesh
et al. 2012; Magesh and Chandrasekar 2012). Spatial fea-
tures such as drainage network, land use/land cover, slope,
geology and geomorphology of an area can be extracted
with their attribute database from the appropriate source
maps using raster to vector conversion tool and ArcGIS
environment (Kaliraj and Chandrasekar 2012).
Hypsometric analysis is the study of the horizontal
cross-sectional area of the catchment with respect to ele-
vation (Strahler 1952). Langbein (1947) introduced
Environ Earth Sci
hypsometric analysis to express the relationship of hori-
zontal distribution of land area with elevation in the
drainage basin. The differences in the shape of the hyp-
sometric curve and integral values depict the stage of
topographical structures along with the degree of equilib-
rium stage, balance of erosivity and tectonic forces (Pike
and Wilson 1971). The hypsometric curve is a product of
hypsometric analysis, and a simple histogram represents
the distribution of an area above a unit elevation (Lang-
bein1947; Strahler 1954). The curve is a dimensionless
parameter of normalized cumulative frequency distribution
of the elevation within the area, and it is used in different
catchments for understanding the dominant geomorphic
processes irrespective of scale. Strahler (1952) and
Schumm (1956) stated that the curve represents the stages
of basin as youth, mature and old in the region consists of
homogeneous geological structures also used to differen-
tiate the erosional landforms at different stages during their
evolution. Moreover, the curve relates the frequency dis-
tribution of land area at different elevations that represents
the geomorphic evolution of various landforms and their
influences on the landscapes under different climatic con-
ditions (Rosenblatt and Pinet 1994; Singh 2008). Satellite-
based digital elevation models such as SRTM, ASTER and
Cartosat DEM have been widely used for hypsometric
analysis over a catchment scale (Martz and Garbrecht
1992; Hurtez et al. 1999; Kusre 2013). The DEM-derived
morphometric parameters such as stream network, slope,
altitude, catchment area, longitudinal profiles and valley
asymmetric characteristics have produced effective results
in hypsometric analysis and can be used for conventional
measurement (Zavoianu 2011). The hypsometric curves
were generated by plotting the relative elevation against the
relative area of the land surface derived from the DEM
using spatial analyst module of GIS software (Sarangi et al.
2001). Besides, the mathematical analysis of the DEM data
derives hypsometric integral values by computing the ratio
of mean, maximum and minimum elevation range of the
catchment (Pike and Wilson 1971). The hypsometric
curves and integral values of the catchment depict the stage
of equilibrium, erosional pattern and topographical condi-
tion of the area. It also provides valuable information on
the geological stage and the development of the catchment
(Moglen and Bras 1995; Singh and Sarangi 2008).
Denudational process of the hierarchical drainage net-
works allows to evaluate the morphometry of the basin and
assess the effects of external controls, especially tectonics
on basin development (Bahrami 2013). Morphometric
parameters such as hierarchical drainage density anomaly
index and relief topography control the denudation rate in
the basin area (Gioia et al. 2011). The degree of denuda-
tional effect with respect to terrain uplift of the catchment
represents the interaction between climate, tectonics and
landscape evolution (Whipple et al. 1999; Bonnet and
Crave 2003; Burbank et al. 2003; Whipple 2009). More-
over, the estimation of denudation rate in the tectonically
active basin area can offer precise information about the
landscape evolution and the interplay between uplift and
denudation (Willett 1999; Montgomery and Brandon 2002;
Schiattarella et al. 2008). Besides, the denudation process
of the basin relates the recent activities of active geomor-
phological system depends hierarchical arrangement of the
drainage network (Della Seta et al. 2007). The denudation
rate is the amount of suspended sediment yield of the
channels in the basin area determined by the drainage
density and hierarchical anomaly of the drainage networks
(Ciccacci et al. 1986). The rate of denudation can be
estimated using the empirical equations which were origi-
nally obtained by an extensive research performed in var-
ious basin areas worldwide and proved as an effective
method for indirect estimation of denudation rates (Ca-
polongo et al. 2005; Pedrera et al. 2009). The indirect
evaluation of denudation can be performed by using suit-
able morphometric parameters of the drainage basins
(Gabet et al. 2008). Quantitative geomorphological ana-
lysis using the denudation index (Tu) facilitates evaluating
the overall denudation rate in the catchment that may be
used for the development of various morphological struc-
tures (Devi 2008). Several researchers have demonstrated
the geomorphic index method for evaluating the indirect
erosional processes of the drainage basin and it is consid-
ered as a very helpful tool for denudation rate assessment
(Horton 1945; Strahler 1952, 1957; Avena et al. 1967;
Ciccacci et al. 1980, 1986, 2003; Del Monte et al. 2002;
Della Seta et al. 2007; Gioia et al. 2011).
In the present study, the quantitative analysis of mor-
phometric parameters is carried out for the R. Thamir-
abarani sub-basin using ASTER DEM data (30 m),
Landsat ETM? image and topographical map and other
data sources. The measurement was performed in linear,
areal and relief aspects using standard mathematical
equations. The formulae used to calculate the linear
parameters were obtained from the methodology proposed
by Horton (1945), Strahler (1954), Chorley (1957) and
Miller (1953), and the relief aspects formulae were derived
from techniques used by Horton (1932), Schumm (1956)
and Strahler (1952). The hypsometric characteristics and
denudation process of the basin along with the estimated
morphometric values are used to understand the morpho-
logical processes and its impacts on the sub-basin area.
Study area
The study area was located in the steep slope terrain sur-
face of the Western Ghats with the geographical extent
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from 77°50 39.0300 E to 77°310 20.90800 E longitude and from
8°130 42.01900 N to 8°340 11.97400 N latitude. The length of
the sub-basin from the high end point to the river mouth
was 42.78 km with an areal extent of 745 km2. The range
of elevation is from 1,816 m to 1.2 m within the short
length is produce the sub-basin system as steep slope ter-
rain in nature (Fig. 1). This area consists of River Tami-
raparani as the main drainage system, which originates
from the peak of the Pothigai Hills on the southwestern
slopes of Western Ghats from elevation of 1,725 m above
mean sea level (MSL). However, the major tributaries,
namely Kodayar, Kalikesanar, Kallar and Chittar, flow
from the different parts of Western Ghats and join the main
channel. Three major reservoirs, namely Kodayar, Pechi-
parai and Perunchani, are located at elevations of 1,816,
131 and 100 m, respectively. This sub-basin area consists
of three different types of landforms such as highland
dense forest, middle gentle slope agriculture and plantation
and lowland coast and estuary at the mouth of the river.
The general climatic pattern of this area is sub-tropical.
The temperature annual optimum level ranges from 23 to
27 °C and two types of monsoons such as south-west
monsoon during June to September and north-east mon-
soon during October to December prevail over the area.
The monsoon rainfall is the main source of water for the
surface and sub-surface storage sectors and ranges between
80 and 241 mm. The maximum rainfall occurs during the
north-east monsoon (October and December) periods.
Fig. 1 Location of the study
area
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Environ Earth Sci
Materials and methods
The morphometric parameters of drainage basin such as
number of stream segments, stream order, drainage pattern,
sub-basin length, perimeter and area were delineated from
the ASTER DEM (30 m) data and verified with Survey of
India topographical map (1:25,000). These parameters are
involved in computing the morphometric characteristics
such as bifurcation ratio, drainage density, stream fre-
quency, form factor, circulation ratio, relief ratio, overland
flow and hypsometric behavior using various mathematical
equations in the GIS environment. Moreover, the slope and
relief of the area were extracted from the same data source
using spatial analyst tool in ArcGIS 10.2 software. The
thematic layers, namely land use/land cover and geomor-
phology, were prepared from Landsat ETM ? geo-coded
data (30 m) based on digital interpretation technique using
ERDAS Imagine 9.1 software. The regional geological
settings were interpreted with their lithological character-
istics from the district resource map published by the
Geological Survey of India using the GIS software.
Extraction of drainage network
Delineation of drainage networks within the catchment can
be achieved using traditional methods such as topograph-
ical maps or field observations. The major drawback in the
Environ Earth Sci
traditional approach is the tedious effort needed to examine
all stream networks from field observations, due to their
extent over a vast area (Rinaldo et al. 1998; Ozdemir and
Bird 2009; Bhagwat et al. 2011). In some cases, the extent
and shape of stream segments, mainly in the inaccessible
area, involve subjective judgment by the cartographer
(Tarboton et al. 1991; Gurnell and Montgomery 1999;
Maidment 2002). In recent years, the automatic extraction
of drainage networks from DEM data sources is quite easy
using the GIS software program made on the concept of the
D8 (multi-direction method) method (Martz and Garbrecht
1992; Maidment 2002; Ozdemir and Bird 2009; Ahmed
et al. 2010; Muralikrishnan et al. 2013). In this study, the
hierarchical orders of the drainage networks were derived
from the ASTER DEM (30 m) based on the D8 (multi-
direction method) method using Hydrology Tool in ArcGIS
software (Band 1986; Morris and Heerdegen 1988; Tar-
boton et al. 1991; Ahmed et al. 2010). The precision of the
DEM was enhanced by removing the pixel-based errors
such as sinks and peaks; this is also used to eliminate
discontinuities in the drainage network. The stream seg-
ments were extracted from the filled DEM based on
Strahler (1964) stream ordering system. Mapping of rela-
tively high accurate drainage network from the DEM fol-
lows sequences of systematic GIS functions such as filling
pixels, computing flow direction and flow accumulation
and then computing the contributing area from where water
drains into an outlet grid cell (Wilson and Gallant 2000;
Tarboton and Baker 2008). In this analysis, the threshold
value of 0.5 was applied to the grid for extracting the
drainage network from DEM and then it was verified with
the Survey of India topographical map to check the reli-
ability of the drainage pattern.
Analysis of DEM provides the flow direction of streams
using eight-direction (D8) pour point model in which sur-
face water drains out from the surrounding eight pixels into
one (Tarboton et al. 1991; Fairfield and Leymarie 1991;
Maidment 2002; Muralikrishnan et al. 2013). The D8
model algorithm determines the flow direction based on
water flow from a given cell into only one adjacent cell.
Flow accumulation is the next step in the drainage network
extraction modeling. Here, the flow accumulation was
calculated from the flow direction raster by assigning a
threshold of 100 pixels to determine the stream network
using raster calculator tool in ArcGIS software. In which,
the pixels of flow direction raster were assigned with the
value equal to the number of pixels drain the water through
a given pixel which involved in the flow accumulation
(Ahmed et al. 2010). Furthermore, the flow accumulation
raster was used to generate a drainage network based on the
flow direction of each cell. The drainage layer was
extracted from the accumulated pixels, which have more
than or equal to a threshold of 100 pixels using raster to
feature conversion tool. Similarly, the sub-basin boundary
was delineated by fixing the pour point in the outlet.
Preparation of geo-database for thematic layer
The thematic layers such as geology, geomorphology, land
use/land cover and drainage network were obtained from
various map sources. At first, the digital source of maps were
georeferenced with UTM-WGS 84 projection and coordi-
nate system using ground control points (GCPs) observed
from the Survey of India topographical map (scale 1:25,000)
and also from the benchmarks located along the study area.
These georectified maps were digitized to produce thematic
layers with the attribute database including object name,
area extent, perimeter, etc., using ArcGIS software.
Computation of morphometry parameters
In the present study, morphometric measurement was
performed in three aspects: (1) linear (2) areal and (3)
relief, using defined mathematical equations (Table 1). In
the linear aspect of quantitative analysis, the linear struc-
tures such as length of the main channel, elongated length
of sub-basin, stream hierarchical orders, bifurcation ratio,
length of overland flow, stream length ratio and mean
length of streams were measured to evaluate the linear
morphometric characteristics of the sub-basin. In the areal
aspect of analysis, sub-basin area, drainage density, stream
frequency, circulatory ratio, elongation ratio and form
factor were measured. Relief ratio, relative relief and slope
range were estimated under the relief aspect. Primary
measurements such as stream number and its length, sub-
basin area, sub-basin width, sub-basin elongated distance
and sub-basin perimeter were derived from the thematic
layers to evaluate the complex morphometric characteris-
tics of the sub-basin.
Hypsometric analysis
In the present study, hypsometric analysis was performed
using ASTER DEM data (30 m) obtained from GLCF
(Global Land Cover Facility), USA, for the year 2010. The
georeferenced DEM was analyzed to extract the basin area
and relief or elevation range using the spatial analyst
module of ArcGIS software. The DEM was sliced into ten
classes of horizontal cross-sectional area based on the
elevation breakpoints using add-on tool to Arc GIS soft-
ware, namely Hypsometric Toolbox, scripted and custom-
ized by Jerry Davis (2010), to calculate the proportional
area of the basin with respect to elevation for each class in
123
 Environ Earth Sci

