4

MODULE

RUN-OFF
 OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION

COMPONENTS RUNOFF
OF CHARACTERISTICS
RUNOFF OF
STREAM

NATURAL FLOW RUNOFF COMPUTATION

INTRODUCTION
 DEFINITION

Runoff means the draining of flowing off of precipitation from a

catchment area through a surface channel. It is the portion of
precipitation that contributes to streamflow or groundwater. It is
that part of water, which can be used for engineering purposes
and hence is also known as yield of catchment.

Runoff is expressed as the rate of flow during a specific period

of flow, i.e. Q, in time T and is indirectly a volume over the period.
Thus, the unit for runoff is million cubic meters (106m3or million
m3), or ha m (denoting 1-m depth of water over an area of 1 ha).

The runoff is also sometimes expressed in meters or millimeters

as the depth of water spread uniformly over the entire
catchment.
 COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF
Precipitation (P) follows different paths to the stream:

1 Channel Precipitation (Qp)

2 Overland Flow or Surface Runoff (Qo)

3 Shallow Subsurface Flow or Throughflow (Qt)

4 Deep Subsurface Flow or Groundwater Flow (Qg)

 Precipitation (P) follows different paths to the stream:

1 Channel Precipitation (Qp)

• defined as rainfall and throughfall intercepted by

the flowing stream channel and waterbodies, that
without contribution to infiltration, subsurface flow,
and ground water, incorporated into stream flow.

2 Overland Flow or Surface Runoff (Qo)

• is that water which travels over the ground surface

to a channel and flows on the surface as sheetflow.
• Surface runoff appears relatively quickly as
streamflow.
 Precipitation (P) follows different paths to the stream:

3 Shallow Subsurface Flow or Throughflow (Qt)

• Water infiltrating and moving laterally as shallow

subsurface flow – through the soil, above the water
table.
• Can be unsaturated flow, but may be shallow
perched saturated flow
• Preferential flow: rapid throughflow through pipes,
highly permeable layer or boundaries within the soil
• is favoured where lateral conductivity being greater
than vertical conductivity.
• Some throughflow rates are rapid, others are
delayed.
 Precipitation (P) follows different paths to the stream:

4 Groundwater Flow (Qg)

• lags behind precipitation, it is a slow flow which tends

to be regular, representing the discharge from a slowly
changing reservoir of moisture in the saturated zone.
• represents the long-term component of total runoff
and is important during dry spells.
• Baseflow comprises groundwater flow and delayed
throughflow, and is defined as fair-weather runoff
• Base flow is proportional to groundwater storage
COMPONENTS OF RUNOFF
 Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the run
off, the runoff is classified into two categories:

1 Direct Runoff

It is the part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately

after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and
rainfall on the surface of the stream.

2 Base Flow

It is the delayed flow that reaches essentially as groundwater.

 THE RUNOFF PROCESS
or Basin Precipitation (excluding storage
interception and other losses)

Quickflow(direct runoff)

(streamflow at basin outlet)

 NATURAL FLOW
Stream flow unaffected by works of man such as reservoirs
and diversion structures on a stream is called natural flow
or virgin flow.

Produced from a drainage area for which there have been

no effects caused by diversion, storage, import, export,
return flow, or changes in consumptive use.

Runoff representing the response of a catchment to

precipitation reflects the integrate effects of a wide range
of catchment, climate and rainfall characteristics.
 RUNOFF CHARACTERISTICS OF STREAMS
Ø A study of the annual hydrographs of streams enables one to
classify streams into 3 classes:

v Perennial Streams
-always carr y some water on account of replenishment of groundwater
throughout the year.
-source of water can be either surface water or groundwater or both.
v Intermittent Streams
-receive varying supplies of groundwater, which is more during the wet season
and dries up in the dry season.
-also called seasonal streams
v Ephemeral streams
-do not get any supply of groundwater, and behave like storm drains, in which
the flow occurs only due to the overland flow caused by storm, these streams
cause flash floods too.
-flows after a massive rainstorm
 RUNOFF COMPUTATION

Ø Two components of a storm runoff are generally required to be

estimated, which are runoff volume and peak runoff rate.

