4.

Stream Flow
4.1. Measurement of River Stage
4.1.1. Manuall Operated Gauges
4.1.2. Automatic Stage Gauge
4.2. Measurement of Velocity
4.2.1. Floats
4.2.2. Current Meter
4.3. Estimation of Stream dicharge
4.3.1. Area-Velocity Method
4.3.2. Area-Slope Method

4. Streamflow
Streamflow representing the run-off phase of the hydrologic cycle is the most important
basic data for hydrologic studies precipitation, evaporation and evapotranspiration are all difficult
to measure exactly and various methods of measurements have severe limitations. In contrast, the
measurement of streamflow is amenable to fairly accurate assessment. Interestingly, streamflow
is the only part of the hydrologic cycle that can be measured accurately.
A stream is a flow channel which drains the runoff from a drainage basin. Stream flow is
measured in units of volume of water flowing through the cross-sectional area of the stream per
unit of time (lps, cfs, gpm, m3/s). Flow rate, or discharge, is measure at a location on the channel
known as stream-gauging station.

4.1 Measurement of Stream Stage

Stream stage is the elevation of water surface in a steam with reference to a fixed datum,
where the fixed datum could be the mean sea level or any other arbitrary datum. Instruments for
measurement of stream stage are of two types: manually operated gauges, and automatic stage
recorders.

4.1.1 Manually Operated Gauges

Manually operated gauges are simple and inexpensive and can be operated at frequent
intervals. The most commonly used are staff gauges and wire gauges.
A staff gauge is a graduated staff with clear markings of scale on it. It is fixed rigidly on
an abutment, peer, or on a wall at the site. If no suitable structure exists in a location accessible at
all stages, a sectional staff gauge may be used. Short sections are of staff are mounted on available
structures or on specially constructed supports in such a way the one section is available.
A wire gauge consists of a weight and is lowered by a reel of rope of wire from a bridge or
culvert over the surface if water in the stream and its vertical distance from the bridge surface is
measured.

Hydrology – Stream Flow Page 52

 4.1.2 Automatic Stage Gauge

The commonly used automatic stage recorders are of the following two types: float
operated stage recorders and bubble gauge stage recorders.
Float operated stage recorders are of two types – continuous chart recorder and punch type
recorder.
Bubble gauge stage recorders – record the pressure required to maintain a small form of
gas from an orifice submerged in the stream.

4.2 Measurement of Velocity

The velocity of flow is generally measured in two types of instruments, namely float and
current meters.

4.2.1 Floats

The use of floats for measurement of flow velocities is still very popular because of their
low cost and convenience in operation. Any floating object can be used as a float, however,
normally the leak proof and easily identifiable floats are used.
Generally, for higher accuracies, more than one float is used for measurement of flow
velocity. The floats are placed on the surface of flowing water at pre-determined spacing. The time
taken by float to reach a known distance is measured and the velocity is calculated by using the
equation
𝑆𝑑
𝑉𝑠 =
𝑡
where
Vs = surface velocity, m/s
Sd = distance travelled, m
t = time taken, s
This method is not always accurate, especially for large streams, since velocity varies from
point to point with depth and width over the cross section of the stream. Generally, actual velocity
is about 80-85% of surface velocity.

4.2.2 Current Meters

Current meters are the most commonly used instruments for measurement of flow
velocities if stream water. The instrument consists of a rotating element which when hit by the
stream current revolves with an angular velocity proportional steam velocity.
The formula for calculating the velocity by a current meter is
V = aNs + b
where
V = stream velocity, m/s
Ns = number of revolution per second,
a, b = constants for the meter (see Table 4.1)
Hydrology – Stream Flow Page 53
 Table 4.1 Values of constants for current meters for use in the velocity formula
Constants
Type of the instrument
a b
12.5 cm dia (cup type), Price meters 0.65 0.03
5 cm dia (cup type), Pigmy meters 0.3 0.003

4.2.2.1 Two-Point Method

Generally used for depths greater than or equal to 2.5 ft. velocity observations are made at
the 0.2 and 0.8 depths below the surface. The average of the two observations is used as the mean
velocity in the subsection.

4.2.2.2 Six Tenth Method

Generally used for relatively shallow conditions at depth less than 2.5 ft. Observation of
velocity at 0.6 depth below the surface is used as the mean velocity in the subsection.

4.2.2.3 Three-Point Method

Used when the velocities in the subsection are abnormally distributed. Velocities are
observed at the 0.2, 0.6, and 0.8 depth. Mean velocity is computed by averaging the 0.2 and 0.8
depth observations and then averaging that result with the 0.6 depth observation.

4.3 Estimation of Stream Discharge

Streamflow measurement techniques can be broadly classified into two categories as (i)
direct determination and (ii) indirect determination. Under each category there are a host of
methods, the important ones are listed below :

1. Direct determination of stream discharge :

a. Area-velocity method
b. dilution techniques
c. electronic method
d. ultrasonic method
2. Indirect determination of streamflow :
a. Hydraulic structures, such as weirs, flumes and gated structures, and
b. Area-slope method

4.3.1 Area-Velocity Method

The area-velocity method is based on the principle that the product of velocity of the
flowing water V and the area of the channel cross section A through which the flow is occurring
gives the discharge rate of flow Q through the channel,
Q=AxV

Hydrology – Stream Flow Page 54

 The distance between the two edges of a stream is divided into approximately 20
subsections. In deeper parts of the stream, these subdivisions are again subdivided. No more than
10% of the total discharge should occur in any one of the subdivision.
The area of each subsection is calculated by taking an average width for each subsection
and multiplying it by the depth at that point.
Discharge is determined by summing discharge in these subsections using the “mid-section
method” (Figure 4.1)

4.3.2 Area-Slope Method

Area-slope method provides an approximate estimate of discharge in the streams and is

used when measurement of discharge by accurate method like the area-velocity is not possible.
Such situation may arise due to reasons like non availability or break down of means or equipment
required for making current meter measurements, inaccessibility of the site due to floods, presence
of debris and floating matter in the flood, flow preventing the use of current meter, etc. In flashy
streams, high floods may pass without being measured due to their short duration. If the
magnitudes of such floods are required to be assessed after their occurrence, area slope method is
used.
The slope-area method provides a rough estimate of the discharge in spite of many
limitations, the major limitation being the difficulty of a correct assessment of the roughness
coefficient n for application of Manning's formula. The value of roughness coefficient depends on
stage of flow, bed material, the nature of the channel, etc.

The mean velocity representing the cross-section of the flow area in the reach may be
computed using Manning's formula as given below :

1 2⁄ 1⁄
𝑉= 𝑅 3𝑆 2
𝑛
Q=AxV
Where
V = mean velocity
R = hydraulic mean depth (A/P) (A = area of channel, P = wetted perimeter)
n = roughness coefficient (Table 4.2)
S = slope corrected for the kinetic energy difference at two ends
𝑉2 𝑉 2
𝑍1 −𝑍2 +( 1 − 2 )
2𝑔 2𝑔
= 𝐿
L = length of the reach
Z1 & Z2 are static heads (water levels at the end section)
𝑉1 2 𝑉2
& 2 are the corresponding velocity heads
2𝑔 2𝑔
V1 & V2 are the mean velocities at the end sections at (1) and (2) as shown in Figure 4.2

Hydrology – Stream Flow Page 55

 Figure 4.1 The Midsection Method

Figure 4.2 Energy Balance Equation

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 Table 4.2 Values of Roughness Coefficient for Open Channels

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