-.

1
I

CHAPTER VIII

CATI{ODIC PROTECTION

8.1. Corrosion

Corrosion is caused by potential differences in the surface of metals.

These potential differences result from local differences in crystalline struc-
ture, mechanical stress or differential aeration. Foreign materials (impuri-
ües, salts) or oxide layers (millscale) may also cause such potential differ'

iiff; a metal is immerled in a solution of an electrolyte (e.g. sea water),

the potential diflerences generate local currents (as in a galvanic cell)
and corrosion starts. On the 'less noble' parts of the nrface, called anodes,
I the metal díssolves. On the 'more noble' parts, called cathodes, the metal
is protected,
,The corrosion of steel occurs by iron dissolving at the anodes, in the
fiorm of ferreous ions (Fe + pg2+ * 2e-). The electrons produced in this
process flow through the metal to the cathodes. This flow of electrons
islhe'corrosíon curren¡'. At the cathodes hydroxyl (OH-) ions are formed
by reaction of the electrons with water and oxygen, giving an alkaline
reaction. These hydroxyl ions react with the iron ions already dissolved
to form ferrous hydroxide, which is oxidized to rust (hydrated ferric
oxide, Fe:O¡. t{2O). The corrosion process of steel wiü broken millscale
is itlustrated schematically in fig. VIII-l (page 167).
'.t

8.2. Principles of cathodic protecdon _ . , : . ...

,..

As described in section 8.1., the corrosion of steel at the anodíc arcas

results from local electric currents gencrated by thc potential differenccs
between anodes and cathodes. The electrons flow through the steel from
anodes to cathodes (Fe - Fe2* +2c-).
The corrosion current can be suppresscd by a current in the oppositc
direction by means of external anodes. This counrcr{urr€nt has to bc
153

l
Í :'t
 r! greater than the corrosion current. Because the whole metal structure
t:; to be protectcd becomes a cathode, the process is called catlwdic protection
ral (see figs. VIII-2 and VIII-3, page 168).
t;'
8.3. Potentiaiand current density
in
| .-. Cathodic protection makes the submerged part of a ship cathodic. The
potential of an unprotected hull is about *630 mV relative to a saturated
l,Ll silver/silverchloride(Ag/AgCl)reference electrode. By lowering the poten-
l.- tial to a value of about -800 mVt on all parts of the underwater hull,
complete protection a.gainst corrosion is achieved. At potentials between
| .Ll
-630 and -800 mV the hull is partially protected. This is called 'underpro-
r;r tectíon'. Lowering the potential to values under -900 mV leads to 'overpro-
I l,rl tection'.In this situation an excess of alkali is formed, osmosis is increased
and, under certain circumstances. h1'drogen gas may be cvotved (8.4.2.).
I 1.il These phenomena may cause paint defects, such as blistering and sapbnifi-
I | .-\ cation (3.4.1.).
The'current densíty.'(expressed in mA/m2) required for adequate cathodic
I | .Ll protection depends on the condition of the underwater paint system, on

;t I
I
I
I
I I "L'
1,.
lrt
the speed of the ship, and on the salt and oxygen content as well as
the temperature of the water. A freshly painted surface in sea water at
ordinaly temperature normally requires a current density less than 5 mA/
m2.If the paint system is damaged or porous, considerably larger current
f

L'I
j
I l-1 densities are necessary. The following current densities are required for
It

I l.! the protection against corrosion of unpainted steel in sea water:

stationary steet, corroded about 50 mA/m?
I l.- stationary steel, uncorroded about 200 mAim2
I l,! moving steel, corroded
moving uncorroded
300- 400 mA/m2
1500-2000 mA/m2
I l.- steel,
Cathodic protection of moving unpainted steel requires such hígh current
i-l' I IJ¡ densíties that it tt,ould be prohitively expensive. From an economical poínt
I
I
i: ,-
I tjJ of vien' therefore, cathodic protection of the underw'ater part of a shíp mwt
be consídered a method of comboting corrosíon that npplenrcnts to painting.
I 1.1
I r{
I t,;
-r !- I t ./-l
i
l'
I t.i
I tÁ
f
I t{ ' Thir potcntiat -rr.r*n* a,
-t50-mV rct¿'ive to a coppcricoppcr sulphate (C\iCuSO¡) rcÍcrrrc ctcáodc or *L<0 nV rel¡riw
I l.r- to r ziú,'scar¡atcr (Zn) rrfcrcncr clccr¡odc.

t;j
I

J
I
154
-! I | "r.1
j
I l-1
I
li
 t, 8.4. Csthodic protcction and paint

.f 8.4.1.
As
EFFEcT oF cATHoDrc pRorEcr¡oN oN pArNT
mentioned before, álkali is formed on cathodically protected surfaces
(zHzO *Ou * 4e-* 4QH-). Also electro-os¡nosis takes place, thus in-
I creasing the transport of water to the steel surface, which may ccus€
blistering of the paint system. Both phenomena (formation of all:ali and
¿f j osmosis) increase on loweting the potential, which increases the current
density, and become severe on overprotection. (See colour illustration
r 5.)
!"I Some paint binders and pigments can be attacked by alkali and thereforc
are unsuitable in combination with cathodic protection. At potentials
lower than - I 100 mV (relative to Ag/AgCl) alkali formation and electro-
osmosis is accompanied by generatíon of hydrogen gas (2H+ +2e--
)
* H2- ), which may also cause blistering. As sacrificial anodes of zinc
I and various aluminium alloys do not have potentials lower than - I100
mV (8.5.1.) these materials will not give rise to the generation of hydrogen
i
gas.

t I
The increased alkalinity often causes the formation of calcareous deposíts
consisting of magnesium and calcium carbonates, particularly aróund
the anodes and on bare areas. These calcareous deposits are formed by
I
I
precipitation of magnesium and calcium salts from the sea water. In them-
!:-
i
t t, ---1
selves they are not harmful to paint systems but before recoating a bare
area they must first be removed completely in order to ensure good adhe-
J sion of the new paint system. Calcareous deposits can only be removed
I '"1
i
completely by blast-cleaning.
Near the anodes of impressed current systems (8.5.2.) chloríne ga.r may
L- ¿ be generated by the electrolysis of chlorides present in sea water QA- -

f-.
I I -Clt- *2e-). Normally this is not a serious problem, the chlorine
beingrapidly canied away by the sea water. With ships lying idle however,
the chlorine will sometimes attack and discolour the paint system around
;- ¿

)
I the anodes.
The retationships between potentiat, degree ofcorrosion and the secondary
phenomena mentioned, are shown in table VIII-a on page 169.
¡.*

r I
I t.4.2. pArNTs surrABLE FoR usE wrrn cATHoDrc pRorEcrroN
.l
I I
I
Paints to be used with catho{ic protection must primarily be resístant
to alkalí. Binders and plasticizers (if any) must be unsaponifiable (3.4. | .),
also pigments, fillers and additives must be sufliciently resistant to alkali

I
r:d.

atrd not attacked at higlrer pH-values. AIsa in order to llare good resistance
to electro-osmotic effccts and to detachment by h¡'drogen gas, the paíu
system should be thick (í.e. nf/icíentl¡, impermeable) and harc very good

1,.. I
t.-.,-:
t55
I
,,,*

l- ,
I
.¡t

rtI
-
l
 l-"lTr
.1
I

i
I I¡ trr
ll adhesion.