Table 1 The mathematical formulae adopted for the quantitative measurement of the morphometric parameters
Morphometric parameters Symbol Formula References

Linear parameter measurement

Stream number Nu Number of stream segments Strahler (1952)
Stream order U Hierarchical rank Strahler (1964)
Stream length (km) Lu Length of the stream segment Horton (1945)
Mean stream length Lsm Lsm = Lu/Nu Strahler (1964)
where Lsm = mean stream length
Lu = total stream length of order ‘u’
Nu = total no. of stream segments of order ‘u’
Stream length ratio RL RL = Lu/Lu1 Horton (1945)
Where RL = stream length
Lu = total stream length of order ‘u’
Lu1 = total stream length of its next lower order
Bifurcation ratio Rb Rb = Nu/Nu ? 1 Schumm (1956)
Where Rb = bifurcation ration
Nu = total no. of stream segments of order ‘u’
Nu ? 1 = number of segments of the next higher order
Mean bifurcation ratio Rbm Rbm = average of bifurcation ratios of all orders Strahler (1964)
Length of overland flow Lg Lg = 1/D*2 Horton (1945)
Where, Lg = length of overland flow
D = drainage density
Area parameter measurement
Drainage density (km/km2) Dd Dd = Lu/A Horton (1932)
Where D = drainage density
Lu = total stream length of order
A = area of the basin (m2)
Stream frequency Fs Fs = Nu/A Horton (1932)
(Km/Km2) Where Fs = stream frequency
Nu = total no. of streams of all orders
Form factor Rf Rf = A/Lb2 Horton (1932)
Where Rf = form factor
A = area of the basin(m2)
Lb2 = square of basin length
Circularity ratio Rc Rc = 4*Pi*A/P2 Miller (1953)
Where Rc = circularity ratio
Pi = ‘Pi’ value, i.e., 3.14
A = area of the basin (m2)
P = perimeter (m)
Elongation ratio Re Re = 2v (A/Pi/Lb) Strahler (1956)
Where Re = elongation ratio
Pi = ‘Pi’ value, i.e., 3.14
A = area of the basin (m2)
Lb = basic length (m)
Relief parameter measurement
Relief ratio Rh Rh = H/Lb Schumm (1956)
Where Rh = relief ratio
H = total relief of the basin (m)
Lb = basin length (m)