Ø The most commonly adopted methods are:

v the Curve Number method of the Soil Conservation Service of

the USA (USCS) for estimation of both excess runoff volume and
peak flow rate and

v The Rational Method for the peak flow rate

 CURVE NUMBER METHOD

• The cur ve number (CN) method was developed for

determination of the rainfall excess of agricultural
watersheds, on per stream basis.

• This method is based on the concepts of a reser voir

operation.
 CURVE NUMBER METHOD
The runoff equation is:
0
�= � − �� 2     for P  ≤  Ia
   for P > Ia
� − �� + �
where
Q is runoff
P is rainfall
S is the potential maximum soil moisture retention after runoff begins
Ia is the initial abstraction, or the amount of water before runoff,
such as infiltration, or rainfall interception by vegetation; historically,
it has generally been assumed that Ia = 0.2 S, although more recent
research has found that Ia = 0.05 S may be a more appropriate and
accurate relationship
 CURVE NUMBER METHOD
The runoff curve number, CN, is then related

100
� = 254 −1
��
The constant 254 is used to express S in mm.

CN has a range from 30 to 100; lower numbers indicate low runoff

potential while larger numbers are for increasing runoff potential.

The lower the curve number, the more permeable the soil is.
As can be seen in the curve number equation, runoff can not begin until
the initial abstraction has been met.

The runoff curve number is based on the area’s hydrologic soil group,
land use, treatment and hydrologic condition.
 HYDROLOGIC SOIL GROUPS
Selection of a hydrologic soil group should be done based on measured infiltration
rates, soil survey, or judgment from a qualified soil science or geotechnical
professional.

Soil Description
Group
A Lowest runoff potential. Includes deep sand with very little clay and silt, and also
deep rapidly permeable loess (final infiltration rate greater than 0.3 in./h)
B Moderately low runoff potential. Mostly sandy soil less deeper than A, and loess
less deeper or less aggregated than A, but the group as a whole has above average
infiltration after thorough wetting (final infiltration rate of 0.15 to 0.30 in./h)
C Moderately high runoff potential. Comprises shallow soil and soil containing
considerable clay and colloids, though less than those of group D. The group has
below average infiltration after pre-saturation (final infiltration rate 0.05 to 0.15 in./h)
D Highest runoff potential. Includes, mostly clay or high swelling percent, but the
group also includes some shallow soil with nearly impermeable sub-horizon near the
surface (final infiltration rate less than 0.05 in./h)
ANTECEDENT MOISTURE CONDITION

The antecedent moisture content (AMC) of the soil is also referred

to as antecedent precipitation and the measure of the AMC
ex i s t i n g i n t h e d a y of t h e s to r m i s t h e n e x p re s s e d a s t h e
Antecedent Precipitation Index (API).

The moisture condition of a basin at the time of the storm greatly

influences the peak outflow of runoff from the basin.
For purpose of practical application three levels if AMC are recognized:

AMC I : Soils are dry but not to wilting point. Satisfactory cultivation has taken
place.
AMC II : Average conditions
AMC III : Sufficient rainfall has occurred within the immediate past 5 days.
Saturated soil conditions prevail.

• The limits of AMC classes are based on total rainfall magnitude in the previous
5 days.
• The limits depend upon two seasons: dormant and growing season

Total Rain in Previous 5 days (mm)

AMC Type
Dormant season Growing season
I Less than 13 Less than 36
II 13 to 28 36 to 53
III Over 28 Over 53
Computing AMC

• Suppose (AMC)t, is the soil moisture condition on any day t, then (AMC)t =
CA(AMC)t-1, where CA is a recession constant and (AMC)t-1 is the AMC on the
previous day.

• If there is no rainfall on the previous day t, then t-1 will be equal to zero, and
(AMC)t = CA (AMC)0.
• If there is a rainfall on any of the days, then the volume of the rainfall on the day
Pt is to be added to the AMC of the next day, that is (AMC)t = CA (AMC)t-1 +Pt.

• The value of CA generally falls in the range from 0.85 to 0.98.