II Paints based oD -sennniñ6t-r^ L:

r

frr jql-:.fffj"ffi jji}r:Li:j,;#:r'#Lr,:rrr

f
I
I
tr, il{'*f
n wi h ca
:,

Ifijl^. -
t¡ o
anodes. lr
t t h o d ic
ó..,.f i i iibyT,J:
rlroulÍ'l^otlte-ction " ""
meansl':ofi sacritjóial
1: 1_1 -:g." .bc.

;;
u ed i
:
s

"
..¡ ui" l'j
;;; ;i":" :i"Xi'ifj l i l#
'J
I
I
t, pa i n t s
i¡. sls.ilr','"t i,:l l: |ffi :"i: y::
less resis ta n t tó'"ri lr^ri^'::l
h
uer Lt :u nr"'in o us
coa".r ir
¡. l:t j
res i n s 1iJ. sT ?
:::, 9 _b_r

itji ru'.lij'i;.- l¡e t -p.'r" ; T;ili,'|Ii l' iT

Il l' il'-
f
:p 9Ty " "':l
J
f, Iit ;iüif,!:"?:ill1n¡1;1e""iu'ffi
úy l,ni..,Iff:.[','.t
.i
"$,|,;:i.:;I'iffi
b]. Á.n ;; !":',i1;i*í[*T;
;, i,
F 111 'i" " resi n s, .po
e.poly
Í;r;1, :':":i
::::1a | -a¡ o de ca th o ¿ic prorec_
sy s te m s. p"ini
I
1

F lr, dr.bÉri;;:i#"-t "o "it " t ill1tlj i*'

*v coal tar pitch and poryur.tiáo.'."", r'ü"'r.á' o',
r¡ rar pitch have
F tf
t:-
I
"+tFJ, T¡"liiirij:?"',i""r:rrau. u,.¿ p"ints for ¡n

i
I cathodi_
F
't I

F l:11 T'';:i {ii""r_:q$:*i:i.,,[E."l,H':|Jlfl?.{*.r1,,:*

" ñi#ff;;:# ,¡.si-;;"i."le-",e in
F I:J ffiT,';il:.'."'os such
I

'i
Ff :r 8.5. -.
Catl¡odic protectíon
F IJ.J s¡stems :

,,
t

J
F'f:, Two mainrypes of cathodic
protection sv(r.ñG
slstcrrs are conmonly
Fftl ,' systems ¿irrei in the
t"y i, JiiJ'uoD used. These
t protecdve electron current
I
.J
F:f:
ated. These syste¡ns
,
In
are,
s3"rnüir"i'jo. sysrems (g.s.t.)
is gener-

FIJ¡ rhese svsrerns-rhe-

r*r..nli'r"rá.::::ist
t t:r
(less nobre) ro the
metar rr ü.'pr"jected. of " r.t"r. rtrongty anodic
or
Fl:r u' p."illrg, """"..i,ngroth, exrernar
rl Ff fJ
FI:
-:.g:,i'ü
suppty;ngitrroioitt'lt
*'lf,f ;;'i c t t ve
^''
Xi'|:*'f;,::1"' from thé anorles to"
;! Ii ;te q t hererore t hev
cu rre
e" ;"
"i""oii,,, rm d, rhe
t, t he a n o de s r r,
n
r

.u.i..,?"'oe prorecred.
tEe
;;
t
In
;;;;n
;ffij'J:,:'.:ff jH;
e

' i1.';"
principh ; ha ve
illI ioa¡.
¡oc'rlCrsl-&node systems Io..F
is i'usira;;;lrg.
vIIIa (oage
I il:' - Impressed-currer
flfr In these s),srems,n1'::l:*.s.(8'5'2-)

I HlJ ;Jfi.*,,,::ff T?:1i{riil::,ii:i,:í,.j-1.fi x.x1",:?[,#,jitr:

il: currenr ,ou,.é un¿ii: ili;;üu.
por, or tbe
il]1 r;l];i;;'i""T
anodesare usuatt-v
",i:;",;'ff?F::gl. to the negarive pá1..'m.
I
f: s,Tr{rdiüi}"ffi
vttl-J lpage 16g).
f:l".Jed
Ít"j,",x'J.'.'jJ:*n:lil,f
r{urrent s}'srems is
j
ill shor+'n ¡"
"l*t¡;;;ri"ngl
I t: r56
I

¡;
.rf l
HJ:
(-
-'r' il
r lltv
'{k
I
"l ¡:t
I I':
I The choice between the two systems of cathodic protection must be made
i
in each individual case. by considering their advantages and disadvantages.
These are summarized in table VIII-b (page 170).
l,'lil It should be noted that, due to the lower conducririty of these media,
I
rr
¡,- cathodic protection systems do not function well i¡ brackish water and
)i
ri1il not at all in fresh water.
lJ.
¡,!J 8.5.1. sAcRrRcrAL-ANoDE sYsrEMs
ir
t.rl
Sacrificial anodes are made of metals less noble tlan steel, i.e. having
l,l¡ a lower potential in sea water. The anodes must have a long service
tr.l il life and a high capacity in ampere-hours per unit of n'eight. The current
generated by sacrificial anodes should be consrant and not diminished
ll-
ll^ by deposits of corrosion products on the anode surface. Wlen in use,
l-rl
the anodes should be consumed uniformly, withóut'necking'or disinrc-
I
it
_l
t ll- t
grating.
The metals commonly used for sacrificial anodes a¡e': zinc, aluminium
t'{
¡
¿
and magnesium. To meet the above mentioned requirements, aluminium
t t(il aud magnesium are alloyed with other metals. Zinc however, must have
flt rI
rL a high purity; in particular a low iron content is neccssary.
Magnesíum has a very low potential, thus causing formaüon of alkali
I'lir
l'-l and hydrogen gas. For this reason magnesium anodes are not used on
ll
t
¡
I
tr ships.
T\e efficíency of alumíníum alloys largely depends on their composiüon,
LItt
L[ some alloys haüng an efliciency of no more rh¡n JQf.i. However the
-1
I
.rt
f( I
efliciency of varioui recently developed aluminium allo¡'s (Al-Zn-Hg) is
much better. For reasons of safety the use of alnminium anodes in certain
lL{
.l frjl
f
il
I
I
'-.,t
I.\
I+ T¡ble VIII{ Characteristics of anode materi¡ts
.J