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Environ Earth Sci
Table 1 continued
Morphometric parameters Symbol Formula
Relative relief Rr Rr = 100 H/P
H = total relief of the basin (m)
P = perimeter (m)
Hypsometric curve Hc Hc = (a/A)/(h/H)
Where a/A = relative area
h/H = relative elevation
Hypsometric integral HI HI = (Emean–Emin)/(Emax–Emin)
Where E = elevation
Hierarchical anomaly Ga Number of Ist order streams make the drainage network perfectly
density hierarchized
Hierarchical anomaly index Da Da = Ga/N1 (where N1 is total number of Ist order streams
Denudation rate index Tu log Tu = 1.44780 ? 0.32619D ? 0.10247Da (if D B 6)
the attribute table. This tool facilitates determining the
values of cumulative distribution of area and normalized
elevation from the above-calculated values for hypsometric
curve preparation (Sarangi et al. 2001).
The cumulative area is derived from the ratio between
the total area of the sum of the individual basin (A) and the
segment of basin area (a) above a particular contour ele-
vation (h), whereas normalized elevation is the ratio
between total elevation of the basin (H) and the elevation on
either side of a particular contour line. In this analysis, the
hypsometric curve is obtained by plotting the value of
normalized cumulative area (a/A) in x axis and normalized
elevation (h/H) in y axis with the scale ranging from 0 to 1.
Furthermore, the ratio of a/A and h/H always ranges from 0
to 1, in which the value 0 of the normalized cumulative area
is denoted at the highest point (where h/H is equal to 1) and
the value 1 at a lower point of the basin. The hypsometric
integral of the basin is derived from the hypsometric curve
using the mathematical equation proved by Pike and Wilson
(1971). It is described as the ratio of integral value equal to
the range of mean elevation and minimum elevation
(Emean–Emin) divided by the range of maximum and mini-
mum elevation (Emax–Emin) of the basin. Thus, the value of
HI (Hypsometric Integral) is denoted as the number of
classes that coarsely summarizes the relief of the basin.
Denudation rate estimation
The geomorphic quantitative analysis of the denudation
process addresses the tectonic erosional activities in the
catchment area by climatic and terrestrial processes (Cicc-
acci et al. 1980). In this analysis, the estimation of denu-
dation rate is performed using morphometric parameters
such as basin area, length and number of stream segments
and drainage density obtained from the Survey of India
References
Schumm (1956)
Strahler (1952)
Pike and Wilson
(1971)
Avena et al. (1967)
Avena et al. (1967)
Ciccacci et al. (1980)
topographical maps (1:25,000) and ASTER DEM (30 m)
data source by integrated GIS-aided topographic calculation
techniques. In recent studies of denudation rate estimation,
many researchers have used these parameters to calculate
the hierarchical anomaly density (Ga) and hierarchical
anomaly index (Da) for estimation of denudation (Tu) rate
(Tokunaga 2000; Del Monte et al. 2002; Della Seta et al.
2007; Gioia et al. 2011; Bahrami 2013). The density
parameter (D) was derived from the ratio of stream length
and basin area (Horton 1945). Hence, the density value
exhibits the characters of the drainage network, such as
length of the stream segments and its areal extension, which
strongly affect denudation intensity. Furthermore, the val-
ues of hierarchical anomaly density (Ga) were selected on
the basis of the minimum number of streams in each order
(u ? 1) involved to make a drainage network perfectly
ordered in a tree-shaped structure (Melton 1958). Then, the
hierarchical anomaly index (Da) is obtained from the ratio
(Ga/N1) of hierarchical anomaly density and the number of
first-order streams actually occurring in the drainage basin
(Avena et al. 1967). Finally, the denudation rate (Tu) of the
drainage basin is calculated using the empirical equation
(Table 1) that was previously determined (Ciccacci et al.
1980, 1986, 2003). The denudation rate index (Tu) relates
values of drainage density and hierarchical anomaly index
to evaluate denudation power within the drainage basins
and suspended sediment yield (t/km2/year) transported in
suspension per unit area of the catchment.
Results and discussion
The drainage basin is a fundamental hydrologic and geo-
morphic unit of the river system through which precise
description of the geometry of landforms could be har-
nessed, as data can be collected, organized and analyzed.
123