Conversion of CN from AMC II to AMC I and AMC III

Factors to Convert Curve Number at AMC II to

Curve Number (AMC II)
AMC I (dry) AMC III (wet)
10 0.40 2.22
20 0.45 1.85
30 0.50 1.67
40 0.55 1.50
50 0.62 1.40
60 0.67 1.30
70 0.73 1.21
80 0.79 1.14
90 0.87 1.07
100 1.00 1.00
Conversion of CN from AMC II to AMC I and AMC III

 �� ��
�� � =
2.281 − 0.01281 �� ��

�� ��
�� ��� =
0.427 + 0.00573 �� ��
These equations are applicable in the CN (II) range of 55 to 95.
 Determination of Peak Flow Rate

Ogrosky and Mockus (1957) suggested employing the following

formula to determine the peak rate of runoff by using the 6-hour
rainfall as the design frequency of small watersheds.

�. ���� × � × �
�� =
���

where
Qp = peak rate of runoff, m3/s
A = area, ha
Q = runoff depth, cm
Tpk = time to peak, h
 CURVE NUMBER METHOD
Determination of time to Peak Flow Rate
��� = 0.6�� + ��
1
        = 2 �������� �� ������ �������� +  0.6��
with
Tc = time of concentration, h

Determination of Time of Concentration

Schwab et. al., 1993
0.7
1000
�0.8 −9
�� = ��
0.5
4407 ��
where
L = longest flow length, m
CN = curve number
Sg = average slope of the watershed, m/m
 Sample Problems
#4
Compute the runoff from 125 mm of rainfall on a 100 ha
watershed. The hydrologic soil group is 50 % Group B and
50 % Group C interspersed throughout the watershed.
AMC III is assumed.

The land use is:

40% residential; area that is 30% impervious
12% residential area that is 65% impervious
18% paved roads with curbs and storm sewers
16% open land with 50% fair grass cover and 50% good grass cover
14% parking lots, plazas, schools, and so on (all impervious)
 SOIL GROUP B (50%) SOIL GROUP C (50%)
LAND USED TOTAL %
% CN PRODUCT % CN PRODUCT
Residential, 30 % imperv. 40% 20 72 1440 20 81 1620
Residential, 65 % imperv. 12% 6 85 510 6 90 540
Paved Roads 18% 9 98 882 9 98 882
Open Land, fair, good grass 8% 4 69 276 4 79 316
Open Land, good, good grass 8% 4 61 244 4 74 296
Parking Lots 14% 7 98 686 7 98 686
TOTAL  100%   4038      4340
 SOIL GROUP B (50%) SOIL GROUP C (50%)
LAND USED TOTAL %
% CN PRODUCT % CN PRODUCT
Residential, 30 % imperv. 40% 20 72 1440 20 81 1620
Residential, 65 % imperv. 12% 6 85 510 6 90 540
Paved Roads 18% 9 98 882 9 98 882
Open Land, fair, good grass 8% 4 69 276 4 79 316
Open Land, good, good grass 8% 4 61 244 4 74 296
Parking Lots 14% 7 98 686 7 98 686
TOTAL  100%   4038      4340

�� ��
�� ��� =
0.427 + 0.00573 �� ��
 Sample Problems
#5
Determine the peak flow rate of runoff for AMC III by
using the Curve Number Method given the following data:

P = 2.5 in
Watershed area: 500 ha
Land-use: commercial and business
Watershed soil: HSG D
Average watershed slope: 1%
Hydraulic Length of watershed: 600 ft
 �. ���� × � × �
�� =
���

��� = 0.6�� + ��
0.7
0.8
1000
� −9
�� = ��
0.5
4407 ��
 RATIONAL METHOD
This method was originally developed for urban catchments. However, this
method is fairly applicable to small agricultural watersheds of 40 to 80
hectares size.