ftltl Anodc
oatcrid
Potcntial
r
Approx. aaodc
eñciercy /.
Outpot ce7acity, Consumptioa
rltc kg pcr
r( against
A&/AgCl rcf.
¡mpc¡c bo<¡r:
psr tS rEpc'rt )Ert
t{il clcctrodc, mV

'"il
t(' Magmiuu - 1500 tc 55-65 t2m-to 6J-¡
-!r
lt "l
¡!oy¡
f,tumi¡j¡¡
- l?ül

rI I
I
dloy¡ -lm!o tt-95 t50-2cm 29-+1
l( - l3J0

t( I
High purity
riror
- lO5(,
-u(xt
to e,ppror-95 790{t0 egpror ll
lL riedloyr !

It' I
q',l l
r(
rt
¡q
t5t
l-
l L
 {

ll 1,,- l'l
!
¡
i I "r: tanks-is subjecr to rimiring regurarions (g.7.). Atrhough
I
| ll
.tf the advanrage of a highcicaiaciry and a rá"..
-J.ñi¡.,atuminium has
,r,u, reducing
I r: the required number of anodls rounring *,ork,
=iri" ¡, by far rhe
II "t1 mosr widery used anode mareriar. "ndIt has a triitr .n-";.;;;,,
use and has such a potential to sea \r'ater tñot
is retiabre in
no h"rmful influences
are exerted on the underwater paint sysrems. lt{oreorer
its use in tanks
is not subject to restrictions.
t""l; Some properties of the méntioned anode material
are gir.sn in table vIII-c
I l"{ (page 157). ./
I.t*-
i
Sacrificial anodes are made.in a great varie-ty of shapes
and sizes, usuaily
castings and some-times strips oi wires. Thl anodes
I 'f¡ with a core of steer srrip which ailows them ro be fixeJ
are orren provided

| ,ll the anodes are mounted by werding, occasionaily

secur¿ry:ur;;il;
ho*.erer by means of
I l. ' clamps or bolts. The fastening mñit be such ;; ;;
.nru* permanent
r t{ electrical contact with the platiig to te prorected.
Accidental painting of rh" anod'es s!rc.,u!d be gl,crded.
During painting
|-1. operations they must be covered with ¡nareriai which
is solubte ih sea
| .tl
water (e.g. soft soap), or which in due course can
easirl. be removed.
Expert guidance shourd be sought to determin. tt.
nriber and type
*.t I f-' of anodes in each particurar An es¡imate or it,. required quanüty
""ie. from the foilo;in;i;üuta:
of anode marerial can be obtained
¡ ld Tbe required current is given by:
| , I.l
-,|

-l
tlI
l"lr - ,
'-Tmo
F.I.
ft4
t
!

_l
tl: where:
I - required current, A
'¡
I
tfJ F = surface to be protected, m2
t l.t I. = required current density, mA/m,

j
I
i
t.
I l.*., The ntinímunt quantíry ofanode nnterial tobeuxd giren b1:the following
¡ rlJ formula:
is .

Fl;
I
.'- - =t:crm
a.I.t
,
:{
'.,l1
f: where:
'',
i l¡ G = minimum quantiry of anode material, kg
, tl a = desired sen'ice life,l.ears
t : required current, A
f+ li t = total time of immersion (for tanks: time in balrast),
hours/year
,. lJ ,, = Írractical anodc efliciency, |f
c = capaciry of anode materiat. Án¡fg
v l,-
Ér Itl It should be noted rhat the shape of the anodes must bc such rhat
their
':
'
i
.¡ --l
I
F tlr t58
I
,t4
f
i

,, r, ,l "-1

.J

;$
 I f.'lj
¡
I t.- surface is large to provide the required current,
't ' j
| l-
¡"iJ
"noyglt
the maximum possible ario¿.
"*o¡
The anodes shóutd be fitted "uri"niá.nr;ty.
i;;;;il;
taking into account

I 11 that all parts receive the desire¿.rr*i,

o1 rhe prating to be protecred
r
í
I ¡,1 The anodes must be.inspecteJ p.t¡"li.r¡y;
density..
íúor. atrached to rhe hurl
t la can ontv be inspecred duiing ory-aoc[ing.
allanodes are stiil Dresent, añd aie stirt
th..kr-rr;;;;be made that
I Estimates shoutd üe made of the
connected properry to the prating.
of anode materiar consumed
'"no¿.r.
tl{ and of the remaining service tife of ",nount
lr,f
life is insuflicient to cover. tr," p.iioJ untir rr rrc .ri;rlred remaining
lf; anodes shoutd be-renewed o, aa¿itioi"r
the
".ii áiv-¿ocking,
",t' rhe

I l,l ""rá., "il;;:

tl: 8.5.2. rMpREssED-cuRRENTsysrEMs
¡l!
i-
'ñ i
r r!: ffiT',üilT{i't;Ii;:i1ii,x":r':}T'';:liftfii1#i*h,::
mountedinrheships,lirli. --'
_r II ;
j
I I tr
| | l't
l#fü:, 'ii,ii,ifüiffi::,;:l::y":ri:T;:i?ffsTfili:
anodic current and shoulá be resistant
' tr .."i"nicar
influences. Anode
-r -' t :t "-r
)-
materials now in use are for instance
titanium ana
tead/antimony¡ritu.,
t.uifsilu"i*iirt pr"tinui..'úi*iJ"ür¿.r. At platinized
;:t !I ' II B modern anodes i.rui"e r¡i, or.luouilt
"lloys,
y;;;;;"y
present wirh
l I q- " con,ol be expe*ed.
iiá oa¡urt^r;;;ii;p;;rred-current
tr
.,
r
t
|,
:
l
ll
; q
!kc1co1tíltuous
;:iil;g l"a
ís essentiar, they are provided"