Unlike the morphometry of the normal drainage basin, the
landforms and topographical structures of this study area
vary in hydrological processes, because of the short length
of drainage network flow over the steep slope terrain sur-
face. The stream segments and their morphometry are
considered as major hydrological entities to determine the
hydrodynamic processes of this area, such as stream flow
intensity, overland flow and surface runoff into the outlet.
The quantitative analysis of the morphometry of this sub-
basin was performed in linear, areal and relief aspects to
evaluate the characteristics of the drainage system using
remote sensing and GIS.
Drainage network
The drainage pattern of the R. Thamirabarani sub-basin area
is dendritic. The streams originate at different parts of the
Western Ghats off the southwestern slope. The study area
has five hierarchical orders based on the Strahler’s ordering
system (Strahler 1957). The main drainage network of R.
Thamirabarani is formed by the confluence of seven major
tributaries, namely Kodayar, Kallar, Kalikesanar, Chittar,
Pambar, Chattar and Masipatti Ar., which flow from dif-
ferent parts of the Western Ghats. These major tributaries
discharge into four reservoirs, namely Kodayar reservoir,
Kodayar Lake, Pechiparai reservoir and Perunchani reser-
voir. The length of the sub-basin is 42.78 km and the ele-
vation is 1,816 m from mean sea level. The study area is
generally a steep slope along the northern part except the
coastal area. This causes variation in the number of stream
segments in the first-order and second-order streams. The
total number of stream segments in first order is 238; how-
ever, the number of stream segments in second order is only
56. This reveals that the study area is dominated by first-
order streams. The shape, size and distribution of the stream
segments in the drainage network can affect the drainage
basin morphologic characteristics (Obi Reddy et al. 2004).
The interrelations of these factors with the land use and land
cover control the discharge of water and surface runoff in the
gentle slope surface in the mid-region and plain surface in
the southern part. However, the rate of infiltration of
groundwater into the sub-surface is mainly determined by
the drainage network and geological composition of the
area. In some cases, the lineaments, fault and fracture-like
morphological structures can increase the infiltration rate
along the north-eastern valley region (Fig. 2).
Geological settings
The sub-basin area has underlain different geological
structures such as garnet–biotite gneiss, sillimanite–
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graphite gneiss, charnockite, clay sand, gabbro (intrusive
igneous rocks) rock type, granite, sand, silt with clay
intercalation and fissile hornblende biotite gneiss (Fig. 3).
The sequences of horizontal to nearly horizontal bedded
complex structures of garnet–biotite gneiss are distributed
predominantly over all part of the study area, and the areal
extent of this setting is about 334.12 km2 and is equal to
44.85 % of the total study area. Garnet–biotite-sillimanite–
graphite gneiss mixture is a second dominant feature
(286.88 km2) of the sub-basin which was found associated
with garnet–biotite gneiss in the western parts and the
northern hilly terrain. Isolated batches of charnockite for-
mation have been found in south-east and north-western
portion of the study area with the total areal extent of
91.16 km2 (12.24 %). In the southern parts, about
15.64 km2 of the area consists of sedimentary formations
such as sand, silt with clay mixture and clayey sand that lay
down in the estuary of the river mouth. Furthermore,
intrusive igneous formation (4.71 km2) and impermissible
consolidated granite formation (6.62 km2) are found as
discrete structures in the eastern and western parts of the
study area, respectively. A batch formation of fissile
hornblende biotite gneiss waas found with the composition
of primary lateritic capping, basement crystalline complex
and conglomerate near the river channel in the southern
part of the study area (Table 2).
Geomorphology
Morphologically, the sub-basin area consists of different
types of landforms such as ridge-type structural hill, shal-
low weathered buried pediplain, moderately weathered
buried pediplain, inselberg, structural valley, inter-moun-
tain structural valley, valley fill, dome type denudational
hill, dome type residual hill, dyke (linear ridge), pediment
valley floor, meander scar, young coastal plain and
brackish water creek. Along the northern hilly terrain, the
ridged type of structural hills are predominantly spread
over with the association of inter-mountain valley or
structural valley and valley-filled vegetative cover. The
major parts of these landforms cover dense forest with an
areal extent of 448.72 km2 and is equal to 60.23 % of the
total sub-basin area (Table 2). The discrete dome-shaped
denudation hill is found in the eastern side of the study area
(3.54 km2). The hill is surrounded by shallow weathered
buried pediplain with steep slope faces to the northerly side
and has strong influences on the river flow path. Shallow
weathered buried pediplain (197.92 km2) has been noticed
in major parts of the southern plain region with the asso-
ciation of linearly stretched pediment, moderately weath-
ered buried pediment along the riverbed, linear ridges and
dykes, valley-filled vegetation, inselberg and dome-shaped
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 2 Drainage network and
stream order of the study area
isolated residual hills. Depositional wet landforms such as
brackish water creek (0.37 km2), meander scar and young
coastal plain (0.45 km2) have been recorded along the river
mouth in the southern region (Fig. 4).
Land use and land cover
The land use and land cover distribution of the study area
has been derived from Landsat ETM? image with the help
of consequent image processing and classification tech-
niques carried out using ERDAS Imagine software. Thus,
the results reveal that the study area mainly consists of five
types of land use and land covers such as deciduous forest
cover, tree plantation, agriculture, water bodies and
settlements (Fig. 5). The areal distribution of various land
use and land cover feature classes is given in Table 2.
About 44.91 % (334.55 km2) of the study area was found
to have dense forest cover that comprised evergreen
deciduous wood plants, semi-deciduous broad-leaved tress
and shrub vegetation in the northern hilly surface and its
associated regions of structural valley in the north-west and
valley fill in the north-eastern parts. Moreover, the northern
and north-western slope regions have been used for rubber
and tea plantation. Agriculture is the second predominant
land use in the study area (269.59 km2), which includes
crop-cultivable lands and fallow and barren land along both
sides of river banks in the middle parts and in the southern
plain surface. Water bodies such as rivers, streams, chan-
nels and reservoirs are spread mostly on the plain surface
123

Fig. 3 Geological settings of
the study area
and the total areal extent is 46.72 km2, equal to 6.27 % of
the total study area. Moreover, the southern plain and
adjacent parts of the river have noticed abundantly dis-
tributed settlements and built-ups including urban, semi-
urban and rural settlements and the extension of this from
west to east in middle part along the river bank and
southern south to north along the estuary.
Slope (Sa)
Slope is an important parameter to determine the mor-
phometric characteristics of the catchment. This represents
the topographical structures with its degree of inclination
with respect to a horizontal plain surface. The slope of the
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study area was derived from ASTER DEM data (30 m)
using surface analyst tool of ArcGIS 9.3 software. The
slope range of this sub-basin is estimated from 0.5° to
59.85°. The spatial distribution of various slope gradient
classes is given in Table 2. It is observed that the slope
faces down in a southerly direction; however, the ridged
structural hills in the northern parts consist multi-faceted
slope directions. The surface with a steep slope (38.72°–
59.85°) is found along the structural valley in the north-
eastern parts, whereas the hilly terrain in the northern and
north-western parts have slopes rangeing from 32.15° to
38.72°. The slope gradient of this hilly surface directly
influences the flow direction of drainage networks. More-
over, the slope elements in turn are controlled by the cli-
mato-morphogenic processes along the rocky surface,
Environ Earth Sci

Table 2 Areal extent of land use/land cover, geological features, varying in its resistance. The southern plain surface is
geomorphological landforms and slope gradients characterized by a gentle slope gradient (0.5°–7.5°) and
Sl. Name of the feature class Area Percentage extends from the estuary to agricultural area in the middle
no. (km2) (%) parts. The spatial variation of consequent slope gradients
has direct influences on the runoff and denudational
1 Land use/land cover
activities in the sub-basin area (Fig. 6).
Agricultural land 269.59 36.19
Built-ups 66.18 8.88
Water bodies 46.72 6.27 Aspect
Rocky outcrops/stony waste 22.27 2.99
Forest cover 334.55 44.91 Aspect refers to the horizontal direction to which a slope of
Shrub vegetative cover 5.69 0.76 the surface faces. The aspect of the surface can influence
2 Geology significantly the local climate. This is because of the
Charnockite 91.16 12.24 interaction of the angle of the sun’s rays with the slope
Clayey sand 4.75 0.64 surface (Magesh et al. 2011). Based on this concept, the
Fissile Hornblende biotite gneiss 1.28 0.17 easterly aspect of the study area faces direct sunlight during
Gabbro (intrusive igneous rocks) 4.71 0.63 the hottest time of day before noon to noon, while the slope
Garnet–biotite-sillimanite–graphite 286.88 38.51 facing westerly aspect is exposed to sunlight during the
gneiss mixture afternoon. The slope will be moderately warmer than the
Garnet–biotite gneiss 334.12 44.85 sheltered east-facing slope surface. In this study, the aspect
Graphite (Gr1) 6.62 0.89 map is derived from the ASTER DEM (30 m) using Spatial
Sand, silt and clay parting 9.41 1.26 Analyst tool in ArcGIS software. The output raster map
Sand, silt and clay 1.48 0.20 shows the compass direction of the aspect with ranges from
Sandstone with clay intercalation 4.59 0.62 0° to 360°, in which the value 0° is for true north and a 90°
3 Geomorphology aspect is to the east, whereas 180° is to the south and so on.
Beach (young coastal plain) 0.45 0.06 In this study area, the aspect values range from 0° to 22.5°
Brackish water creeks 0.37 0.05 representing the northerly aspect, and the range of values
Coastal plain, deep 0.23 0.03 22.5°–67.5° indicates the slope that faces the north-eastern
Dome-type denudation hills 3.54 0.48 direction. The easterly aspect is represented as the ranges
Residual hills 3.64 0.49 from 67.5° to 112.5°, while the southerly aspect ranges
Inselberg 1.53 0.21 from 157.5° to 202.5° (Fig. 7). The visual interpretation of
Intermountain valley/structural 17.91 2.40 the aspect map reveals that the western parts have noticed
valley with easterly and north-easterly aspect. This east-facing
Linear ridges/dykes 1.99 0.27 slope experiences more insolation of sunlight which causes
Meander scar 0.04 0.01 a much hotter and drier climate in the middle and southern
Moderately weathered buried 16.38 2.20 parts (Bennie et al. 2006). Moreover, the northern hilly
pediplain terrain and eastern parts have found with westerly and
Older coastal plain deep 1.28 0.17 south-westerly aspect, this west facing slope surface has
Pediment valley floor 29.95 4.02 strong effect on weathering, drainage network flow and
Ridge-type structural hills 448.72 60.23 distribution of natural vegetation.
Shallow weathered buried pediplain 197.92 26.5
Valley fill/filled-in valley 21.05 2.83
4 Slope (in degree)
Average annual rainfall
0.5–3.28 353.85 47.50
The morphometry of the sub-basin is highly influenced by
3.28–7.51 123.91 16.63
the rainfall which induces surface runoff and overland flow
7.51–12.43 91.82 12.32
depending on the slope condition. The area has available
12.43–17.36 75.91 10.19
rainfall during both south-west monsoon (June–September)
17.36–22.06 54.29 7.29
and north-east monsoon (October–December). The mon-
22.06–26.99 31.46 4.22
soon rainfall is the main source of water for surface and
26.99–32.15 10.15 1.36
sub-surface storage sectors and the average annual rainfall
32.15–38.72 2.71 0.36
is recorded with the ranges between 80.06 and 241.56 mm.
38.72–59.85 0.90 0.12
The maximum rainfall occurs during the north-east