The Rational method is based on the assumption that a constant intensity

of rainfall is uniformly spread over an area, and the effective rain falling on
the most remote part of the basin takes a certain period of time, known as
the time of concentration, Tc, to arrive at the basin outlet

The relationship for peak runoff rate Qp is the expressed as

Qp = CIA
where
C = coefficient of runoff/rainfall
A = area of the catchment (drainage basin)
I = intensity of rainfall
 RATIONAL METHOD
In metric units, Qp is expressed as

1
�� = ��� = 0.278 ���
3.6
where
Qp = peak runoff rate, m3/s
C = coefficient of runoff
I = mean intensity of precipitation (mm/hr) for a duration equal to
time of concentration and for an exceedance probability of precipitation P
A = area of the drainage basin, km2
1/3.6 = factor for conversion from F.P.S. to metric (this value can also be
taken as equal to 0.0278 when I is taken in cm/h and A in hectares (ha); and
as 0.0028 when I is in mm/h and A in ha)
 RATIONAL METHOD
In English units, Qp is expressed as
�� = ���

Q = Peak discharge, cfs

c = Rational method runoff coefficient
i = Rainfall intensity, inch/hour
A = Drainage area, acre

RUNOFF COEFFICIENT FACTOR (C)

The runoff coefficient factor C encompasses all other factors that affect the surface
runoff, except the area A and the intensity of rainfall I. it is defined as:
��
�=
��
Under ideal conditions, C represents the ratio of runoff volume to rainfall volume.
Ideal conditions are rare. Consequently, the values of C are significantly lower than
the values obtained through the above ratio.
 INTENSITY OF RAINFALL
The formula for the intensity of rainfall is expressed as

����
�= �
�� + �

where
I = intensity of rainfall, cm/h
Tr = recurrence interval, yr
Tc = time of concentration, h
and K, a, b, n are constants.
 TIME OF CONCENTRATION (TC)

For determination of the time of concentration, the most widely used

formula is the equation given by Kirpich (1940) given as

�� = 0.01947�0.77 �−0.385
where:
Tc = time of concentration, min
L = maximum length of travel of water, m
s = slope of the drainage basin = H/L
H = difference in elevation between the most remote point
of the basin and its outlet, m
Nomograph
solutions for the
time concentration
Tc are also available
(Figure 3.3). From
the known value of
Tc , the time to peak
Tpeak can be
determined from
Figure 3.4.
The time of concentration can also be
determined as
Tc = 0.01947 (K)0.77
where
Tc = time of concentration,
min
�3
�          =
�
L = maximum length of
travel, m
H = difference in elevation
between the most remote point and the
outlet, m

The difference of concentration is

sometimes also determined by dividing
the length of run by the average velocity
of flow based on the slope of the channel.

������� ���ℎ
�� =  
������� ��������
 Sample Problems
#6
Calculate the peak storm water runoff
from a watershed of 15 acres, with a
runoff coefficient of 0.35, from a storm of
intensity 2.4 in/hr.
 Sample Problems
#7
A catchment has an area of 5.0 km2. The average slope of the land surface is
0.006 and the maximum travel depth of rainfall in the area is approximately 1.9
km. The maximum depth of rainfall with a return period of 25 years is as
tabulated below:
Time duration (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 60
Rainfall depth (mm) 15 25 32 45 50 53 60 65

Consider that 2.0 km 2 of the catchment area has a cultivated sandy loam soil
(C=0.2) and 3.0 km2 has light clay cultivated soil (C=0.7). Determine the peak flow
rate of runoff by using the Rational Method.
�� = 0.01947�0.77 �−0.385
 Sample Problems
#8
A 500 ha watershed has the land use/cover and corresponding coefficient as
given below.
Land Use/cover Area (ha) Runoff
Coefficient
Forest 250 0.10
Pasture 50 0.11
Cultivated Land 200 0.30
The maximum length of travel of water in the watershed is about 3000 m and elevation
difference between the highest and the outlet points of the watershed is 25 m. The
maximum intensity-duration frequency relationship of the watershed is given by
6.311�0.1523
�=
� + 0.50 0.945
 Sample Problems
#8
Where
i = intensity in cm/h
T = Return period in yrs
D = duration of the rainfall in hours

Estimate the
a. 25-yr peak runoff from the watershed
b. The 25-yr peak runoff if the forest cover has decreased to 50 ha and the
cultivated land has encroached upon the pasture and forest lands to have a
total coverage of 450 ha
 Tc = 0.01947 (K)0.77

6.311�0.1523
�=
� + 0.50 0.945
THANK YOU!