!i!"!!,i;,#::;#z:ii;:;1ru,*:tli?x n*:{;:!:rX:t
j
wi,h
ínstararíons
regutaring deviees.

r: ¡ -
'r:'.'::
:,;r j. il g g.6. Cetiodicprorectinnofships,builr'
r{r¡ - " ll :'
|| í cathodíc protection of the unde.rwarer-pañ
of a ship reduces corrosion
.L¡ ''
|| tl and, as dry-do.ting
" ":i:::!:nce, árrr. In parricutai,
"na'rrp"i, areas
;

I if tive current passes rtt.ough-;u.h

;
I ¿reas. Roughen-ing of rhe

.' i:jt,,tt,ul
hu¡ as a resutt
,
Ll ;ii!!{'it :G::i..1",::..,i¡1x,tu".:
l :5 *:,_::"r:rpt¡on ñlp..orl?, ro bc maintained.
-¡'-r--- -': '" |^ ¡rrcl¡¡¡talf¡gq.
l-
r :' /
¡l '=: tI
lf calnodlc
oq¡'.^Ai^ prbtection
--,._-^, by an impressed-current s).srem is combined
' ;i
a highduty'paint-tt r.i
tj.l.l.l, Lro¡,ds with
p.r.ír- dry-docking íntervars
. of 2l years instea¿ órtne ufuat two '
,; ,? Years.

i;:'..'.'..,'.-.-..i':'':..'.....].;'....',',.'.'".'........::...',',..,'..]'

-,.1; . '::, ir
,oJ'j
 ¡ .*l'i I
I
-1}
| ¡:: The matter of choosing between
the^two_sysrems of carhodic
,
| "r1i has arreadv been deair ti¡rh in ,.iiit" a-s. oí
impressed-current sysrems are econom,t"ty';;; "".r,ü; ships in
protection
parricutar,
I "r: For a new shio wirir a
eooá ;J;;arer paint
il.r,f¡".",,, ad'anrageorrs.
,1.,"*,
t "ll l
of 2 - 3 m A/m i s r in JJ*. inl
2
with increasing porosity
"
."u'.r. n, ¿..n. i ry #ü.
i',
a current density
n.r."
o. r".ilni:_at damage of rhe paintr. s g ra d u a I y
I tÁl ' a rute ir can bJ tnat on a st¡io
r

s¡,srcm. As
l' f ^r of about l0 mA/m:"rru-"á 1, ::"
is n.e¿.¿ fá..u.iy 0,5% "-p.oi..ii'e currenr
oíUJr.,-un.orro¿.d surface
density

r t{l_
,

(see arso 8.3.). rr the steer

;ü."'5. ú;"-0, ;;;;:d, a currenr density
or r0 mAl6z wir protec, ;;;21%;rt;;';rr¿.
t l: is lying idte, a curient densiiy áto^;l¡*; when the ship
¡ l{l uncorroded bare surface, or aúout .*'o.l'tect abou t 5r of
The anodes shourd u" sp".rJln'ru.r,."oi'iirr;;;;"i;. surface.
zo7í
I l^' - potentiar.
praring is nowhere highei ;;;;;; üiJ potentiar of the
1i-e.;;;; positivefín;;;;q"ired prorective
t l5 This meanJthat a ..rtuii á.c.",
o'r ;;;;r.r."r¡"
I l¡t '
around the anodes has ro ur ¡cc.p¡.¿;..p."r;ily
systems, operating wirh a sma, num.uer'or
"
i m media tery
i",;;";n.,o."ssed-currc;!
I l-r voltage. unress ¡ecessed into tÁ.-t
ut, no "ná¿.r'á"¿ be mounred
a high o.utput
I trl in places where damag.e i, f;L.ly,'..g. ";;;;;"r;ourd
frorn anchor chains.
I l. To protect the prope[rer and ío
the stern, the oiopitt.r i, "o-.p.nsate
for its corroding effect on
lf I.' of a slip ring witir b¡us-h "onn..ila,
g"ri'r"- rt."on¿uctivery
propeile*rr"ri.'
to the hu!! by means
In addition the
¡l:' rudder has to be earthed tJ trtl lruil.
to the hull by means of a braidej
ro this end the pintre is connected
llrr Because the fitring of anodes
conductor.
"ápp., p;.;;;i;';
uy *".iáing
tftl " they must not be ñtted in wai'
rri
"i *urr
r"nir'oio,r,.,
serious fire hazard,
,.it, for flammabre
llf
i tf: materíars. For the r"'''r ,r"lot,
such tanks.
ir";;;;ü;mitted rhrough
- ,.,l t,tJ
t. l; . 8.6.1. pRorEcrroN By sAcR¡FtctAL.ANoDE¡
tl f.{
Lf g sacrificiar anode sysrems are usuarty
designed for a current density
if; to 20 mAlmr and i life of ,*o ,o
for',
ln firting rhe anodes ,rornd iñ. "r"i;r"ri.,
year.
up

,f ll be borne in mind rhar rhe ;.;;

iJ'ror.
p"rt of a ship, it shoutd
suscepribre ro ccrrosion rhan
ul, .I. other underu'arer pT.rr,
propeller and rh'e rudder. 1u'rn!';;;;
presenL-e ór the unpainred
,f ,i{ conü"ry io.rtr¡..-ro,;;;r, ,;. srern bronze
a current densitv of at reast 20'mArm2, requires
rl.:- and the propeiler, p.ñi"¿-i, ?r
*ri{.a,
tr,. ,u¿i.r""t"r, 50 mA/m2
,l ri -parts
susceprible ro corrosion, such
r¡'ateroutlets are si'en special
about r00 mA/m¡. Arso orher
,.r"."i.,
"i prorection.¡"i"i i;*ocks and hot
,f ,t{ 'per unir area carho¿ic
arJmounied n.r, ti,. rrárn rhan more anodes
,f* parts' The remaining anodes ."'r.r.ior..
;;;;;;er underr+,ater
for the prorecrion of the ,iá., or the
I ll. t60
ship

| .:,'
I l("'
IE
 I l"l
ir I i':
ri I t"i should preferably be fitted under the bilge keel.
I
I
I fr;1". Sacrificial anodes should not be fitted too close to the propcller, since
in this position they would cause serious cavitation of the propcller due
| to turbulence. If the radius of the propeller is r, anodes may be fitted
either within a distance of 0,4 r, or at distances greater than l,l r.
I l.;
,t