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Fig. 4 Geomorphology
monsoon (October and December) periods. A high amount
of rainfall (200–240 mm) has been noticed in the valley
region and in the deciduous forest of the north and north-
western hills. The central slope area and plain surface in
the southern part of the study area are found with an
average rainfall level between 140 mm and 180 mm.
Minimum rainfall amount has been noticed along the shrub
vegetative cover in middle-eastern and north-eastern parts
of the sub-basin (Fig. 8).
Morphometric evaluation of the sub-basin
The morphometric parameters were measured quantita-
tively in three aspects, such as linear, areal and relief, to
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evaluate their characteristics. The relationships among the
stream networks have been understood from the stream
number, stream length, stream overland flow, bifurcation
ratio and stream length ratio. The sub-basin area influence
on the drainage was found by the measurement of drainage
density, circulatory ratio, elongation ratio and form factor.
The behavior of stream flow and stream flow intensity are
determined by the slope and relief ratio.
Length of the main channel (L)
The main channel is the longest drainage with its curvature
from the outflow point to the upper limit of the catchment
area. The main channel is assumed to be a stream segment,
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 5 Land use/land cover
which is joined to form the next hierarchical order. This
has been measured from the digitized drainage network
layer and the value is 67.16 km out of 42.78 km of the
elongated length of the sub-basin (Table 3). From these
measured length, the area has been assumed that the stream
segment in all order are mainly distributed along the
sidereal portion of study area.
Stream number (Nu) and stream order (U)
The stream order is defined as the origin of streams and the
interconnections among them. This has proven to be useful
to understand the stream shape, size, length, width and
discharge amount of the streams. The first step in
morphometric analysis is designation of stream orders. In
this study, the stream order was classified according to
Strahler’s ordering system (Strahler 1964). Assuming this
ordering system, the sub-basin area had five orders of
streams, such as small, narrow streams originating from
high elevated hilly terrains and designated as first-order
stream, the total number of which was 238. The second-
order streams are formed from where the two first-order
streams join and form as a single outlet. Here, in this sub-
basin, the total number of these streams is 56. The total
number of stream segments in appropriate order has been
summarized in Table 3. This shows that the sub-basin
consists of five orders of streams with a total of 308 stream
segments in all orders. Out of these, the first stream order
was found in larger numbers than the next hierarchical
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Fig. 6 Slope of the study area
orders, revealing that the terrain obviously had steep slope
and short flow length in nature. The logarithm value of
stream number against stream order shows nearly a straight
line (Fig. 9). This reveals that the drainage network has
semi-linear relationship among the stream segments.
Stream length (Lu)
The length of the stream in the sub-basin area was mea-
sured from the attribute database of the drainage layer
using ArcGIS software. Stream length is a direct indicative
factor to measure the drainage density and the contributing
area of runoff in the sub-basin. The total length of streams
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in all hierarchical order is 561.98 km. Among them, stream
segments in the first order occupied a length of 286.43 km
and the second order about 136.35 km. The stream lengths
of all orders are given in Table 3. According to Horton’s
law of stream length (Horton 1945), the logarithm values of
stream length have been plotted against stream order in
Fig. 10. This shows the relationship between stream length
and stream order. The stream segments in the first-order
stream have short length, but the value is high because of
the huge number of streams distributed more predomi-
nately than that of remaining orders. If the hierarchical
stream order of the drainage basin is not controlled by
climate, then their structure is mainly determined by
external forces related to climate and geological settings
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 7 Aspect characteristics of
the study area
(Ongley 1974). Here, the sub-basin area consists of five
hierarchical orders of streams, which are not functionally
related to contemporary climate, but composed of external
forces such as surface rainfall runoff on local topography.
The continuous interactive processes of these factors for
long geologic time are manifested in the determination of
stream numbers, lengths, slopes and basin areas.
Mean stream length (Lsm)
Mean stream length is a characteristic of the drainage
network components and its associated sub-basin sur-
face (Strahler 1964). The mean stream length is calcu-
lated by dividing the total length of the stream in an
order by the number of stream segments of the same
order. The mean length values of this study area ranges
from 1.20 to 21.47. Among them, the highest value
(21.47) has been found in the fifth-order stream and the
least value is for the first-order stream. The summarized
values of mean length of stream segments is given
orderwise in Table 3.
Bifurcation ratio (Rb)
The bifurcation ratio was calculated from the ratio of
number of streams (Nu) in a given order to the number of
streams (Nu?1) in the next higher order (Schumm 1956).
According to Horton (1945), the bifurcation ratio is
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Fig. 8 Annual average rainfall
distribution map of the study
area
considered as an index of relief and dissections. The high
variations of bifurcation ratio in the different types of land
forms indicate the formation of stream segments by the
continuous runoff forces on the geological structure
(Strahler 1957). In the study area, the measured mean
bifurcation ratio (Rbm) is 4.21 (Table 3). The higher ratio
values have been calculated between the stream orders
such as third and fourth; two and three; and fourth and fifth
order and the values are 5.5, 5.09 and 5.0, respectively.
This shows that the terrain consists of these stream orders
which are strongly controlled by local geological struc-
tures. A lower ratio value is found between the first and
second order and this area has characteristics of structur-
ally less disturbance in drainage system development.
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Stream length ratio (RL)
The stream length ratio of the study area is calculated by
dividing the mean length of the stream segment of the
given order by the next lower order. The average of the
stream length ratio is 1.78 and the higher ratio values are
3.01 and 2.84 that are estimated between the third and
fourth stream orders, and second and third order, respec-
tively. The low value of ratio is 1.02 that was found
between fourth and fifth stream orders. The variation of
ratio values has been attributed in the study area to slope
and topographical structures. The higher value of ratio
revealed the formation of young geomorphic landforms
along the area (Table 3).
Environ Earth Sci

Table 3 The estimated values of the morphometric parameter in

Linear aspect
Sl. Name of the parameter Symbol Quantitative
no. measurement

1 Length of the main channel L 67.16

(km)
2 Elongated length of the sub- Lb 42.78
basin (km)
3 Number of stream segments in hierarchical order (Total)
Order 1 N1 238
Order 2 N2 56
Order 3 N3 11 Fig. 10 The relation between stream order and logarithmic value of
Order 4 N4 2 the length of the streams
Order 5 N5 1
4 Total number of streams in all Nu 308 Length of overland flow (Lg)
orders
5 Mean bifurcation ratio Rbm 4.21 The surface runoff flows from the terrain into a defined
6 Length of stream segments in hierarchical order (km) stream through the downslope. The length of overland flow
Order 1 L1 286.43 is defined as the length of flow path projected to the hor-
Order 2 L2 136.35 izontal of the nonchannel flow from a point on the adjacent
Order 3 L3 76.02 stream channel (Horton 1945). The length of overland flow
Order 4 L4 41.72 is mostly influenced by both hydrologic and physiographic
Order 5 L5 21.47 structures of the area. The overland flow is related inver-
7 Total lengths of streams in all Lu 561.98 sely to the average slope of streams and it is directly equal
orders (km) to the reciprocal of drainage density. In the study area, the
8 Mean lengths of streams order (km) measured overland flow value is 0.66 (Table 3).
Order 1 Lsm1 1.20
Order 2 Lsm2 2.43
Order 3 Lsm3 6.91 Drainage density (Dd)
Order 4 Lsm4 20.86
Order 5 Lsm5 1.47 Drainage density is a ratio of the total length of streams in
9 Length of overland flow Lg 0.66 all orders per drainage area and indicates the closeness of
10 Stream length ratio RL 2.23 the spacing of channels (Langbein 1947). Drainage density
11 Basin perimeter (km) P 169.44 is an important indicator of the linear characteristics of the
landforms in the stream-eroded topographical structures
(Horton 1932) It measures the relationship between pre-
cipitations and slope gradient to determine the runoff rate
in the catchment. It is identified that the drainage density of
the sub-basin area relates to the distribution of stream
segments, length of streams, topography, relief, climate,
rock types and infiltration capacity (Smith 1950). In this
study, the spatial variation of drainage density is demar-
cated in a raster map format using ArcGIS software. The
range of drainage density of this area is estimated with the
range from 0.1 to 1.89 km/km2 (Fig. 11) and its average
value is about 0.75 km/km2 (Table 4). In this study area,
higher density values (1.89 km/km2) recorded along the
drainage networks fall under third, fourth and fifth orders in
Fig. 9 The relation between stream order and logarithmic value of various parts of the sub-basin. This is due to the availability
the number of streams of a large amount of precipitation on the slope terrain that

123

results in greater runoff and more surface drainage lines.
Moreover, high drainage density affects the drainage tex-
ture of the weathered rocky surface in the north and north-
eastern parts (Nag 1998; Talling and Sowter 1999). A low
density value (\0.75 km/km2) is found in the north-wes-
tern hilly terrain and the area that is away from the stream
flow path. This is due to the terrain being underlain by
highly resistant permeable materials leading to coarse
drainage texture in the western parts of the study area.
Channel frequency/stream frequency (Fs)
Stream frequency is the total number of stream segment of
all orders per unit area (Horton 1932). In the present study
Fig. 11 Drainage density of the
study area
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Environ Earth Sci
area, Fs is measured as 0.41 km/km2 (Table 4). This value
indicates that the origin and development of stream in the
sub-basin is mainly determined by rainfall and topo-
graphical conditions. The low value of stream frequency of
the drainage basin representing the streams has much fewer
structural disturbances that cause a high rate of surface
runoff and fast stream flow from the higher-order streams
(Vincy et al. 2012). This condition is also found in this area
where alarge amount of sediment has been eroded from the
weathered rocky surface and deposited in the coastal
estuary in the southern part. Moreover, it is identified that
the average value of drainage density and stream frequency
value are nearly close with positive correlation; this reveals
that the lengths of the streams are strongly controlled by
slope and geological structures.
Environ Earth Sci
Table 4 The quantitative characteristics of the morphometric
parameter in area aspect
Sl. Name of the Parameters Symbol Quantitative
no. measurement
1 Sub-basin area (km2) BA 745
2 Drainage density (km/km2) Dd 0.75
3 Channel segment frequency/ Fs 0.41
stream Frequency (km/km2)
4 Circularity ratio Rc 0.33
5 Elongation ratio Re 0.57
6 Form factor Rf 0.42
Circulatory ratio (Rc)
The circulatory ratio is a factor that represents the shape
characteristics of the catchment area. The circulatory ratio
is derived from the ratio of the area of sub-basin to the area
of circle having circumference equal to the perimeter of the
sub-basin (Miller 1953). The total area extent of this sub-
basin is 745 km2 and the perimeter is 169.44 km. In this
study area, the circulatory ratio is measured as 0.33
(Table 4). The Rc value indicates that the shape of the sub-
basin area is an elongated circle. The Rc value is \1; hence
it is assumed that the sub-basin area has been influenced by
the length and frequency of stream segments, local relief
surface, drainage pattern and slope condition of the area.
Elongation ratio (Re)
Elongation ratio is an important parameter to analyze the
shape of a sub-basin area. This is defined as the ratio
between the diameter of the circle having equal area to the
sub-basin and the maximum length of the sub-basin. The
elongated length (distance from the point of the outlet to
the upper limit of relief) of the study area is 42.78 km and
the estimated elongated ratio is 0.57 (Table 4). This value
has indicated that the sub-basin area is characterized by
high infiltration capacity along the stream flow path asso-
ciated with high relief and steep slope.
Form factor (Rf)
The shape of the catchment area affects the stream flow
direction (Nag 1998). Form factor is an important param-
eter to describe the shape of the catchment area. This is
defined as the ratio of the area of sub-basin to the square of
the length of the basin (distance between the point of outlet
and upper limit of sub-basin). In this study area, the value
of the form factor is measured as 0.42 (Table 4). This value
directly indicates that the sub-basin has more elongated
shape in nature with the characteristics of flatter peak flow
for a longer duration and such elongated sub-basins are
highly vulnerable to flood flows than circular-shaped
catchment area.
Basin relief (H)
The relief of the sub-basin area varies at different reference
points (peak of the hilly terrain) in the northern part. The
maximum relief (total relief) of the area is 1,816 m in the
northeast part and the least relief of 1 m has been found
along the relatively flat terrain of the southern part
(Fig. 12). The relief values range from 1 to 1,816 m which
is projected in south–north direction and sloping down
toward south-west (Table 5).
Relief ratio (Rh)
Relief ratio is defined as the maximum relief to horizontal
distance along the longest dimension of the sub-basin
parallel to the principal drainage line (Schumm 1963). The
relief ratio is described as the overall steepness of relief in
the study area and this is a main indicator of the intensity of
the erosion process operating on the slope of the sub-basin.
In this study area, the ratio is measured as 0.042 (Table 5);
this lowest value of ratio depicts the increase of drainage
area (area found with stream segments) than the rest of the
other features.
Relative relief (Rr)
Relative relief is the ratio of relief to the perimeter of the
sub-basin area. The relative relief of the study area is 1.07
(Table 5); this shows that the sub-basin length is narrower
than the length of the main channel or principal drainage
line due to irregular relief and high variation of steepness
of hilly terrain along the place of origin of stream
segments.
Hypsometric characteristics
The hypsometric characteristics of the study area were
determined from the distribution of land mass with respect
to ten classes of elevation at particular contour breakpoints
above the outlet. It is estimated that 58.43 % of the area
spreads below low elevation of 180 m and 11.08 % of the
area covers an elevation of 181 and 360 m. The terrain
above 1,620 m elevation was found to be 2.57 % of the
land surface in the northern part (Fig. 13). The relationship
123
 Environ Earth Sci