Goód electrical contact between anodes and the underwater hull is essen-
| 1..; tial. Anodes usually contain inserts of iron strip, which are fitted to the
I ll hull by welding. Although the anodes themselves should never be painted,
it is absolutely necessary to paint the plating underneath, to prevent rapid
¡tl consumption of the anodes.
| |,.^t Cathodic protection is sometimes limited to pafts which are very susceP
tibte to corrosion such as the stern, inlets, outlets, valves etc. Such local
I l"; cathodic protection is almost always effected by means of sacrificial
ll. anodes. It should be realized that this does not cathodically protect all
I 1.,1 the underwater hull.

ll-' \
lli' 8.6.2. pRorEcrloN BY IMPREsSED{uRRENT |
tr¡ l, lfr Impressed-current installations are usuatly designed for current densities
L l;, of ¡O-CI mA/m2. Impressed current systems have only a few anodes,
¡t[l usually mounted on the stern and amidship. With tankers, where anodes
amidship are not permitted (8.7.), the main anodes are mounted nea¡
L l-
l!
the stern, and smaller auxiliary anodes are sometimes mounted near the
;t(l úow. Anodes on the foreship should, if possible, be mounted flush u'ith
the ptating, in view of the risk of mechanical damage, e.g. by anchor
i¡
, lÁ' chains.
;. 1Ál The anodes are fashioned into domes (round disks) or long rectangular
¡r¡ ,lu
t l:
strips, the basis of which is often embedded in an epoxy or polyester
resin. They are surrounded by an insulating screen (dielectric shield or

, tll
anode shield), which ensures good current distriSution. The shield should
be able to withstand the high alkalinity around the anode. Also, it should
I
l
,' li' be large enough to reduce the potential at the edges to a value at which
the underwater paint is not attacked. If the' prefabricated screen is not
, , tÁ1 large enough, the surrounding afeg of the hull is either treated with one
; r{l or iwo coats of epoxy filler which is trowelled to a thickncss of a few
,. | ,lr mitlimetres, or the underwater paint system (1.3.1-2.) is locally applied
very thickly. In order to ensure good adhesion these materials must
,t;J be applied directly to the blastéd surfacc without an intermediate coat.
', li
l{l
Much care should be given to the mounting of anodes and referencc
.etectrodes (8.6.3.) in order to prevent mechanical or heat damage during
welding to the hull.
o l.i' The U.S. Navy and the Koninklijke Rotterdarnsche Lloyd have det'elopcd
impresscd<urrent systems using fraíling u'ire anodes. The current distribu-
; lir t6t
l
l
, li,
-1 i
lr
_[ llo
 'L,,''"

i¡ .t:
*t
i
.*.1
-"f
I
tion in these systems.is v-ery uniform by virtue of the
l- -¡l
-¡ I
:
ship and anodes. The u.S. Navy system uses an ineit
targe distance between
anode consisting
tIÁ t of a block of sirver coared wirh a'thin r"v.i .i
I alloy' fastened to a flexible cable resistant to chlorine."'-it",i,,u.-pailadium
Tie distance between
¡;
t. the anode and the ship is abour r00 m. rn. (oniorifr.
no,,erdamsche
l,Á )
t,
I
.Lloyd sysrem uses a sacrificiar anode. co-nsistinj
60 m long dnd abour g mm thick. The rengrh io*u,n.¿
;i ; atuminium wire,
I
". f^
t, unrolling more wire from a reet. Atthougtrioth-,."iiing-"nooe
i, ,.piu".J fl
.ti i

l-l
t,
I
I
have given good resurts, their use in practlce ¡, rir"¡"i.'
strte;'s
:' I

t rr;
L
'...|

¿
T t.
l-r1 8.6'3. coNTRoL AND ADJU'TMENT oF cATHoDrc pRorEcTroN
sysrE*s
t, j
¡ 1"tr The. most impo-rtant criterium in cathodic prorectíon
I l^t
l. undenvater hull- Thís potentiar must-be ii
is the pote:ntial of the
tlr'-p):otectíon potenriar,
ffJ
I L . and it shosld nc: bc nore ncgc:i.,c rhan "juot-go0 ^i ,áor¡re to a AglAgcr.
t:
I t,
reference elecrode, because othensise t!e^
ryny vslÁ wilr áiíJZ") t"
I ftl
f; by overprotectíon (s.4.1.). This potential trtt"-huii
by means of a high-resistance voitmeter. rr,, n.g"ii* ""n
be measured
pore is connected
I f;:''
I
to the hull and the.positive pote to a referenceZurliobif
f ffi; il;;
t;,
t t;
pended atongside the ship. ihe desirabré reading;a;;;
-850or +250 mv rerative to respecrivery AglAgéi, bu¡cusb ., o,
e.i.¡ are: :i0ó,
F t;
IJ, water reference electrodes-
zolii
,i
:l
I
F t:
ñlt; - In sacri/icial anode systems the protective current cannot be adjusted,
but overprotection can be avoided by correct calculaüon
ült:
r*
F ¡Jl ' and correct spacing ofthe anodes.
of the number
plt;
F'
¡:' In impryssed-current sJlstems continuous control and adjustment
of the
l-
F tJl
Flts
protective current is essential. The required
mbrsed surface area (rvhich depends on rhe load"uir*i
u"¡es with the im-
Flrl
olthe ship¡, the conductiv_
t F IJJ - ity{salt conrent) and tempeiature of th-e *rr.i,-it.'rir..o
of the. ship
I Fll^
F
and the condition (porosiiy) of the underwarer'p"iii'ryrtem.
In order
Fl
F tllit to meet the varying current demand the potentiat is
by permanent reference electrodes fitted to the hull.
m:asured continuourly
i Fl
F A t;
--l
l- The current produced
by these reference erecrrodes depends on the p"t."u"i-áifr.r.no
betn,een
F l^I
Fl the hull and the sea water and ii used as a control
t:{t
current for the rectifier
supplying current to the anodes. Fully automaric adjustment
Fl
F : of the poten-
tial is obviously preferabre to manuaiadjusrment, *ii.h
requires constant
F Ál
FrlÁ attentioú.
Fl
F t::l Accurate contror a-nd adjustment of impressed-currenr
on the reliabilit-v o{ rlg pcrmanent referince .r..rro¿.i.
systems depends
Fl.
F t: (C,/cuso¡) reference etecrrode is unsuirabte for
rn. .opp.;k;;
F t¡
Fl, il ,f:::t*:te
, .use tn sea $'ater. Silverisilver chloride
-(Ag,/AgCl)
elecrrodes
i-roneJ¿
,r. q,iit.
n,
F l^
A :.suitable, but-they have to be reneu'ed rioñ time'to timc, e.g. once in
rl
FI,
F
!
fn,l^t'.-.
lir t
;ln,al. t'
' five years- Tlle robust zinc (Zn) electrodes are more áurable and tess
t62