Fig. 12 Basin relief of the

study area based on ASTER
DEM (30 m)

Table 5 The estimated values of the morphometric parameter in stage (in equilibrium) of landscapes (Strahler 1952). This
relief aspect indicates that the study area is relatively highland with
Sl. no. Name of the Symbol Quantitative diffusive hill slope processes that cause for determination
parameters measurement of the topographical structures (Rosenblatt and Pinet 1994).
The extensively curved convex-up shape of the northern
1 Maximum relief (m) H 1,816
hilly terrains depicts erosional activities in various land-
2 Relief ratio Rh 0.042
scapes due to climate-driven geomorphologic processes.
3 Relative relief (m) Rr 1.07
The nearly linear convex-up curve describes the charac-
4 Slope range (degree) Sa 0.5–59.85
teristic of the moderate slope surface along the middle part
with weakly incised tectonic wedge, implying coarse flu-
vial incision and also no significantly active tectonic pro-
of the distribution of land surface at a particular elevation cess in the southern part (Fig. 14).
of the study area produces hypsometric curve in the form of Hypsometric integral (HI) value is obtained from the
convex-up shape in nature. The convex-up (also known as hypsometric curve by relating the mean elevation and relief
concave down) shape reveals that the sub-basin is the youth range of the basin and is inversely correlated with total

123
Environ Earth Sci
relief, slope steepness, drainage density and channel gra-
dients; however, it would be expected to correlate posi-
tively with rates of erosion in the area consisting of
homogeneous rock type and tectonic activities (Strahler
1952; Bishop and Cowell 1997). The integral value of this
sub-basin is estimated as 0.49 and reflects the distribution
of a major volume of the landmass (435.32 km2) at rela-
tively low elevations (\180 m). With the reference of
threshold limits recommended by Strahler (1952), the HI
value ([0.3 to \0.6) describes the landscapes of the sub-
basin which are relatively stable, but still developing
landforms. However, the north hilly terrain consists of high
drainage density and experiences fluvial erosion due to
dominant channel processes. It is noticed that the convex-
up shaped hypsometric curve with medium integral value
Fig. 13 Hypsometric
characteristics (distribution of
land mass with respect to 10
classes of elevation)
represents that the sub-basin consists of early youth stage
with undissected (inequilibrium stage) landscapes.
Denudation characteristics
The denudation process of the basin relates to the hierar-
chical drainage networks and geomorphological system
activities (Gioia et al. 2011). This focuses the effects of
sediment transportation from the slope terrain by external
controls, especially tectonics on basin development. In this
study area, the drainage density (D) is estimated with
ranges from 0.1 to 1.89 km/km2 and the average value of
density is 0.75 km/km2. It is noticed that the semi-imper-
meable weathered rocky surfaces consist of third-, fourth-
123

Fig. 14 Hypsometric curve of the sub-basin in convex-up shape
representing the youth (inequilibrium) stage of landforms
and fifth-order streams with high density value (1.89 km/
km2), whereas the other areas include hilly terrain in the
northern side and southern plain surface with low density
value of 0.1 km/km2. The obtained hierarchical anomaly
density (Ga) is 282 of the total number of streams in all
hierarchical orders of drainage network. It is observed that
the streams from all hierarchical orders (streams of order
u flowing into streams of order u ? 1) have been involved
for making the drainage network perfectly ordered in a
tree-shaped structure and indicates the slope of the terrain
which controls the development of the drainage network.
Moreover, the hierarchical anomaly index (Da) value was
estimated as 1.18 with respect to hierarchical anomaly
density (Ga) and total number of first-order streams (N1) in
the sub-basin. The obtained value of Da is more than one
representing that the drainage networks are significantly
affected by lithological structures, especially along the
high altitude region (Ciccacci et al. 2003). The flow
direction of streams mainly depends on weathering and
erosional behavior of the uplifted terrain than its altitude.
Therefore, the streams has a westward flow from the
north hilly terrain, though the sub-basin faces the south-
ward slope. Furthermore, the relationship of the above
morphometric parameters determines the variability of the
denudation processes by controlling the morphogenetic
characteristics and configurations of the hierarchical
drainage network (Bonnet and Crave 2003; Whipple 2009;
Bahrami 2013). In the sub-basin, the estimated denudation
rate is 65.14 t/km2/year. This denudation rate indicates a
wide range of denudation intensity within the sub-basin
and is considered as relatively proportional to the sus-
pended sediment yield that is transported in suspension per
unit area of the sub-basin. Besides, it is identified that the
denudation magnitude is more along the surface, which is
characterized by higher drainage density and is strongly
affected by mass movement of weathered materials
(Whipple and Tucker 1999; Burbank et al. 2003; Bishop
2007). Obviously, the study area has strong sensitivity to
factors such as slope, tectonic structure and climate
123
Environ Earth Sci
processes which are responsible for the development of
landscapes due to acceleration of hierarchical drainage
network.
Morphometry influences of the sub-basin landscape
The sub-basin consists of youth stage (inequilibrium) of
landscapes with a wide range of denudation processes. The
morphometry characteristics of this study area such as
drainage pattern, stream order, stream length, stream fre-
quency, bifurcation ratio, circulatory ratio and length of
overland flow, etc. are mainly influenced by its local
topographical structures and geological settings (Sreedevi
et al. 2012). Moreover, the origin and flow direction of the
streams are determined by the regional geological setting
and surface slope (Narendra and Nageswara Rao 2006).
Here, the sub-basin consists of relatively steep-sloped sub-
basin with large number of stream segments that has pro-
duced its drainage pattern by the external forces of high
intensity of stream flow on the topographical structures.
The surface of sub-basin is formed as steep slope
toward north to south direction due to up normal altitude
variation within the less elongated distance (42.78 km) by
presence of high elevated hilly terrain (1,816 m) in
northern part and plain surface (1.2 m) in southern part.
Further, these morphological factors caused the formation
of narrow and elongated-shaped drainage basin with a
large number of short-length stream segments in the pri-
mary stream orders including I and II order of streams,
and its long-term interaction between rainfall runoff and
geological structures has produced the present topo-
graphical structures. Besides, the sub-basin drainage sys-
tem is composed of dendritic drainage pattern in higher-
order streams and semi-dendritic pattern in primary-order
streams formed by the characteristics of relief and slope in
a narrow and gently undulating manner due to weathering
of rocks (Fig. 15a).
The stream order and stream length of the sub-basin were
predominantly controlled by physiographic and structural
conditions. The mean value of stream length ratio is 2.23
and it increases from primary order of stream to higher
order showing that the drainage system of the study area has
reached a mature geomorphic stage with developed stream
networks. However, the surface runoff and drainage density
of the sub-basin are mainly controlled by the slope condi-
tion which reduces infiltration rate in the area where steep
slopes occur. The high value of mean bifurcation ratio
(4.21) of the study area shows that the drainage density and
stream frequency affect the hydrological processes on the
local landscape and act as an agent of denudation. Hence,
the surface runoff is quickly removing weathered surface
particles from the basin and cause to large amount of
Environ Earth Sci
Fig. 15 Impacts of morphometry on sub-basin landscapes: a river flow through a narrow path due to hard rocky surface; b change of river flow
due to long-term siltation; c formation of meandering scar due to sediment deposition; d decrease in the riverbed depth due to siltation
siltation along the riverbed which gradually decreasing the
depth of water bodies (Fig. 15b, d).
The elongation ratio of the sub-basin is measured as
0.57. According to the conclusion of Mustafa and Yusuf
(1999), this area is considered as strongly elongated in
shape and indicates the formation of landscape depending
on both hydrologic and geomorphic processes. The cyclic
process of overland flow and surface runoff produce large
amount of sediments into river flow during monsoon, so
that the river system is changed in its flow direction
because of the sediment deposition along either side of the
river bank causing meandering landforms (Fig. 15c).
Conclusions
The morphometric analysis using remote sensing and GIS
technology provides quantitative morphometric character-
istics of the study area and it has been proved as an effi-
cient tool for hydrological analysis of drainage network
and basin extraction. GIS facilitates various geo-processing
functionalities for estimating primary morphometric
characteristics including stream length, basin width, area,
perimeter etc. The morphometric measurement of linear,
areal and relief characteristics of the study area reveal the
interaction between hydrological systems and their asso-
ciated morphological landforms. For example, the hierar-
chical orders of streams (stream order 4 and 5) have no
functional relationship with contemporary climatic condi-
tion, but are influenced by external forces such as surface
and rainfall runoff, local topography and morphological
landforms. Due to a series of geological processes for a
long time, the surface and hydrological system interaction
determines the stream order, stream length, stream flow
direction, catchment area, elongated length and morpho-
logical landforms. It is observed that the study area is
prominently found with dendritic drainage pattern and the
relationship of the stream orders is noticed as the first-order
streams has been observed in large numbers than the sub-
sequent hierarchical stream orders. This obviously reveals
that the moderately steep slope terrain of the sub-basin area
consists of short flow length of streams in nature. The
relationship between stream number and stream order is
nearly a straight line, which represents the flow direction of
123