rll
.Fl
¿J:-l
FI;
l 'f_
 \. -
í
l
|"lii
l¡
j
J I:,
¡iilc

i i¡;
br1,
ii-."i{11'1;,,.T;¡rdfliilTiÉ1,jffiip esrecia,,y a, higher
I
ttrtitn;;;i.:1"' of
tr'' silver/silrér cuoii¿e
I
t l,^, Inern be chosen carefuily,
u""uull
r- l;¡
i,,l

I r,:, f,oo,'.:¡lffitri:t. *i.h""ü:i1i#lkli::ffi"1';Hi1

F l;
leñ to should be
their
Fqi;ning,o ou,,h.1er-ll".rv*oí;';i'
pump
;il'p.""d,andi.prire¿.9ock' Anode;';;;" oe switihed off
berore
I iil "creo' and repaired or renewed;ilil;:rence electrodes musr
-1
rt -l^| _ ,
l

i t.l | 8.6.4. eArHoDrc pRorEcr¡(

oF sHrPs DuRINc
i l;,l oR LAyrN*,i'-*"rN Flrr¡Nc-our

I l: , lT1 :l,ro
being fitted out in

11, rdj..,:$ll:.-,,,;..l'l: fi::T,1'**:T,,:#:'"::::,:?: :j A,H';:

l
F

Ii¡
iJd
I l¿ '
iü'ü::T":H;:H,i"1,iii*r., l. ul""ivrorected
tion shoul
T'.'.'":T
:lii:'*",'l'*..r:F"i;:fii:xi'iliJil*ii'ií",,"":#itbvanü impressed'

)
rlr
r^, fl :*,g,,[i,"i:.i,i,i'd!ai:,J}Hfli;:":,ffiifl*'ffi::
i
I;
:f#ryru:A.l::li'J,q ;""fffiiJí1í íí:;ff':f1;.[trii{5
¡f
tl ,
JJ
t .T::l":.'.::e.,
sgve
cause
,r,"i,i.
--'-'¡ ffi:fiTLÍ..j:,:,1".: t
'¡¡s r'rdrfloolc
protection cur lsr¡cr¡ls arc

ü: r
i,ffini:"':'ffir:ffir,";*r*::i,iru
;ll ' beconnecreo
f:::.dsurrabre rererence.,.-T"i.t. a.ü*''.i¡¡rct
ilF;1f{i.i"'.',?*
th€ hutt' (see colour
;"ü;;;,,o13 voltmeter placed
;--
f -J equipmentr
ro a recorder.
If ,r--"^11:d.

ltI I früffiiiftff$f #:ffir,''}*:*ffi iiit',;*ilt'*

r; I wnen two ships
that are_borlf-_,
, rrr.

- t d'c u'e
:j]:
j'"'T:',.*:
r¡i:ti n 1*1,.,,',n'"^u
l'
ffi
I u:' ms n sv sre

g
t ffi;::ifff:;:Í: onf"
5 rr'er"'nf^15"j'::Í:
:
9fr.r l#;'iü'il?,;'ff,i",u"*3'-.,oi-Áe¡üL
"". t'i,'"1,i'u"";T#*!T:Til'"T:ñ:ü
proteci bóth
to.'onn..iio,:-t.tl'i:!jot ltt lo,:thodíc- oro,r.r,ot"ce.to
^,i iiÍ;jiiiffrtli¡$ii*Ír#ll ür#:
:l'p ¡, "o",. X l';lipi Í:'j:l'j'J, "tf ¡¡, ".a.'.*" * ;?J : i1 #'J" :::::g
¡
L able,';ü ;l::.Xver, the painr sysrenr
of rhe
*r :xr','*
unoro,l39?g9l reference

i¡ üL.i$ilfl "j;!; l?:Tii1 'r,,p.'i'.,ií'üi"':.0 ship is saponin-

I ,.,, - :, . ,
,,
"t'rn "-Ir,lp;;tff,.i".,J;:Í
,. ,:. .,- ,:r1.:*:
?

: .-,. .-,:
 l'*,".'"1
i-¡
l* L-.
F
current system is moored alongside a jetty, the steel of the jerty and

I
[;i
ln'l¿
l" i--l
the hull of the ship should be connected electricallt'. The carhotJic piotec-
tion system of the ship shóuld be adjusted in such a \r'ay that rhc pórential
of both the ship and the jetty are 800 mv negative ro a Ag/Agcl ieferencc
electrode. If this is impossible because the undenvater surface of the jetry
r r Íl
i,¡¡
?

F'' is too large, the lowest possible potential should be taken. lf the steel
FI; of the jetty itself is cathcdically protected, the installation of the ship
can be switched off. The ship witl then be protected by the protective
system of the jetty, provided that earthing is good.
ri4
8.7. Cathodic protection of tanke
i!;il water ballast and cargo ballast tanks are often caihodically protected.
lla This protection will function only when the tanks are actually in ballast
and only the imrncrseci paris oí iire surface are protected. Bec¿u"e the
- I É 1,. tanks are not always in ballast and, if in ballast, not completely'f-riled,
j
:
protection is best achieved by cathodic protection in combination with

[,lf an unsaponifiable paint system.

Cathodic protection is unsuitable for fresh-water tanks (e.g. feed-water
I
1
il- l..l tanks) because of the low electrical conductivity of such water.
AII catlo-dic protectíon systems must satisfy the-requirements of the appro-
i, l,1J priqte Classification socíeties. under cerrain well defined conditionij ro,
Il' cathodically protected tanks a reduction in the size of scanttings used
, l,ll in theirconstruction is permitted. Directions for the insrallation ofcathodic
' protection systems ar€ given, inter alia, in 'Guidancc
,lí Notes on Applicaüon
of cathodic Protection' of Lloyd's Regisrer of shipping and-in .code
J of Practice cP l02l :1973 cathodic prótection' or ine d'¡tirn Standard
tif, Institution.