channels from the high altitude to plain surface. The
bifurcation ratio reveals that the relationship among the
hierarchical stream orders and the mean bifurcation ratio
indicates that the drainage pattern is not much influenced
by the geological structures of the sub-basin area. How-
ever, the actual bifurcation value is clearly depicted as the
drainage segments and stream orders have mainly deter-
mined by the external forces such as surface runoff pro-
cesses which erode the unconsolidated rocky surface. The
length of the stream network is attributed based on the
characteristics of topographical conditions and geological
structures. Besides, the length of overland flow is mainly
influenced by hydrologic systems and physiographic
structures of the study area. In this study, it is observed that
the average values of drainage density and stream fre-
quency are nearly similar with positive correlation and it
also proves that the stream length strongly depends on
slope and geological structures. The elongation ratio of the
sub-basin area shows elongated circular in shape of the
catchment drain the water into single outlet which control
the distribution of streams segments, stream length and
drainage pattern. The elevated surface experiencing high
drainage density indicated the presence of impermissible
rock types leading to serious erosion over a long time.
Furthermore, the form factor exhibits an elongated shape of
the sub-basin which is characterized by flatter peak flow for
long duration from more number of small order streams
than higher orders and hence high vulnerability to flood
hazards. In this study area, the stream numbers and stream
length have strong influence on the areal aspects of mor-
phometric characteristics, such as circulatory ratio, length
of overland flow and elongation ratio. The results of the
lowest value of relief ratio represent the interaction of
drainage network with various levels of topographical
structures mostly in all parts of the study area and hence
depict the development of the drainage system.
Hypsometric evaluation of the sub-basin reveals the
convex-up shape of the hypsometric curve which indicates
that the sub-basin consists of youth stage (inequilibrium) of
landscapes, in which the occurrence of diffusive hill slope
processes in relatively high elevated surface produces
various types of topographical structures. The extensive
curved convex-up shape shows the feasibility of erosion in
the various landforms along the northern hilly terrains due
to climate-driven geomorphologic processes. However, the
nearly linear convex-up curve exhibits no significant
activities of tectonic process along the moderate slope
surface in the middle and southern parts due to weakly
incised tectonic wedge, implying coarse fluvial incision.
The hypsometric integral value of the sub-basin is inver-
sely correlated with total relief, slope steepness, drainage
density and channel gradients and reflects the distribution
of a major volume of the landmass in the lower and plain
123
Environ Earth Sci
surface than the elevated hilly terrain; however, they are
moderately stable landforms, but still in the developing
stage. The hypsometric integral value represents the youth
stage (inequilibrium stage) of the sub-basin with undis-
sected landscapes that change continuously due to weath-
ering and erosion activities.
The denudation process of the sub-basin represents
interaction of drainage network with the geomorphological
landforms. The hierarchical anomaly index value indicates
the topographical and lithological influences on the for-
mation of drainage system, especially along the high alti-
tude region and determines the channel flow directions.
This can be understood by observing the westward flow of
streams in the northern hilly terrain, though the terrain
faces the southward slope. In this study area, a wide range
of denudation has been noticed in all parts of the sub-basin
and is considered as relatively proportional to the sus-
pended sediment yield that is transported as suspension per
unit area. The denudation magnitude is more in the area
consists of very high rate of drainage density leads mass
movement of weathered materials through channels. The
landscapes in the sub-basin are facing continuous changes
due to a wide range of denudation processes. The stream
segments and length of the streams determine rainfall
runoff and denudation activities. Surface runoff is an agent
of denudation process that leads to severe erosion by
quickly removing the weathered surface materials from the
high elevated surface and causing a large amount of silta-
tion in the riverbed and establishing tremendous changes in
the channel flow path. The drainage network is in the form
of a tree-shaped structure depending on the topographical
structure of the area. Remote sensing and GIS technology
were used for quantitative measurement of morphometric
characteristics and proved as an effective tool for basin-
wise hydrological studies.
Acknowledgments The corresponding author is thankful to DST-
INSPIRE Division, Department of Science & Technology (DST),
Government of India, for the award of INSPIRE Fellowship SRF
(DST/INSPIRE/2011/IF110366 and DST/AORC-IF/UPGRD/2013-
14/509) for pursuing his Ph.D degree from the Centre for GeoTech-
nology, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli-12.
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