,ll For the in^ternal protecrion of tanks only sacríficíal arndes are permíued.
Impressed-current systems are not permitted because rhey might is"ite
it4 any flammable gases in rhe tanks. In case of malfuncüoning, tñ.y ñigbt
generate hydrogen gas (8.4.1.), which is very exptosire.
i'f ; The use of magnesium and aluminiurn as anodes-in the cathodic protecüon
of tanks is subject to limitations. lr{agnesium anodes ¡nry g.n.r"te hydro-
:'11 g€n gas, which ma)'cause explosions. Magnesium or aiuminium anodes
that become detached r¡'iil fatl to the b<lttóm of the tank, causing sparks
; l:n that máy set offexplosions if flammable vapours are pres€nt. Malnésium
ill.J anotles are not permitted in tanks for liquid .rrg*i that may develop
flamrnable vapours, e.!. in crude oil tanks. Alumin-ium anodes aie
"l: ted only in the lor+'er parrs of such tanks. The aluminjum anodes should
¡,ermit-
not be mounted higher above rhe bottom of the tank rhat ín the event
;i1 9f ^t!1ir becoming loose and falling dow'n a kineric energy of more tha¡
300 N.m (30 kgm) will be produced.

:it tu
,|tr'
l'
 I""Jl I

li|:
t fl;il
ctassificarion societies demand a service
in tanks of at reast rou. tife of cathodic prorection ,rr,"n,.
y"*r. i¡.'"rruer and pt"cinj of the anodcs
lm¡ depend on the bailast rime and the
depth t, *i¡.'n'l¡.'i"nt, are
;;;ilü;:;;ft fiiled.
ll- ffi:#r#,shourd
be so praced ,r,"i,r,.i,
for cteaning
I
|¡" ¡¡,:J
It
The anodes shourd.preferabry be fixed
clamps on bars werdéd to the inn".-i""t
--
by werding. If frxed by borts or
surface, a good erectricar contact
^ should be ensured by rack *.fJing.
[ ¡lf
il;fl unpainted tanks require current áensities
of g0-r20 mA/m2, depending
l ¡l;rl on the type of tank- The current áens¡ty-
water tank is about r00 mA/mz. For
tanks
,.quii.i rá,
"i
unp"inted sea-
F system (3.4.1.), the current density
can..be "Lri.J*ii¡l'hrgh_au,y
,.Au""J'io iuou, 5
paint
F tiál A slightly higher-varue.shourJ uí apprie.d if mAlm2.
mechanicar damage. some degree of artack or
ro p"iniryrt*,'", ¡,
F t;., rh-e i"ü'i"ül..oro,. current
F II4 :;ff,jffH?'.:?JH: ;j;m#,,",, ",.. o,;;;; if oniy
";;
Fn As mentioned before, tanks
"¿'friü
pletely filted. since tíris ñ;ü;;'iir.
protected only when they are
com-
Fil4 deck lever are often.unprotected if
the ""r.-,
the upper parts of ranks
tanks are nót paintea. Thereforc
at
F ¡[t¡ it is recommended that'the j."[ni"l,
"lr;;í;'i?íil.. with a good
F l-l
paint system. some stipo*n.rs tJüituutv
down to a distance.of ábout t*o-ni.o.s t"u. t'nr-t"ii ,op, painted
F I'JJ parts that may remain wet after and in addition ail horizontar
.,,,piying of the tank, such as the
}
' Elh and the.upper surfaces of the r,ri"g'.ri
According to
and f¡ames.
recent investigatiónr'p"lnting
bottom

F hff '. verticar surfaces shqurd

,rr. ¡o,,o,o onry and
b.-;;;áirmen¿e¿ in crude oir barastnot the
! Flt" (l'3'6'4'f.)- The crude oit"r;srudge-"ál.r¡ng
likely to change their potenii;i;;;i"st, ," it.'".-.iür uurtt.ads is
tanks

Flfl
I
d
when the tanks are fiiled with
sea water, the burkreads act as
rarge cathodes. inir-."" cause
FI^U pitting (2.2-2.) in praces' on tnr ilñ;T
and
severe
orher horizontar
t F l^r where the paint ruit.m shows
r-.iii.r.",r. riiir.'tiiilo","r parts aÉsurfaces

ll
FtJJ
left unpainied, coirosion rprrrir;;;
ting. It is therefore recommended
evenry *¡tnoui"uring severe pir-
either to paint the whore internar
Fl'; of a tank or ontv the bu¡kheaÁ. i;;; surface
painting of such rarge surfaces
Ftfl is expensive, mo'unting or
the bottom and horizó"t"1 "noá.r
lr'iort, the i.erticar surfaces and to
FIP p"iir r""y suffice ¡o *¿.'oiibaltast
In order to prevent severe-cor.osioí.of the tanks.
fn--l the presence bf heatint."¡iriá'ri."'iüinr.., ,r*r-*rr*e of unks by
steer) and pípes, these have
FI,f,J to be insulated from.the t"nt üorton,
should bc coated with the
u"u,¡."ar.1:rí#"ur, rhe pipes
$l: il.;"i*
surface. If insurated qgu.nqinr ir-¿'¡m.ulr,
"r¿s-vstem thar is used
for rhe rank
rt:J pi.i..,¡"""ii o. obtained
!L::totr.:t"ry sacrificiarñ;.;';; the rank borrom and burkhcads
1
,i FI; the heating-coils and pipes.
51t-._.?
h may be mentionJd tn"t fo.r'ofi
fi4 hnks can bc derustcd by inrcntionat
rr;u
165

h
lr_
li,
 Fli
Ix
1, t.J.
itf
i.l.;
i. l;t
¡, 1;
; l.-l
;l;
I

, l..r
,lJ
, 1...
f.,1
'
, l,,l^
; f-l
;l;
; l": 18. Impressed{rüTent a¡o¿i near the stcr¡
.1"7
l"^ overprotection. To this end, an impressed-current system
is installed tem-
1,1 porarily-. The hydrogen gas evolved detaches
tt.ruii'"lr,i.h rt.n collects
,t; on the bottom of ihe tank. During this 'carhodic c.rustlng'
ventilation musr be provided to preient fire or.*prlrioo adequate
l"l I
i

-J
n izara.

l-1I
t;
r"i J

t-:
rJl
l:'
f;
t:
f:
1..]
t;
tJ-t
I:J l6
L

*¿
in
 ;*"Ilr I

I | -¡;'
I - r;]
| ll-l'
""

t ili¡
I trlj
t 'L.
TLI
ttÁI,j
t
;l'L. r,.[ .¡h- * 2H¡O + Q - aOH- (¡tt¡D

I 1,.{
catbodc

tt.
I
oH-

ru
I [.' Fc - Fe2+ + b,- - Fcr+ + 2oH- -
Fc(Olfh + O::. n¡r

oH-

2H++2.--tü¡
(und¿r cert¡in cirnunstanca)

t TJ cetbo&
Ia É
I É
I É
I I'
iilt ,

i i:il
 l'*'L i

l -("
I fr i

| ;.1 i

I f.,,
I ,l:rl | ' r-:r--r
t
¡
r
! ii:
*""\'2;;;1
t^[ i
r:li
/ d* I \
ooirosionettack / t f \
¡ connectins *ire

f:,*"s
t''..'GV_)Z't
I f.l I
rb'vfn-2 lefonythodlyprotcctbn Ft. vm-3
tr ,I ilt ' - with cothoñt protection: tbe
(conosion ell) rhole mcul surfacc bccomes r
I l-fl
ral
¡ i
cathodc;nocorrosiooattact
rlrr l-Ll
1 f."t
iIt. ;;Li
r

- c- -Orl

lI |;"
lt[ i
":,t1 l"(Km
l iltl l
iril
,l;;
n'"+l>til
, ,:fl :
l

I'lj
f l--z**J-* Ill
--'/-¡acrifici¡l ¡¡ode
I I-_/ o''*o"";;T,*- |I/ l.- 'E
, t;l J, (aorcons¡¡ocd)
, l.].1'
r- l l'fi[{
¡ l* | FB. C.atWicF¡orec¡ionbrszoiftcialtrc&s
FE.vü!-5 &túbprotcctbnb¡.imprcscdatncú
f:
r-'.
. trl I
I

, f:' ' ': ' ;- iÍij' i

, _-l;ll|
:

'
|
¡ L-tJ '' 168

, frr
,. ll '-'¡r :
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f :*'
*'r.=_..--
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I'.,,r¡*
I .&$i
jl I

I 't r _il
I

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vln
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gi, -á,
Fri
r:. ::J
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r l.l.q l.t
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tg6
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i,¡ '{l
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T:al t
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t:rlE
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t; I tE

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t:r -, E $g?? .-T+;?F?
FE88
r,;l
ilt: gSEE
l:JilF
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t:l,ü
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|.¡.,"Ii- Table !'Ill-b:
t1i f,..:f
t.' Cornparison of cathodic
I profection s¡,stems
Sacrifi cial-¡nod" ryrr"-"
Il¡ ;n Impressed-cur¡cnl system,

It; J - Ins¡aflation requires

etpcn kno*.tcdge
li
t!
lr. ": - Prrmíltcd in tanks; in cenain
cnoice ofanode msrcrial
tanks thc
- Not pcrmitted in 1erls
l¡ .{ ¡" 4 oterplosion hazard
is limirc¿ b.üuse

J f¡L - Economicalty less artraclir.e for thc under.

l¡¡ ,lq
w¡ter hull of vcry large shipc - the mosr arrractive
-T:T-Ti."tlthull of largc ,t ipr,
üidcrr+arer ¡or,¡.
f¡T,I
proUil
I a-
f¡rl|1,,."r.¿i
I
to tavc e scrvice
thcsysrem funcr¡.". *lll
""i ¡, iutty auro

,ll'#rT;;'"'jesigned
l¡¡rl
tl rl ;l'iffÍxl Í;f ;o' " "'e a scrvicc

l l¡¡l
¡: - lf attached to th¡ r-¡¡1i¡¡p1ter
hull the ¡esist-
tn" ship is stighüy in"r."r.J to.the underwater hull
'_-l rá
trttlr n-Fror
iy u"ür I_:1":TO
ancc oftbe ship is not iocre¡scd
rlc resisr

J
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trü." *ryH in combinarion wirh a h;gh{ury
-
f¡t.
p¡r-ntrystem.,no_e¡tensionof in com¡inarioi witfi a highduty
I
| ,r¡ vrls is pcrmitted
do.tin"gini.ri llf.r.|:l
r¡rr
pá¡nt rtsrcm,
systcrn, cr¡cnsioh
crtcnsioir doL i¡ _ inrer-
of docking :_.-_
vül h¡y trc pcrmirtcd
;f t"l - Practically no risk ofdam¿
the paint
.4
rystcm due ,o ou."ro,o,t3toto - ln c.se o.f faitu¡e or mallu nctioning
of t he
T
31L,,:ll:r,*"ous Ék ofdam"eJ," ü;
li LJ- TL - Require atrention only

I' ,) during aryloc;; - Requi¡c contiouous

regularion anO a_djust.

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U, 170 .g :

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lfT.: ,x
connections for wetding equipment with separate
r'.' shlp
current suppry for eacb
ri
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i¡.; currcnb ll¡ ¡
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it¡ lf welding is done wirh a positive electrodc

rnd without a return cable, the ship.s hull
ng. Vnl-7: Wroog!
Ifwetding is done with a negaüve etecüodc

i,t 4 *ill and without a rcturn cable rhe hull bccomes

i
bccome an anode, and the stray current
a.cathode;rhe painr will be saponified iu
rill cau.se gevere corrosion in placcs whcrc
pl.::s.whefC alkalinity is bigb; barc sporr
it lcartr thc hult
wul subscquently corrodc

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,ld Thc
Co¡rccrl
rtlding kansforrrr is oot canhcd: rhc rcturn cabl(

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,ll rcrbar rlrc;_;;;;il"jr.
H"*#,::::,'f .i:,',:-:tJ;;*Jlili:H?:;f,iff HÍ::,r.
Fa¡sformer müí not be used'for
coot cr (3irtur¡oo
cootrcr r3irr,r;nn as in ,rrr:13..:;:;tding
¡c io Vftt{ a¡d VtIl_7)
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r:ho.uldhar.trhrgrdiarr.tcr0oercsisrárc).
rqr
'rc¡,Dc r¡r¡cuGnt;
opcraüons oo rhc gu.ay,
rcnrrn útc *clün3
¡.ourd c¡uj. c¿nh

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rt f¡: Connoctions for welding

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F,f¡ ships equipment nltlr a single cu¡rent
suppl¡, for tryo
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ffit |!Lf ',-¡trLoo;"* n, tra¡¡rorq

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